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# History of Kenya
## 19th century history {#th_century_history}
Omani Arab colonisation of the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts brought the once independent city-states under closer foreign scrutiny and domination than was experienced during the Portuguese period. Like their predecessors, the Omani Arabs were primarily able only to control the coastal areas, not the interior. However, the creation of plantations, intensification of the slave trade and movement of the Omani capital to Zanzibar in 1839 by Seyyid Said had the effect of consolidating the Omani power in the region. The slave trade had begun to grow exponentially starting at the end of the 17th Century with a large slave market based at Zanzibar. When Sultan Seyyid Said moved his capital to Zanzibar, the already large clove and spice plantations continued to grow, driving demand for slaves. Slaves were sourced from the hinterland. Slave caravan routes into the interior of Kenya reached as far as the foothills of Mount Kenya, Lake Victoria and past Lake Baringo into Samburu country.
Arab governance of all the major ports along the East African coast continued until British interests aimed particularly at securing their \'Indian Jewel\' and creation of a system of trade among individuals began to put pressure on Omani rule. By the late 19th century, the slave trade on the open seas had been completely strangled by the British. The Omani Arabs had no interest in resisting the Royal Navy\'s efforts to enforce anti-slavery directives. As the Moresby Treaty demonstrated, whilst Oman sought sovereignty over its waters, Seyyid Said saw no reason to intervene in the slave trade, as the main customers for the slaves were Europeans. As Farquhar in a letter made note, only with the intervention of Said would the European Trade in slaves in the Western Indian Ocean be abolished. As the Omani presence continued in Zanzibar and Pemba until the 1964 revolution, but the official Omani Arab presence in Kenya was checked by German and British seizure of key ports and creation of crucial trade alliances with influential local leaders in the 1880s. Nevertheless, the Omani Arab legacy in East Africa is currently found through their numerous descendants found along the coast that can directly trace ancestry to Oman and are typically the wealthiest and most politically influential members of the Kenyan coastal community.
The first Christian mission was founded on 25 August 1846, by Dr. Johann Ludwig Krapf, a German sponsored by the Church Missionary Society of England. He established a station among the Mijikenda at Rabai on the coast. He later translated the Bible into Swahili. Many freed slaves rescued by the British Navy are settled here. The peak of the slave plantation economy in East Africa was between 1875 -- 1884. It is estimated that between 43,000 -- 47,000 slaves were present on the Kenyan coast, which made up 44 percent of the local population. In 1874, Frere Town settlement in Mombasa was established. This was another settlement for freed slaves rescued by the British Navy. Despite pressure from the British to stop the East African slave trade, it continued to persist into the early 20th century.
By 1850 European explorers had begun mapping the interior. Three developments encouraged European interest in East Africa in the first half of the 19th century. First, was the emergence of the island of Zanzibar, located off the east coast of Africa. Zanzibar became a base from which trade and exploration of the African mainland could be mounted. By 1840, to protect the interests of the various nationals doing business in Zanzibar, consul offices had been opened by the British, French, Germans and Americans. In 1859, the tonnage of foreign shipping calling at Zanzibar had reached 19,000 tons. By 1879, the tonnage of this shipping had reached 89,000 tons. The second development spurring European interest in Africa was the growing European demand for products of Africa including ivory and cloves. Thirdly, British interest in East Africa was first stimulated by their desire to abolish the slave trade. Later in the century, British interest in East Africa would be stimulated by German competition.
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# History of Kenya
## British rule (1895--1963) {#british_rule_18951963}
### East Africa Protectorate {#east_africa_protectorate}
In 1895 the British government took over and claimed the interior as far west as Lake Naivasha; it set up the **East Africa Protectorate**. The border was extended to Uganda in 1902, and in 1920 the enlarged protectorate, except for the original coastal strip, which remained a protectorate, became a crown colony. With the beginning of colonial rule in 1895, the Rift Valley and the surrounding Highlands became reserved for whites. In the 1920s Indians objected to the reservation of the Highlands for Europeans, especially British war veterans. The whites engaged in large-scale coffee farming dependent on mostly Kikuyu labour. Bitterness grew between the Indians and the Europeans.
This area\'s fertile land has always made it the site of migration and conflict. There were no significant mineral resources---none of the gold or diamonds that attracted so many to South Africa.
Imperial Germany set up a protectorate over the Sultan of Zanzibar\'s coastal possessions in 1885, followed by the arrival of Sir William Mackinnon\'s British East Africa Company (BEAC) in 1888, after the company had received a royal charter and concessionary rights to the Kenya coast from the Sultan of Zanzibar for a 50-year period. Incipient imperial rivalry was forestalled when Germany handed its coastal holdings to Britain in 1890, in exchange for German control over the coast of Tanganyika. The colonial takeover met occasionally with some strong local resistance: Waiyaki Wa Hinga, a Kikuyu chief who ruled Dagoretti who had signed a treaty with Frederick Lugard of the BEAC, having been subject to considerable harassment, burnt down Lugard\'s fort in 1890. Waiyaki was abducted two years later by the British and killed.
Following severe financial difficulties of the British East Africa Company, the British government on 1 July 1895 established direct rule through the East African Protectorate, subsequently opening (1902) the fertile highlands to white settlers.
A key to the development of Kenya\'s interior was the construction, started in 1895, of a railway from Mombasa to Kisumu, on Lake Victoria, completed in 1901. This was to be the first piece of the Uganda Railway. The British government had decided, primarily for strategic reasons, to build a railway linking Mombasa with the British protectorate of Uganda. A major feat of engineering, the \"Uganda railway\" (that is the railway inside Kenya leading to Uganda) was completed in 1903 and was a decisive event in modernising the area. As governor of Kenya, Sir Percy Girouard was instrumental in initiating railway extension policy that led to construction of the Nairobi-Thika and Konza-Magadi railways.
Some 32,000 workers were imported from British India to do the manual labour. Many stayed, as did most of the Indian traders and small businessmen who saw opportunity in the opening up of the interior of Kenya. According to one account, nearly all major Kenyan towns except Kisumu were originally founded by Somali traders. Rapid economic development was seen as necessary to make the railway pay, and since the African population was accustomed to subsistence rather than export agriculture, the government decided to encourage European settlement in the fertile highlands, which had small African populations. The railway opened up the interior, not only to the European farmers, missionaries and administrators, but also to systematic government programmes to attack slavery, witchcraft, disease and famine. The Africans saw witchcraft as a powerful influence on their lives and frequently took violent action against suspected witches. To control this, the British colonial administration passed laws, beginning in 1909, which made the practice of witchcraft illegal. These laws gave the local population a legal, nonviolent way to stem the activities of witches.
By the time the railway was built, military resistance by the African population to the original British takeover had petered out. However new grievances were being generated by the process of European settlement. Governor Percy Girouard is associated with the debacle of the Second Maasai Agreement of 1911, which led to their forceful removal from the fertile Laikipia plateau to semi-arid Ngong. To make way for the Europeans (largely Britons and whites from South Africa), the Maasai were restricted to the southern Loieta plains in 1913. The Kikuyu claimed some of the land reserved for Europeans and continued to feel that they had been deprived of their inheritance.
In the initial stage of colonial rule, the administration relied on traditional communicators, usually chiefs. When colonial rule was established and efficiency was sought, partly because of settler pressure, newly educated younger men were associated with old chiefs in local Native Councils.
In building the railway the British had to confront strong local opposition, especially from Koitalel Arap Samoei, a diviner and Nandi leader who prophesied that a black snake would tear through Nandi land spitting fire, which was seen later as the railway line. For ten years he fought against the builders of the railway line and train. The settlers were partly allowed in 1907 a voice in government through the legislative council, a European organisation to which some were appointed and others elected. But since most of the powers remained in the hands of the Governor, the settlers started lobbying to transform Kenya in a Crown Colony, which meant more powers for the settlers. They obtained this goal in 1920, making the Council more representative of European settlers; but Africans were excluded from direct political participation until 1944, when the first of them was admitted in the council.
#### First World War {#first_world_war}
Kenya became a military base for the British in the First World War (1914--1918), as efforts to subdue the German colony to the south were frustrated. At the outbreak of war in August 1914, the governors of British East Africa (as the Protectorate was generally known) and German East Africa agreed a truce in an attempt to keep the young colonies out of direct hostilities. However Lt Col Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck took command of the German military forces, determined to tie down as many British resources as possible. Completely cut off from Germany, von Lettow conducted an effective guerilla warfare campaign, living off the land, capturing British supplies, and remaining undefeated. He eventually surrendered in Zambia eleven days after the Armistice was signed in 1918. To chase von Lettow the British deployed Indian Army troops from India and then needed large numbers of porters to overcome the formidable logistics of transporting supplies far into the interior by foot. The Carrier Corps was formed and ultimately mobilised over 400,000 Africans, contributing to their long-term politicisation.
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# History of Kenya
## British rule (1895--1963) {#british_rule_18951963}
### Kenya Colony {#kenya_colony}
An early anti-colonial movement opposed to British rule known as Mumboism took root in South Nyanza in the early 20th century. Colonial authorities classified it as a millennialist cult. It has since been recognised as an anti-colonial movement. In 1913, Onyango Dunde of central Kavirondo proclaimed to have been sent by the serpent god of Lake Victoria, Mumbo to spread his teachings. The colonial government recognised this movement as a threat to their authority because of the Mumbo creed. Mumbo pledged to drive out the colonialists and their supporters and condemned their religion. Violent resistance against the British had proven to be futile as the Africans were outmatched technologically. This movement therefore focused on anticipating the end of colonialism, rather than actively inducing it. Mumboism spread amongst Luo people and Kisii people. The Colonial authorities suppressed the movement by deporting and imprisoning adherents in the 1920s and 1930s. It was officially banned in 1954 following the Mau Mau rebellion.
The first stirrings of modern African political organisation in Kenya Colony sought to protest pro-settler policies, increased taxes on Africans and the despised *kipande* (Identifying metal band worn around the neck). Before the war, African political focus was diffuse. But after the war, problems caused by new taxes and reduced wages and new settlers threatening African land led to new movements. The experiences gained by Africans in the war coupled with the creation of the white-settler-dominated **Kenya Crown Colony**, gave rise to considerable political activity. Ishmael Ithongo called the first mass meeting in May 1921 to protest African wage reductions. Harry Thuku formed the Young Kikuyu Association (YKA) and started a publication called *Tangazo* which criticised the colonial administration and missions. The YKA gave a sense of nationalism to many Kikuyu and advocated civil disobedience. The YKA gave way to the Kikuyu Association (KA) which was the officially recognised tribal body with Harry Thuku as its secretary. Through the KA, Thuku advocated for African suffrage. Deeming it unwise to base a nationalist movement around one tribe, Thuku renamed his organisation the East African Association and strived for multi-ethnic membership by including the local Indian community and reaching out to other tribes. The colonial government accused Thuku of sedition, arrested him and detained him until 1930.
In Kavirondo (later Nyanza province), a strike at a mission school, organised by Daudi Basudde, raised concerns about the damaging implications on African land ownership by switching from the East African Protectorate to the Kenyan Colony. A series of meetings dubbed *'Piny Owacho'* (Voice of the People) culminated in a large mass meeting held in December 1921 advocating for individual title deeds, getting rid of the kipande system and a fairer tax system. Archdeacon W. E. Owen, an Anglican missionary and prominent advocate for African affairs, formalised and canalised this movement as the president of the Kavirondo Taxpayers Welfare Association. Bound by the same concerns, James Beauttah initiated an alliance between the Kikuyu and Luo communities.
In the mid-1920s, the Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) was formed. Led by Joseph Keng'ethe and Jesse Kariuki, it picked up from Harry Thuku\'s East African Association except that it represented the Kikuyu almost exclusively. Jomo Kenyatta was the secretary and editor of the associations' publication *Mugwithania* (The unifier). The KCA focused on unifying the Kikuyu into one geographic polity, but its project was undermined by controversies over ritual tribute, land allocation and the ban on female circumcision. They also fought for the release of Harry Thuku from detention. Upon Thuku\'s release, he was elected president of the KCA. The government banned the KCA after World War II began when Jesse Kariuki compared the compulsory relocation of Kikuyus who lived near white owned land to Nazi policies on compulsory relocation of people.
Most political activity between the wars was local, and this succeeded most among the Luo of Kenya, where progressive young leaders became senior chiefs. By the later 1930s government began to intrude on ordinary Africans through marketing controls, stricter educational supervision and land changes. Traditional chiefs became irrelevant and younger men became communicators by training in the missionary churches and civil service. Pressure on ordinary Kenyans by governments in a hurry to modernise in the 1930s to 1950s enabled the mass political parties to acquire support for \"centrally\" focused movements, but even these often relied on local communicators.
During the early part of the 20th century, the interior central highlands were settled by British and other European farmers, who became wealthy farming coffee and tea. By the 1930s, approximately 15,000 white settlers lived in the area and gained a political voice because of their contribution to the market economy. The area was already home to over a million members of the Kikuyu tribe, most of whom had no land claims in European terms, and lived as itinerant farmers. To protect their interests, the settlers banned the growing of coffee, introduced a hut tax and the landless were granted less and less land in exchange for their labour. A massive exodus to the cities ensued as their ability to provide a living from the land dwindled.
#### Representation
Kenya became a focus of resettlement of young, upper class British officers after the war, giving a strong aristocratic tone to the white settlers. If they had £1,000 in assets they could get a free 1000 acre; the goal of the government was to speed up modernisation and economic growth. They set up coffee plantations, which required expensive machinery, a stable labour force, and four years to start growing crops. The veterans did escape democracy and taxation in Britain, but they failed in their efforts to gain control of the colony. The upper class bias in migration policy meant that whites would always be a small minority. Many of them left after independence.
Power remained concentrated in the governor\'s hands; weak legislative and executive councils made up of official appointees were created in 1906. The European settlers were allowed to elect representatives to the Legislative Council in 1920, when the colony was established. The white settlers, 30,000 strong, sought \"responsible government,\" in which they would have a voice. They opposed similar demands by the far more numerous Indian community. The European settlers gained representation for themselves and minimised representation on the Legislative Council for Indians and Arabs. The government appointed a European to represent African interests on the council. In the \"Devonshire declaration\" of 1923 the Colonial Office declared that the interests of the Africans (comprising over 95% of the population) must be paramount---achieving that goal took four decades. Historian Charles Mowat explained the issues:
: \[The Colonial Office in London ruled that\] native interests should come first; but this proved difficult to apply \[in Kenya\] \... where some 10,000 white settlers, many of them ex-officers of the war, insisted that their interests came before those of the three million natives and 23,000 Indians in the colony, and demanded \'responsible government\', provided that they alone bore the responsibility. After three years of bitter dispute, provoked not by the natives but by the Indians, vigorously backed by the Government of India, the Colonial Office gave judgment: the interest of the natives was \'paramount\', and responsible government out of the question, but no drastic change was contemplated -- thus in effect preserving the ascendancy of the settlers.
#### Second World War {#second_world_war}
In the Second World War (1939--1945) Kenya became an important British military base for successful campaigns against Italy in the Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia. The war brought money and an opportunity for military service for 98,000 men, called \"askaris\". The war stimulated African nationalism. After the war, African ex-servicemen sought to maintain the socioeconomic gains they had accrued through service in the King\'s African Rifles (KAR). Looking for middle class employment and social privileges, they challenged existing relationships within the colonial state. For the most part, veterans did not participate in national politics, believing that their aspirations could best be achieved within the confines of colonial society. The social and economic connotations of KAR service, combined with the massive wartime expansion of Kenyan defence forces, created a new class of modernised Africans with distinctive characteristics and interests. These socioeconomic perceptions proved powerful after the war.
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# History of Kenya
## British rule (1895--1963) {#british_rule_18951963}
### Kenya Colony {#kenya_colony}
#### Rural trends {#rural_trends}
British officials sought to modernise Kikuyu farming in the Murang\'a District 1920--1945. Relying on concepts of trusteeship and scientific management, they imposed a number of changes in crop production and agrarian techniques, claiming to promote conservation and \"betterment\" of farming in the colonial tribal reserves. While criticised as backward by British officials and white settlers, African farming proved resilient and Kikuyu farmers engaged in widespread resistance to the colonial state\'s agrarian reforms.
Modernisation was accelerated by the Second World War. Among the Luo the larger agricultural production unit was the patriarch\'s extended family, mainly divided into a special assignment team led by the patriarch, and the teams of his wives, who, together with their children, worked their own lots on a regular basis. This stage of development was no longer strictly traditional, but still largely self-sufficient with little contact with the broader market. Pressures of overpopulation and the prospects of cash crops, already in evidence by 1945, made this subsistence economic system increasingly obsolete and accelerated a movement to commercial agriculture and emigration to cities. The Limitation of Action Act in 1968 sought to modernise traditional land ownership and use; the act has produced unintended consequences, with new conflicts raised over land ownership and social status.
As Kenya modernized after the war, the role of the British religious missions changed their roles, despite the efforts of the leadership of the Church Missionary Society to maintain the traditional religious focus. However the social and educational needs were increasingly obvious, and the threat of the Mau Mau uprisings pushed the missions to emphasize medical, humanitarian and especially educational programs. Fundraising efforts in Britain increasingly stressed the non-religious components. Furthermore, the imminent transfer of control to the local population became a high priority.
#### Kenya African Union {#kenya_african_union}
As a reaction to their exclusion from political representation, the Kikuyu people, the most subject to pressure by the settlers, founded in 1921 Kenya\'s first African political protest movement, the Young Kikuyu Association, led by Harry Thuku. After the Young Kikuyu Association was banned by the government, it was replaced by the Kikuyu Central Association in 1924.
In 1944 Thuku founded and was the first chairman of the multi-tribal Kenya African Study Union (KASU), which in 1946 became the Kenya African Union (KAU). It was an African nationalist organization that demanded access to white-owned land. KAU acted as a constituency association for the first black member of Kenya\'s legislative council, Eliud Mathu, who had been nominated in 1944 by the governor after consulting élite African opinion. The KAU remained dominated by the Kikuyu ethnic group. However, the leadership of KAU was multitribal. Wycliff Awori was the first vice president followed by Tom Mbotela. In 1947 Jomo Kenyatta, former president of the moderate Kikuyu Central Association, became president of the more aggressive KAU to demand a greater political voice for Africans. In an effort to gain nationwide support of KAU, Jomo Kenyatta visited Kisumu in 1952. His effort to build up support for KAU in Nyanza inspired Oginga Odinga, the *Ker* (chief) of the Luo Union (an organisation that represented members of the Luo community in East Africa) to join KAU and delve into politics.
In response to the rising pressures, the British Colonial Office broadened the membership of the Legislative Council and increased its role. By 1952 a multiracial pattern of quotas allowed for 14 European, 1 Arab, and 6 Asian elected members, together with an additional 6 Africans and 1 Arab member chosen by the governor. The council of ministers became the principal instrument of government in 1954. In 1952, Princess Elizabeth and her husband Prince Philip were on holiday at the Treetops Hotel in Kenya when her father, King George VI, died in his sleep. Elizabeth cut short her trip and returned home immediately to assume the throne. She was crowned Queen Elizabeth II at Westminster Abbey in 1953 and as British hunter and conservationist Jim Corbett (who accompanied the royal couple) put it, she went up a tree in Africa a princess and came down a queen.
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# History of Kenya
## British rule (1895--1963) {#british_rule_18951963}
### Kenya Colony {#kenya_colony}
#### Mau-Mau Uprising {#mau_mau_uprising}
A key watershed came from 1952 to 1956, during the Mau Mau Uprising, an armed local movement directed principally against the colonial government and the European settlers. It was the largest and most successful such movement in British Africa. Members of the forty group, World War II(WW2) veterans, including Stanley Mathenge, Bildad Kaggia and Fred Kubai became core leaders in the rebellion. Their experiences during the WW2 awakened their political consciousness, giving them determination and confidence to change the system. Key leaders of KAU known as the Kapenguria six were arrested on the 21st of October. They include Jomo Kenyatta, Paul Ngei, Kungu Karumba, Bildad Kaggia, Fred Kubai and Achieng Oneko. Kenyatta denied he was a leader of the Mau Mau but was convicted at trial and was sent to prison in 1953, gaining his freedom in 1961.
An intense propaganda campaign by the colonial government effectively discouraged other Kenyan communities, settlers and the international community from sympathising with the movement by emphasising on real and perceived acts of barbarism perpetrated by the Mau Mau. Although a much smaller number of Europeans died compared to Africans during the uprising, each individual European loss of life was publicised in disturbing detail, emphasising elements of betrayal and bestiality. As a result, the protest was supported almost exclusively by the Kikuyu, despite issues of land rights and anti-European, anti-Western appeals designed to attract other groups. The Mau Mau movement was also a bitter internal struggle among the Kikuyu. Harry Thuku said in 1952, \"To-day we, the Kikuyu, stand ashamed and looked upon as hopeless people in the eyes of other races and before the Government. Why? Because of the crimes perpetrated by Mau Mau and because the Kikuyu have made themselves Mau Mau.\" That said, other Kenyans directly or indirectly supported the movement. Notably, Pio Gama Pinto, a Kenyan of Goan descent, facilitated the provision of firearms to forest fighters. He was arrested in 1954 and detained until 1959. Another notable example was the pioneering lawyer Argwings Kodhek, the first East African to obtain a law degree. He became known as the Mau Mau lawyer as he would successfully defend Africans accused of Mau Mau crimes pro bono. 12,000 militants were killed during the suppression of the rebellion, and the British colonial authorities also implemented policies involving the incarceration of over 150,000 suspected Mau Mau members and sympathizers (mostly from the Kikuyu people) into concentration camps. In these camps, the colonial authorities also used various forms of torture to attempt information from the detainees. In 2011, after decades of waiting, thousands of secret documents from the British Foreign Office were declassified. They show that the Mau Mau rebels were systematically tortured and subjected to the most brutal practices, men were castrated and sand introduced into their anus, women were raped after introducing boiling water into their vaginas. The Foreign Office archives also reveal that this was not the initiative of soldiers or colonial administrators but a policy orchestrated from London.
The Mau Mau uprising set in play a series of events that expedited the road to Kenya\'s Independence. A Royal Commission on Land and Population condemned the reservation of land on a racial basis. To support its military campaign of counter-insurgency the colonial government embarked on agrarian reforms that stripped white settlers of many of their former protections; for example, Africans were for the first time allowed to grow coffee, the major cash crop. Thuku was one of the first Kikuyu to win a coffee licence, and in 1959 he became the first African board member of the Kenya Planters Coffee Union. The East African Salaries Commission put forth a recommendation -- \'equal pay for equal work\' -- that was immediately accepted. Racist policies in public places and hotels were eased. John David Drummond, 17th Earl of Perth and Minister of State for Colonial affairs stated: \"The effort required to suppress Mau Mau destroyed any settlers illusions that they could go it alone; the British Government was not prepared for the shedding of \[more\] blood in order to preserve colonial rule.\"
#### Trade Unionism and the struggle for independence {#trade_unionism_and_the_struggle_for_independence}
The pioneers of the trade union movement were Makhan Singh, Fred Kubai and Bildad Kaggia. In 1935, Makhan Singh started the Labour trade union of Kenya. In the 1940s, Fred Kubai started the Transport and Allied Workers Union and Bildad Kaggia founded the Clerks and Commercial Workers Union. In 1949, Makhan Singh and Fred Kubai started the East Africa Trade Union Congress. They organised strikes including the railway workers strike in 1939 and the protest against granting of a Royal Charter to Nairobi in 1950. These pioneering trade union leaders were imprisoned during the crackdown on Mau Mau. Following this crackdown, all national African political activity was banned. This ban was in place even when the first African members of the legislative council (MLCs) were elected. To manage and control African political activity, the colonial government permitted district parties starting in 1955. This effectively prevented African unity by encouraging ethnic affiliation. Trade unions led by younger Africans filled the vacuum created by the crackdown as the only organisations that could mobilise the masses when political parties were banned.
The Kenya Federation of Registered Trade Unions (KFRTU) was started by Aggrey Minya in 1952 but was largely ineffective. Tom Mboya was one of the young leaders who stepped into the limelight. His intelligence, discipline, oratory and organisational skills set him apart. After the colonial government declared a state of emergency on account of Mau Mau, at age 22, Mboya became the Director of Information of KAU. After KAU was banned, Mboya used the KFRTU to represent African political issues as its Secretary General at 26 years of age. The KFRTU was backed by the western leaning International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU). Tom Mboya then started the Kenya Federation of Labour (KFL) in place of KFRTU, which quickly became the most active political body in Kenya, representing all the trade unions. Mboya\'s successes in trade unionism earned him respect and admiration. Mboya established international connections, particularly with labour leaders in the United States of America through the ICFTU. He used these connections and his international renown to counter moves by the colonial government.
Several trade union leaders who were actively involved in the independence struggle through KFL would go on to join active politics becoming members of parliament and cabinet ministers. These include Arthur Aggrey Ochwada, Dennis Akumu, Clement Lubembe and Ochola Ogaye Mak\'Anyengo. The trade union movement would later become a major battlefront in the proxy Cold War that would engulf Kenyan politics in the 1960s.
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# History of Kenya
## British rule (1895--1963) {#british_rule_18951963}
### Kenya Colony {#kenya_colony}
#### Constitutional Debates and the Path to Independence {#constitutional_debates_and_the_path_to_independence}
After the suppression of the Mau Mau rising, the British provided for the election of the six African members to the Legislative Council (MLC) under a weighted franchise based on education. Mboya successfully stood for office in the first election for African MLCs in 1957, beating the previously nominated incumbent, Argwings Kodhek. Daniel Arap Moi was the only previously nominated African MLC who kept his seat. Oginga Odinga was also elected and shortly afterwards nominated as the first chairman of the African elected members. Mboya\'s party, the Nairobi People\'s Convention Party (NPCP), was inspired by Kwame Nkurumah\'s People\'s Convention Party. It became the most organised and effective political party in the country. The NPCP was used to effectively mobilise the masses in Nairobi in the struggle for greater African representation on the council. The new colonial constitution of 1958 increased African representation, but African nationalists began to demand a democratic franchise on the principle of \"one man, one vote.\" However, Europeans and Asians, because of their minority position, feared the effects of universal suffrage.
In June 1958, Oginga Odinga called for the release of Jomo Kenyatta. This call built momentum and was taken up by the NPCP. Agitation for African suffrage and self-rule picked up in pace. One major hindrance to self-rule was the lack of African human capital. Poor education, economic development and a lack of African technocrats were a real problem. This inspired Tom Mboya to begin a programme conceptualised by a close confidante Dr. Blasio Vincent Oriedo, funded by Americans, of sending talented youth to the United States for higher education. There was no university in Kenya at the time, but colonial officials opposed the programme anyway. The next year Senator John F. Kennedy helped fund the programme, hence its popular name -- The Kennedy Airlift. This scholarship program trained some 70% of the top leaders of the new nation, including the first African woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize, environmentalist Wangari Maathai and Barack Obama\'s father, Barack Obama Sr.
At a conference held in 1960 in London, agreement was reached between the African members and the British settlers of the New Kenya Group, led by Michael Blundell. However many whites rejected the New Kenya Group and condemned the London agreement, because it moved away from racial quotas and toward independence. Following the agreement a new African party, the Kenya African National Union (KANU), with the slogan \"Uhuru,\" or \"Freedom,\" was formed under the leadership of Kikuyu leader James S. Gichuru and labour leader Tom Mboya. KANU was formed in May 1960 when the Kenya African Union (KAU) merged with the Kenya Independence Movement (KIM) and Nairobi People\'s Convention Party (NPCP). Mboya was a major figure from 1951 until his death in 1969. He was praised as nonethnic or antitribal, and attacked as an instrument of Western capitalism. Mboya as General Secretary of the Kenya Federation of Labour and a leader in the Kenya African National Union before and after independence skilfully managed the tribal factor in Kenyan economic and political life to succeed as a Luo in a predominantly Kikuyu movement. A split in KANU produced the breakaway rival party, the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU), led by Ronald Ngala and Masinde Muliro. In the elections of February 1961, KANU won 19 of the 33 African seats while KADU won 11 (twenty seats were reserved by quota for Europeans, Asians and Arabs). Kenyatta was finally released in August and became president of KANU in October.
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# History of Kenya
## Independence
In 1962, a KANU-KADU coalition government, including both Kenyatta and Ngala, was formed. The 1962 constitution established a bicameral legislature consisting of a 117-member House of Representatives and a 41-member Senate. The country was divided into 7 semi-autonomous regions, each with its own regional assembly. The quota principle of reserved seats for non-Africans was abandoned, and open elections were held in May 1963. KADU gained control of the assemblies in the Rift Valley, Coast and Western regions. KANU won majorities in the Senate and House of Representatives, and in the assemblies in the Central, Eastern and Nyanza regions. Kenya now achieved internal self-government with Jomo Kenyatta as its first president. The British and KANU agreed, over KADU protests, to constitutional changes in October 1963 strengthening the central government thus ensuring that Kenya would be a *de facto* single-party state. Kenya attained independence on 12 December 1963 as the Commonwealth realm of Kenya and was declared a republic on 12 December 1964 with Jomo Kenyatta as Head of State. In 1964 constitutional changes further centralised the government and various state organs were formed. One of the key state organs was the Central Bank of Kenya which was established in 1966.
The British government bought out the white settlers and they mostly left Kenya. The Indian minority dominated retail business in the cities and most towns, but was deeply distrusted by the Africans. As a result, 120,000 of the 176,000 Indians kept their old British passports rather than become citizens of an independent Kenya; large numbers left Kenya, most of them headed to Britain.
### Kenyatta tenure (1963--1978) {#kenyatta_tenure_19631978}
Once in power, Kenyatta swerved from radical nationalism to conservative bourgeois politics. The plantations formerly owned by white settlers were broken up and given to farmers, with the Kikuyu the favoured recipients, along with their allies the Embu and the Meru. By 1978, most of the country\'s wealth and power was in the hands of the organisation which grouped these three tribes: the Kikuyu-Embu-Meru Association (GEMA), together comprising 30% of the population. At the same time the Kikuyu, with Kenyatta\'s support, spread beyond their traditional territorial homelands and repossessed lands \"stolen by the whites\" -- even when these had previously belonged to other groups. The other groups, a 70% majority, were outraged, setting up long-term ethnic animosities.
The minority party, the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU), representing a coalition of small tribes that had feared dominance by larger ones, dissolved itself voluntarily in 1964 and former members joined KANU. KANU was the only party 1964--66 when a faction broke away as the Kenya People\'s Union (KPU). It was led by Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, a former vice-president and Luo elder. KPU advocated a more \"scientific\" route to socialism---criticising the slow progress in land redistribution and employment opportunities---as well as a realignment of foreign policy in favour of the Soviet Union. On 25 February 1965, Pio Gama Pinto, a Kenyan of Goan descent and freedom fighter who was detained during the colonial period was assassinated in what is recognised as Kenya\'s first political assassination. He was also Oginga Odinga\'s chief tactician and link to the eastern bloc. His death dealt a severe blow to the Oginga Odinga\'s organisational efforts.
The government used a variety of political and economic measures to harass the KPU and its prospective and actual members. KPU branches were unable to register, KPU meetings were prevented and civil servants and politicians suffered severe economic and political consequences for joining the KPU. A security Act was passed in Parliament in July 1966 and granted the government powers to carry out detention without trial, which was used against KPU members. In a series of dawn raids in August 1966, several KPU party members were arrested and detained without trial. They included Ochola Mak\'Anyengo (the secretary general of the Kenya Petroleum Oil Workers Union), Oluande Koduol (Oginga Odinga\'s private secretary) and Peter Ooko (the general secretary of the East African Common Services Civil Servants Union).
In June 1969, Tom Mboya, a Luo member of the government considered a potential successor to Kenyatta, was assassinated. Hostility between Kikuyu and Luo was heightened, and after riots broke out in Luo country the KPU was banned. The specific riots that led to the banning of the KPU resulted in the incident referred to as the Kisumu massacre. Kenya thereby became a one-party state under KANU.
Ignoring his suppression of the opposition and continued factionalism within KANU the imposition of one-party rule allowed Mzee (\"Old Man\") Kenyatta, who had led the country since independence, to claim he had achieved \"political stability.\" Underlying social tensions were evident, however. Kenya\'s very rapid population growth and considerable rural to urban migration were in larger part responsible for high unemployment and disorder in the cities. There also was much resentment by blacks at the privileged economic position held by Asians and Europeans in the country.
At Kenyatta\'s death (22 August 1978), Vice-president Daniel arap Moi became interim President. On 14 October, Moi formally became president after he was elected head of KANU and designated its sole nominee. In June 1982, the National Assembly amended the constitution, making Kenya officially a one-party state. On 1 August members of the Kenyan Air Force launched an attempted coup, which was quickly suppressed by Loyalist forces led by the Army, the General Service Unit (GSU) -- paramilitary wing of the police -- and later the regular police, but not without civilian casualties.
#### Foreign policies {#foreign_policies}
Independent Kenya, although officially non-aligned, adopted a pro-Western stance. Kenya worked unsuccessfully for East African union; the proposal to unite Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda did not win approval. However, the three nations did form a loose East African Community (EAC) in 1967, that maintained the customs union and some common services that they had shared under British rule. The EAC collapsed in 1977 and was officially dissolved in 1984. Kenya\'s relations with Somalia deteriorated over the problem of Somalis in the North Eastern Province who tried to secede and were supported by Somalia. In 1968, however, Kenya and Somalia agreed to restore normal relations, and the Somali rebellion effectively ended.
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# History of Kenya
## Independence
### Moi regime (1978--2002) {#moi_regime_19782002}
Kenyatta died in 1978 and was succeeded by Daniel Arap Moi (b. 1924, d. 2020) who ruled as President 1978--2002. Moi, a member of the Kalenjin ethnic group, quickly consolidated his position and governed in an authoritarian and corrupt manner. By 1986, Moi had concentrated all the power -- and most of its attendant economic benefits -- into the hands of his Kalenjin tribe and of a handful of allies from minority groups.
On 1 August 1982, lower-level air force personnel, led by Senior Private Grade-I Hezekiah Ochuka and backed by university students, attempted a coup d\'état to oust Moi. The putsch was quickly suppressed by forces commanded by Army Commander Mahamoud Mohamed, a veteran Somali military official. In the coup\'s aftermath, some of Nairobi\'s poor Kenyans attacked and looted stores owned by Asians. Robert Ouko, the senior Luo in Moi\'s cabinet, was appointed to expose corruption at high levels, but was murdered a few months later. Moi\'s closest associate was implicated in Ouko\'s murder; Moi dismissed him but not before his remaining Luo support had evaporated. Germany recalled its ambassador to protest the \"increasing brutality\" of the regime and foreign donors pressed Moi to allow other parties, which was done in December 1991 through a constitutional amendment.
On the heels of the Garissa massacre of 1980, Kenyan troops committed the Wagalla massacre in 1984 against thousands of civilians in the North Eastern Province. An official probe into the atrocities was later ordered in 2011.
#### Multi-party politics {#multi_party_politics}
After local and foreign pressure, in December 1991, parliament repealed the one-party section of the constitution. The first multiparty elections were held in 1992.
The Forum for the Restoration of Democracy (FORD) emerged as the leading opposition to KANU, and dozens of leading KANU figures switched parties. But FORD, led by Oginga Odinga (1911--1994), a Luo, and Kenneth Matiba, a Kikuyu, split into two ethnically based factions. In the first open presidential elections in a quarter century, in December 1992, Moi won with 37% of the vote, Matiba received 26%, Mwai Kibaki (of the mostly Kikuyu Democratic Party) 19%, and Odinga 18%. In the Assembly, KANU won 97 of the 188 seats at stake. Moi\'s government in 1993 agreed to economic reforms long urged by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, which restored enough aid for Kenya to service its \$7.5 billion foreign debt.
Obstructing the press both before and after the 1992 elections, Moi continually maintained that multiparty politics would only promote tribal conflict. His own regime depended upon exploitation of inter-group hatreds. Under Moi, the apparatus of clientage and control was underpinned by the system of powerful provincial commissioners, each with a bureaucratic hierarchy based on chiefs (and their police) that was more powerful than the elected members of parliament. Elected local councils lost most of their power, and the provincial bosses were answerable only to the central government, which in turn was dominated by the president. The emergence of mass opposition in 1990--91 and demands for constitutional reform were met by rallies against pluralism. The regime leaned on the support of the Kalenjin and incited the Maasai against the Kikuyu. Government politicians denounced the Kikuyu as traitors, obstructed their registration as voters and threatened them with dispossession. In 1993 and after, mass evictions of Kikuyu took place, often with the direct involvement of army, police and game rangers. Armed clashes and many casualties, including deaths, resulted.
Further liberalisation in November 1997 allowed the expansion of political parties from 11 to 26. President Moi won re-election as president in the December 1997 elections, and his KANU Party narrowly retained its parliamentary majority.
Moi ruled using a strategic mixture of ethnic favouritism, state repression and marginalisation of opposition forces. He utilised detention and torture, looted public finances and appropriated land and other property. Moi sponsored irregular army units that attacked the Luo, Luhya and Kikuyu communities, and he denied his responsibility by attributing the violence to ethnic clashes arising from land dispute. Beginning in 1998, Moi engaged in a carefully calculated strategy to manage the presidential succession in his and his party\'s favour. Faced with the challenge of a new, multiethnic political coalition, Moi shifted the axis of the 2002 electoral contest from ethnicity to the politics of generational conflict. The strategy backfired, ripping his party wide open and resulting in the humiliating defeat of its candidate, Kenyatta\'s son, in the December 2002 general elections.
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# History of Kenya
## Independence
### Recent history (2002 to present) {#recent_history_2002_to_present}
#### 2002 elections
Constitutionally barred from running in the December 2002 presidential elections, Moi unsuccessfully promoted Uhuru Kenyatta, the son of Kenya\'s first President, as his successor. A rainbow coalition of opposition parties routed the ruling KANU party, and its leader, Moi\'s former vice-president Mwai Kibaki, was elected president by a large majority.
On 27 December 2002, by 62% the voters overwhelmingly elected members of the National Rainbow Coalition (NaRC) to parliament and NaRC candidate Mwai Kibaki (b. 1931) to the presidency. Voters rejected the Kenya African National Union\'s (KANU) presidential candidate, Uhuru Kenyatta, the handpicked candidate of outgoing president Moi. International and local observers reported the 2002 elections to be generally more fair and less violent than those of both 1992 and 1997. His strong showing allowed Kibaki to choose a cabinet, to seek international support and to balance power within the NaRC.
#### Economic trends {#economic_trends}
Kenya witnessed a spectacular economic recovery, helped by a favourable international environment. The annual rate of growth improved from −1.6% in 2002 to 2.6% by 2004, 3.4% in 2005, and 5.5% in 2007. However, social inequalities also increased; the economic benefits went disproportionately to the already well-off (especially to the Kikuyu); corruption reached new depths, matching some of the excesses of the Moi years. Social conditions deteriorated for ordinary Kenyans, who faced a growing wave of routine crime in urban areas; pitched battles between ethnic groups fighting for land; and a feud between the police and the Mungiki sect, which left over 120 people dead in May--November 2007 alone.
#### 2007 elections and ethnic violence {#elections_and_ethnic_violence}
Once regarded as the world\'s \"most optimistic,\" Kibaki\'s regime quickly lost much of its power because it became too closely linked with the discredited Moi forces. The continuity between Kibaki and Moi set the stage for the self-destruction of Kibaki\'s National Rainbow Coalition, which was dominated by Kikuyus. The western Luo and Kalenjin groups, demanding greater autonomy, backed Raila Amolo Odinga (1945-- ) and his Orange Democratic Movement (ODM).
In the December 2007 elections, Odinga, the candidate of the ODM, attacked the failures of the Kibaki regime. The ODM charged the Kikuyu with having grabbed everything and all the other tribes having lost; that Kibaki had betrayed his promises for change; that crime and violence were out of control, and that economic growth was not bringing any benefits to the ordinary citizen. In the December 2007 elections the ODM won majority seats in Parliament, but the presidential elections votes were marred by claims of rigging by both sides. It may never be clear who won the elections, but it was roughly 50:50 before the rigging started.
\"Majimboism\" was a philosophy that emerged in the 1950s, meaning federalism or regionalism in Swahili, and it was intended to protect local rights, especially regarding land ownership. Today \"majimboism\" is code for certain areas of the country to be reserved for specific ethnic groups, fuelling the kind of ethnic cleansing that has swept the country since the election. Majimboism has always had a strong following in the Rift Valley, the epicenter of the recent violence, where many locals have long believed that their land was stolen by outsiders. The December 2007 election was in part a referendum on majimboism. It pitted today\'s majimboists, represented by Odinga, who campaigned for regionalism, against Kibaki, who stood for the status quo of a highly centralised government that has delivered considerable economic growth but has repeatedly displayed the problems of too much power concentrated in too few hands -- corruption, aloofness, favouritism and its flip side, marginalisation. In the town of Londiani in the Rift Valley, Kikuyu traders settled decades ago. In February 2008, hundreds of Kalenjin raiders poured down from the nearby scruffy hills and burned a Kikuyu school. Three hundred thousand members of the Kikuyu community were displaced from Rift Valley province. Kikuyus quickly took revenge, organising into gangs armed with iron bars and table legs and hunting down Luos and Kalenjins in Kikuyu-dominated areas like Nakuru. \"We are achieving our own perverse version of majimboism,\" wrote one of Kenya\'s leading columnists, Macharia Gaitho.
The Luo population of the southwest had enjoyed an advantageous position during the late colonial and early independence periods of the 1950s, 1960s and early 1970s, particularly in terms of the prominence of its modern elite compared to those of other groups. However the Luo lost prominence due to the success of Kikuyu and related groups (Embu and Meru) in gaining and exercising political power during the Jomo Kenyatta era (1963--1978). While measurements of poverty and health by the early 2000s showed the Luo disadvantaged relative to other Kenyans, the growing presence of non-Luo in the professions reflected a dilution of Luo professionals due to the arrival of others rather than an absolute decline in the Luo numbers.
#### Demographic trends {#demographic_trends}
Between 1980 and 2000 total fecundity in Kenya fell by about 40%, from some eight births per woman to around five. During the same period, fertility in Uganda declined by less than 10%. The difference was due primarily to greater contraceptive use in Kenya, though in Uganda there was also a reduction in pathological sterility. The Demographic and Health Surveys carried out every five years show that women in Kenya wanted fewer children than those in Uganda and that in Uganda there was also a greater unmet need for contraception. These differences may be attributed, in part at least, to the divergent paths of economic development followed by the two countries since independence and to the Kenya government\'s active promotion of family planning, which the Uganda government did not promote until 1995.
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# History of Kenya
## Independence
### Recent history (2002 to present) {#recent_history_2002_to_present}
#### Presidency of Uhuru Kenyatta (2013-2022) {#presidency_of_uhuru_kenyatta_2013_2022}
After Kibaki\'s tenure ended in 2013, Kenya held its first general elections after the 2010 constitution had been passed. Uhuru Kenyatta won in a disputed election result, leading to a petition by the opposition leader, Raila Odinga. The supreme court upheld the election results and Kenyatta began his term with William Ruto as deputy president. Despite this ruling, the Supreme Court and the head of the Supreme Court were seen as powerful institutions that could check the powers of the president.
In 2017, Kenyatta won a second term in office in another disputed election. Odinga again petitioned the results in the Supreme Court, accusing the Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission of mismanagement of the elections and Kenyatta and his party of rigging. The Supreme Court overturned the election results in what became a landmark ruling in Africa and one of the very few in the world in which the results of a presidential elections were annulled. This ruling solidified the position of the Supreme Court as an independent body. Consequently, Kenya had a second round of elections for the presidential position, in which Kenyatta emerged the winner after Odinga refused to participate, citing irregularities.
In March 2018, a historic handshake between Kenyatta and his longtime opponent Odinga signalled a period of reconciliation followed by economic growth and increased stability. Between 2019 and 2021, Kenyatta and Odinga combined efforts to promote major changes to the Kenyan constitution, labelled the \"Building Bridges Initiative\" (BBI), saying that their efforts were to improve inclusion and overcome the country\'s winner-take-all election system that often resulted in post-election violence. The BBI proposal called for broad expansion of the legislative and executive branches, including the creation of a prime minister with two deputies and an official leader of the opposition, reverting to selecting cabinet ministers from among the elected Members of Parliament, establishment of up to 70 new constituencies, and addition of up to 300 unelected members of Parliament (under an \"affirmative action\" plan).
Critics saw this as an unnecessary attempt to reward political dynasties and blunt the efforts of Deputy President Willian Ruto (Odinga\'s rival for the next presidency) and bloat the government at an exceptional cost to the debt-laded country. Ultimately, in May 2021, the Kenyan High Court ruled that the BBI constitutional reform effort was unconstitutional, because it was not truly a popular initiative, but rather an effort of the government. The court sharply criticized Kenyatta for the attempt, laying out grounds for his being sued, personally, or even impeached (though the Parliament, which had passed the BBI, was unlikely to do that). The ruling was seen as a major defeat for both Kenyatta (soon to leave office), and Odinga (expected to seek the presidency), but a boon to Odinga\'s future presidential-election rival, Ruto. On 20 August 2021, Kenya\'s Court of Appeal again upheld the High Court Judgment of May 2021, which was appealed by the BBI Secretariat.
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# History of Kenya
## Independence
### Recent history (2002 to present) {#recent_history_2002_to_present}
#### Presidency of William Ruto (2022-) {#presidency_of_william_ruto_2022_}
In August 2022, Deputy President William Ruto narrowly won the presidential election. He took 50.5% of the vote. His main rival, Raila Odinga, got 48.8% of the vote. According to the Afrobarometer survey 67.9% of Kenyan citizens participated in the last election( 2022) and 17.6% did not vote in the presidential election. On 13 September 2022, William Ruto was sworn in as Kenya\'s fifth president
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# Geography of Kenya
The **Geography of Kenya** is diverse, varying amongst its 47 counties. Kenya has a coastline on the Indian Ocean, which contains swamps of East African mangroves. Inland are broad plains and numerous hills. Kenya borders South Sudan to the northwest, Uganda to the west, Somalia to the east, Tanzania to the south, and Ethiopia to the north. Kenya currently faces border disputes with South Sudan over the Ilemi Triangle and with Somalia over Jubbaland where, if the Somalian Government gives it up, it could be a new part of Kenya, which would bring the total land area of Kenya to approximately 692,939 km^2^.
Central and Western Kenya is characterized by the Kenyan Rift Valley and central Province home to the highest mountain, Mount Kenya and Mount Elgon on the border between Kenya and Uganda. The Kakamega Forest in western Kenya is a relic of an East African rainforest. Much bigger is Mau Forest, the largest forest complex in East Africa.
## Geography
### Location
- Eastern Africa on the Indian Ocean coast between Somalia and Tanzania
- Geographic coordinates: 1 00 N 38 00 E type:country
### Area
- Total: 582650.2 km2
- Land: 569140 km2
- Water: 11227 km2
Area comparative
:\* Australia comparative: approximately `{{sfrac|5|7}}`{=mediawiki} the size of New South Wales
:\* Canada comparative: slightly smaller than Saskatchewan
:\* United Kingdom comparative: approximately 2`{{sfrac|1|2}}`{=mediawiki} times the size of the United Kingdom
:\* United States comparative: approximately twice the size of Arizona
:\* EU comparative: slightly less than twice the size of Italy
### Land boundaries {#land_boundaries}
- Total: 3457 km
- Border countries: Ethiopia 867 km, Somalia 684 km, South Sudan 317 km, Tanzania 775 km, Uganda 814 km
## Coastline
- 490 km (300 mi) along the Indian Ocean.
### Maritime claims {#maritime_claims}
- Territorial sea: 12 nmi
- Exclusive economic zone: 116942 km2 and 200 nmi
- Continental shelf: 200 m depth or to the depth of exploitation
## Geology
Much of the western two-thirds of the country consists of the Pliocene--Pleistocene volcanics deposited on Precambrian basement rocks. The southeast corner of the country is underlain by sediments of the Karoo System of Permian to Late Triassic age and a strip of Jurassic age sediments along the coast in the Mombasa area. The Anza trough is a NW--SE trending Jurassic rift extending from the Indian Ocean coast to the Sudan northwest of Lake Turkana. The Anza Rift resulted from the break--up of Gondwana.
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# Geography of Kenya
## Climate
The climate of Kenya varies by location, from mostly cool every day, to always warm/hot by mid afternoon. The climate along the coast is tropical. This means rainfall and temperatures are higher than inland throughout the year. At the coastal cities, Mombasa, Lamu and Malindi, the air temperature changes from cool to hot, almost every day. (*See chart below*).
The further inland one is in Kenya, the more arid the climate becomes. An extremely arid climate is nearly devoid of rainfall, and temperature varies widely according to the general time of the day/night. For many areas of Kenya, the daytime temperature rises about 12 °C (corresponding to a rise of about 22 °F), almost every day. Elevation is the major factor in temperature levels, with the higher areas, on average, about 11 °C (20 °F) cooler, day or night. The many cities over a kilometre in elevation have temperature swings from roughly 50 -. Nairobi, at 1798 m, ranges from 49 -, and Kitale, at 1825 m, ranges from 51 -. At night, heavy clothes or blankets are needed, in the highlands, when the temperature drops to about 50 - every night.
At lower altitudes, the increased temperature is like day and night, literally: like starting the morning at the highland daytime high, and then adding the heat of the day, again. Hence, the overnight low temperatures near sea level are nearly the same as the high temperatures of the elevated Kenyan highlands. However, locations along the Indian Ocean have more moderate temperatures, as a few degrees cooler in the daytime, such as at Mombasa (*see chart below*).
There are slight seasonal variations in temperature, of 4 C-change, cooler in the winter months. Although Kenya is centred at the equator, it shares the seasons of the Southern Hemisphere: with the warmest summer months in December--March and the coolest winter months in June--August, again with differences in temperature varying by location within the country.
On the high mountains, such as Mount Kenya, Mount Elgon and Kilimanjaro, the weather can become bitterly cold for most of the year. Some snowfall occurs on the highest mountains.
Climate data for Mombasa (at Indian Ocean)
--------------------------------------------
NOAA Code
0101
0201
0301
0615
0101
0201
0301
0615
1109
1110
### Climate change {#climate_change}
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# Geography of Kenya
## Terrain
Kenya\'s terrain is composed of low plains that rise into central highlands that are, in turn, bisected by the Great Rift Valley. There is also a fertile plateau in the west of the country.
### Elevation extremes {#elevation_extremes}
The lowest point on Kenya is at sea level on the Indian Ocean. The highest point on Kenya is 5,199 meters above sea level at Mount Kenya.
### Rivers
The notable rivers in Kenya are the Athi-Galana-Sabaki River, which at a total length of about 390 kilometers while draining an area of about 70,000 square kilometers, is the second longest river in the country, the Tana River, the longest river in the country at a total length of just over 1000 kilometers, covering a catchment area of over 100,000 square kilometers, and the Nzoia River, which is a 257 km river, rising from Mount Elgon, which flows south.
### Natural resources {#natural_resources}
Natural resources that are found in Kenya include: limestone, soda ash, salt, gemstones, fluorite, zinc, diatomite, oil, titanium, gas, gold, gypsum, wildlife and hydropower.
### Land use {#land_use}
9.8% of the land is arable; permanent crops occupy 0.9% of the land, permanent pasture occupies 37.4% of the land; forest occupies 6.1% of the land. Other uses make up the rest of Kenya\'s land. This is as of 2011.
1,032 km^2^ of Kenyan land was irrigated in 2003.
### Total renewable water resources {#total_renewable_water_resources}
30.7 km^3^ (2011)
### Freshwater withdrawal {#freshwater_withdrawal}
- Total: 2.74 km^3^/yr (17%/4%/79%)
- Per capita: 72.96 m^3^/yr (2003)
### Gallery
<File:Pt> Thomson Batian Nelion Mt Kenya.JPG\|Thompson (4955 m), Batian (5199 m) and Nelion (5188 m) on Mt Kenya <File:Africa6_006.jpg%7CThe> Great Rift Valley as it is visible near Eldoret, Kenya <File:Lake> turkana.jpg\|Lake Turkana <File:Fourteen_falls_Thika,Kenya.JPG%7CThe> Fourteen Falls near Thika
## Natural hazards {#natural_hazards}
Natural hazards include recurring drought and flooding during the rainy seasons.
There is limited volcanic activity in the country. Barrier Volcano (elev. 1,032 m) last erupted in 1921. Several others have been historically active (see List of volcanoes in Kenya).
### Environmental issues {#environmental_issues}
#### Current issues {#current_issues}
Current issues that threaten the environment at the moment include water pollution from urban and industrial wastes; degradation of water quality from the increased use of pesticides and fertilisers; deforestation; water hyacinth infestation in Lake Victoria; soil erosion; desertification; and poaching.
#### International agreements {#international_agreements}
- Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution (MARPOL 73/78), Wetlands, Whaling.
## Extreme points {#extreme_points}
This is a list of the extreme points of Kenya, the points that are further north, south, east or west than any other location.
- Northernmost point -- Kalukwakerith Mountain, Turkana County
- Easternmost point -- the tripoint with Ethiopia and Somalia, Mandera County
- Southernmost point -- the point where the border with Tanzania enters the Indian Ocean, Kwale County
- Westernmost point -- unnamed land west of Port Victoria, Busia County
- *Note: Kalukwakerith Mountain is in the disputed Ilemi Triangle region. If this area is excluded then Kenya does not have a northernmost point, the northern border being a straight line
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# Telecommunications in Kenya
**Telecommunications in Kenya** include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
**Radio stations:**
- state-owned radio broadcaster operates 2 national radio channels and provides regional and local radio services in multiple languages; a large number of private radio stations, including provincial stations broadcasting in local languages; transmissions of several international broadcasters are available (2007);
- 24 AM, 8 FM, and 6 shortwave (2001).
**Radios:** 3.07 million (1997).`{{update after|2014|2|20}}`{=mediawiki}
**Television stations:**
- roughly a half-dozen privately owned TV stations and a state-owned TV broadcaster that operates 2 channels; satellite and cable TV subscription services available (2007);
- 8 stations (2002).
**Television sets:** 730,000 (1997).`{{update after|2014|2|20}}`{=mediawiki}
Television is the main news source in cities and towns. TV in rural areas is limited by lack of reliable electricity and radio listening dominates in rural areas, where most Kenyans live. A switchover to digital TV is under way. Satellite pay-TV is offered by the Wananchi Group, which operates Zuku TV, and by South Africa\'s MultiChoice. Entertainment, music and phone-ins dominate the radio scene, which includes Islamic stations and stations broadcasting in local languages.
The BBC World Service is available in Nairobi, Mombasa, and Kisumu.
The state-run Kenya Broadcasting Corporation (KBC) is funded from advertising revenue and from the government.
### Most viewed channels {#most_viewed_channels}
Position Channel Share of total viewing (%)
---------- ------------------- ----------------------------
1 Citizen TV 24.0
2 NTV 9.4
3 KTN 8.7
4 KTN News 7.9
5 K24 6.8
6 Maisha Magic East 6.1
7 Inooro TV 4.9
8 KBC 4.2
9 Al Jazeera 3.9
10 Kass TV 3.3
## Telephones
`{{See also |Telephone numbers in Kenya}}`{=mediawiki}
**Calling code:** +254
**International call prefix:** 000
**Main lines:**
- 251,600 lines in use, 124th in the world (2012);
- 320,000 lines in use (2007).
**Mobile Cellular:**
- 59.8 million lines as at September 2020
**Telephone system:** inadequate; fixed-line telephone system is small and inefficient; trunks are primarily microwave radio relay; business data commonly transferred by a very small aperture terminal (VSAT) system; sole fixed-line provider, Telkom Kenya, is slated for privatization; multiple providers in the mobile-cellular segment of the market fostering a boom in mobile-cellular telephone usage with teledensity reaching 65 per 100 persons (2011).
**Communications cables:** landing point for the Eastern Africa Submarine Cable System (EASSy), The East African Marine System (TEAMS), and SEACOM fiber-optic submarine cable systems (2011).
**Satellite earth stations:** 4 Intelsat (2011).
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# Telecommunications in Kenya
## Internet
**Top-level domain:** .ke
**Internet users:**
- 13.8 million users, 35th in the world; 32.1% of the population, 129th in the world (2012);
- 4.0 million users, 59th in the world (2009);
- 3.0 million users (2008);
- 500,000 users (2002).
**Fixed broadband:** 43,013 subscriptions, 115th in the world; 0.1% of the population, 167th in the world (2012).
**Wireless broadband:** 954,896 subscriptions, 72nd in the world; 2.2% of the population, 124th in the world (2012).
**Internet hosts:** 71,018 hosts, 88th in the world (2012).
**IPv4:** 1.7 million addresses allocated, 68th in the world, less than 0.05% of the world total, 38.5 addresses per 1000 people (2012).
**Internet Service Providers:** 66 ISPs (2014).`{{update after|2018|3|20}}`{=mediawiki}
### Internet censorship and surveillance {#internet_censorship_and_surveillance}
Kenya was rated as \"partly free\" in the 2009 and 2011 *Freedom on the Net* reports from Freedom House with scores of 34 and 32 which is much closer to the \"free\" rating that ends at 30 then it is to the \"not free\" rating that starts at 60. In 2012 and 2013 the rating improved to \"free\" with scores of 29 and 28.
The government does not employ technical filtering or any administrative censorship system to restrict access to political or other content. Citizens engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail, and are able to access a wide range of viewpoints, with the websites of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), the U.S.-based Cable News Network (CNN), and Kenya\'s Daily Nation newspaper the most commonly accessed. There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet, but Internet services are limited in rural areas due to lack of infrastructure.
The constitution protects freedom of expression and the \"freedom to communicate ideas and information.\" However, it also grants the government the authority to punish defamation, protect privileged information, and restrict state employees' \"freedom of expression in the interest of defense, public safety, public order, public morality or public health.\" In January 2009, the government passed a controversial Communications Amendment Act that established that any person who publishes, transmits, or causes to be published in electronic form obscene information commits an offense. The Act also outlines other forms of illegality associated with the use of information and communication technologies. At the end of 2010, the measure had not been used to prosecute anyone for online expression. Under the Act, the Communications Commission of Kenya (CCK), rather than the independent Media Council of Kenya, is responsible for regulating both traditional and online media. The CCK is also independent, but because the CCK has yet to make any decisions affecting the internet, its autonomy and professionalism in making determinations remain to be seen.
In July 2009 the government announced that all cell phone users had to provide the government with their name and identification number. This regulation applies to citizens who access the Internet through cell phone-based services as well.
On 18 May 2018, the Kenya Film Classification Board issued a warning stating that any video intended for public exhibition, including video published online, falls under the Films and Stage Plays Act, and that the creators of such videos must obtain a licence from the KFCB or be subject to fines or imprisonment
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# Transport in Kenya
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# Politics of Kiribati
**Politics of Kiribati** takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the *Beretitenti*, President of Kiribati, is both the head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government, Beretitenti, and his cabinet, all MPs. Legislative power is exercised by the House of Assembly. The Judiciary of Kiribati is independent of the executive and the legislature. The Constitution of Kiribati, promulgated at independence on 12 July 1979, establishes the Republic of Kiribati as a sovereign democratic republic and guarantees the fundamental rights of its citizens and residents.
## Executive branch {#executive_branch}
After each general election, the new-elected *Maneaba ni Maungatabu* (House of Assembly) nominates not less than three nor more than four of its own members to stand as candidates for President (*Beretitenti*). The voting public then elects the Beretitenti from among these candidates. On 22 June 2020, for the first election ever since 1979 Independence, two candidates only have been nominated --- unless Section 32(2) of the Constitution writes "not less than 3". On 17 June 2020, Judgment of Sir John Muria, the Chief Justice on Civil Case 56, allowed this reading of the Constitution. The elected Beretitenti appoints a *Kauoman-ni-Beretitenti* (vice-president) and up to ten other Cabinet Ministers from among the members of the Maneaba.
Office Name Party Since
---------------- --------------- ------------------------ ---------------
President Taneti Maamau Tobwaan Kiribati Party 11 March 2016
Vice President Teuea Toatu Tobwaan Kiribati Party 19 June 2019
: Main office holders
### Cabinet
The Cabinet is the top decision-making body in Kiribati, through which all functions of the government get their authority. Parliament can undo Cabinet decisions through a vote of no confidence, triggering a new election.
The current Cabinet consists of the following Ministers:
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+
| Office | Officeholder |
+=====================================================================================+=============================+
| Beretitenti and Minister of Foreign Affairs and Immigration | Taneti Maamau |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+
| Vice President and Minister of Finance and Economic Development | Dr Teuea Toatu |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+
| Minister of Infrastructure and Sustainable Energy (MISE) | Willie Tokataake |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+
| Minister of Education | Alexander Teabo |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+
| Minister of Environment, Lands and Agricultural Development (MELAD) | Ruateki Tekaiara |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+
| Minister of Fisheries and Marine Resources Development | Ribanataake Tiwau |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+
| Minister of Health and Medical Services | Dr Tinte Itinteang |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+
| Minister of Internal Affairs (MIA) | Boutu Bateriki |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+
| Minister of Commerce, Industry and Cooperatives (MCIC) | Booti Nauan |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+
| Minister for Women, Youth, Sports and Social Affairs (MWYSSA) | Martin Moreti |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+
| Minister of Employment and Human Resources (MEHR) | Taabeta Teakai |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+
| Minister for Line and Phoenix Islands Development | Mikarite Temari\ |
| | (sworn in on 6 August 2020) |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+
| Minister of Justice (MOJ) | Tarakabu Tofinga\ |
| | (sworn in on 16 July 2020) |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+
| Minister of Information, Communications, Transport and Tourism Development (MICTTD) | Tekeeua Tarati |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+
: Cabinet of Kiribati (since 2 July 2020)
The first nine ministers sworn in on 2 July 2020 at the State House in Bairiki (South Tarawa) and include Dr Teuea Toatu, Willie Tokataake, Ruateki Tekaiara, Ribanataake Awira, Dr Tinte Itinteang, Boutu Bateriki, Booti Nauan, Martin Moreti and Taabeta Teakaiao.
The remaining four ministers who are stranded in the outer islands, at their respective island, which include Alexander Teabo, Tarakabu Martin, Tekeeua Tarati and Mikarite Temari, have been sworn later.
### Attorneys-General of Kiribati {#attorneys_general_of_kiribati}
In Kiribati, the Attorney-General is defined by section 42 of the Constitution as \"the principal legal adviser to the Government.\" The Constitution specifies: \"No person shall be qualified to hold or to act in the office of Attorney-General unless he is qualified to practise in Kiribati as an advocate in the High Court.\"
The Attorney-General of Kiribati was also until October 2016 a member of Cabinet of Kiribati and a member of the Maneaba ni Maungatabu as an ex-officio member of parliament. According to a 2005 source, the Attorney-General \"is designated by the Republic of Kiribati as the Central Authority who shall have the responsibility and power to receive requests for mutual legal assistance.\"
Name Years of Service
----------------------------------------- ---------------------------
C.J. (Joe) Lynch c\. 1978-1979
Michael Jennings c\. 1980-1984
Michael N. Takabwebwe c\. 1984-2002
Titabu Tabane c\. 2002-2016
Natan Teewe Brechtefeld 2016
Tetiro Semilota (1st I-Kiribati female) October 2016-October 2022
: Attorneys-General of Kiribati (Complete Table)
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
In a Westminster system, the unicameral House of Assembly (*Maneaba ni Maungatabu*) has 45 members: 44 elected in single-seat and multi-seat constituencies; one appointed member from the Banaban community on Rabi Island in Fiji. The Attorney general was no longer an *ex officio* member. The elected members of the Maneaba ni Maungatabu serve four-year terms. The Speaker of the Maneaba ni Maungatabu is elected by the members of the Maneaba from outside of its membership. The total number of the Legisters is forty four from the island in Kiribati and one representative nominated from Rabi Council representing the people in Rabi island in Fiji.
All citizens of Kiribati are eligible to vote at the age of 18.
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## Judiciary
The Chapter VI of the Constitution of 1979 describes the Judiciary of Kiribati. The judicial system consists of magistrates\' courts, the High Court and the Kiribati Court of Appeal. The Beretitenti (President), acting in accordance with the advice of the Public Service Commission, makes all judicial appointments, and amongst them, the Chief Justice, the main judge of the High Court. The High Court is in Betio. Sir John Muria was the Chief Justice of Kiribati until his replacement by Bill Hastings in August 2021, after a 8 months vacancy. On 30 June 2022, Hastings was abruptly suspended from his office during the 2022 Kiribati constitutional crisis.
The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London, England has jurisdiction only if a case involves constitutional rights. Appeals are taken directly to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council itself.
The Court of Appeal of Kiribati is otherwise the supreme court in Kiribati.
### The People\'s Lawyer of Kiribati {#the_peoples_lawyer_of_kiribati}
The People\'s Lawyer of Kiribati represents disadvantaged residents and those who are unable to access legal representation. Accordingly, the office represents clients in \"Land, Civil and Criminal Matters and act for them in the Magistrates and High Court as well as the Court of Appeal.\" The position had long been filled by expatriate lawyers who were volunteering from either Australia or New Zealand with the \"role\...funded by the Australian Government through \[the\] Australian Volunteers International.\" In 2015, the role of The People\'s Lawyer changed in that it was now filled by a Kiribati citizen: Raweita Beniata (male lawyer; 2015- ).
Name Term
----------------------------------------------- ---------------
Roger Bell (who established the office) c\. 1980-1982
Michael Lodge c\. -1986
David Lambourne c\. 1995-1999
Jackie Huston c\. 2003-2004
Jennifer Troup c\. 2004-2006
Joelle Grover c\. 2006-2007
Aomoro Amten c\. 2007-2008
Daniel Webb c\. 2010-2011
Debrah Mercurio c\. 2011-2012
Nancy Walker Andrea Hadaway c\. 2012-2013
Jessica McLaren c\. 2013-2015
Raweita Beniata (1st I-Kiribati male citizen) c\. 2015-
: The People\'s Lawyer of Kiribati (Incomplete Table)
## Political conditions {#political_conditions}
Political parties have existed since 1965 but are more similar to informal coalitions in behaviour. They do not have official platforms or party structures. Most candidates formally present themselves as independents, then they joined one party at the first meeting of the House. The website of the House of Assembly explains that in this way:
: *\"There \[were\] four political parties in Kiribati, Boutokaan Te Koaua (BTK), Maurin Kiribati Party (MKP), Maneaban Te Mauri Party (MMP) and Kiribati Tabomoa Party. The parties are loose groupings rather than disciplined blocks, with little or no structure. Members may change allegiance on a number of occasions during their tenure. It is also common for members to vote according to the special interests of their electorate on certain issues.\"*
Kiribati Tabomoa Party (\"National Progressive Party\") and Christian Democratic Party merged into Maneaban Te Mauri (MMP, \"Protect the Maneaba\") in 2003, which later merged with Kiribati Independent Party into Karikirakean Te I-Kiribati (KTK, \"United Coalition Party\") in 2010, which later merged with Maurin Kiribati Party (MKP) to form Tobwaan Kiribati Party (TKP), the only one facing *Boutokaan Te Koaua* (BTK, \"Pillars of Truth\").
A major source of conflict has been the protracted bid by the residents of Banaba Island to secede and have their island placed under the protection of Fiji. The government\'s attempts to placate the Banabans include several special provisions in the constitution, such as the designation of a Banaban seat in the legislature and the return of land previously acquired by the government for phosphate mining.
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# Politics of Kiribati
## Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
There is no solid tradition of formally organized political parties in Kiribati, even if the 2 first political parties were founded in 1965; they more closely resemble factions or interest groups with no formal platforms:
- BKM = Boutokaan Kiribati Moa Party, former BTK = Boutokaan te Koaua (Pillars of Truth, split from NPP), merged with KM, in May 2020;
- TKP = Tobwaan Kiribati Party (Embracing Kiribati Party, BTK opposition, merger of KTK and Maurin Kiribati, est. 19 Jan 2016);
- Former parties:
- CDP = Maneabau te Mauri (Christian Democratic Party, 1965--1994, merged into MTM);
- GNP = Gilbertese National Party (supported Gilbert Islands' separation from Ellice Islands, est. 16 Oct 1965);
- KM = Kiribati Moa (Kiribati First, split from TKP, est. Nov 2019) then merged with BTK in May 2020;
- KTK = Karikirakean Tei I-Kiribati (United Coalition Party, 2010--2016, merged into TKP);
- MTM = Maneaban te Mauri (Protect the Maneaba, Christian-democratic, conservative, merger of CDP and NPP, 2010 merged into KTK);
- NPP = National Progressive Party (merged into MTM)
### 2020 presidential election {#presidential_election}
### 2016 presidential election {#presidential_election_1}
Candidate Party Votes \%
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------ ------------ ---------
Taneti Maamau Tobwaan Kiribati Party 19,833 59.96
Rimeta Beniamina Pillars of Truth 12,764 38.59
Tianeti Ioane Pillars of Truth 482 1.46
Invalid/blank votes 168 --
**Total** **33,247** **100**
Registered voters/turnout
Source: [Pina](http://www.pina.com.fj/?p=pacnews&m=read&o=6654746256e0cf2b3e0a0073361e53)
### 2015-16 legislative election {#legislative_election}
Party First round Second round
---------------------------------------------------------------- ------------- ------- -------- --------------
Votes \% Seats Votes \%
Pillars of Truth
United Coalition Party
Maurin Kiribati Party
Elected Speaker -- -- -- --
Invalid/blank votes -- --
**Total** **19**
Registered voters/turnout --
Source: [IPU](http://www.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/2169_E
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# Transport in Kiribati
The following article outlines **transport in Kiribati**.
## Roadways
There are 670 km of highways in Kiribati (1996 est.) of which 27 km are paved in South Tarawa (2001). The longest stretch of road travels from South Tarawa to North Tarawa.
There are no railways.
## Water transport {#water_transport}
Ports and harbours include Banaba, Betio, English Harbor, and Kanton. There is a small network of canals, totaling 5 km, in the Line Islands. The Merchant marine includes the ships of the Kiribati JMR Group that operates the Coral Sea Shipping Line, which has three ships: *Coral Sea number 1*, *Coral Sea number 2* and *Coral Sea number 3*. One merchant ship connects, from time to time, the Line Islands (Kiritimati, Fanning and Washington) and makes stops en route at the Phoenix Islands.
## Air travel {#air_travel}
2 small aeroplanes fly out of the Gilbert Islands, except for Banaba. Beginning in January 2009, Kiribati has two domestic airlines: Air Kiribati and Coral Sun Airways. Both airlines are based in Tarawa\'s Bonriki International Airport and serve destinations across the Gilbert Islands only . Neither the Phoenix nor Line Islands are served by the domestic carriers. The only served airport by any airline is Cassidy International Airport on Kiritimati. Fiji\'s national carrier Fiji Airways provides an international service from Fiji\'s main airport, Nadi International Airport to Cassidy Airport as well as to Bonriki Airport. Fiji Airways currently flies a twice weekly flight from Nadi International Airport to Bonriki, Kiribati.
### Airports
As of 2010, there are 23 airports in Kiribati, of which 4 have paved runways, the only international ones being Bonriki International Airport and Cassidy International Airport. Bonriki International Airport is currently undergoing an upgrade program to bring airport security up to IATA standards - this includes the construction of a fence around the entire perimeter
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# Geography of Kuwait
Kuwait is a country in West Asia, bordering the Persian Gulf, between Iraq and Saudi Arabia. Kuwait is located at the far northwestern corner of the Persian Gulf. Kuwait is 17,820 square kilometres in size. At its most distant points, it is about 200 km north to south, and 170 km east to west. Kuwait has 10 islands. Kuwait\'s area consists mostly of desert.
## Boundaries and geographic features {#boundaries_and_geographic_features}
As previously mentioned, Kuwait borders the Persian Gulf with 195 km of coast. Within its territory are ten islands, two of which, Bubiyan (the largest) and Warbah, are strategically important.
Kuwait\'s most prominent geographic feature is Kuwait Bay (Jun al Kuwayt), which indents the shoreline for about forty kilometers, providing natural protection for the port of Kuwait, and accounts for nearly one third of the country\'s shoreline.
To the north and northwest, there is the historically contested border between Kuwait and Iraq. Although the Iraqi government, which had first asserted a claim to rule Kuwait in 1938, recognized the borders with Kuwait in 1963 (based on agreements made earlier in the century), it continued to press Kuwait for control over Bubiyan and Warbah islands through the 1960s and 1970s.
To the south and southwest, Kuwait shares a 250-km border with Saudi Arabia. The boundary between Kuwait and Saudi Arabia was set by the Treaty of Al Uqayr in 1922, which also established the Saudi--Kuwaiti neutral zone of 5,700 square kilometers between the two nations. In 1966, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia agreed to divide the neutral zone; the partitioning agreement making each country responsible for administration in its portion was signed in December 1969. The resources in the area, now known as the Divided Zone, are not affected by the agreement. The oil from onshore and offshore fields continues to be shared equally between the two countries.
In August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait and, shortly thereafter, formally incorporated the entire country into Iraq. Under United Nations (UN) Security Council Resolution 687, after the restoration of Kuwaiti sovereignty in 1991, a UN commission undertook formal demarcation of the borders on the basis of those agreed to in 1963. The boundary was demarcated in 1992. Iraq initially refused to accept the commission\'s findings but ultimately accepted them in November 1994.
## Climate
Kuwait has an arid climate. Rainfall in the nation varies from 75 to a year. Actual rainfall has ranged from 25 mm a year to as much as 325 mm. In summer, average daily high temperatures range from 42 to; the highest ever temperature recorded in Kuwait was 54 °C at Mitribah on 21 July 2016 which is the highest recorded temperature in Asia and also the third highest in the world. The summers are relentlessly long, punctuated mainly by dramatic dust storms in June and July when northwesterly winds cover the cities in sand. In late summer, which is more humid, there are occasional sharp, brief thunderstorms.
By November summer is over, and colder winter weather sets in, dropping temperatures to as low as 3 °C at night; daytime temperatures are in the upper 20s °C (upper 70s to low 80s °F). Frost rarely occurs; rain is more common and falls mostly in the spring.
Kuwait\'s winter is colder than in other Persian Gulf countries, such as Bahrain, Qatar or United Arab Emirates. Kuwait experiences colder weather because it is situated farther north, and because of cold winds blowing from upper Iraq and Iran.
## Nature reserves {#nature_reserves}
At present, there are five protected areas in Kuwait recognized by the IUCN. In response to Kuwait becoming the 169th signatory of the Ramsar Convention, Bubiyan Island\'s Mubarak al-Kabeer reserve was designated as the country\'s first Wetland of International Importance. The 50,948 ha reserve consists of small lagoons and shallow salt marshes and is important as a stop-over for migrating birds on two migration routes. The reserve is home to the world\'s largest breeding colony of crab-plover.
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# Geography of Kuwait
## Biodiversity
Currently, 444 species of birds have been recorded in Kuwait, 18 species of which breed in the country. Due to its location at the head of the Persian Gulf near the mouth of the Tigris--Euphrates river, Kuwait is situated at the crossroads of many major bird migration routes and between two and three million birds pass each year. Kuwait\'s marine and littoral ecosystems contain the bulk of the country\'s biodiversity heritage. The marshes in northern Kuwait and Jahra have become increasingly important as a refuge for passage migrants.
Twenty eight species of mammal are found in Kuwait; animals such as gerboa, desert rabbits and hedgehogs are common in the desert. Among the endangered mammalian species are the red fox and wild cat. Forty reptile species have been recorded although none are endemic to Kuwait.
Kuwait, Oman and Yemen are the only locations where the endangered smoothtooth blacktip shark is confirmed as occurring.
Kuwaiti islands are important breeding areas for four species of tern and the socotra cormorant. Kubbar Island has been recognised an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports a breeding colony of white-cheeked terns.
## Geology and aquifers {#geology_and_aquifers}
The land was formed in a recent geologic era. In the south, limestone rises in a long, north-oriented dome that lies beneath the surface. It is within and below this formation that the principal oil fields, Kuwait\'s most important natural resource, are located. In the west and north, layers of sand, gravel, silt, and clay overlie the limestone to a depth of more than 210 meters. The upper portions of these beds are part of a mass of sediment deposited by a great wadi whose most recent channel was the Wadi al Batin, the broad shallow valley forming the western boundary of the country.
On the western side of the Al Rawdatayn geological formation, a freshwater aquifer was discovered in 1960 and became Kuwait\'s principal water source. The supply is insufficient to support extensive irrigation, but it is tapped to supplement the distilled water supply that fills most of the country\'s needs. The only other exploited aquifer lies in the permeable zone in the top of the limestone of the Ash Shuaybah field south and east of the city of Kuwait. Unlike water from the Al Rawdatayn aquifer, water from the Ash Shuaybah aquifer is brackish. Millions of liters a day of this water are pumped for commercial and household purposes.
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# Geography of Kuwait
## Water and marshes {#water_and_marshes}
Kuwait is part of the Tigris--Euphrates river system basin. Several Tigris--Euphrates confluences form parts of the Kuwait--Iraq border. Bubiyan Island is part of the Shatt al-Arab delta. Kuwait is partially part of the Mesopotamian Marshes. Kuwait does not currently have any permanent rivers within its territory. However, Kuwait does have several wadis, the most notable of which is Wadi al-Batin which forms the border between Kuwait and Iraq. Kuwait also has several river-like marine channels around Bubiyan Island, most notably Khawr Abd Allah which is now an estuary, but once was the point where the Shatt al-Arab emptied into the Persian Gulf. Khawr Abd Allah is located in southern Iraq and northern Kuwait, the Iraq-Kuwait border divides the lower portion of the estuary, but adjacent to the port of Umm Qasr the estuary becomes wholly Iraqi. It forms the northeast coastline of Bubiyan Island and the north coastline of Warbah Island.
Kuwait relies on water desalination as a primary source of fresh water for drinking and domestic purposes. There are currently more than six desalination plants. Kuwait was the first country in the world to use desalination to supply water for large-scale domestic use. The history of desalination in Kuwait dates back to 1951 when the first distillation plant was commissioned.
Kuwait\'s fresh water resources are limited to groundwater, desalinated seawater, and treated wastewater effluents. There are three major municipal wastewater treatment plants. Most water demand is currently satisfied through seawater desalination plants. Sewage disposal is handled by a national sewage network that covers 98% of facilities in the country.
## Human geography {#human_geography}
The bulk of the Kuwaiti population lives in the coastal capital of the city of Kuwait. Smaller populations inhabit the nearby city of Al Jahrah, smaller desert and coastal towns, and, prior to the Persian Gulf War, some of the several nearby gulf islands, notably Faylakah
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# Demographics of Kuwait
This is a demography of the population of Kuwait (*سكان الكويت*).
Expatriates account for around 60% of Kuwait\'s total population, with Kuwaitis constituting 38%-42% of the total population. The government and some Kuwaiti citizens consider the proportion of expatriates (which has been relatively stable since the mid-1970s) to be a problem, and in 2016 the number of deportations increased. Most were deported for outstaying their residency permits but others also for traffic offences.
## Population size and structure {#population_size_and_structure}
Census year Kuwaiti non-Kuwaiti
------------- ----------- ------------ ------------- ------------
Population \% Population \% Population
1975 307,755 687,082
1985 470,473 1,226,828
1995 653,616 921,954
2005 860,324 1,333,327
2015 1,208,643 2,535,017
: Population of Kuwait according to nationality
Source:
Year Kuwaiti Male Kuwaiti Female Kuwaiti Total Non-Kuwaiti Male Non-Kuwaiti Female Non-Kuwaiti Total Total Male Total Female Grand Total
------ -------------- ---------------- --------------- ------------------ -------------------- ------------------- ------------ -------------- -------------
1990 286,299 292,212 578,511 944,585 628,584 1,573,169 1,230,884 920,796 2,151,680
1993 325,892 331,601 657,493 682,161 305,973 988,134 1,008,053 637,574 1,645,627
1995 351,314 356,801 708,115 841,320 409,359 1,250,679 1,192,634 766,160 1,958,794
1996 363,476 368,927 732,403 914,327 447,159 1,361,486 1,277,803 816,086 2,093,889
1998 388,687 397,323 786,010 1,002,718 482,137 1,484,855 1,391,405 879,460 2,270,865
1999 401,433 410,822 812,255 970,865 471,834 1,442,699 1,372,298 882,656 2,254,954
2000 415,613 426,177 841,790 927,023 448,445 1,375,468 1,342,636 874,622 2,217,258
2001 429,209 441,074 870,283 960,390 478,429 1,438,819 1,389,599 919,503 2,309,102
2002 442,310 455,975 898,285 1,020,913 500,730 1,521,643 1,463,223 956,705 2,419,928
2003 456,226 471,460 927,686 1,098,878 520,120 1,618,998 1,555,104 991,580 2,546,684
2004 469,327 486,907 956,234 1,240,267 557,155 1,797,422 1,709,594 1,044,062 2,753,656
2005 486,089 506,128 992,217 1,391,322 607,650 1,998,972 1,877,411 1,113,778 2,991,189
2006 501,148 522,168 1,023,316 1,510,818 648,826 2,159,644 2,011,966 1,170,994 3,182,960
2007 516,631 537,966 1,054,597 1,615,273 729,767 2,345,040 2,131,904 1,267,733 3,399,637
2008 532,566 554,985 1,087,551 1,618,766 735,496 2,354,262 2,151,332 1,290,481 3,441,813
2009 548,290 570,620 1,118,910 1,591,935 774,036 2,365,971 2,140,225 1,344,656 3,484,881
2010 563,631 584,712 1,148,343 1,586,716 846,995 2,433,711 2,150,347 1,431,707 3,582,054
2011 580,558 602,616 1,183,174 1,641,135 872,983 2,514,118 2,221,693 1,475,599 3,697,292
2012 595,365 617,071 1,212,436 1,705,468 905,824 2,611,292 2,300,833 1,522,895 3,823,728
2013 610,545 631,954 1,242,499 1,772,413 950,232 2,722,645 2,382,958 1,582,186 3,965,144
2014 626,256 649,601 1,275,857 1,855,279 960,857 2,816,136 2,481,535 1,610,458 4,091,993
2015 641,282 666,323 1,307,605 1,964,264 967,137 2,931,401 2,605,546 1,633,460 4,239,006
2016 656,084 681,609 1,337,693 2,089,302 984,129 3,073,431 2,745,386 1,665,738 4,411,124
2017 671,012 699,001 1,370,013 2,167,409 963,054 3,130,463 2,838,421 1,662,055 4,500,476
2018 686,475 716,638 1,403,113 2,253,768 964,757 3,218,525 2,940,243 1,681,395 4,621,638
2019 700,742 731,303 1,432,045 2,303,549 1,040,813 3,344,362 3,004,291 1,772,116 4,776,407
2020 714,936 745,034 1,459,970 2,177,731 1,033,012 3,210,743 2,892,667 1,778,046 4,670,713
2021 729,638 759,078 1,488,716 1,941,628 955,373 2,897,001 2,671,266 1,714,451 4,385,717
2022 744,238 772,838 1,517,076 2,188,819 1,087,673 3,276,492 2,933,057 1,860,511 4,793,568
2023 758,716 787,065 1,545,781 2,262,500 1,104,990 3,367,490 3,021,216 1,892,055 4,913,271
The biggest population difficulty in Kuwait involves the Bedoon, stateless people. According to Human Rights Watch in 1995, Kuwait has produced 300,000 stateless Bedoon. Kuwait has the largest number of stateless people in the entire region. The statelessness challenge for the Bedoon in Kuwait is largely sectarian.
According to recent statistics provided by the Central Statistics Bureau, as of January 2024, Kuwait\'s population reached 4.91 million, an increase of 119,700 from the previous year\'s 4.79 million. The number of Kuwaiti citizens rose by 28,700 to reach a total of 1.545 million. Specifically, the number of male citizens increased to 758,700, and female citizens reached 787,000. Concurrently, the expatriate population also increased by 90,990, totaling 3.36 million. Amongst the expatriates, the male population reached 2.26 million and the female population 1.1 million.
### Structure of the population {#structure_of_the_population}
Structure of the population (Estimates) (1.01.2020):
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ---------
Total 2,743,617 1,720,904 4,464,521
0-4 123,865 111,800 235,663
5-9 190,736 153,412 344,148
10-14 160,820 129,882 290,702
15-19 135,324 111,798 247,122
20-24 126,687 102,773 229,460
25-29 113,416 93,183 206,599
30-34 205,555 157,101 362,656
35-39 341,766 192,989 534,755
40-44 368,779 180,249 549,028
45-49 342,307 165,443 507,750
50-54 234,060 112,764 346,824
55-59 158,989 76,976 235,965
60-64 105,746 46,617 152,363
65-69 59,345 27,921 87,266
70-74 26,885 15,982 42,867
75-79 11,984 8,711 20,695
80+ 10,839 7,912 18,751
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0-14 475,419 395,094 870,513
15-64 2,132,629 1,239,893 3,372,522
65+ 109,053 60,526 169,579
Source:
Age Group Kuwaiti Males Kuwaiti Females Total Kuwaitis Non-Kuwaiti Males Non-Kuwaiti Females Total Non-Kuwaitis Total Males Total Females Grand Total
------------------ --------------- ----------------- ---------------- ------------------- --------------------- -------------------- ------------- --------------- -------------
Less than 1 year 16,911 15,860 32,771 8,928 8,483 17,411 25,839 24,343 50,182
1-4 62,966 61,810 124,776 47,627 47,086 94,713 110,593 108,896 219,489
5-9 87,292 82,393 169,685 75,842 71,866 147,708 163,134 154,259 317,393
10-14 88,104 83,914 172,018 74,787 70,185 144,972 162,891 154,099 316,990
15-19 76,609 75,089 151,698 55,679 52,907 108,586 132,288 127,996 260,284
20-24 66,815 65,104 131,919 62,238 44,489 106,727 129,053 109,593 238,646
25-29 66,647 64,461 131,108 239,562 86,968 326,530 306,209 151,429 457,638
30-34 48,975 52,607 101,582 288,214 125,939 414,153 337,189 178,546 515,735
35-39 52,231 56,948 109,179 363,465 164,133 527,598 415,696 221,081 636,777
40-44 42,233 45,508 87,741 334,328 140,911 475,239 376,561 186,419 562,980
45-49 34,203 39,923 74,126 245,893 111,643 357,536 280,096 151,566 431,662
50-54 29,381 34,453 63,834 181,928 75,451 257,379 211,309 109,904 321,213
55-59 24,419 29,126 53,545 114,223 43,782 158,005 138,642 72,908 211,550
60-64 17,572 22,913 40,485 54,780 22,135 76,915 72,352 45,048 117,400
65-69 12,779 17,485 30,264 24,294 10,517 34,811 37,073 28,002 65,075
70-74 7,492 11,399 18,891 9,966 5,345 15,311 17,458 16,744 34,202
75-79 4,791 7,473 12,264 4,196 3,095 7,291 8,987 10,568 19,555
80+ 4,818 6,372 11,190 2,869 2,738 5,607 7,687 9,110 16,797
Total 744,238 772,838 1,517,076 2,188,819 1,087,673 3,276,492 2,933,057 1,860,511 4,793,568
### Governorates
Kuwait consists of six governorates: Hawalli, Asimah, Farwaniyah, Jahra, Ahmadi and Mubarak Al-Kabeer. Most people in Kuwait live in the governorates of Hawalli, Asimah, and Farwaniyah.
Source:
Nationality Group GCC countries Arab countries Asia SS Africa Europe North America South America Oceania
------------------------------- -------- --------------- ---------------- ----------- ----------- -------- --------------- --------------- ---------
Capital Governorate Male 144,354 45,550 118,393 991 953 1,000 115 105
Female 150,029 22,018 84,561 4,759 971 887 88 65
Total 294,383 67,568 202,954 5,750 1,924 1,887 203 170
Hawalli Governorate Male 124,551 224,700 162,749 1,477 3,890 4,549 369 353
Female 127,709 127,931 133,244 5,883 4,098 3,979 372 316
Total 252,260 352,631 295,993 7,360 7,988 8,528 741 669
Al-Ahmadi Governorate Male 176,599 98,007 312,505 3,214 1,717 3,239 312 139
Female 179,803 40,929 99,448 5,282 983 1,376 145 86
Total 356,402 138,936 411,953 8,496 2,700 4,615 457 225
Al-Jahra Governorate Male 138,772 85,450 94,286 1,630 262 260 115 59
Female 141,876 57,551 40,935 5,068 268 198 81 50
Total 280,648 143,001 135,221 6,698 530 458 196 109
Al-Farwaniya Governorate Male 130,514 273,035 369,097 2,551 463 493 91 59
Female 135,497 74,258 117,987 4,927 383 352 79 33
Total 266,011 347,293 487,084 7,478 846 845 170 92
Mubarak Al-Kabeer Governorate Male 89,764 7,764 42,714 339 359 650 87 31
Female 92,949 5,429 35,767 2,856 417 452 66 22
Total 182,713 13,193 78,481 3,195 776 1,102 153 53
Not Stated Male 1,618 581 338 21 10 15 5 2
Female 1,165 568 208 17 6 19 3 2
Total 2,783 1,149 546 38 16 34 8 4
Total Male 806,172 735,087 1,100,082 10,223 7,654 10,206 1,094 748
Female 829,028 328,684 512,150 28,792 7,126 7,263 834 574
Total 1,635,200 1,063,771 1,612,232 39,015 14,780 17,469 1,928 1,332
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# Demographics of Kuwait
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
UN estimates
Period Live births per year Deaths per year Natural change per year CBR\* CDR\* NC\* TFR\* IMR\*
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ---------------------- ----------------- ------------------------- ------- ------- ------ ------- -------
1950-1955 8,000 2,000 6,000 43.7 12.3 31.4 7.21 113
1955-1960 9,000 2,000 7,000 40.0 9.6 30.4 7.21 90
1960-1965 16,000 3,000 13,000 43.4 7.6 35.8 7.31 70
1965-1970 30,000 4,000 26,000 48.8 6.3 42.5 7.41 53
1970-1975 43,000 5,000 38,000 47.6 5.2 42.4 6.90 40
1975-1980 49,000 5,000 44,000 40.7 4.2 36.5 5.89 29
1980-1985 58,000 5,000 52,000 37.1 3.4 33.6 5.10 22
1985-1990 51,000 5,000 45,000 26.5 2.8 23.7 3.34 16
1990-1995 33,000 5,000 28,000 18.0 2.7 15.3 2.20 13
1995-2000 43,000 5,000 38,000 24.1 3.0 21.1 2.93 11
2000-2005 39,000 6,000 32,000 18.5 3.1 15.4 2.24 10
2005-2010 47,000 7,000 40,000 18.7 3.1 15.6 2.32 8
2010-2015 58,000 9,000 49,000 16.1 2.4 13.7 2.08 8
2015-2020 60,000 12,000 48,000 12.6 2.9 9.7 2.07 7
\* CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)
### Registered births and deaths {#registered_births_and_deaths}
Average population Live births Deaths Natural change Crude birth rate (per 1000) Crude death rate (per 1000) Natural change (per 1000) TFR
------ -------------------- ------------- -------- ---------------- ----------------------------- ----------------------------- --------------------------- -------
1958 6,881 \|
1959 9,023 \|
1960 11,616 1,235 10,381 \|
1961 296,000 12,942 2,504 10,438 43.7 8.4 35.2
1962 337,000 15,204 2,180 13,024 45.1 6.5 38.6
1963 384,000 17,397 2,139 15,258 45.4 5.6 39.8
1964 433,000 19,428 2,618 16,810 44.8 6.0 38.8
1965 484,000 21,950 2,454 19,496 45.3 5.1 40.3
1966 536,000 23,732 2,813 20,919 44.3 5.3 39.0
1967 588,000 28,334 3,111 25,223 48.2 5.3 42.9
1968 642,000 33,026 3,346 29,680 51.5 5.2 46.3
1969 697,000 35,135 3,378 31,757 50.4 4.8 45.6
1970 753,000 33,842 3,735 30,107 44.9 5.0 40.0
1971 811,000 35,558 3,832 31,726 43.8 4.7 39.1
1972 870,000 37,688 4,149 33,539 43.3 4.8 38.5
1973 931,000 40,165 4,601 35,564 43.2 4.9 38.2
1974 992,000 41,060 4,693 36,367 41.4 4.7 36.7
1975 1,054,000 42,861 4,778 38,083 40.7 4.5 36.1
1976 1,116,000 46,039 4,661 41,378 41.3 4.2 37.1
1977 1,179,000 46,864 5,365 41,499 39.8 4.6 35.2
1978 1,243,000 48,010 4,936 43,074 38.6 4.0 34.7
1979 1,309,000 48,273 5,028 43,245 36.9 3.8 33.0
1980 1,377,000 51,090 4,932 46,158 37.1 3.6 33.5
1981 1,446,000 52,041 4,678 47,363 36.0 3.2 32.8
1982 1,514,000 54,257 4,992 49,265 35.8 3.3 32.5
1983 1,584,000 55,617 4,654 50,963 35.1 2.9 32.2
1984 1,660,000 56,776 4,544 52,232 34.2 2.7 31.5
1985 1,742,000 55,087 4,711 50,376 31.6 2.7 28.9
1986 1,836,000 53,845 4,390 49,455 29.3 2.4 26.9
1987 1,937,000 52,412 4,113 48,299 27.1 2.1 24.9
1988 2,028,000 53,080 4,581 48,499 26.2 2.3 23.9
1989 2,084,000 52,858 4,628 48,230 25.4 2.2 23.1
1990 2,088,000
1991 2,031,000 20,609 3,380 17,229 10.1 1.7 8.5
1992 1,924,000 34,817 3,369 31,448 18.1 1.8 16.3
1993 1,796,000 37,379 3,441 33,938 20.8 1.9 18.9
1994 1,688,000 38,868 3,464 35,404 23.0 2.1 21.0
1995 1,628,000 41,169 3,781 37,388 25.3 2.3 23.0
1996 1,628,000 44,620 3,812 40,808 27.4 2.3 25.1
1997 1,679,000 42,815 4,017 38,798 25.5 2.4 23.1
1998 1,764,000 41,424 4,216 37,208 23.5 2.4 21.1
1999 1,857,000 41,135 4,187 36,948 22.1 2.3 19.9
2000 1,941,000 41,843 4,227 37,616 21.6 2.2 19.4
2001 2,010,000 41,342 4,364 36,978 20.6 2.2 18.4
2002 2,070,000 43,490 4,342 39,148 21.0 2.1 18.9
2003 2,127,000 43,982 4,424 39,558 20.7 2.1 18.6
2004 2,189,000 47,274 4,793 42,481 21.6 2.2 19.4
2005 2,264,000 50,941 4,784 46,157 22.5 2.1 20.4
2006 2,351,000 52,759 5,247 47,512 22.4 2.2 20.2
2007 2,448,000 53,587 5,293 48,294 21.9 2.2 19.7
2008 2,548,000 54,571 5,701 48,870 21.4 2.2 19.2
2009 2,778,000 56,503 6,266 50,237 20.3 2.3 18.1
2010 2,933,000 57,533 5,448 52,085 19.6 1.9 17.8
2011 3,099,000 58,198 5,339 52,859 18.7 1.7 17.0 1.95
2012 3,246,622 59,753 5,950 53,803 18.4 1.8 16.6 1.86
2013 3,427,595 59,426 5,909 53,517 17.3 1.7 15.6 1.719
2014 3,588,092 61,313 6,031 55,282 16.3 1.6 14.7 1.915
2015 3,743,660 59,271 6,481 52,790 14.9 1.6 13.3
2016 3,925,487 58,797 6,338 52,459 14.4 1.5 12.9 2.062
2017 4,082,704 59,172 6,679 52,493 14.7 1.7 13.0 2.152
2018 4,226,920 56,121 6,807 49,314 13.6 1.7 11.9 2.161
2019 4,420,110 53,565 7,306 46,259 12.1 1.6 10.4 2.082
2020 4,464,521 52,463 10,569 41,894 11.7 2.4 9.3 2.033
2021 4,336,012 51,585 10,938 40,647 11.9 2.5 9.4 2.148
2022 4,385,717 49,793 8,041 41,752 10.9 1.8 9.1 1.546
2023 4,793,568 50,034 7,436 42,568 10.3 1.5 8.8 1.524
2024 4,913,271 \| \|
### Life expectancy {#life_expectancy}
+------------+---------------------+------------+---------------------+
| Period | Life expectancy in\ | Period | Life expectancy in\ |
| | Years | | Years |
+============+=====================+============+=====================+
| 1950--1955 | 53.6 | 1985--1990 | 71.6 |
+------------+---------------------+------------+---------------------+
| 1955--1960 | 58.3 | 1990--1995 | 72.4 |
+------------+---------------------+------------+---------------------+
| 1960--1965 | 62.0 | 1995--2000 | 73.0 |
+------------+---------------------+------------+---------------------+
| 1965--1970 | 64.9 | 2000--2005 | 73.3 |
+------------+---------------------+------------+---------------------+
| 1970--1975 | 67.1 | 2005--2010 | 73.7 |
+------------+---------------------+------------+---------------------+
| 1975--1980 | 68.7 | 2010--2015 | 74.3 |
+------------+---------------------+------------+---------------------+
| 1980--1985 | 70.3 | 2015--2020 | 75.1 |
+------------+---------------------+------------+---------------------+
Source: *UN World Population Prospects*
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# Demographics of Kuwait
## Ethnic groups {#ethnic_groups}
### By continent {#by_continent}
Source:
Nationality Group Population
-------------------- ------------
GCC countries 1,635,200
Arab countries 1,063,771
Asia 1,612,232
Sub-Saharan Africa 39,015
Europe 14,780
North America 17,469
South America 1,928
Oceania 1,322
Total 4,385,717
### By nationality {#by_nationality}
The following is a firm containing estimations from countries\' embassies:
Nationality Population \% of Total Population Year of Data
------------- ----------------- ------------------------ --------------
1,294,513 30.90% 2015
1,020,000 24.04% 2020
666,000 15.70% 2020
\~241,000 \~5.68% 2020
181,265 4.30% 2014
161,000 3.80% 2015
132,533 3.18% 2021
106,000 2.50% ?
101,193 2.24% 2019
100,000 2.36% 2020
96,000 2.26% 2016
Stateless 93,000 2.20% 2015
74,000 1.80% 2012
50,000 1.20% 2015
33,000 0.83% 2022
30,000 0.70% 2013
28,954 0.68% 2020
16,000 - 18,000 \~0.4% 2015
15,000 0.36% 2015
11,000 0.26% 2012
10,000 0.24% 2015
7,000 0.17% 2015
7,000 0.17% 2020
6,856 0.16% 2021
5,000 0.12% 2015
5,000 0.12% 2014
4,000 0.10% 2013
4,000 0.10% 2009
4,000 0.10% 2022
3,634 0.09% 2021
1,731 0.04% 2021
1,730 0.04% 2021
1,500 0.04% 2015
1,500 0.04% 2015
1,000 0.02% 2013
800 0.02% 2014
800 0.02% 2024
500 - 600 \~0.01% 2015
500 0.01% ?
500 0.01% 2015
400 \<0.01% 2015
400 \<0.01% 2015
400 \<0.01% 2015
300 \<0.01% 2015
300 \<0.01% 2014
300 \<0.01% 2015
300 \<0.01% 2015
300 \<0.01% 2015
250 \<0.01% 2015
200 \<0.01% 2015
200 \<0.01% 2021
170 \<0.01% 2015
120 - 150 \<0.01% 2015
100 - 150 \<0.01% 2015
105 \<0.01% 2015
100 \<0.01% 2015
50 \<0.01% 2015
\<50 \<0.01% 2015
47 \<0.01% 2015
30 - 50 \<0.01% 2015
40 \<0.01% 2015
37 \<0.01% 2015
20 \<0.01% 2015
14 \<0.01% 2015
10 \<0.01% 2015
7 \<0.01% 2015
2 \<0.01% 2015
Kuwaiti 41.4%, Arab expat 21.4%, Asian (mostly South Asian) 35.3%, African 1%, other 0.7% (includes European, North American, South American, and Australian) (2018 est.)
## Languages
- Arabic (official)
- English (lingua franca, spoken widely)
- Minority languages include,
- Tagalog
- Gulf Pidgin Arabic (lingua franca)
- Hindi
- Persian
- Bengali
- Urdu
- French
- Malayalam
- Pashto
- Turkish
- Armenian
- Kurdish
## Religion
- Muslim (official) 74.6%
- Christian 18.2%
- Other and Unspecified 7
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# Telecommunications in Kuwait
**Telecommunications in Kuwait** provides information about the telephone, Internet, radio, and television infrastructure in Kuwait.
## Infrastructure
### Telephones
**Telephones - main lines in use:** 514,700 (2011), 510,300 (2005)
**Telephones - mobile cellular:** 4.9 million (2011), 2.7 million (2007)
**Telephone system:**
- *general assessment:* the quality of service is excellent
- *domestic:* new telephone exchanges provide a large capacity for new subscribers; trunk traffic is carried by microwave radio relay, coaxial cable, open-wire and fiber-optic cable; a cellular telephone system operates throughout Kuwait, and the country is well supplied with pay telephones.
- *international:* linked to international submarine cable Fiber-Optic Link Around the Globe (FLAG); linked to Bahrain, Qatar, UAE via the Fiber-Optic Gulf (FOG) cable; coaxial cable and microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia; satellite earth stations - 6 (3 Intelsat - 1 Atlantic Ocean and 2 Indian Ocean, 1 Inmarsat - Atlantic Ocean, and 2 Arabsat)
- *country code:* 965
### Broadcast media {#broadcast_media}
**Radio broadcast stations:** AM 6, FM 11, shortwave 1 (1998)
**Radios:** 1.175 million (1997)
**Television broadcast stations:** 13 (plus several satellite channels) (1997)
**Televisions:** 875,000 (1997)
### Internet
**Internet Service Providers (ISPs):** 5 (2011) Which are: Fasttelco, Gulfnet, KEMS, Mada, and Qualitynet
**Internet users:** 1,925,956 or 74.2% of the population (2011), 700,000 (2005)
**Top-level domain:**
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# Transport in Kyrgyzstan
`{{refimprove|date=May 2023}}`{=mediawiki} **Transport in Kyrgyzstan** is severely constrained by the country\'s alpine topography. Roads have to snake up steep valleys, cross passes of 3000 m altitude and more, and are subject to frequent mud slides and snow avalanches. Winter travel is close to impossible in many of the more remote and high-altitude regions. Additional problems are because many roads and railway lines built during the Soviet period are today intersected by international boundaries, requiring time-consuming border formalities to cross where they are not completely closed. The horse is still a much used transport option, especially in rural and inaccessible areas, as it does not depend on imported fuel.
## Railways
The Kyrgyz Railway is currently responsible for railway development and maintenance in the country. The Chüy Valley in the north and the Fergana Valley in the south were endpoints of the Soviet Union\'s rail system in Central Asia. Following the emergence of independent post-Soviet states, the rail lines which were built without regard for administrative boundaries have been cut by borders, and traffic is therefore severely curtailed. The small bits of rail lines within Kyrgyzstan, about 370 km of `{{RailGauge|1520mm}}`{=mediawiki} broad gauge in total, have little economic value in the absence of the former bulk traffic over long distances to and from such centers as Tashkent, Almaty and the cities of Russia.
In 2022, construction began on a new 186 km extension of the existing railway from Balykchy to Karakeche, primarily meant to carry coal from mines at Karakeche to Bishkek. In June 2023, a railway between Balykchy and Bishkek was officially opened.
President Japarov announced the planned construction of a 523 km China--Kyrgyzstan--Uzbekistan Railway (CKU) in 2022. This project had already been proposed and stalled a number of times since the 2000s, possibly due to Russian and Kazakh opposition at the time. The CKU Railway would comprise 213 km in China, 260 km in Kyrgyzstan and 50 km in Uzbekistan. The railway, conceived as part of China\'s Belt and Road Initiative, is planned to lead from Kashgar through the Torugart Pass to Jalal-Abad, and further on to the Uzbek city of Andijan. An inaugural ceremony was held in Jalal-Abad in December 2024 and construction is set to begin in July 2025.
### Rail links with adjacent countries {#rail_links_with_adjacent_countries}
- Kazakhstan - yes - Bishkek branch - same gauge
- Uzbekistan - yes - Osh branch - same gauge
- Tajikistan - no - same gauge
- China - no - Break of gauge `{{RailGauge|1520mm}}`{=mediawiki}/`{{RailGauge|1435mm}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Transport in Kyrgyzstan
## Highways
With support from the Asian Development Bank, a major road linking the north and southwest from Bishkek to Osh has recently`{{when|date=March 2016}}`{=mediawiki} been completed. This considerably eases communication between the two major population centers of the country---the Chüy Valley in the north and the Fergana Valley in the South. An offshoot of this road branches off across a 3,500 meter pass into the Talas Valley in the northwest. Plans are now being formulated to build a major road from Osh into the People\'s Republic of China.
In 2024, the total length of the road network in Kyrgyzstan was approximately 34,000 km. Of them, 18,810 km were public roads directly subordinated to the Ministry of Transport and Communications, and 15,190 km - other roads (village, agricultural, industrial etc.). By their status the roads of the Ministry of Transport and Communications are classified as:
- *international roads:* 4,163 km
- *state roads:* 5,678 km
- *local roads:* 8,969 km
By nature of surface there can be distinguished:
- *hard-surfaced roads:* 7,228 km (including 11 km of cement concrete roads, 4,969 km - bituminous concrete surface, 2,248 km - road-mix pavement)
- *gravel roads:* 9,961 km
- *earth roads:* 1,621 km
Frequent bus and, more commonly, minibus service connects country\'s major cities. Minibuses provide public transit in cities and between cities to neighboring villages.
The condition of the road network is generally bad, though repairs have been made recently. Usually, only the main roads of population centres are illuminated, and drain lids might be missing on both streets and sidewalks. The roads are often not plowed during winters. Fuel stations are rare outside Bishkek and Osh.
## Pipelines
The limitations of Kyrgyzstan\'s pipeline system are a major impediment to fuel distribution. In 2006 the country had 367 kilometers of natural gas pipeline and 16 kilometers of oil pipeline, after adding 167 kilometers of natural gas pipeline in 2003.
## Ports and waterways {#ports_and_waterways}
Kyrgyzstan\'s only port is Balykchy, a fishing town on Issyk Kul Lake. None of Kyrgyzstan\'s rivers are navigable, and the country has no canals.
Water transport exists only on Issyk Kul Lake, and has drastically shrunk since the end of the Soviet Union.
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# Transport in Kyrgyzstan
## Airports
At the end of the Soviet period there were about 50 airports and airstrips in Kyrgyzstan, many of them built primarily to serve military purposes in this border region so close to China. Only a few of them remain in service today.
There are four airports with international flights, namely in Bishkek, Osh, Tamchy and Karakol.
- Manas International Airport near Bishkek is the main international terminal, with flights to Moscow, Tashkent, Dushanbe, Istanbul, Baku and Abu Dhabi.
- Osh Airport is the main air terminal in the south, with daily connections to Bishkek and beyond.
- Jalal-Abad Airport is linked to Bishkek by daily flights operated by Asman Airlines, Avia Traffic Company, and TezJet on BAe-146 and DHC-8-400 as well as weekly flights to Jalal-Abad and Toguz-Toro District.
- Issyk-Kul International Airport is linked to Almaty and Tashkent in summers by flights operated by Asman Airlines and Silk Avia on DHC-8-400 linked to Bishkek and Osh.
- Karakol International Airport is linked to Bishkek and Osh by flights operated by Asman Airlines on DHC-8-400.
- Kazarman Airport is linked to Bishkek by flights operated by Asman Airlines on DHC-8-400.
- Kerben Airport is linked to Jalal-Abad and Bishkek by flights operated by Asman Airlines on DHC-8-400.
- Other airports, aerodromes and landing strips are located in Toktogul, Kanysh-Kiya, Ala-Buka, Sakaldy in Nooken District, Batken, Isfana, Kyzyl-Kiya, Naryn, Talas, Pokrovka, Cholpon-Ata, Tamga, Tokmok, Aravan and many other places.
- Other facilities built during the Soviet era are either closed down, used only occasionally or restricted to military use (e.g., Kant airbase, now a Russian air base near Bishkek)
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# Armed Forces of the Kyrgyz Republic
The **Armed Forces of the Kyrgyz Republic** is the national military of Kyrgyzstan. It was originally formed from the former Soviet forces of the Turkestan Military District stationed in newly independent Kyrgyzstan. It consists of the Ground Forces, the Air Force and the National Guard. Affiliated security forces to the armed forces included the Internal Troops, the State Committee for National Security and the Border Troops.
## History
### Early years {#early_years}
The Armed Forces were formed on 29 May 1992 when President of the Kyrgyz SSR Askar Akayev signed a decree which effectively consolidated all the formations and units of the Soviet Army deployed in the territory of the new republic under the jurisdiction of Bishkek and not Moscow. Until 1988, these troops were part of the Central Asian Military District. 29 May is today celebrated as the Day of the Armed Forces. In 1993, the State Defense Committee was renamed to the Ministry of Defense on the basis of the headquarters of the 17th Army Corps. In 1998, the 1st Koy Tash, 2nd Osh, and 3rd Balykchinsk Infantry Brigades were created on the basis of the 8th Guards Motor Rifle Division. In August 1999, the Batken Conflict occurred in southwestern Kyrgyzstan, during which militants of the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) made incursions of into Uzbek and Kyrgyz territory from their camps in Tajikistan.
### 21st century {#st_century}
In 2006, the Air Force and Air Defense Forces were combined to form the Kyrgyz Air Force. The same year, the term of service was reduced from 18 to 12 months (1 year). In February 2014, the Armed Forces General Staff was expanded to have complete control over the military apparatus, with the ministry of defense becoming a state defense committee which plays a smaller and more administrative role. Despite this arrangement, many former military/security officials such as Taalaibek Omuraliev and Adyl Kurbanov were in favor of returning the military to its former organization.
Following the inauguration of President Sadyr Japarov in early February 2021, the Ministry of Defense was reestablished following a 7-year hiatus. After signing the new Constitution of Kyrgyzstan in May 2021, President Japarov called for reform in the military, particularly the need to \"organize the army according to the principle of special units, fully trained and technologically equipped to conduct military operations in mountainous conditions.\" He also at the same time called for the creation of \"people's guards\", which according to him, will provide mobilization readiness amongst the population living in border areas.
## Military units {#military_units}
### Armed Forces of the Republic of Kyrgyzstan {#armed_forces_of_the_republic_of_kyrgyzstan}
- Сарбаздар Катары / Sarbazdar Katary (*Zveno*) --- 4 units
- Аскер Бөлүгү / Asker Bölügü (*Отделение/Otdeleniye*) --- 8 units
- Взвод / Vzvod --- 32 units
- Ширкет / Shirket (*Рота/Rota*) --- 96 units
- Табур, Батальон / Tabur, Battalion (*Батальон/Batalion*) --- 540 units
- Полк / Polk --- 2700 units
- Тугай, Бригада / Tugaý, Brigada --- 5400 units
- Бөлүм, Дивизия / Bölüm, Diviziya --- 10.000+ units
- Колоор, Корпус / Koloor, Korpus --- 30.000+ units
## Special forces units list {#special_forces_units_list}
### National Guard of Kyrgyzstan {#national_guard_of_kyrgyzstan}
**National Guardee of Kyrgyz Republic/NGKR\
Кыргыз Республикасынын Улуттук Уланы/КРУУ**
- **BKT/BARS**, Commandant\'s Brigade «BARS», *«БАРС» комендант тугайы, БКТ*
- **ÉTAT/EDELWEISS**, Mountain Rifle Brigade \"Edelweiss\", *«Эдельвейс» тоо-аткыч тугайы, ЭТАТ*
- **PANTHER**, Special Forces Brigade \"Panther\", *«Пантера» Өзгөчө Багыттагы Тугайы ПӨБТ*
- **Guard of Honor Company**, *Ардак Кароолунун Ширкети* АКШ
- **MANAS**, Detachment \"Manas\", *\"МАНАС\" жасагы*
- «**GÜRZA**» reconnaissance company, *\"ГҮРЗА\" Барлоо Ширкети* ГБШ
## Army
For much of the Soviet period, since 1967, the 8th Guards \'Panfilov\' Motor Rifle Division was the main military force in the country. In 1967 the division had been moved to Bishkek from the Baltic Military District, where it had previously been based. It was only disbanded in January 2003. However, in 2011 reports said the division had been reformed with its headquarters in Tokmak. The Army of Kyrgyzstan includes the 1st Motor Rifle Brigade (Mountain) at Osh, a brigade at Koy-Tash, in the Bishkek area, the 25th Special Forces Brigade, independent battalions at Karakol and Naryn, a brigade at Balykchi, and other units. Two Groups of Forces, the Southern, and more recently the Northern, have been active during Kyrgyzstan\'s history. In 2004, the Northern Group of Forces was reported as consisting of the Balykchynsky brigade, the brigade deployed in suburb of Bishkek, separate battalions in Karakol and Naryn, and other army units.
The Army controls the Combat Training Center and Training Center \"Ala-Too\".
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# Armed Forces of the Kyrgyz Republic
## Air Force {#air_force}
Kyrgyzstan\'s air arm was inherited from the central Soviet air force training school. This presented the nation a fleet of nearly 70 L-39s, dismantled MiG-21\'s and several Mi-8\'s and Mi-24\'s. However, only a few L-39s and the helicopters are capable of flight. All Kyrgyz military aircraft are reportedly based at Kant, alongside the Russian 999th Air Base. Because of expense and military doctrine, Kyrgyzstan has not developed its air capability; a large number of the MiG-21 interceptors that it borrowed from Russia were returned in 1993, although a number of former Soviet air bases remain available. In 1996 about 100 decommissioned MiG-21s remained in Kyrgyzstan, as of 2017 only 29 MiG-21s are in working order, in service along with ninety-six L-39 trainers and sixty-five helicopters. The air defense forces have received aid from Russia, which has sent military advisory units to establish a defense system. The Russians also help patrol Kyrgyz airspace as part of the Joint CIS Air Defence System. Presently Kyrgyzstan has twenty-six SA-2 and SA-3 surface-to-air missiles in its air defense arsenal. In 2002 the Kyrgyzstan government allowed the United States to use Manas air base for support operations in the War on terror. This agreement lasted until June 2014.
## National Guard {#national_guard}
The National Guard of Kyrgyzstan was founded on December 6, 1991, and took their first oath July 20 the following year. In 2014, the Internal Troops were absorbed into the National Guard as a result of the ongoing military reforms. This would remain this way until September 2018 when they were separated once again.
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# Armed Forces of the Kyrgyz Republic
## Equipment
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Name | Image | Origin | In service | Notes |
+===============================================+=======+===================================+============+=============================================+
| Tanks | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| T-72 \"Ural\" Early | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| T-72 \"Ural\" Late | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| T-72A | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Armoured fighting vehicles | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| BRDM-2 | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| BRDM-2MS | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| MT-LB | | \ | N/A | (Some with ZU-23 AA Guns). |
| | | `{{flag|Kyrgyzstan}}`{=mediawiki} | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Infantry fighting vehicles | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| BMP-1 | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| BMP-1(P) | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| BMP-1D | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| BMP-2 Obr. 1984 | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| BMP-2D | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| BMD-1 | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Armoured personnel carriers | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| BTR-70 | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| BTR-70M | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| BTR-80 | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Infantry mobility vehicles | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| GAZ Tigr-M | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| CS/VN3 Dajiang | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Tiger | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| EQ2050F | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Technicals | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Toyota Land Cruiser | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Ford Ranger | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Towed artillery | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 100mm BS-3 | | | N/A | (Used for avalanche control). |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 100mm KS-19 | | | N/A | (Used for avalanche control). |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 122mm D-30 | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 152mm 2A65 Msta-B | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Self-propelled artillery | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 120mm 2S9 Nona | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 122mm 2S1 Gvozdika | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Multiple rocket launchers | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 122mm BM-21 Grad | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 122mm 9P138 Grad-1 | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Towed anti-aircraft guns | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 23mm ZU-23 | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Self-propelled anti-aircraft guns | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| ZSU-23-4 \'Shilka\' | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Static surface-to-air missile systems | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| S-75 | | | N/A | (One site protecting the capital Bishkek). |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| S-125 | | | N/A | (Two sites protecting the capital Bishkek). |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Self-propelled surface-to-air missile systems | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| 9K35 Strela-10 | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Radars | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| P-15 \'Flat Face A\' | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| P-18 \'Spoon Rest D\' | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Smart Hunter | | | N/A | (For use in conjunction with MANPADS). |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| SNR-75 \'Fan Song\' | | | N/A | (For S-75). |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| SNR-125 \'Low Blow\' | | | N/A | (For S-125). |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Reconnaissance unmanned aerial vehicles | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Orlan-10E | | | N/A | (Not yet seen). |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| WJ-100 | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Unmanned combat aerial vehicles | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Bayraktar Akıncı | | | N/A | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Bayraktar TB2 | | | N/A | (Armed with four MAM-C or MAM-L PGMs). |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| TAI Aksungur | | | 2 | |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Saara-02 | | | N/A | (Armed with two Bask-80 PGMs). |
+-----------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------+---------------------------------------------+
: Military equipment of the Armed Forces of the Kyrgyz Republic
## Foreign military presence and international cooperation {#foreign_military_presence_and_international_cooperation}
In terms of foreign presence, the U.S.-led Operation Enduring Freedom coalition used the Manas Air Base (Bishkek\'s international airport) until June 2014. In response, Russia set up the 999th Air Base at Kant to counter the American military presence in the former Soviet state. Moscow is believed to have promised Bishkek \$1.1 billion for modernizing its army. Agreements to this effect were reached during the visits to Bishkek by Deputy Prime Minister Igor Shuvalov in August and President Vladimir Putin in September 2012. As of fall 2023, Russia supplies various military equipment and also begins to form a joint air defense system. Since May 1992, Kyrgyzstan has been a member of the Collective Security Treaty Organization. In addition, its leaders work within the framework of the Council of Ministers of Defense of the CIS. Kyrgyzstan hosted the Second CIS Military Sports Games in 2017 in Balykchy. The games included various competition in shooting, fighting, etc. On 16 July 2018, the opening of the Kyrgyz-Indian Mountain Training Center took place in Balykchy at the Edelweiss Training Center, built with funds allocated by the Government of India.
The personnel of the armed forces also take part in UN peacekeeping missions. Currently, Kyrgyz forces are serving in Sierra Leone, Liberia, Sudan, East Timor, Ethiopia and Kosovo.
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# Armed Forces of the Kyrgyz Republic
## Personnel
### Military education {#military_education}
The main military educational institutions include:
- Military Institute of the Armed Forces of the Kyrgyz Republic
- MVD Academy of Kyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan has an agreement with the Russian Federation, according to which Kyrgyz soldiers are trained in military academies in Russia. The training of officers is carried out in the military educational institutions of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Republic of Azerbaijan, the Republic of Turkey and the People\'s Republic of China.
#### Training centers {#training_centers}
The Center for Advanced Training of Officers and NCOs of the Defense Ministry was opened in early 2007. It was designed to offer one-month professional training courses. In 2005, the NCO Training School of the Combined Arms Training Center of the Armed Forces was opened at the base of the 2nd Independent Motorized Rifle Brigade. In 2013, the border guard opened classes at more than 100 secondary schools. The Edelweiss Training Center operates in the Issyk-Kul Region.
#### High schools {#high_schools}
The Kyrgyz State National Military Lyceum and MVD High School are secondary schools that trains middle-tier commanders in the armed forces.
#### Kyrgyz State Medical Academy Faculty {#kyrgyz_state_medical_academy_faculty}
The Military Faculty of Kyrgyz State Medical Academy was created in the beginning of the Second World War, specifically in October 1941 when there was a shortage of medical personnel in the medical service. Originally it was the Sanitary Department of Defence, and in 1942 it was renamed to the Department of Military and Health Training, and has since 1944 been known as the Department of Military Medical Training. It currently engages in the military training of students of medical, pediatric, dental, sanitary and pharmaceutical departments of the armed forces.
### Conscription
Kyrgyz Armed Forces have inherited conscription from the Armed Forces of USSR. The length of conscription was reduced to 12 months from initial 18 in 2006. Today, Kyrgyz Armed Forces employ a policy of reducing the service period for university graduates to 9 months. Alternative service exists, however, it is only offered to conscripts who belong to certain religious groups
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# Kool Keith
**Keith Matthew Thornton** (born October 7, 1963), known professionally as **Kool Keith**, is an American rapper and record producer known for his surreal, abstract, and often profane or incomprehensible lyrics. Kool Keith has recorded prolifically both as a solo artist and in group collaborations. Kool Keith is generally considered to be one of hip-hop\'s most eccentric and unusual personalities.
Kool Keith was a cofounding member of Ultramagnetic MCs, whose debut *Critical Beatdown* was released in 1988. After two more albums with the group, *Funk Your Head Up* and *The Four Horsemen*, Kool Keith released his critically acclaimed solo debut album, *Dr. Octagonecologyst*, under the name Dr. Octagon in 1996. Subsequently he independently released a series of further hip hop albums, including *Sex Style*, *First Come, First Served* (as Dr. Dooom), and most recently *Keith*.
After releasing only one album on a major label, *Black Elvis/Lost in Space*, Kool Keith subsequently returned to independently releasing music, producing further efforts as a solo artist and in collaboration with groups such as Analog Brothers, Masters of Illusion, Thee Undatakerz and Project Polaroid. Kool Keith has also made guest appearances in collaboration with Peeping Tom and Yeah Yeah Yeahs. He was also featured on the short track DDT on Jurassic 5\'s album *Power in Numbers*. The Prodigy\'s hit \"Smack My Bitch Up\" was based on a sample of Kool Keith\'s voice saying \"Change my pitch up. Smack my bitch up\" on *Give The Drummer Some* by Ultramagnetic MCs.
## History
### Ultramagnetic MCs (1984--1993) {#ultramagnetic_mcs_19841993}
Thornton began his career with the group Ultramagnetic MCs under the pseudonym Kool Keith in 1984. Four years later, their release of the album *Critical Beatdown* was critically acclaimed and later became recognized as widely influential for its innovative production, complex rhymes, and chopped sampling. Just after its release, Thornton was reportedly institutionalized in Bellevue Hospital Center. However, he later said that the idea that he was institutionalized came from a flippant remark made during an interview, and he never expected the story to become so well known.
Ultramagnetic MCs would release two more albums (1992\'s *Funk Your Head Up* and 1993\'s *The Four Horsemen*) with little commercial success due to West Coast hip hop\'s changing landscape. They went on hiatus for years, leading Thorton to embark on a solo career.
### Dr. Octagon debuts (1995--1996) {#dr._octagon_debuts_19951996}
Thornton released his first notable solo single, \"Earth People\", in 1995, under the name Dr. Octagon. This was followed by the release of the concept album *Dr. Octagonecologyst* the following year. The album\'s production by Dan the Automator and Kutmasta Kurt, with scratching by DJ Qbert was acclaimed by critics, and the album was released nationally by DreamWorks Records in 1997, after an initial release on the smaller Bulk Recordings label (as, simply, *Dr. Octagon*) a year prior. *Dr. Octagonecologyst* was considered a departure from old school hip hop to abstract hip hop, with surrealistic, horror, science-fiction, and sexual themes. DreamWorks also issued an instrumental version of the album, titled *Instrumentalyst (Octagon Beats)*.
### Further releases (1996--2001) {#further_releases_19962001}
In 1996, Thornton collaborated with Tim Dog for the single \"The Industry is Wack\", performing under the name Ultra---the album *Big Time* soon followed. The following year, Thornton released the sophomore album, *Sex Style*, under the name Kool Keith. Thornton described this dirty rap concept album as \"pornocore\", filled with sexual metaphors to diss other rappers. An instrumental version was also released. This year, a collaborative album with Godfather Don titled *Cenobites* was released as an LP.
In 1999, he released the album *First Come, First Served* under the name Dr. Dooom, in which the album\'s main character killed off Dr. Octagon on the album\'s opening track. The same year, on August 10, 1999, Thornton released *Black Elvis/Lost in Space*, under the major record labels Ruffhouse and Columbia. It peaked at #10 on the *Billboard* Heatseekers chart, #74 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, and #180 on the *Billboard* 200, Despite standing out as Thornton\'s most commercially successful project to date, he was disappointed with the album\'s delays and promotional efforts, even though a promotional video was made for the lead single, \"Livin\' Astro\", which aired on a few episodes of the MTV show *Amp* in early 2000. Its sequel, *Black Elvis 2*, was released in 2023.
On June 5, 2001, Thornton released the album *Spankmaster* on TVT and Gothom Records. It peaked at #16 on the *Billboard* Heatseekers chart, #11 on the Top Independent Albums chart and #48 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. The album has yet to be on streaming.
### Collaborations (2000--2004) {#collaborations_20002004}
On July 25, 2000, Thornton released the album *Matthew*. It peaked at #47 on the *Billboard* Heatseekers chart. The following month, Thornton collaborated with Ice-T, Marc Live, Black Silver and Pimp Rex for the album *Pimp to Eat*, under the group name Analog Brothers, with Keith performing as Keith Korg and Ice-T as Ice Oscillator. The album was re-released by Mello Music Group on streaming, CD, and LP in 2016. Masters of Illusion, a collaboration with KutMasta Kurt and Motion Man, followed a few months later.
Thornton, Marc Live and H-Bomb formed the group KHM, releasing the album *Game* on November 19, 2002. They later changed their name to \"Clayborne Family\" by the release of their second album two years later. That year (2004) also saw the release of *Kool Keith Presents Thee Undatakerz* (with Reverend Tom (Kool Keith) Al Bury-U (BIG NONAME), M-Balmer and The Funeral Director) and *Diesel Truckers*, another collaboration with KutMasta Kurt.
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# Kool Keith
## History
### Second Dr. Octagon album (2002--2004) {#second_dr._octagon_album_20022004}
In 2002, Thornton began recording *The Resurrection of Dr. Octagon* with producer Fanatik J, signing a contract with CMH Records to release the album, which was eventually completed without much input from Thornton, due to a falling out over contractual terms.
On October 12, 2004, Real Talk Entertainment issued the album *Dr. Octagon Part 2*. The album was discontinued by court order. On June 27, *The Return of Dr. Octagon* was released by OCD International, an imprint of CMH, advertised as the official follow-up to *Dr. Octagonecologyst*. Some critics felt that it was not as good as its predecessor. Thornton stated that he liked the album, but felt that it hurt his reputation as a musician. In August, Thornton performed under the Dr. Octagon billing, but did not acknowledge the release of the OCD album.
### Further collaborations and solo albums (2006--present) {#further_collaborations_and_solo_albums_2006present}
On April 25, 2006, Thornton released the album *Nogatco Rd.* under the name Mr. Nogatco, and *Project Polaroid*, a collaboration with TomC3. *The Return of Dr. Octagon*, the sequel to *Dr. Octagonecologyst*, was released two months later, as well as a Dr. Dooom sequel titled *Dr. Dooom 2* being released two years later.
In 2007, Ultramagnetic MCs released the reunion album *The Best Kept Secret*. In 2009, Kool Keith released the concept album *Tashan Dorrsett*; a follow-up, *The Legend of Tashan Dorrsett*, followed two years later. In 2012, Kool Keith performed at the Gathering of the Juggalos. He has stated that he is considering retiring from music. In 2013, Keith appeared as Dr. Octagon on the Yeah Yeah Yeahs song \"Buried Alive\", from their album *Mosquito*. In 2015, Keith released \"Time? Astonishing!\" with producer L\'Orange and began the start of his relationship with Mello Music Group. Since then, Keith also re-issued his group album with the Analog Brothers (Ice-T, Pimp Rex, Marc Live, Silver Synth) *Pimp To Eat* with Mello Music. Kool Keith\'s recent solo album *Feature Magnetic* was dropped on September 16, 2016 and it features MF DOOM, Slug from Atmosphere, Dirt Nasty and many others. Artwork for the *Feature Magnetic* album was produced by Marc Santo.
In 2018, Keith collaborated once again with Dan the Automator and DJ Qbert for another Dr. Octagon album. *Moosebumps: An Exploration Into Modern Day Horripilation* was released on streaming services on April 6, 2018, with the physical release scheduled for Record Store Day, April 21, 2018. The Record Store Day release includes both vinyl and CD copies. Using his Deltron persona, Del the Funky Homosapien guests on \"3030 Meets the Doc, Pt. 1\". NPR offered a first look at the album on March 29, 2018. Kool Keith appears on \"Western\" by the bluegrass-rap group Gangstagrass, performing as himself. Throughout five years, Thornton released *Controller of Trap*, *Keith*, *Computer Technology*, *Saks 5th Ave*, *Space Goretex* (with Thetan), *Keith\'s Salon*, *Subatomic* (with Del the Funky Homosapien), *Serpent* (with Real Bad Man), and *Black Elvis 2*.
Thornton\'s fan site refers to his discography of roughly fifty album releases, most of which have been commercially released. Singles such as \"Spectrum\" continue to appear online under the artist\'s name, on sites such as SoundCloud and Spotify.
## Lyrical and performance style {#lyrical_and_performance_style}
Thornton\'s lyrics are often abstract, surreal, and filled with non-sequiturs, extreme violence, exaggerated braggadocio, and profane shock humor. For example, \"Technical Difficulties,\" from the album *Dr. Octagonecologyst*, contains the following lyrics: \"Intestines, investments, hide money in your stomach / Who can stop Pepto-Bismol? Only a Gremlin eatin\' in Larry Parker like Gizmo.\" In \"Extravagant Traveler\" from Matthew, he boasts: \"Sautéed fish and shrimp / the Dallas Mavericks want me as a bald-headed five-foot-eight guard with a ninety-five inch vertical / Vince Carter respects my legs, ask Shawn Kemp,\" whereas on \"Miami Mike\" from *Saks Fifth Avenue* he proclaims, \"I watch you take a shower in my 747 flying over your house / I used to live in the Twin Towers by myself.\" Thornton is also known for an explicit style focusing on sexual themes, which Thornton has referred to as \"pornocore\". In a 2007 interview, Thornton claims to have \"invented horrorcore\".
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# Kool Keith
## Alter egos {#alter_egos}
Kool Keith is known for his many alter egos. As of 2012, Kool Keith had at least 58 such alter egos: these include well-known aliases such as Dr. Octagon, Dr. Dooom, and Black Elvis, which appeared on albums bearing their names; and the more obscure, such as firearms dealer \"Crazy Lou\" and \"Exotron Geiger Counter One Gamma Plus Sequencer,\" as he introduced himself in an appearance on Marley Marl\'s radio show *In Control*. Some of Kool Keith\'s monikers have only existed on album artwork, such as \"Mr. Green\" and \"Elvin Presley.\"
In reference to his relationship between himself and his various stage personalities, Keith has said, \"I don\'t even feel like I\'m a human being anymore\".
## Discography
**Solo albums** *Main article: Kool Keith discography*
- *Dr. Octagonecologyst* (1996)
- *Sex Style* (1997)
- *First Come, First Served* (1999)
- *Black Elvis/Lost in Space* (1999)
- *Matthew* (2000)
- *Spankmaster* (2001)
- *Nogatco Rd.* (2006)
- *The Return of Dr. Octagon* (2006)
- *Dr. Dooom 2* (2008)
- *Tashan Dorrsett* (2009)
- *Love & Danger* (2012)
- *Demolition Crash* (2014)
- *El Dorado Driven* (2014)
- *Feature Magnetic* (2016)
- *Moosebumps: An Exploration Into Modern Day Horripilation* (2018)
- *Controller of Trap* (2018)
- *Keith* (2019)
- *Computer Technology* (2019)
- *Saks 5th Ave* (2019)
- *Keith\'s Salon* (2021)
- *Black Elvis 2* (2023)
- *Mr
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# Kolmogorov–Smirnov test
In statistics, the **Kolmogorov--Smirnov test** (also **K--S test** or **KS test**) is a nonparametric test of the equality of continuous (or discontinuous, see Section 2.2), one-dimensional probability distributions. It can be used to test whether a sample came from a given reference probability distribution (one-sample K--S test), or to test whether two samples came from the same distribution (two-sample K--S test). Intuitively, it provides a method to qualitatively answer the question \"How likely is it that we would see a collection of samples like this if they were drawn from that probability distribution?\" or, in the second case, \"How likely is it that we would see two sets of samples like this if they were drawn from the same (but unknown) probability distribution?\". It is named after Andrey Kolmogorov and Nikolai Smirnov.
The Kolmogorov--Smirnov statistic quantifies a distance between the empirical distribution function of the sample and the cumulative distribution function of the reference distribution, or between the empirical distribution functions of two samples. The null distribution of this statistic is calculated under the null hypothesis that the sample is drawn from the reference distribution (in the one-sample case) or that the samples are drawn from the same distribution (in the two-sample case). In the one-sample case, the distribution considered under the null hypothesis may be continuous (see Section 2), purely discrete or mixed (see Section 2.2). In the two-sample case (see Section 3), the distribution considered under the null hypothesis is a continuous distribution but is otherwise unrestricted.
The two-sample K--S test is one of the most useful and general nonparametric methods for comparing two samples, as it is sensitive to differences in both location and shape of the empirical cumulative distribution functions of the two samples.
The Kolmogorov--Smirnov test can be modified to serve as a goodness of fit test. In the special case of testing for normality of the distribution, samples are standardized and compared with a standard normal distribution. This is equivalent to setting the mean and variance of the reference distribution equal to the sample estimates, and it is known that using these to define the specific reference distribution changes the null distribution of the test statistic (see Test with estimated parameters). Various studies have found that, even in this corrected form, the test is less powerful for testing normality than the Shapiro--Wilk test or Anderson--Darling test. However, these other tests have their own disadvantages. For instance the Shapiro--Wilk test is known not to work well in samples with many identical values.
## One-sample Kolmogorov--Smirnov statistic {#one_sample_kolmogorovsmirnov_statistic}
The empirical distribution function *F*~*n*~ for *n* independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.) ordered observations *X~i~* is defined as
$F_{n}(x)=\frac{\text {number of (elements in the sample} \leq x)}{n}=\frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^{n} 1_{(-\infty,x]}(X_{i}),$ where $1_{(-\infty,x]}(X_i)$ is the indicator function, equal to 1 if $X_i \leq x$ and equal to 0 otherwise.
The Kolmogorov--Smirnov statistic for a given cumulative distribution function *F*(*x*) is
$D_n= \sup_x |F_n(x)-F(x)|$
where sup~*x*~ is the supremum of the set of distances. Intuitively, the statistic takes the largest absolute difference between the two distribution functions across all *x* values.
By the Glivenko--Cantelli theorem, if the sample comes from the distribution *F*(*x*), then *D*~*n*~ converges to 0 almost surely in the limit when $n$ goes to infinity. Kolmogorov strengthened this result, by effectively providing the rate of this convergence (see Kolmogorov distribution). Donsker\'s theorem provides a yet stronger result.
In practice, the statistic requires a relatively large number of data points (in comparison to other goodness of fit criteria such as the Anderson--Darling test statistic) to properly reject the null hypothesis.
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# Kolmogorov–Smirnov test
## Kolmogorov distribution {#kolmogorov_distribution}
The Kolmogorov distribution is the distribution of the random variable
$K=\sup_{t\in[0,1]}|B(t)|$
where *B*(*t*) is the Brownian bridge. The cumulative distribution function of *K* is given by
$\begin{align}
\operatorname{Pr}(K\leq x) &= 1-2\sum_{k=1}^\infty (-1)^{k-1} e^{-2k^2 x^2} \\
&=\frac{\sqrt{2\pi}}{x}\sum_{k=1}^\infty e^{-(2k-1)^2\pi^2/(8x^2)},
\end{align}$
which can also be expressed by the Jacobi theta function $\vartheta_{01}(z=0;\tau=2ix^2/\pi)$. Both the form of the Kolmogorov--Smirnov test statistic and its asymptotic distribution under the null hypothesis were published by Andrey Kolmogorov, while a table of the distribution was published by Nikolai Smirnov. Recurrence relations for the distribution of the test statistic in finite samples are available.
Under null hypothesis that the sample comes from the hypothesized distribution *F*(*x*),
$\sqrt{n}D_n\xrightarrow{n\to\infty}\sup_t |B(F(t))|$
in distribution, where *B*(*t*) is the Brownian bridge. If *F* is continuous then under the null hypothesis $\sqrt{n}D_n$ converges to the Kolmogorov distribution, which does not depend on *F*. This result may also be known as the Kolmogorov theorem.
The accuracy of this limit as an approximation to the exact CDF of $K$ when $n$ is finite is not very impressive: even when $n=1000$, the corresponding maximum error is about $0.9~\%$; this error increases to $2.6~\%$ when $n=100$ and to a totally unacceptable $7~\%$ when $n=10$. However, a very simple expedient of replacing $x$ by $x+\frac{1}{6\sqrt{n}}+ \frac{x-1}{4n}$
in the argument of the Jacobi theta function reduces these errors to $0.003~\%$, $0.027\%$, and $0.27~\%$ respectively; such accuracy would be usually considered more than adequate for all practical applications.
The *goodness-of-fit* test or the Kolmogorov--Smirnov test can be constructed by using the critical values of the Kolmogorov distribution. This test is asymptotically valid when $n \to\infty.$ It rejects the null hypothesis at level $\alpha$ if
$\sqrt{n}D_n>K_\alpha,\,$
where *K*~*α*~ is found from
$\operatorname{Pr}(K\leq K_\alpha)=1-\alpha.\,$
The asymptotic power of this test is 1.
Fast and accurate algorithms to compute the cdf $\operatorname{Pr}(D_n \leq x)$ or its complement for arbitrary $n$ and $x$, are available from:
- and for continuous null distributions with code in C and Java to be found in.
- for purely discrete, mixed or continuous null distribution implemented in the KSgeneral package of the R project for statistical computing, which for a given sample also computes the KS test statistic and its p-value. Alternative C++ implementation is available from.
### Test with estimated parameters {#test_with_estimated_parameters}
If either the form or the parameters of *F*(*x*) are determined from the data *X*~*i*~ the critical values determined in this way are invalid. In such cases, Monte Carlo or other methods may be required, but tables have been prepared for some cases. Details for the required modifications to the test statistic and for the critical values for the normal distribution and the exponential distribution have been published, and later publications also include the Gumbel distribution. The Lilliefors test represents a special case of this for the normal distribution. The logarithm transformation may help to overcome cases where the Kolmogorov test data does not seem to fit the assumption that it came from the normal distribution.
Using estimated parameters, the question arises which estimation method should be used. Usually this would be the maximum likelihood method, but e.g. for the normal distribution MLE has a large bias error on sigma. Using a moment fit or KS minimization instead has a large impact on the critical values, and also some impact on test power. If we need to decide for Student-T data with df = 2 via KS test whether the data could be normal or not, then a ML estimate based on H~0~ (data is normal, so using the standard deviation for scale) would give much larger KS distance, than a fit with minimum KS. In this case we should reject H~0~, which is often the case with MLE, because the sample standard deviation might be very large for T-2 data, but with KS minimization we may get still a too low KS to reject H~0~. In the Student-T case, a modified KS test with KS estimate instead of MLE, makes the KS test indeed slightly worse. However, in other cases, such a modified KS test leads to slightly better test power.
### Discrete and mixed null distribution {#discrete_and_mixed_null_distribution}
Under the assumption that $F$ is non-decreasing and right-continuous, with countable (possibly infinite) number of jumps, the KS test statistic can be expressed as:
$D_n= \sup_x |F_n(x)-F(x)| = \sup_{0 \leq t \leq 1} |F_n(F^{-1}(t)) - F(F^{-1}(t))|.$
From the right-continuity of $F$, it follows that $F(F^{-1}(t)) \geq t$ and $F^{-1}(F(x)) \leq x$ and hence, the distribution of $D_{n}$ depends on the null distribution $F$, i.e., is no longer distribution-free as in the continuous case. Therefore, a fast and accurate method has been developed to compute the exact and asymptotic distribution of $D_{n}$ when $F$ is purely discrete or mixed, implemented in C++ and in the KSgeneral package of the R language. The functions `disc_ks_test()`, `mixed_ks_test()` and `cont_ks_test()` compute also the KS test statistic and p-values for purely discrete, mixed or continuous null distributions and arbitrary sample sizes. The KS test and its p-values for discrete null distributions and small sample sizes are also computed in as part of the dgof package of the R language. Major statistical packages among which SAS `PROC NPAR1WAY`, Stata `ksmirnov` implement the KS test under the assumption that $F(x)$ is continuous, which is more conservative if the null distribution is actually not continuous (see ).
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# Kolmogorov–Smirnov test
## Two-sample Kolmogorov--Smirnov test {#two_sample_kolmogorovsmirnov_test}
The Kolmogorov--Smirnov test may also be used to test whether two underlying one-dimensional probability distributions differ. In this case, the Kolmogorov--Smirnov statistic is
$D_{n,m}=\sup_x |F_{1,n}(x)-F_{2,m}(x)|,$
where $F_{1,n}$ and $F_{2,m}$ are the empirical distribution functions of the first and the second sample respectively, and $\sup$ is the supremum function.
For large samples, the null hypothesis is rejected at level $\alpha$ if
$D_{n,m}>c(\alpha)\sqrt{\frac{n + m}{n\cdot m}}.$
Where $n$ and $m$ are the sizes of first and second sample respectively. The value of $c({\alpha})$ is given in the table below for the most common levels of $\alpha$
$\alpha$ 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.01 0.005 0.001
--------------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- -------
$c({\alpha})$ 1.073 1.138 1.224 1.358 1.48 1.628 1.731 1.949
and in general by
$c\left(\alpha\right)=\sqrt{-\ln\left(\tfrac{\alpha}{2}\right)\cdot \tfrac{1}{2}},$
so that the condition reads
$D_{n,m}>\sqrt{-\ln\left(\tfrac{\alpha}{2}\right)\cdot \tfrac{1 + \tfrac{m}{n}}{2m}}.$
Here, again, the larger the sample sizes, the more sensitive the minimal bound: For a given ratio of sample sizes (e.g. $m=n$), the minimal bound scales in the size of either of the samples according to its inverse square root.
Note that the two-sample test checks whether the two data samples come from the same distribution. This does not specify what that common distribution is (e.g. whether it\'s normal or not normal). Again, tables of critical values have been published. A shortcoming of the univariate Kolmogorov--Smirnov test is that it is not very powerful because it is devised to be sensitive against all possible types of differences between two distribution functions. Some argue that the Cucconi test, originally proposed for simultaneously comparing location and scale, can be much more powerful than the Kolmogorov--Smirnov test when comparing two distribution functions.
Two-sample KS tests have been applied in economics to detect asymmetric effects and to study natural experiments.
## Setting confidence limits for the shape of a distribution function {#setting_confidence_limits_for_the_shape_of_a_distribution_function}
While the Kolmogorov--Smirnov test is usually used to test whether a given *F*(*x*) is the underlying probability distribution of *F*~*n*~(*x*), the procedure may be inverted to give confidence limits on *F*(*x*) itself. If one chooses a critical value of the test statistic *D*~*α*~ such that P(*D*~*n*~ \> *D*~*α*~) = *α*, then a band of width ±*D*~*α*~ around *F*~*n*~(*x*) will entirely contain *F*(*x*) with probability 1 − *α*.
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# Kolmogorov–Smirnov test
## The Kolmogorov--Smirnov statistic in more than one dimension {#the_kolmogorovsmirnov_statistic_in_more_than_one_dimension}
A distribution-free multivariate Kolmogorov--Smirnov goodness of fit test has been proposed by Justel, Peña and Zamar (1997). The test uses a statistic which is built using Rosenblatt\'s transformation, and an algorithm is developed to compute it in the bivariate case. An approximate test that can be easily computed in any dimension is also presented.
The Kolmogorov--Smirnov test statistic needs to be modified if a similar test is to be applied to multivariate data. This is not straightforward because the maximum difference between two joint cumulative distribution functions is not generally the same as the maximum difference of any of the complementary distribution functions. Thus the maximum difference will differ depending on which of $\Pr(X < x \land Y < y)$ or $\Pr(X < x \land Y > y)$ or any of the other two possible arrangements is used. One might require that the result of the test used should not depend on which choice is made.
One approach to generalizing the Kolmogorov--Smirnov statistic to higher dimensions which meets the above concern is to compare the cdfs of the two samples with all possible orderings, and take the largest of the set of resulting KS statistics. In *d* dimensions, there are 2^*d*^ − 1 such orderings. One such variation is due to Peacock (see also Gosset for a 3D version) and another to Fasano and Franceschini (see Lopes et al. for a comparison and computational details). Critical values for the test statistic can be obtained by simulations, but depend on the dependence structure in the joint distribution.
## Implementations
The Kolmogorov--Smirnov test is implemented in many software programs. Most of these implement both the one and two sampled test.
- Mathematica has [KolmogorovSmirnovTest](https://reference.wolfram.com/language/ref/KolmogorovSmirnovTest.html).
- MATLAB\'s Statistics Toolbox has [kstest](https://de.mathworks.com/help/stats/kstest.html) and [kstest2](https://nl.mathworks.com/help/stats/kstest2.html) for one-sample and two-sample Kolmogorov--Smirnov tests, respectively.
- The R package \"KSgeneral\" computes the KS test statistics and its p-values under arbitrary, possibly discrete, mixed or continuous null distribution.
- R\'s statistics base-package implements the test as [ks.test {stats}](https://stat.ethz.ch/R-manual/R-patched/library/stats/html/ks.test.html) in its \"stats\" package.
- SAS implements the test in its PROC NPAR1WAY procedure.
- In Python, the SciPy package implements the test in the scipy.stats.kstest function.
- SYSTAT (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL)
- Java has an implementation of this test provided by Apache Commons.
- KNIME has a node implementing this test based on the above Java implementation.
- Julia has the package [HypothesisTests.jl](https://juliastats.org/HypothesisTests.jl/stable/) with the function ExactOneSampleKSTest(x::AbstractVector{\<:Real}, d::UnivariateDistribution).
- StatsDirect (StatsDirect Ltd, Manchester, UK) implements [all common variants](https://www.statsdirect.com/help/nonparametric_methods/smirnov.htm).
- Stata (Stata Corporation, College Station, TX) implements the test in ksmirnov (Kolmogorov--Smirnov equality-of-distributions test) command.
- PSPP implements the test in its [KOLMOGOROV-SMIRNOV](https://www.gnu.org/software/pspp/manual/html_node/KOLMOGOROV_002dSMIRNOV.html) (or using KS shortcut function).
- The Real Statistics Resource Pack for Excel runs the test as KSCRIT and KSPROB
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# K
**K**, or **k**, is the eleventh letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is *kay* (pronounced `{{IPAc-en|'|k|eɪ|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-K.wav}}`{=mediawiki}), plural *kays*.
The letter K usually represents the voiceless velar plosive.
## History
+--------------+-----------------+------------------+-------------+----------------+-----------+--------+
| Egyptian\ | Proto-Sinaitic\ | Proto-Canaanite\ | Phoenician\ | Western Greek\ | Etruscan\ | Latin\ |
| hieroglyph D | K | kap | kaph | Kappa | K | K |
+==============+=================+==================+=============+================+===========+========+
| d | | | | | | |
+--------------+-----------------+------------------+-------------+----------------+-----------+--------+
The letter K comes from the Greek letter Κ (kappa), which was taken from the Semitic kaph, the symbol for an open hand. This, in turn, was likely adapted by Semitic tribes who had lived in Egypt from the hieroglyph for \"hand\" representing /ḏ/ in the Egyptian word for hand, ⟨ḏ-r-t⟩ (likely pronounced `{{IPA|/ˈcʼaːɾat/}}`{=mediawiki} in Old Egyptian). The Semites evidently assigned it the sound value `{{IPA|/k/}}`{=mediawiki} instead, because their word for hand started with that sound.
K was brought into the Latin alphabet with the name *ka* /kaː/ to differentiate it from C, named *ce* (pronounced /keː/) and Q, named *qu* and pronounced /kuː/. In the earliest Latin inscriptions, the letters C, K and Q were all used to represent the sounds `{{IPA|/k/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/ɡ/}}`{=mediawiki} (which were not differentiated in writing). Of these, Q was used before a rounded vowel (e.g. `{{angbr|EQO}}`{=mediawiki} \'ego\'), K before /a/ (e.g. `{{angbr|KALENDIS}}`{=mediawiki} \'calendis\'), and C elsewhere. Later, the use of C and its variant G replaced most usages of K and Q. K survived only in a few fossilized forms, such as *Kalendae*, \"the calends\".
After Greek words were taken into Latin, the kappa was transliterated as a C. Loanwords from other alphabets with the sound `{{IPA|/k/}}`{=mediawiki} were also transliterated with C. Hence, the Romance languages generally use C, in imitating Classical Latin\'s practice, and have K only in later loanwords from other language groups. The Celtic languages also tended to use C instead of K, and this influence carried over into Old English.
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# K
## Use in writing systems {#use_in_writing_systems}
Orthography Phonemes Environment
---------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(Pinyin)
English , *silent*
Esperanto
Faroese
Before `{{angbr|e}}`{=mediawiki} (except `{{angbr|ei}}`{=mediawiki}), `{{angbr|i}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{angbr|j}}`{=mediawiki}
German
Ancient Greek romanization
Modern Greek romanization Except before `{{IPA|/e, i/}}`{=mediawiki}
Before `{{IPA|/e, i/}}`{=mediawiki}
Icelandic , `{{IPAslink|cʰ}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAslink|k}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAslink|c}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAslink|ʰk}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAslink|x}}`{=mediawiki}
Norwegian Except before `{{angbr|i}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{angbr|y}}`{=mediawiki}
Before `{{angbr|i}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{angbr|y}}`{=mediawiki}
Swedish
Before `{{angbr|e}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{angbr|i}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{angbr|y}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{angbr|y}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{angbr|ä}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{angbr|ö}}`{=mediawiki}
Turkish Except before `{{angbr|â}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{angbr|e}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{angbr|i}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{angbr|ö}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{angbr|û}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{angbr|ü}}`{=mediawiki}
Before `{{angbr|â}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{angbr|e}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{angbr|i}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{angbr|ö}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{angbr|û}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{angbr|ü}}`{=mediawiki}
: Pronunciation of `{{angbr|k}}`{=mediawiki} by language
### English
The letter usually represents `{{IPAslink|k}}`{=mediawiki} in English. It is silent when it comes before `{{angbr|n}}`{=mediawiki} at the start of a stem, e.g.:
- At the start of a word (*knight*, *knife*, *knot*, *know*, and *knee*)
- After a prefix (*unknowable*)
- In compounds (*penknife*)
English is now the only Germanic language to productively use \"hard\" `{{angbr|c}}`{=mediawiki} (outside the digraph `{{angbr|ck}}`{=mediawiki}) rather than `{{angbr|k}}`{=mediawiki} (although Dutch uses it in loan words of Latin origin, and the pronunciation of these words follows the same hard/soft distinction as in English).
Like J, X, Q, and Z, the letter K is not used very frequently in English. It is the fifth least frequently used letter in the English language, with a frequency in words of about 0.8%.
### Other languages {#other_languages}
In most languages where it is employed, this letter represents the sound `{{IPAslink|k}}`{=mediawiki} (with or without aspiration) or some similar sound.
The Latinization of Modern Greek also uses this letter for `{{IPAslink|k}}`{=mediawiki}. However, before the front vowels (`{{IPA|/e, i/}}`{=mediawiki}), this is rendered as `{{IPAblink|c}}`{=mediawiki}, which can be considered a separate phoneme.
### Other systems {#other_systems}
The International Phonetic Alphabet uses `{{angbr IPA|k}}`{=mediawiki} for the voiceless velar plosive.
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# K
## Other uses {#other_uses}
- In the International System of Units (SI), the SI prefix for one thousand is **kilo-**, officially abbreviated as **k**: for example, prefixed to *metre*/*meter* or its abbreviation *m*, *kilometre* or *km* signifies a thousand metres. As such, people occasionally represent numbers in a non-standard notation by replacing the last three zeros of the general numeral with **K**, as in 30K for 30,000.
- \"K\" replacing \"C\" in satiric misspelling.
- K is the unit symbol for the kelvin, used to measure thermodynamic temperature (the degree sign is not used with this symbol).
- K is the chemical symbol for element potassium (from its Latin name *kalium*).
- A white K in a blue triangle indicates Triangle K Kosher certification.
- In chess notation, the letter **K** represents the King (WK for White King, BK for Black King).
- In baseball scoring, the letter **K** is used to represent a strikeout. A forwards oriented **K** represents a \"strikeout swinging\"; a backwards oriented K () represents a \"strikeout looking\".
- As an abbreviation for OK, often used in emails and short text messages.
- K is used as a slang term for Ketamine among recreational drug users.
- In the CMYK color model, **K** represents black ink.
- In International Morse code, it is used to mean \"over\".
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- In fracture mechanics, *K* is used to represent the stress intensity factor.
- In physics, *k* usually stands for the Boltzmann constant.
- In Argentinian politics, K is used as a symbol for Kirchnerism.
- K (logic).
- In the United Kingdom under the old system (before 2001), a licence plate that begins with \"K\" for example \"K123 XYZ\" would correspond to a vehicle registered between August 1, 1992, and July 31, 1993. Again under the old system, a licence plate that ends with \"K\" for example \"ABC 123K\" would correspond to a vehicle that was registered between August 1, 1971, and July 31, 1972.
- On Idaho license plates, an initial K in the plate number indicates it was issued in Kootenai County.
## Related characters {#related_characters}
### Ancestors, descendants and siblings {#ancestors_descendants_and_siblings}
- 𐤊: Semitic letter Kaph, from which the following symbols originally derive:
- : Greek letter kappa, from which K derives
- К к: Cyrillic letter Ka, also derived from Kappa
- K with diacritics: Ƙ ƙ, Ꝁ ꝁ, Ḱ ḱ, Ǩ ǩ, Ḳ ḳ, Ķ ķ, ᶄ, Ⱪ ⱪ, Ḵ ḵ
- Ꞣ and ꞣ were used in Latvian orthography before 1921
- The Uralic Phonetic Alphabet uses various forms of the letter K:
-
-
-
- : Subscript small k was used in the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet prior to its formal standardization in 1902.
- Ʞ ʞ: Turned capital and small k were used in transcriptions of the Dakota language in publications of the American Board of Ethnology in the late 19th century. Turned small k was also used for a velar click in the International Phonetic Alphabet but its use was withdrawn in 1970
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# Keno
**Keno** `{{IPAc-en|k|iː|n|oʊ}}`{=mediawiki} is a lottery-like gambling game often played at modern casinos, and also offered as a game in some lotteries.
Players wager by choosing numbers ranging from 1 through (usually) 80. After all players make their wagers, 20 numbers (some variants draw fewer numbers) are drawn at random, either with a ball machine similar to ones used for lotteries and bingo, or with a random number generator.
Each casino sets its own series of payouts, called \"paytables\". The player is paid based on how many numbers were chosen (either player selection, or the terminal picking the numbers), the number of matches out of those chosen, and the wager.
There are a wide variety of keno paytables depending on the casino, usually with a larger \"house edge\" than other games, ranging from less than 4 percent to over 35 percent in online play, and 20-40% in in-person casinos. By way of comparison, the typical house edge for non-slot casino games is under 5%.
## History
The word \"keno\" has French or Latin roots (Fr. *quine* \"five winning numbers\", L. *quini* \"five each\"), but by all accounts the game originated in China. Legend has it that Zhang Liang invented the game during the Chu-Han Contention to raise money to defend an ancient city, and its widespread popularity later helped raise funds to build the Great Wall of China. In modern China, the idea of using lotteries to fund a public institution was not accepted before the late 19th century.
Chinese lottery is not documented before 1847, when the Portuguese government of Macao decided to grant a licence to lottery operators. According to some, results of keno games in great cities were sent to outlying villages and hamlets by carrier pigeons, resulting in its Chinese name 白鸽票 *báigē piào*, with the literal reading \"white dove tickets\" in Mandarin, but in Southern varieties of Chinese spoken in Guangdong simply meaning \"pigeon tickets\", and pronounced *baak^6^-gaap^3^-piu^3^* in Cantonese (on which the Western spelling \'pak-ah-pu\' / \'pakapoo\' was based).
The Chinese played the game using sheets printed with Chinese characters, often the first 80 characters of the *Thousand Character Classic*, from which the winning characters were selected. Eventually, Chinese immigrants introduced keno to the West when they sailed across the Pacific Ocean to work on construction of the First transcontinental railroad in the 19th century, where the name was Westernized into *boc hop bu* and *puck-apu*. There were also other, earlier games called Keno, but these were played in the same way as the game now known as \"Bingo\", not the modern game of Keno.
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# Keno
## Probabilities
Keno payouts are based on how many numbers the player chooses and how many of those numbers are \"hit\", multiplied by the proportion of the player\'s original wager to the \"base rate\" of the paytable. Typically, the more numbers a player chooses and the more numbers hit, the greater the payout, although some paytables pay for hitting a lesser number of spots. For example, it is not uncommon to see casinos paying \$500 or even \$1,000 for a "catch" of 0 out of 20 on a 20 spot ticket with a \$5.00 wager. Payouts vary widely by casino. Most casinos allow paytable wagers of 1 through 20 numbers, but some limit the choice to only 1 through 10, 12 and 15 numbers, or \"spots\" as keno aficionados call the numbers selected.
The probability of a player hitting all 20 numbers on a 20 spot ticket is approximately 1 in 3.5 quintillion (1 in 3,535,316,142,212,174,320).
Even though it is highly improbable to hit all 20 numbers on a 20 spot ticket, the same player would typically also get paid for hitting "catches" 0, 1, 2, 3, and 7 through 19 out of 20, often with the 17 through 19 catches paying the same as the solid 20 hit. Some of the other paying \"catches\" on a 20 spot ticket or any other ticket with high \"solid catch\" odds are in reality very possible to hit:
Hits Probability
------ --------------------------------------
0 1 in 843.380 (0.11857057%)
1 1 in 86.446 (1.15678605%)
2 1 in 20.115 (4.97142576%)
3 1 in 8.009 (12.48637168%)
4 1 in 4.877 (20.50318987%)
5 1 in 4.287 (23.32807380%)
6 1 in 5.258 (19.01745147%)
7 1 in 8.826 (11.32954556%)
8 1 in 20.055 (4.98618021%)
9 1 in 61.420 (1.62814048%)
10 1 in 253.801 (0.39401000%)
11 1 in 1,423.822 (0.07023351%)
12 1 in 10,968.701 (0.00911685%)
13 1 in 118,084.920 (0.00084685%)
14 1 in 1,821,881.628 (0.00005489%)
15 1 in 41,751,453.986 (0.00000240%)
16 1 in 1,496,372,110.872 (0.00000007%)
17 1 in 90,624,035,964.712
18 1 in 10,512,388,171,906.553
19 1 in 2,946,096,785,176,811.500
20 1 in 3,535,316,142,212,173,800.000
Probabilities change significantly based on the number of spots and numbers that are picked on each ticket.
### Probability calculation {#probability_calculation}
Keno probabilities come from a hypergeometric distribution. For Keno, one calculates the probability of hitting exactly $r$ spots on an $n$-spot ticket by the formula:
: P(hitting $r$ spots) $= {{n \choose r} \times {{80-n} \choose {20-r}} \over {80 \choose 20}}$ for an $n$-spot ticket.
To calculate the probability of hitting 4 spots on a 6-spot ticket, the formula is:
$$P(X=4) = {{{6 \choose 4} {{80-6} \choose {20-4}}}\over {80 \choose 20}} \approx 0.02853791$$ where ${n \choose r}$ is calculated as $n! \over r!(n-r)!$, where X! is notation for X factorial. Spreadsheets have the function `{{code|COMBIN(n,r)}}`{=mediawiki} to calculate ${n \choose r}$.
To calculate \"odds-to-1\", divide the probability into 1.0 and subtract 1 from the result
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# Kleene star
In mathematical logic and theoretical computer science, the **Kleene star** (or **Kleene operator** or **Kleene closure**) is a unary operation on a set `{{mvar|V}}`{=mediawiki} to generate a set `{{mvar|V*}}`{=mediawiki} of all finite-length strings that are composed of zero or more repetitions of members from `{{mvar|V}}`{=mediawiki}. It was named after American mathematician Stephen Cole Kleene, who first introduced and widely used it to characterize automata for regular expressions. In mathematics, it is more commonly known as the free monoid construction.
## Definition
Given a set $V$, define
$$V^{0}=\{\varepsilon\}$$ (the set consists only of the empty string),
$$V^{1}=V,$$ and define recursively the set
$$V^{i+1}=\{wv: w\in V^{i} \text{ and } v\in V \}$$ for each $i>0.$ $V^i$ is called the $i$-th power of $V$, it is a shorthand for the concatenation of $V$ by itself $i$ times. That is, *$V^i$* can be understood to be the set of all strings that can be represented as the concatenation of $i$ members from $V$.
The definition of Kleene star on $V$ is
$$V^*=\bigcup_{i \ge 0 }V^i = V^0 \cup V^1 \cup V^2 \cup V^3 \cup V^4 \cup \cdots.$$
## Kleene plus {#kleene_plus}
In some formal language studies, (e.g. AFL theory) a variation on the Kleene star operation called the *Kleene plus* is used. The Kleene plus omits the $V^{0}$ term in the above union. In other words, the Kleene plus on $V$ is
$$V^+=\bigcup_{i \geq 1} V^i = V^1 \cup V^2 \cup V^3 \cup \cdots,$$
or
$$V^+ = V^*V.$$
## Examples
Example of Kleene star applied to a set of strings:
: {\"ab\",\"c\"}^\*^ = { ε, \"ab\", \"c\", \"abab\", \"abc\", \"cab\", \"cc\", \"ababab\", \"ababc\", \"abcab\", \"abcc\", \"cabab\", \"cabc\", \"ccab\", \"ccc\", \...}.
Example of Kleene star applied to a set of strings without the prefix property:
: {\"a\",\"ab\",\"b\"}^\*^ = { ε, \"a\", \"ab\", \"b\", \"aa\", \"aab\", \"aba\", \"abab\", \"abb\", \"ba\", \"bab\", \"bb\", \...};\
e.g. the string \"aab\" can be obtained in several different ways. The Sardinas-Patterson algorithm can be used to check for a given *V* whether any member of *V*^\*^ can be obtained in more than one way.
Example of Kleene and Kleene plus applied to a set of characters:
: {\"a\", \"b\", \"c\"}^\*^ = { ε, \"a\", \"b\", \"c\", \"aa\", \"ab\", \"ac\", \"ba\", \"bb\", \"bc\", \"ca\", \"cb\", \"cc\", \"aaa\", \"aab\", \...}.
: {\"a\", \"b\", \"c\"}^+^ = { \"a\", \"b\", \"c\", \"aa\", \"ab\", \"ac\", \"ba\", \"bb\", \"bc\", \"ca\", \"cb\", \"cc\", \"aaa\", \"aab\", \...}.
## Properties
- If $V$ is any finite or countably infinite set, then *$V^*$* is a countably infinite set. As a result, each formal language over a finite or countably infinite alphabet $\Sigma$ is countable, since it is a subset of the countably infinite set $\Sigma^{*}$.
- $(V^{*})^{*}=V^{*}$, which means that the Kleene star operator is an idempotent unary operator, as $(V^{*})^{i}=V^{*}$ for every $i\geq 1$.
- $V^{*}=\{\varepsilon\}$, if $V$ is either the empty set ∅ or the singleton set $\{\varepsilon\}$.
## Generalization
Strings form a monoid with concatenation as the binary operation and ε the identity element. In addition to strings, the Kleene star is defined for any monoid. More precisely, let (*M*, ⋅) be a monoid, and *S* ⊆ *M*. Then *S*^\*^ is the smallest submonoid of *M* containing *S*; that is, *S*^\*^ contains the neutral element of *M*, the set *S*, and is such that if *x*,*y* ∈ *S*^\*^, then *x*⋅*y* ∈ *S*^\*^.
Furthermore, the Kleene star is generalized by including the \*-operation (and the union) in the algebraic structure itself by the notion of complete star semiring
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# K. Eric Drexler
**Kim Eric Drexler** (born April 25, 1955) is an American engineer best known for introducing molecular nanotechnology (MNT), and his studies of its potential from the 1970s and 1980s. His 1991 doctoral thesis at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) was revised and published as the book *Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery Manufacturing and Computation* (1992), which received the Association of American Publishers award for Best Computer Science Book of 1992. He has been called the \"godfather of nanotechnology\".
## Life and work {#life_and_work}
K. Eric Drexler was strongly influenced by ideas on limits to growth in the early 1970s. During his first year at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, he sought out someone who was working on extraterrestrial resources. He found Gerard K. O\'Neill of Princeton University, a physicist famous for his work on storage rings for particle accelerators and his landmark work on the concepts of space colonization. Drexler participated in NASA summer studies on space colonies in 1975 and 1976. He fabricated metal thin films a few tens of nanometers thick on a wax support to demonstrate the potentials of high-performance solar sails. He was active in space politics, helping the L5 Society defeat the Moon Treaty in 1980. Besides working summers for O\'Neill, building mass driver prototypes, Drexler delivered papers at the first three Space Manufacturing conferences at Princeton. The 1977 and 1979 papers were co-authored with Keith Henson, and patents were issued on both subjects, vapor phase fabrication and space radiators.
During the late 1970s, Drexler began to develop ideas about molecular nanotechnology (MNT). In 1979, he encountered Richard Feynman\'s provocative 1959 talk \"There\'s Plenty of Room at the Bottom\". In 1981, Drexler wrote a seminal research article, published by PNAS, \"Molecular engineering: An approach to the development of general capabilities for molecular manipulation\". This article has continued to be cited, more than 620 times, during the following 35 years.
The term \"nano-technology\" had been coined by the Tokyo University of Science professor Norio Taniguchi in 1974 to describe the precision manufacture of materials with nanometer tolerances, and Drexler unknowingly used a related term in his 1986 book *Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology* to describe what later became known as molecular nanotechnology (MNT). In that book, he proposed the idea of a nanoscale \"assembler\" which would be able to build a copy of itself and of other items of arbitrary complexity. He also first published the term \"grey goo\" to describe what might happen if a hypothetical self-replicating molecular assembler went out of control. He has subsequently tried to clarify his concerns about out-of-control self-replicators, and make the case that molecular manufacturing does not require such devices.
### Education
Drexler holds three degrees from MIT. He received his B.S. in Interdisciplinary Sciences in 1977 and his M.S. in 1979 in Astro/Aerospace Engineering with a master\'s thesis titled \"Design of a High Performance Solar Sail System\". In 1991, he earned a Ph.D. through the MIT Media Lab (formally, the Media Arts and Sciences Section, School of Architecture and Planning) after the department of electrical engineering and computer science refused to approve Drexler\'s plan of study.
His Ph.D. work was the first doctoral degree on the topic of molecular nanotechnology and his thesis, \"Molecular Machinery and Manufacturing with Applications to Computation\", was published (with minor editing) as *Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing and Computation* (1992), which received the Association of American Publishers award for Best Computer Science Book of 1992.
### Personal life {#personal_life}
In 1981, Drexler married Christine Peterson. The marriage ended in 2002.
In 2006, Drexler married Rosa Wang, a former investment banker who works with Ashoka: Innovators for the Public on improving the social capital markets.
Drexler has arranged to be cryonically preserved in the event of legal death.
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# K. Eric Drexler
## Reception
Drexler\'s work on nanotechnology was criticized as naive by Nobel Prize winner Richard Smalley in a 2001 *Scientific American* article. Smalley first argued that \"fat fingers\" made MNT impossible. He later argued that nanomachines would have to resemble chemical enzymes more than Drexler\'s assemblers and could only work in water. Drexler maintained that both were straw man arguments, and in the case of enzymes, wrote that \"Prof. Klibanov wrote in 1994, \' \... using an enzyme in organic solvents eliminates several obstacles \... \'\" Drexler had difficulty in getting Smalley to respond, but in December 2003, Chemical and Engineering news carried a four-part debate. Ray Kurzweil disputes Smalley\'s arguments.
The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, in its 2006 review of the National Nanotechnology Initiative, argues that it is difficult to predict the future capabilities of nanotechnology:
### In science fiction {#in_science_fiction}
Drexler is mentioned in Neal Stephenson\'s science fiction novel *The Diamond Age* as one of the heroes of a future world where nanotechnology is ubiquitous.
In the science fiction novel *Newton\'s Wake* by Ken MacLeod, a \'drexler\' is a nanotech assembler of pretty much anything that can fit in the volume of the particular machine---from socks to starships.
Drexler is also mentioned in the science fiction book *Decipher* by Stel Pavlou; his book is mentioned as one of the starting points of nanomachine construction, as well as giving a better understanding of the way carbon 60 was to be applied.
James Rollins references Drexler\'s *Engines of Creation* in his novel *Excavation*, using his theory of a molecular machine in two sections as a possible explanation for the mysterious \"Substance Z\" in the story.
Drexler gets a mention in Timothy Leary\'s *Design for Dying* in the \"Mutation\" section, briefly detailing the 8-circuit model of consciousness (pg. 91).
Drexler is mentioned in DC Comics\' *Doom Patrol* vol. 2, #57 (published July 1992).
Drexler is mentioned in Michael Crichton\'s 2002 novel *Prey* in the introduction (pg xii).
The Drexler Facility (*ドレクサー機関*) of molecular nanotechnology research in the Japanese eroge visual novels *Baldr Sky* is named after him. The \"Assemblers\" are its key invention.
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# K. Eric Drexler
## Works
- *Engines of Creation* (1986)
- Available [online at e-drexler.com](http://www.e-drexler.com/d/06/00/EOC/EOC_Cover.html) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108152007/http://www.e-drexler.com/d/06/00/EOC/EOC_Cover.html |date=2009-01-08 }}`{=mediawiki} dead link
- Available online in Chinese as [创造的发动机](https://web.archive.org/web/20061118004131/http://www.oursci.org/lib/engine/)
- Available online in Italian as [MOTORI DI CREAZIONE: L'era prossima della nanotecnologia](https://web.archive.org/web/20110726035027/http://estropico.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=118:-motori-di-creazione-lera-prossima-della-nanotecnologia-di-k-eric-drexler&catid=36:nanotecnologie&Itemid=73)
- The Canvas of the Night (1990), (ar) Project Solar Sail, ed. Arthur C. Clarke, NAL/Roc (`{{ISBN|0451450027}}`{=mediawiki}) Science Fiction.
- *Unbounding the Future* (1991; with Christine Peterson and Gayle Pergamit) (`{{ISBN|0-688-12573-5}}`{=mediawiki})
- Available online with free download at [Unbounding the Future: the Nanotechnology Revolution](http://www.foresight.org/UTF/Unbound_LBW/)
- [*Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery Manufacturing and Computation*](http://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/nanosystems.html) (1992)
- Available [online at nanosyste.ms](https://nanosyste.ms/)
- Sample chapters and a table of contents are available [online at e.drexler.com](http://www.e-drexler.com/d/06/00/Nanosystems/toc.html) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191008162657/http://e-drexler.com/d/06/00/Nanosystems/toc.html |date=2019-10-08 }}`{=mediawiki}
- Drexler\'s doctoral thesis, *Molecular Machinery and Manufacturing with Applications to Computation*, an earlier version of the text that became *Nanosystems*, is available [online](http://e-drexler.com/d/09/00/Drexler_MIT_dissertation.pdf) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717173117/http://e-drexler.com/d/09/00/Drexler_MIT_dissertation.pdf |date=2011-07-17 }}`{=mediawiki}
- *Engines of Creation 2.0: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology - Updated and Expanded*, K. Eric Drexler, 647 pages, (February 2007)
- *Radical Abundance: How a Revolution in Nanotechnology Will Change Civilization*, May 7, 2013, `{{ISBN|1610391136}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Reframing Superintelligence: Comprehensive AI Services as General Intelligence*, K. Eric Drexler, Technical Report #2019-1, Future of Humanity Institute, University of Oxford, 210 pages (2019) [1](https://www.fhi.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/Reframing_Superintelligence_FHI-TR-2019-1.1-1.pdf)
- *Molecular Science and Engineering Platform One* (MSEP.one), (October 2024), molecular design software and editor, free and open-source software with an MIT License; built on the Godot open-source game engine
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# Kyoto Protocol
`{{Infobox Treaty
| name = Kyoto Protocol
| long_name = Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC
| image = Kyoto Protocol parties.svg
| image_width = 355
| caption ={{legend|#008000|Annex B parties with binding targets in the second period}} {{legend|purple|Annex B parties with binding targets in the first period but not the second}} {{legend|#0000FF|Non-Annex B parties without binding targets}} {{legend|#EEEE00|Annex B parties with binding targets in the first period but which withdrew from the Protocol}} {{legend|orange|Signatories to the Protocol that have not ratified}} {{legend|#FF1111|Other UN member states and observers that are not party to the Protocol}}
| date_drafted =
| date_signed = {{dts|11 December 1997}}<ref name=parties/>
| location_signed = [[Kyoto]], Japan
| date_sealed =
| date_effective = 16 February 2005<ref name=parties/>
| condition_effective = Ratification by at least 55 states to the Convention
| date_expiration = 31 December 2012 (first commitment period)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf|title=Kyoto Protocol on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|publisher=United Nations|access-date=17 November 2004|archive-date=5 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005085911/http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><br />31 December 2020 (second commitment period)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol|title=What is the Kyoto Protocol?|publisher=UNFCCC|access-date=31 May 2021|archive-date=13 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231213141052/https://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol|url-status=live}}</ref>
| signatories = 84<ref name=parties/> (1998–1999 signing period)
| parties = [[List of parties to the Kyoto Protocol|192]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://unfccc.int/process/the-kyoto-protocol/status-of-ratification |title=Status of Ratification |publisher=United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change |website=unfccc.int |access-date=28 February 2020 |archive-date=5 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200905124014/http://unfccc.int/process/the-kyoto-protocol/status-of-ratification |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=UNlist/> (the European Union, Cook Islands, Niue, and all [[Member states of the United Nations|UN member states]] except Andorra, Canada, South Sudan, and the United States as of 2022)
| depositor = [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]]
| language =
| languages = Arabic, Mandarin, English, French, Russian, and Spanish
| website =
| wikisource = Kyoto Protocol
}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Infobox Treaty
| name = Kyoto Protocol Extension (2012–2020)
| long_name = Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol
| type = Amendment to international agreement
| image = Doha Amendment of Kyoto.svg
| image_width = 350
| caption = Acceptance of the Doha Amendment
{{legend|#32CD32|States that ratified}}
{{legend|#b9b9b9|Kyoto protocol parties that did not ratify}}
{{legend|#e9e9e9|Non-parties to the Kyoto Protocol}}
| date_drafted = 8 December 2012
| location_signed = [[Doha]], Qatar
| date_sealed =
| date_effective = 31 December 2020<ref name=DOHARAT/>
| condition_effective = Ratification by 144 state parties required
| date_expiration = 31 December 2020<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.climatechangenews.com/2020/10/02/nigeria-jamaica-bring-closure-kyoto-protocol-era-last-minute-dash/|title=Nigeria, Jamaica bring closure to the Kyoto Protocol era, in last-minute dash|publisher=Climate Change News|date=2 October 2020|access-date=31 May 2021|archive-date=6 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406105609/https://www.climatechangenews.com/2020/10/02/nigeria-jamaica-bring-closure-kyoto-protocol-era-last-minute-dash/|url-status=live}}</ref>
| signatories = <!--there is only ratification/acception...-->
| ratifiers = 147<ref name=DOHARAT>{{cite web|url=https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVII-7-c&chapter=27&clang=_en|title=7 .c Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol|work=UN Treaty Database|access-date=19 April 2015|archive-date=4 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204160337/https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVII-7-c&chapter=27&clang=_en|url-status=live}}</ref>
| depositor =
| language =
| languages =
| website =
| wikisource = Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol
}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}`{=mediawiki} The `{{nihongo|'''Kyoto Protocol'''|京都議定書|Kyōto Giteisho|lead=yes}}`{=mediawiki} was an international treaty which extended the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, based on the scientific consensus that global warming is occurring and that human-made CO~2~ emissions are driving it. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. There were 192 parties (Canada withdrew from the protocol, effective December 2012) to the Protocol in 2020.
The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to reduce the onset of global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to \"a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system\" (Article 2). The Kyoto Protocol applied to the seven greenhouse gases listed in Annex A: carbon dioxide (CO~2~), methane (CH~4~), nitrous oxide (N~2~O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF~6~), nitrogen trifluoride (NF~3~). Nitrogen trifluoride was added for the second compliance period during the Doha Round.
The Protocol was based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities: it acknowledged that individual countries have different capabilities in combating climate change, owing to economic development, and therefore placed the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
The Protocol\'s first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. All 36 countries that fully participated in the first commitment period complied with the Protocol. However, nine countries had to resort to the flexibility mechanisms by funding emission reductions in other countries because their national emissions were slightly greater than their targets. The 2008 financial crisis reduced emissions. The greatest emission reductions were seen in the former Eastern Bloc countries because the dissolution of the Soviet Union reduced their emissions in the early 1990s. Even though the 36 developed countries reduced their emissions, the global emissions increased by 32% from 1990 to 2010.
A second commitment period was agreed to in 2012 to extend the agreement to 2020, known as the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol, in which 37 countries had binding targets: Australia, the European Union (and its then 28 member states, now 27), Belarus, Iceland, Kazakhstan, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland, and Ukraine. Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine stated that they may withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets. Japan, New Zealand, and Russia had participated in Kyoto\'s first-round but did not take on new targets in the second commitment period. Other developed countries without second-round targets were Canada (which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012) and the United States (which did not ratify). If they were to remain as a part of the protocol, Canada would be hit with a \$14 billion fine, which would be devastating to their economy, hence the reluctant decision to exit. As of October 2020, 147 states had accepted the Doha Amendment. It entered into force on 31 December 2020, following its acceptance by the mandated minimum of at least 144 states, although the second commitment period ended on the same day. Of the 37 parties with binding commitments, 34 had ratified.
Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ended in 2020. This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement, which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto Protocol.
## Chronology
**1992** -- The UN Conference on the Environment and Development is held in Rio de Janeiro. It results in the Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) among other agreements.
**1995** -- Parties to the UNFCCC meet in Berlin (the 1st Conference of Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC) to outline specific targets on emissions.
**1997** -- In December the parties conclude the Kyoto Protocol in Kyoto, Japan, in which they agree to the broad outlines of emissions targets.
**2004** -- Russia and Canada ratify the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC bringing the treaty into effect on 16 February 2005.
**2011** -- Canada became the first signatory to announce its withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol.
**2012** -- On 31 December 2012, the first commitment period under the Protocol expired.
The official meeting of all states party to the Kyoto Protocol is the annual Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The first conference was held in 1995 in Berlin (COP 1). The first Meeting of Parties of the Kyoto Protocol (CMP) was held in 2005 in conjunction with COP 11.
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# Kyoto Protocol
## Objectives
The main goal of the Kyoto Protocol was to control emissions of the main anthropogenic (human-emitted) greenhouse gases (GHGs) in ways that reflect underlying national differences in GHG emissions, wealth, and capacity to make the reductions. The treaty follows the main principles agreed in the original 1992 UN Framework Convention. According to the treaty, in 2012, Annex I Parties who have ratified the treaty must have fulfilled their obligations of greenhouse gas emissions limitations established for the Kyoto Protocol\'s first commitment period (2008--2012). These emissions limitation commitments are listed in Annex B of the Protocol.
The Kyoto Protocol\'s first round commitments are the first detailed step taken within the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. The Protocol establishes a structure of rolling emission reduction commitment periods. It set a timetable starting in 2006 for negotiations to establish emission reduction commitments for a second commitment period. The first period emission reduction commitments expired on 31 December 2012.
The first-round Kyoto emissions limitation commitments were not sufficient to stabilize the atmospheric concentration of GHGs. Stabilization of atmospheric GHG concentrations will require further emissions reductions after the end of the first-round Kyoto commitment period in 2012.
The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is the \"stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would stop dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.\" Even if Annex I Parties succeed in meeting their first-round commitments, much greater emission reductions will be required in future to stabilize atmospheric GHG concentrations.
For each of the different anthropogenic GHGs, different levels of emissions reductions would be required to meet the objective of stabilizing atmospheric concentrations. Carbon dioxide (`{{CO2}}`{=mediawiki}) is the most important anthropogenic GHG. Stabilizing the concentration of `{{CO2}}`{=mediawiki} in the atmosphere would ultimately require the effective elimination of anthropogenic `{{CO2}}`{=mediawiki} emissions.
To achieve stabilization, global GHG emissions must peak, then decline. The lower the desired stabilization level, the sooner this peak and decline must occur. For a given stabilization level, larger emissions reductions in the near term allow for less stringent emissions reductions later. On the other hand, less stringent near term emissions reductions would, for a given stabilization level, require more stringent emissions reductions later on.
The first period Kyoto emissions limitations can be viewed as a first-step towards achieving atmospheric stabilization of GHGs. In this sense, the first period Kyoto commitments may affect what future atmospheric stabilization level can be achieved.
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# Kyoto Protocol
## Principal concepts {#principal_concepts}
Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:
- Binding commitments for the Annex I Parties. The main feature of the Protocol is that it established legally binding commitments to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases for Annex I Parties. The commitments were based on the Berlin Mandate, which was a part of UNFCCC negotiations leading up to the Protocol.
- Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex I Parties are required to prepare policies and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their respective countries. In addition, they are required to increase the absorption of these gases and utilize all mechanisms available, such as joint implementation, the clean development mechanism and emissions trading, in order to be rewarded with credits that would allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home.
- Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate change.
- Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.
- Compliance. Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the commitments under the Protocol.
### Flexibility mechanisms {#flexibility_mechanisms}
The Protocol defines three \"Flexibility Mechanisms\" that can be used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emission limitation commitments. The flexibility mechanisms are International Emissions Trading (IET), the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI). IET allows Annex I Parties to \"trade\" their emissions (Assigned Amount Units, AAUs, or \"allowances\" for short).
The economic basis for providing this flexibility is that the marginal cost of reducing (or abating) emissions differs among countries. \"Marginal cost\" is the cost of abating the last tonne of `{{CO2}}`{=mediawiki}-eq for an Annex I/non-Annex I Party. At the time of the original Kyoto targets, studies suggested that the flexibility mechanisms could reduce the overall (aggregate) cost of meeting the targets. Studies also showed that national losses in Annex I gross domestic product (GDP) could be reduced by the use of the flexibility mechanisms.
The CDM and JI are called \"project-based mechanisms\", in that they generate emission reductions from projects. The difference between IET and the project-based mechanisms is that IET is based on the setting of a quantitative restriction of emissions, while the CDM and JI are based on the idea of \"production\" of emission reductions. The CDM is designed to encourage production of emission reductions in non-Annex I Parties, while JI encourages production of emission reductions in Annex I Parties.
The production of emission reductions generated by the CDM and JI can be used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emission limitation commitments. The emission reductions produced by the CDM and JI are both measured against a hypothetical baseline of emissions that would have occurred in the absence of a particular emission reduction project. The emission reductions produced by the CDM are called Certified emission reductions (CERs); reductions produced by JI are called emission reduction units (ERUs). The reductions are called \"credits\" because they are emission reductions credited against a hypothetical baseline of emissions.
Only emission reduction projects that do not involve using nuclear energy are eligible for accreditation under the CDM, in order to prevent nuclear technology exports from becoming the default route for obtaining credits under the CDM.
Each Annex I country is required to submit an annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. These countries nominate a person (called a \"designated national authority\") to create and manage its greenhouse gas inventory. Virtually all of the non-Annex I countries have also established a designated national authority to manage their Kyoto obligations, specifically the \"CDM process\". This determines which GHG projects they wish to propose for accreditation by the CDM Executive Board.
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# Kyoto Protocol
## Principal concepts {#principal_concepts}
### Flexibility mechanisms {#flexibility_mechanisms}
#### International emissions trading {#international_emissions_trading}
##### Intergovernmental emissions trading {#intergovernmental_emissions_trading}
The design of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) implicitly allows for trade of national Kyoto obligations to occur between participating countries. The Carbon Trust found that other than the trading that occurs as part of the EU ETS, no intergovernmental emissions trading had taken place.
One of the environmental problems with IET is the large surplus of allowances that are available. Russia, Ukraine, and the new EU-12 member states (the Kyoto Parties Annex I Economies-in-Transition, abbreviated \"EIT\": Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Ukraine) have a surplus of allowances, while many OECD countries have a deficit. Some of the EITs with a surplus regard it as potential compensation for the trauma of their economic restructuring. When the Kyoto treaty was negotiated, it was recognized that emissions targets for the EITs might lead to them having an excess number of allowances. This excess of allowances were viewed by the EITs as \"headroom\" to grow their economies. The surplus has, however, also been referred to by some as \"hot air\", a term which Russia (a country with an estimated surplus of 3.1 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent allowances) views as \"quite offensive\".
OECD countries with a deficit could meet their Kyoto commitments by buying allowances from transition countries with a surplus. Unless other commitments were made to reduce the total surplus in allowances, such trade would not actually result in emissions being reduced (see also the section below on the Green Investment Scheme).
##### \"Green Investment Schemes\" {#green_investment_schemes}
The \"Green Investment Scheme\" (GIS) is a plan for achieving environmental benefits from trading surplus allowances (AAUs) under the Kyoto Protocol. The Green Investment Scheme (GIS), a mechanism in the framework of International Emissions Trading (IET), is designed to achieve greater flexibility in reaching the targets of the Kyoto Protocol while preserving environmental integrity of IET. However, using the GIS is not required under the Kyoto Protocol, and there is no official definition of the term.
Under the GIS a party to the protocol expecting that the development of its economy will not exhaust its Kyoto quota, can sell the excess of its Kyoto quota units (AAUs) to another party. The proceeds from the AAU sales should be \"greened\", i.e. channelled to the development and implementation of the projects either acquiring the greenhouse gases emission reductions (hard greening) or building up the necessary framework for this process (soft greening).
##### Trade in AAUs {#trade_in_aaus}
Latvia was one of the front-runners of GISs. World Bank (2011) reported that Latvia has stopped offering AAU sales because of low AAU prices. In 2010, Estonia was the preferred source for AAU buyers, followed by the Czech Republic and Poland.
Japan\'s national policy to meet their Kyoto target includes the purchase of AAUs sold under GISs. In 2010, Japan and Japanese firms were the main buyers of AAUs. In terms of the international carbon market, trade in AAUs are a small proportion of overall market value. In 2010, 97% of trade in the international carbon market was driven by the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS).
##### Clean Development Mechanism {#clean_development_mechanism}
Between 2001, which was the first year Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects could be registered, and 2012, the end of the first Kyoto commitment period, the CDM is expected to produce some 1.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO~2~e) in emission reductions. Most of these reductions are through renewable energy commercialisation, energy efficiency, and fuel switching (World Bank, 2010, p. 262). By 2012, the largest potential for production of CERs are estimated in China (52% of total CERs) and India (16%). CERs produced in Latin America and the Caribbean make up 15% of the potential total, with Brazil as the largest producer in the region (7%).
##### Joint Implementation {#joint_implementation}
The formal crediting period for Joint Implementation (JI) was aligned with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, and did not start until January 2008 (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 20). In November 2008, only 22 JI projects had been officially approved and registered. The total projected emission savings from JI by 2012 are about one tenth that of the CDM. Russia accounts for about two-thirds of these savings, with the remainder divided up roughly equally between Ukraine and the EU\'s New Member States. Emission savings include cuts in methane, HFC, and N~2~O emissions.
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# Kyoto Protocol
## Details of the agreement {#details_of_the_agreement}
The agreement is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which did not set any legally binding limitations on emissions or enforcement mechanisms. Only Parties to the UNFCCC can become Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted at the third session of the Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan.
National emission targets specified in the Kyoto Protocol exclude international aviation and shipping. Kyoto Parties can use land use, land use change, and forestry (LULUCF) in meeting their targets. LULUCF activities are also called \"sink\" activities. Changes in sinks and land use can have an effect on the climate, and indeed the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change\'s Special Report on Land use, land-use change, and forestry estimates that since 1750 a third of global warming has been caused by land use change. Particular criteria apply to the definition of forestry under the Kyoto Protocol.
Forest management, cropland management, grazing land management, and revegetation are all eligible LULUCF activities under the Protocol. Annex I Parties use of forest management in meeting their targets is capped.
### First commitment period: 2008--2012 {#first_commitment_period_20082012}
Under the Kyoto Protocol, 37 industrialized countries and the European Community (the European Union-15, made up of 15 states at the time of the Kyoto negotiations) commit themselves to binding targets for GHG emissions. The targets apply to the four greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (`{{CO2}}`{=mediawiki}), methane (`{{chem2|CH4}}`{=mediawiki}), nitrous oxide (`{{chem2|N2O}}`{=mediawiki}), sulphur hexafluoride (`{{chem2|SF6}}`{=mediawiki}), and two groups of gases, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). The six GHG are translated into CO~2~ equivalents in determining reductions in emissions. These reduction targets are in addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
Under the Protocol, only the Annex I Parties have committed themselves to national or joint reduction targets (formally called \"quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives\" (QELRO) -- Article 4.1). Parties to the Kyoto Protocol not listed in Annex I of the convention (the non-Annex I Parties) are mostly low-income developing countries, and may participate in the Kyoto Protocol through the Clean Development Mechanism (explained below).
The emissions limitations of Annex I Parties varies between different Parties. Some Parties have emissions limitations reduce below the base year level, some have limitations at the base year level (no permitted increase above the base year level), while others have limitations above the base year level.
Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping. Although Belarus and Turkey are listed in the convention\'s Annex I, they do not have emissions targets as they were not Annex I Parties when the Protocol was adopted. Kazakhstan does not have a target, but has declared that it wishes to become an Annex I Party to the convention.
+----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| Australia -- 108% (2.1% of 1990 emissions)\ | Finland -- 100%\ | Liechtenstein -- 92% (0.0015%)\ | Russian Federation -- 100% (17.4%)\ |
| Austria -- 87%\ | France -- 100%\ | Lithuania -- 92%\ | Slovakia -- 92% (0.42%)\ |
| Belarus -- 95% (subject to acceptance by other parties)\ | Germany -- 79%\ | Luxembourg -- 72%\ | Slovenia -- 92%\ |
| Belgium -- 92.5%\ | Greece -- 125%\ | Netherlands -- 94%\ | Spain -- 115%\ |
| Bulgaria -- 92% (0.6%)\ | Hungary -- 94% (0.52%)\ | New Zealand -- 100% (0.19%)\ | Sweden -- 104%\ |
| Canada -- 94% (3.33%) (withdrew)\ | Iceland -- 110% (0.02%)\ | Norway -- 101% (0.26%)\ | Switzerland -- 92% (0.32%)\ |
| Croatia -- 95% ()\ | Ireland -- 113%\ | Poland -- 94% (3.02%)\ | Ukraine -- 100%\ |
| Czech Republic -- 92% (1.24%)\ | Italy -- 93.5%\ | Portugal -- 92%\ | United Kingdom -- 87.5%\ |
| Denmark -- 79%\ | Japan -- 94% (8.55%)\ | Romania -- 92% (1.24%) | United States of America -- 93% (36.1%) (non-party) |
| Estonia -- 92% (0.28%) | Latvia -- 92% (0.17%) | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------+---------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
For most state parties, 1990 is the base year for the national GHG inventory and the calculation of the assigned amount. However, five state parties have an alternative base year:
- Bulgaria: 1988;
- Hungary: the average of the years 1985--1987;
- Poland: 1988;
- Romania: 1989;
- Slovenia: 1986.
Annex I Parties can use a range of sophisticated \"flexibility\" mechanisms (see below) to meet their targets. Annex I Parties can achieve their targets by allocating reduced annual allowances to major operators within their borders, or by allowing these operators to exceed their allocations by offsetting any excess through a mechanism that is agreed by all the parties to the UNFCCC, such as by buying emission allowances from other operators which have excess emissions credits.
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# Kyoto Protocol
## Details of the agreement {#details_of_the_agreement}
### Negotiations
Article 4.2 of the UNFCCC commits industrialized countries to \"\[take\] the lead\" in reducing emissions. The initial aim was for industrialized countries to stabilize their emissions at 1990 levels by 2000. The failure of key industrialized countries to move in this direction was a principal reason why Kyoto moved to binding commitments.
At the first UNFCCC Conference of the Parties in Berlin, the G77 was able to push for a mandate (the \"Berlin mandate\") where it was recognized that:
- developed nations had contributed most to the then-current concentrations of GHGs in the atmosphere (see Greenhouse gas emissions).
- developing country emissions per-capita (i.e., average emissions per head of population) were still relatively low.
- and that the share of global emissions from developing countries would grow to meet their development needs.
During negotiations, the G-77 represented 133 developing countries. China was not a member of the group but an associate. It has since become a member.
The Berlin mandate was recognized in the Kyoto Protocol in that developing countries were not subject to emission reduction commitments in the first Kyoto commitment period. However, the large potential for growth in developing country emissions made negotiations on this issue tense. In the final agreement, the Clean Development Mechanism was designed to limit emissions in developing countries, but in such a way that developing countries do not bear the costs for limiting emissions. The general assumption was that developing countries would face quantitative commitments in later commitment periods, and at the same time, developed countries would meet their first round commitments.
#### Emissions cuts {#emissions_cuts}
thumb\|upright=1.8\|alt=Refer to caption\|Kyoto Parties with first period (2008--12) greenhouse gas emissions limitations targets, and the percentage change in their carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion between 1990 and 2009. For more detailed country/region information, see Kyoto Protocol and government action. thumb\|upright=1.8\|alt=Refer to caption\|Overview map of states committed to greenhouse gas (GHG) limitations in the first Kyoto Protocol period (2008--12):\
`{{legend|#000000|Annex I Parties who have agreed to reduce their GHG emissions below their individual base year levels (see definition in this article)}}`{=mediawiki} `{{legend|#737373|Annex I Parties who have agreed to cap their GHG emissions at their base year levels}}`{=mediawiki} `{{legend|#f2f2f2|Non-Annex I Parties who are not obligated by caps or Annex I Parties with an emissions cap that allows their emissions to expand above their base year levels or countries that have not ratified the Kyoto Protocol}}`{=mediawiki}\
For specific emission reduction commitments of Annex I Parties, see the section of the article on 2012 emission targets and \"flexible mechanisms\".\
\
The European Union as a whole has, in accordance with this treaty, committed itself to a reduction of 8%. However, many member states (such as Greece, Spain, Ireland and Sweden) have not committed themselves to any reduction while France has committed itself not to expand its emissions (0% reduction). There were multiple emissions cuts proposed by UNFCCC parties during negotiations. The G77 and China were in favour of strong uniform emission cuts across the developed world. The US originally proposed for the second round of negotiations on Kyoto commitments to follow the negotiations of the first. In the end, negotiations on the second period were set to open no later than 2005. Countries over-achieving in their first period commitments can \"bank\" their unused allowances for use in the subsequent period.
The EU initially argued for only three GHGs to be included -- `{{CO2}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{chem2|CH4}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{chem2|N2O}}`{=mediawiki} -- with other gases such as HFCs regulated separately. The EU also wanted to have a \"bubble\" commitment, whereby it could make a collective commitment that allowed some EU members to increase their emissions, while others cut theirs.
The most vulnerable nations -- the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) -- pushed for deep uniform cuts by developed nations, with the goal of having emissions reduced to the greatest possible extent. Countries that had supported differentiation of targets had different ideas as to how it should be calculated, and many different indicators were proposed. Two examples include differentiation of targets based on gross domestic product (GDP), and differentiation based on energy intensity (energy use per unit of economic output).
The final targets negotiated in the Protocol are the result of last minute political compromises. The targets closely match those decided by Argentinian Raul Estrada, the diplomat who chaired the negotiations. The numbers given to each Party by Chairman Estrada were based on targets already pledged by Parties, information received on latest negotiating positions, and the goal of achieving the strongest possible environmental outcome. The final targets are weaker than those proposed by some Parties, e.g., the Alliance of Small Island States and the G-77 and China, but stronger than the targets proposed by others, e.g., Canada and the United States.
#### Relation to temperature targets {#relation_to_temperature_targets}
At the 16th Conference of the Parties held in 2010, Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited below 2°C relative to the pre-industrial temperature level. One of the stabilization levels discussed in relation to this temperature target is to hold atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at 450 parts per million (ppm) `{{CO2}}`{=mediawiki}- eq. Stabilization at 450 ppm could be associated with a 26 to 78% risk of exceeding the 2 °C target.
Scenarios assessed by Gupta *et al.* (2007) suggest that Annex I emissions would need to be 25% to 40% below 1990 levels by 2020, and 80% to 95% below 1990 levels by 2050. The only Annex I Parties to have made voluntary pledges in line with this are Japan (25% below 1990 levels by 2020) and Norway (30--40% below 1990 levels by 2020).
Gupta *et al.* (2007) also looked at what 450 ppm scenarios projected for non-Annex I Parties. Projections indicated that by 2020, non-Annex I emissions in several regions (Latin America, the Middle East, East Asia, and centrally planned Asia) would need to be substantially reduced below \"business-as-usual\". \"Business-as-usual\" are projected non-Annex I emissions in the absence of any new policies to control emissions. Projections indicated that by 2050, emissions in all non-Annex I regions would need to be substantially reduced below \"business-as-usual\".
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# Kyoto Protocol
## Details of the agreement {#details_of_the_agreement}
### Financial commitments {#financial_commitments}
The Protocol also reaffirms the principle that developed countries have to pay billions of dollars, and supply technology to other countries for climate-related studies and projects. The principle was originally agreed in UNFCCC. One such project is The Adaptation Fund, which has been established by the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change to finance concrete adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
### Implementation provisions {#implementation_provisions}
The protocol left several issues open to be decided later by the sixth Conference of Parties COP6 of the UNFCCC, which attempted to resolve these issues at its meeting in the Hague in late 2000, but it was unable to reach an agreement due to disputes between the European Union (who favoured a tougher implementation) and the United States, Canada, Japan and Australia (who wanted the agreement to be less demanding and more flexible).
In 2001, a continuation of the previous meeting (COP6-bis) was held in Bonn, where the required decisions were adopted. After some concessions, the supporters of the protocol (led by the European Union) managed to secure the agreement of Japan and Russia by allowing more use of carbon dioxide sinks.
COP7 was held from 29 October 2001 through 9 November 2001 in Marrakech to establish the final details of the protocol.
The first Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (MOP1) was held in Montreal from 28 November to 9 December 2005, along with the 11th conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP11). See United Nations Climate Change Conference.
During COP13 in Bali, 36 developed Contact Group countries (plus the EU as a party in the European Union) agreed to a 10% emissions increase for Iceland; but, since the EU\'s member states each have individual obligations, much larger increases (up to 27%) are allowed for some of the less developed EU countries (see below `{{Section link||Increase in greenhouse gas emission since 1990}}`{=mediawiki}). Reduction limitations expired in 2013.
### Mechanism of compliance {#mechanism_of_compliance}
The protocol defines a mechanism of \"compliance\" as a \"monitoring compliance with the commitments and penalties for non-compliance.\" According to Grubb (2003), the explicit consequences of non-compliance of the treaty are weak compared to domestic law. Yet, the compliance section of the treaty was highly contested in the Marrakesh Accords.
### Monitoring emissions {#monitoring_emissions}
Monitoring emissions in international agreements is tough as in international law, there is no police power, creating the incentive for states to find \'ways around\' monitoring. The Kyoto Protocol regulated six sinks and sources of Gases. Carbon dioxide, Methane, Nirous oxide, Hydroflurocarbons, Sulfur hexafluouride and Perfluorocarbons. Monitoring these gases can become quite a challenge. Methane can be monitored and measured from irrigated rice fields and can be measured by the seedling growing up to harvest. Future implications state that this can be affected by more cost effective ways to control emissions as changes in types of fertilizer can reduce emissions by 50%. In addition to this, many countries are unable to monitor certain ways of carbon absorption through trees and soils to an accurate level.
### Enforcing emission cuts {#enforcing_emission_cuts}
If the enforcement branch determines that an Annex I country is not in compliance with its emissions limitation, then that country is required to make up the difference during the second commitment period plus an additional 30%. In addition, that country will be suspended from making transfers under an emissions trading program.
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# Kyoto Protocol
## Ratification process {#ratification_process}
### Countries that ratified the Protocol {#countries_that_ratified_the_protocol}
The Protocol was adopted by COP 3 of UNFCCC on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan. It was opened on 16 March 1998 for signature during one year by parties to UNFCCC, when it was signed Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, the Maldives, Samoa, St. Lucia and Switzerland. At the end of the signature period, 82 countries and the European Community had signed. Ratification (which is required to become a party to the Protocol) started on 17 September with ratification by Fiji. Countries that did not sign acceded to the convention, which has the same legal effect.
Article 25 of the Protocol specifies that the Protocol enters into force \"on the ninetieth day after the date on which not less than 55 Parties to the Convention, incorporating Parties included in Annex I which accounted in total for at least 55% of the total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990 of the Annex I countries, have deposited their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession.\"
The EU and its Member States ratified the Protocol in May 2002. Of the two conditions, the \"55 parties\" clause was reached on 23 May 2002 when Iceland ratified the Protocol. The ratification by Russia on 18 November 2004 satisfied the \"55%\" clause and brought the treaty into force, effective 16 February 2005, after the required lapse of 90 days.
As of May 2013, 191 countries and one regional economic organization (the EC) have ratified the agreement, representing over 61.6% of the 1990 emissions from Annex I countries. One of the 191 ratifying states---Canada---has renounced the protocol.
+-----------------------------------+---------------------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
| Afghanistan\ | Dominican Republic\ | Liechtenstein\ | São Tomé and Príncipe\ |
| Albania\ | Ecuador\ | Lithuania\ | Saudi Arabia\ |
| Algeria\ | East Timor\ | Luxembourg\ | Senegal\ |
| Angola\ | Egypt\ | Madagascar\ | Serbia\ |
| Antigua and Barbuda\ | El Salvador\ | Malawi\ | Seychelles\ |
| Argentina\ | Equatorial Guinea\ | Malaysia\ | Sierra Leone\ |
| Armenia\ | Eritrea\ | Maldives\ | Singapore\ |
| Australia\ | Estonia\ | Mali\ | Slovakia\ |
| Austria\ | Eswatini\ | Malta\ | Slovenia\ |
| Azerbaijan\ | Ethiopia\ | Marshall Islands\ | Solomon Islands\ |
| Bahamas\ | European Union\ | Mauritania\ | Somalia (non-party to Kyoto)\ |
| Bahrain\ | Fiji\ | Mauritius\ | South Africa\ |
| Bangladesh\ | Finland\ | Mexico\ | Spain\ |
| Barbados\ | France\ | Federated States of Micronesia\ | Sri Lanka\ |
| Belarus\ | Gabon\ | Moldova\ | Sudan\ |
| Belgium\ | Gambia\ | Monaco\ | Suriname\ |
| Belize\ | Georgia\ | Mongolia\ | Sweden\ |
| Benin\ | Germany\ | Montenegro\ | Switzerland\ |
| Bhutan\ | Ghana\ | Morocco\ | Syria\ |
| Bolivia\ | Greece\ | Mozambique\ | Tajikistan\ |
| Bosnia and Herzegovina\ | Grenada\ | Namibia\ | Tanzania\ |
| Botswana\ | Guatemala\ | Nauru\ | Thailand\ |
| Brazil\ | Guinea\ | Nepal\ | Togo\ |
| Brunei\ | Guinea-Bissau\ | Netherlands\ | Tonga\ |
| Bulgaria\ | Guyana\ | New Zealand\ | Trinidad and Tobago\ |
| Burkina Faso\ | Haiti\ | Nicaragua\ | Tunisia\ |
| Myanmar\ | Honduras\ | Niger\ | Turkey\ |
| Burundi\ | Hungary\ | Nigeria\ | Turkmenistan\ |
| Cambodia\ | Iceland\ | Niue\ | Tuvalu\ |
| Cameroon\ | India\ | North Macedonia\ | Uganda\ |
| Canada\ | Indonesia\ | Norway\ | Ukraine\ |
| Cape Verde\ | Iran\ | Oman\ | United Arab Emirates\ |
| Central African Republic\ | Iraq\ | Pakistan\ | United Kingdom\ |
| Chad\ | Ireland\ | Palau\ | United States (non-party to Kyoto)\ |
| Chile\ | Israel\ | Panama\ | Uruguay\ |
| China\ | Italy\ | Papua New Guinea\ | Uzbekistan\ |
| Colombia\ | Jamaica\ | Paraguay\ | Vanuatu\ |
| Comoros\ | Japan\ | Peru\ | Venezuela\ |
| Democratic Republic of the Congo\ | Jordan\ | Philippines\ | Vietnam\ |
| Republic of the Congo\ | Kazakhstan\ | Poland\ | Yemen\ |
| Cook Islands\ | Kenya\ | Portugal\ | Zambia\ |
| Costa Rica\ | Kiribati\ | Qatar\ | Zimbabwe |
| Ivory Coast\ | North Korea\ | Romania\ | |
| Croatia\ | South Korea\ | Russia\ | - **Observers:** |
| Cuba\ | Kuwait\ | Rwanda\ | |
| Cyprus\ | Kyrgyzstan\ | Saint Kitts and Nevis\ | Andorra (non-party to Kyoto)\ |
| Czech Republic\ | Laos\ | Saint Lucia\ | Holy See (non-party to Kyoto) |
| Denmark\ | Latvia\ | Saint Vincent and the Grenadines\ | |
| Djibouti\ | Lebanon\ | Samoa\ | |
| Dominica | Lesotho\ | San Marino | |
| | Liberia\ | | |
| | Libya | | |
+-----------------------------------+---------------------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
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# Kyoto Protocol
## Ratification process {#ratification_process}
### Non-ratification by the US {#non_ratification_by_the_us}
The US signed the Protocol on 12 November 1998, during the Clinton presidency. To become binding in the US, however, the treaty had to be ratified by the Senate, which had already passed the 1997 non-binding Byrd-Hagel Resolution, expressing disapproval of any international agreement that did not require developing countries to make emission reductions and \"would seriously harm the economy of the United States\". The resolution passed 95--0. Therefore, even though the Clinton administration signed the treaty, it was never submitted to the Senate for ratification.
At the outset of the Bush administration, Senators Chuck Hagel, Jesse Helms, Larry Craig, and Pat Roberts wrote a letter to President George W. Bush seeking to identify his position on the Kyoto Protocol and climate change policy. In a letter dated March 13, 2001, President Bush responded that his \"Administration takes the issue of global climate change very seriously\", but that \"I oppose the Kyoto Protocol because it exempts 80 percent of the world, including major population centers such as China and India, from compliance, and would cause serious harm to the U.S. economy. The Senate\'s vote, 95-0, shows that there is a clear consensus that the Kyoto Protocol is an unfair and ineffective means of addressing global climate change concerns.\" The administration also questioned the scientific certainty around climate change and cited potential harms of emissions reduction to the US economy.
The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research reported in 2001:
> This policy reversal received a massive wave of criticism that was quickly picked up by the international media. Environmental groups blasted the White House, while Europeans and Japanese alike expressed deep concern and regret. \... Almost all world leaders (e.g. China, Japan, South Africa, Pacific Islands, etc.) expressed their disappointment at Bush\'s decision.
In response to this criticism, Bush stated: \"I was responding to reality, and reality is the nation has got a real problem when it comes to energy\". The Tyndall Centre called this \"an overstatement used to cover up the big benefactors of this policy reversal, i.e., the US oil and coal industry, which has a powerful lobby with the administration and conservative Republican congressmen.\"
As of 2023, the US is the only signatory that has not ratified the Protocol. The US accounted for 36.1% of emissions in 1990. As such, for the treaty to go into legal effect without US ratification, it would require a coalition including the EU, Russia, Japan, and small parties. A deal, without the US Administration, was reached in the Bonn climate talks (COP-6.5), held in 2001.
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# Kyoto Protocol
## Ratification process {#ratification_process}
### Withdrawal of Canada {#withdrawal_of_canada}
In 2011, Canada, Japan and Russia stated that they would not take on further Kyoto targets. The Canadian government announced its withdrawal---possible at any time three years after ratification---from the Kyoto Protocol on 12 December 2011, effective 15 December 2012. Canada was committed to cutting its greenhouse emissions to 6% below 1990 levels by 2012, but in 2009 emissions were 17% higher than in 1990. The Harper government prioritized oil sands development in Alberta, and deprioritized the reduction of greenhouse emissions. Environment minister Peter Kent cited Canada\'s liability to \"enormous financial penalties\" under the treaty unless it withdrew. He also suggested that the recently signed Durban agreement may provide an alternative way forward. The Harper government claimed it would find a \"Made in Canada\" solution. Canada\'s decision received a generally negative response from representatives of other ratifying countries.
### Other states and territories where the treaty was not applicable {#other_states_and_territories_where_the_treaty_was_not_applicable}
Andorra, Palestine, South Sudan, the United States and, following their withdrawal on 15 December 2012, Canada are the only UNFCCC Parties that are not party to the Protocol. Furthermore, the Protocol is not applied to UNFCCC observer the Holy See. Although the Kingdom of the Netherlands approved the protocol for the whole Kingdom, it did not deposit an instrument of ratification for Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten or the Caribbean Netherlands.
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# Kyoto Protocol
## Country types and their emissions {#country_types_and_their_emissions}
### Annex I countries {#annex_i_countries}
Total aggregate GHG emissions excluding emissions/removals from land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF, i.e., carbon storage in forests and soils) for all Annex I Parties (see list below) including the United States taken together decreased from 19.0 to 17.8 thousand teragrams (Tg, which is equal to 10^9^ kg) `{{CO2}}`{=mediawiki} equivalent, a decline of 6.0% during the 1990--2008 period. Several factors have contributed to this decline. The first is due to the economic restructuring in the Annex I Economies in Transition (the EITs -- see Intergovernmental Emissions Trading for the list of EITs). Over the period 1990--1999, emissions fell by 40% in the EITs following the collapse of central planning in the former Soviet Union and east European countries. This led to a massive contraction of their heavy industry-based economies, with associated reductions in their fossil fuel consumption and emissions.
Emissions growth in Annex I Parties have also been limited due to policies and measures (PaMs). In particular, PaMs were strengthened after 2000, helping to enhance energy efficiency and develop renewable energy sources. Energy use also decreased during the economic crisis in 2007--2008.
#### Annex I parties with targets {#annex_i_parties_with_targets}
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Country | Kyoto\ | Kyoto\ | GHG\ | GHG\ |
| | target\ | target\ | emissions\ | emissions\ |
| | 2008--2012 | 2013--2020 | 2008--2012\ | 2008--2012\ |
| | | | including\ | excluding\ |
| | | | LULUCF | LULUCF |
+================================+============+============+=============+=============+
| Australia | +8 | −0.5 | +3.2 | +30.3 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Austria | −13 | −20 | +3.2 | +4.9 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Belgium | −8 | −20 | −13.9 | −14.0 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Bulgaria | −8 | −20 | −53.4 | −52.8 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Canada (withdrew) | −6 | *N/A* | +18.5 | +18.5 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Croatia | −5 | −20 | −10.8 | −7.5 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Czech Republic | −8 | −20 | −30.6 | −30.0 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Denmark | −21 | −20 | −17.3 | −14.8 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Estonia | −8 | −20 | −54.2 | −55.3 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Finland | 0 | −20 | −5.5 | −4.7 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| France | 0 | −20 | −10.5 | −10.0 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Germany | −21 | −20 | −24.3 | −23.6 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Greece | +25 | −20 | +11.5 | +11.9 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Hungary | −6 | −20 | −43.7 | −41.8 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Iceland | +10 | −20 | +10.2 | +19.4 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Ireland | +13 | −20 | +11.0 | +5.1 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Italy | −6 | −20 | −7.0 | −4.0 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Japan | −6 | *N/A* | −2.5 | +1.4 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Latvia | −8 | −20 | −61.2 | −56.4 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Liechtenstein | −8 | −16 | +4.1 | +2.4 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Lithuania | −8 | −20 | −57.9 | −55.6 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Luxembourg | −28 | −20 | −9.3 | −8.7 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Monaco | −8 | −22 | −12.5 | −12.5 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Netherlands | −6 | −20 | −6.2 | −6.4 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| New Zealand | 0 | *N/A* | −2.7 | +20.4 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Norway | +1 | −16 | +4.6 | +7.5 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Poland | −6 | −20 | −29.7 | −28.8 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Portugal | +27 | −20 | +5.5 | +22.4 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Romania | −8 | −20 | −57.0 | −55.7 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Russia | 0 | *N/A* | −36.3 | −32.7 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Slovakia | −8 | −20 | −37.2 | −36.8 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Slovenia | −8 | −20 | −9.7 | −3.2 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Spain | +15 | −20 | +20.0 | +23.7 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Sweden | +4 | −20 | −18.2 | −15.3 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Switzerland | −8 | −15.8 | −3.9 | −0.8 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| Ukraine | 0 | −24 | −57.1 | −56.6 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| United Kingdom | −13 | −20 | −23.0 | −22.6 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
| United States (did not ratify) | −7 | *N/A* | +9.5 | +9.5 |
+--------------------------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+
: Percentage changes in emissions from the base year (1990 for most countries) for Annex I Parties with Kyoto targets
Collectively the group of industrialized countries committed to a Kyoto target, i.e., the Annex I countries excluding the US, had a target of reducing their GHG emissions by 4.2% on average for the period 2008--2012 relative to the base year, which in most cases is 1990.
As noted in the preceding section, between 1990 and 1999, there was a large reduction in the emissions of the EITs. The reduction in the EITs is largely responsible for the total (aggregate) reduction (excluding LULUCF) in emissions of the Annex I countries, excluding the US. Emissions of the Annex II countries (Annex I minus the EIT countries) have experienced a limited increase in emissions from 1990 to 2006, followed by stabilization and a more marked decrease from 2007 onwards. The emissions reductions in the early nineties by the 12 EIT countries who have since joined the EU, assist the present EU-27 in meeting its collective Kyoto target.
In December 2011, Canada\'s environment minister, Peter Kent, formally announced that Canada would withdraw from the Kyoto accord a day after the end of the 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference (see the section on the withdrawal of Canada).
#### Annex I parties without Kyoto targets {#annex_i_parties_without_kyoto_targets}
Belarus, Malta, and Turkey are Annex I Parties but did not have first-round Kyoto targets. The US had a Kyoto target of a 7% reduction relative to the 1990 level, but has not ratified the treaty. If the US had ratified the Kyoto Protocol, the average percentage reduction in total GHG emissions for the Annex I group would have been a 5.2% reduction relative to the base year.
### Non-Annex I {#non_annex_i}
UNFCCC (2005) compiled and synthesized information reported to it by non-Annex I Parties. Most non-Annex I Parties belonged in the low-income group, with very few classified as middle-income. Most Parties included information on policies relating to sustainable development. Sustainable development priorities mentioned by non-Annex I Parties included poverty alleviation and access to basic education and health care. Many non-Annex I Parties are making efforts to amend and update their environmental legislation to include global concerns such as climate change.
A few Parties, e.g., South Africa and Iran, stated their concern over how efforts to reduce emissions by Annex I Parties could adversely affect their economies. The economies of these countries are highly dependent on income generated from the production, processing, and export of fossil fuels.
GHG emissions, excluding land use change and forestry (LUCF), reported by 122 non-Annex I Parties for the year 1994 or the closest year reported, totalled 11.7 billion tonnes (billion = 1,000,000,000) of CO~2~-eq. CO~2~ was the largest proportion of emissions (63%), followed by methane (26%) and nitrous oxide (N~2~O) (11%).
The energy sector was the largest source of emissions for 70 Parties, whereas for 45 Parties the agriculture sector was the largest. Per capita emissions (in tonnes of CO~2~-eq, excluding LUCF) averaged 2.8 tonnes for the 122 non-Annex I Parties.
- The Africa region\'s aggregate emissions were 1.6 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 2.4 tonnes.
- The Asia and Pacific region\'s aggregate emissions were 7.9 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 2.6 tonnes.
- The Latin America and Caribbean region\'s aggregate emissions were 2 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 4.6 tonnes.
- The \"other\" region includes Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Malta, Moldova, and North Macedonia. Their aggregate emissions were 0.1 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 5.1 tonnes.
Parties reported a high level of uncertainty in LUCF emissions, but in aggregate, there appeared to only be a small difference of 1.7% with and without LUCF. With LUCF, emissions were 11.9 billion tonnes, without LUCF, total aggregate emissions were 11.7 billion tonnes.
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# Kyoto Protocol
## Problem areas {#problem_areas}
### Views and criticism of the Protocol {#views_and_criticism_of_the_protocol}
Gupta *et al.* (2007) assessed the literature on climate change policy. They found that no authoritative assessments of the UNFCCC or its Protocol asserted that these agreements had, or will, succeed in solving the climate problem. In these assessments, it was assumed that the UNFCCC or its Protocol would not be changed. The Framework Convention and its Protocol include provisions for future policy actions to be taken.
Gupta *et al.* (2007) described the Kyoto first-round commitments as \"modest\", stating that they acted as a constraint on the treaty\'s effectiveness. It was suggested that subsequent Kyoto commitments could be made more effective with measures aimed at achieving deeper cuts in emissions, as well as having policies applied to a larger share of global emissions. In 2008, countries with a Kyoto cap made up less than one-third of annual global carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion.
World Bank (2010) commented on how the Kyoto Protocol had only had a slight effect on curbing global emissions growth. The treaty was negotiated in 1997, but in 2006, energy-related carbon dioxide emissions had grown by 24%. World Bank (2010) also stated that the treaty had provided only limited financial support to developing countries to assist them in reducing their emissions and adapting to climate change.
Some environmentalists have supported the Kyoto Protocol because it is \"the only game in town\", and possibly because they expect that future emission reduction commitments may demand more stringent emission reductions (Aldy *et al.*., 2003, p. 9). In 2001, seventeen national science academies stated that ratification of the Protocol represented a \"small but essential first step towards stabilising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases.\" Some environmentalists and scientists have criticized the existing commitments for being too weak (Grubb, 2000, p. 5).
The United States (under former President George W. Bush) and Australia (initially, under former Prime Minister John Howard) did not ratify the Kyoto treaty. According to Stern (2006), their decision was based on the lack of quantitative emission commitments for emerging economies (see also the 2000 onwards section). Australia, under former Prime Minister Kevin Rudd, has since ratified the treaty, which took effect in March 2008.
### Compliance
38 developed countries committed to limiting their greenhouse gas emissions. Because the United States did not ratify and Canada withdrew, the emission limits remained in force for 36 countries. All of them complied with the Protocol. However, nine countries (Austria, Denmark, Iceland, Japan, Lichtenstein, Luxembourg, Norway, Spain and Switzerland) had to resort to the flexibility mechanisms because their national emissions were slightly greater than their targets.
In total, the 36 countries that fully participated in the Protocol were committed to reducing their aggregate emissions by 4% from the 1990 base year. Their average annual emissions in 2008--2012 were 24.2% below the 1990 level. Hence, they surpassed their aggregate commitment by a large margin. If the United States and Canada are included, the emissions decreased by 11.8%. The large reductions were mainly thanks to the dissolution of the Soviet Union, which reduced the emissions of the Eastern Bloc by tens of percents in the early 1990s. In addition, the 2008 financial crisis significantly reduced emissions during the first Kyoto commitment period.
The 36 countries that were committed to emission reductions only accounted for 24% of the global greenhouse gas emissions in 2010. Even though these countries significantly reduced their emissions during the Kyoto commitment period, other countries increased their emissions so much that the global emissions increased by 32% from 1990 to 2010.
### Emission trends in developing countries {#emission_trends_in_developing_countries}
In several large developing countries and fast growing economies (China, India, Thailand, Indonesia, Egypt, and Iran) GHG emissions have increased rapidly (PBL, 2009). For example, emissions in China have risen strongly over the 1990--2005 period, often by more than 10% year. Emissions per-capita in non-Annex I countries are still, for the most part, much lower than in industrialized countries. Non-Annex I countries do not have quantitative emission reduction commitments, but they are committed to mitigation actions. China, for example, has had a national policy programme to reduce emissions growth, which included the closure of old, less efficient coal-fired power plants.
### Views on the flexibility mechanisms {#views_on_the_flexibility_mechanisms}
Another area which has been commented on is the role of the Kyoto flexibility mechanisms -- carbon emission trading, Joint Implementation, and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). The flexibility mechanisms have attracted both positive and negative comments.
One of the arguments made in favour of the flexibility mechanisms is that they can reduce the costs incurred by Annex I Parties in meeting their Kyoto commitments. Criticisms of flexibility have, for example, included the ineffectiveness of emissions trading in promoting investment in non-fossil energy sources, and adverse impacts of CDM projects on local communities in developing countries.
China, India, Indonesia and Brazil were not required to reduce their CO~2~ emissions. The remaining signatory countries were not obliged to implement a common framework nor specific measures, but to reach an emission reduction target for which they can benefit of a secondary market for carbon credits multilaterally exchanged from each other. The Emissions-trading Scheme (ETS) allowed countries to host polluting industries and to buy from other countries the property of their environmental merits and virtuous patterns.
A 2021 review considers both the institutional design and the political strategies that have affected the adoption of the Kyoto protocol. It concludes that the Kyoto protocol\'s relatively small impact on global carbon dioxide emissions reflects a number of factors, including \"deliberate political strategy, unequal power, and the absence of leadership\" among and within nations. The efforts of fossil fuel interests and conservative think tanks to spread disinformation and climate change denial have influenced public opinion and political action both within the United States and beyond it. The direct lobbying of fossil fuel companies and their funding of political actors have slowed political action to address climate change at regional, national, and international levels.
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# Kyoto Protocol
## Amendment and successor {#amendment_and_successor}
In the non-binding \"Washington Declaration\" agreed on 16 February 2007, heads of governments from Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, the United States, Brazil, China, India, Mexico and South Africa agreed in principle on the outline of a successor to the Kyoto Protocol. They envisaged a global cap-and-trade system that would apply to both industrialized nations and developing countries, and initially hoped that it would be in place by 2009.
The United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen in December 2009 was one of the annual series of UN meetings that followed the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio. In 1997 the talks led to the Kyoto Protocol, and the conference in Copenhagen was considered to be the opportunity to agree a successor to Kyoto that would bring about meaningful carbon cuts.
The 2010 Cancún agreements include voluntary pledges made by 76 developed and developing countries to control their emissions of greenhouse gases. In 2010, these 76 countries were collectively responsible for 85% of annual global emissions.
By May 2012, the US, Japan, Russia, and Canada had indicated they would not sign up to a second Kyoto commitment period. In November 2012, Australia confirmed it would participate in a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol and New Zealand confirmed that it would not.
New Zealand\'s climate minister Tim Groser said the 15-year-old Kyoto Protocol was outdated, and that New Zealand was \"ahead of the curve\" in looking for a replacement that would include developing nations. Non-profit environmental organisations such as the World Wildlife Fund criticised New Zealand\'s decision to pull out.
On 8 December 2012, at the end of the 2012 United Nations Climate Change Conference, an agreement was reached to extend the Protocol to 2020 and to set a date of 2015 for the development of a successor document, to be implemented from 2020 (see lede for more information). The outcome of the Doha talks has received a mixed response, with small island states critical of the overall package. The Kyoto second commitment period applies to about 11% of annual global emissions of greenhouse gases. Other results of the conference include a timetable for a global agreement to be adopted by 2015 which includes all countries. At the Doha meeting of the parties to the UNFCCC on 8 December 2012, the European Union chief climate negotiator, Artur Runge-Metzger, pledged to extend the treaty, binding on the 27 European Member States, up to the year 2020 pending an internal ratification procedure.
Ban Ki Moon, Secretary General of the United Nations, called on world leaders to come to an agreement on halting global warming during the 69th Session of the UN General Assembly on 23 September 2014 in New York. The next climate summit was held in Paris in 2015, out of which emerged the Paris Agreement, the successor to the Kyoto Protocol
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# Kista
**Kista** (`{{IPA|sv|ˈɕǐːsta}}`{=mediawiki} is a district in the borough of Rinkeby-Kista, Stockholm, Sweden. It has a strategic position located in between Sweden\'s main airport, the Stockholm-Arlanda International Airport and central Stockholm, and alongside the main national highway E4 economic artery.
Kista comprises residential and commercial areas, the latter in the highly technological telecommunications and information technology industry. There are large research efforts in this entire area, which therefore is dubbed Kista Science City. It is the research park of KTH Royal Institute of Technology.
Kista Science City is the location where a large portion of the research and development of the world\'s 4G LTE mobile telephony infrastructure is being developed, to a European ETSI standard used worldwide. A majority is done at Ericsson, with 100,000 employees worldwide, but with its research and worldwide headquarters in the Kista Science City.
Kista was named after an old farm \"Kista Gård\", still located in the area. The construction of the modern parts were started in the 1970s. Most of the streets in Kista are named after towns and places in Denmark, Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands. Before the opening of the Mall of Scandinavia, Kista Galleria was the biggest shopping center in the Stockholm region. Because of its ICT industries, it became in the 1980s referred to as \"Chipsta\" and, after Sweden joined the EU in 1995, also as Europe\'s \"Silicon Valley\".
## Overview
### Etymology
Kista got its name sometime in during 1600s and was named after a farmhouse in this area. The word Kista historically meant \"place where livestock is traded\", from the Old Swedish word \"kvi\", meaning livestock, and \"sta(d)\", meaning place.
### Economy
Kista is the largest corporate area in Sweden and important to the national economy. The construction of the industrial section of Kista began in the 1970s with companies such as SRA (Svenska Radioaktiebolaget, now a part of Ericsson), RIFA AB (later Ericsson Components AB, and later still Ericsson Microelectronics AB, and now Infineon Technologies), and IBM Svenska AB (the Swedish branch of IBM). Ericsson has had its headquarters in Kista since 2003. Cellmax is another local company founded and headquartered in Kista.
Kista is the largest Information and Communications Technology (ICT) cluster in Europe, and was ranked the world\'s second largest cluster after Silicon Valley in California during the internet boom of 2000. It is the largest corporate area in Sweden, important to the national economy due to the presence of, among others, Ericsson, one of the largest corporations in Sweden.
### Safety
Increasing crime rates and worsening safety has made the area much less attractive since the late 2010s. Nearly half of inhabitants report feeling unsafe and at risk of becoming a victim of a crime. In the 2020s, Kista became classified as a vulnerable area by the Swedish Police Authority.
Companies that used to define Kista began leaving the area after many years of violent crime incidents. Kista neighborhood has seen many incidents of robberies, stabbings, shootings, attempted murders and murders.
Swedish branch of IBM and Ericsson, two of the biggest employers in the area, both departed in the mid-2020s. Fujitsu, Coor Service Management, KTH Royal Institute of Technology as well as other organizations also left the area. Relocations include public institutions, e.g. the local police station moved from Kista to Solna. In the mid-2020s, more than a third of office space in Kista was vacant. Various retailers have also relocated from Kista. There are several ongoing initiatives to improve safety in Kista.
## Research and higher learning {#research_and_higher_learning}
Kista hosts entire departments of both KTH Royal Institute of Technology, such as Wireless@KTH, and Stockholm University (formerly jointly known as \"the IT University\").
There are also Swedish national research institutes (pure research, no students) such as the Swedish Institute of Computer Science and Swedish Defence Research Agency, FOI who has its headquarters there, just as Ericsson, Swedish IBM and Tele 2, among others has.
Also the Swedish Co-location Centre of EU innovation and entrepreneurial education organisation EIT Digital is located in Kista and offers a 2-year Master program in collaboration with KTH Royal Institute of Technology.
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# Kista
## Parks and open spaces {#parks_and_open_spaces}
Kista does not have any large and notable parks, but it has many green areas. According to statistics from Stockholm Municipality, each person in Kista has on average 94 square meters of green spaces within 500 meter radius
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# Karl Andree
**Karl Andree** (20 October 1808 -- 10 August 1875) was a German geographer, publicist and consul.
## Biography
Andree was born in Braunschweig. He was educated at Jena, Göttingen, and Berlin in historical science. After having been implicated in a students\' political agitation he became a journalist, and in 1851 founded the newspaper *Bremer Handelsblatt*. From 1855, however, he devoted himself entirely to geography and ethnography, working successively at Leipzig and at Dresden. During the American Civil War, he advocated the cause of the secessionists. In 1862 he founded the important geographical periodical *Globus*. He died at Wildungen. His son Richard Andree followed in his father\'s career.
## Works
His most famous works include *North America in geographical and historical outline* (*Nordamerika in geographischen und geschichtlichen Umrissen*) (Brunswick, 1854) or *Buenos Aires and the Argentinian Republic* (*Buenos Ayres und die argentinische Republik*) (Leipzig, 1856). In *Geographic Migrations* (*Geographische Wanderungen*) (Dresden, 1859), he put emphasis on ethnological moments and argued that ethnology should be considered a main foundational point of political science. He understood the term *ethnology* (German: *Völkerkunde*) to be defined as concerning racial anthropology and not as comparative cultural anthropology
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# Callicrates
**Callicrates** or **Kallikrates** (`{{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|l|ɪ|k|r|ə|ˌ|t|iː|z}}`{=mediawiki}; *Καλλικράτης* `{{IPA|el|Kaliˈkratis|}}`{=mediawiki}) was an ancient Greek architect active in the middle of the fifth century BC. He and Ictinus were architects of the Parthenon (Plutarch, *Pericles*, 13). An inscription identifies him as the architect of \"the Temple of Nike\" on the Acropolis of Athens (IG I^3^ 35). The temple in question is either the amphiprostyle Temple of Athena Nike now visible on the site or a small-scale predecessor (naiskos) whose remains were found in the later temple\'s foundations.
An inscription identifies Callicrates as one of the architects of the Classical circuit wall of the Acropolis (IG I^3^ 45), and Plutarch further states (loc. cit.) that he was contracted to build the middle of three defensive walls linking Athens and Piraeus.
A crater on the planet Mercury was named in his honor
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# Kornilov
**Kornilov** (*Корни́лов*) and **Kornilova** (feminine; *Корни́лова*) is a common Russian surname derived from the baptismal name Kornil (*Cornelius*)
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# Kilo-
Kilo}} `{{Wiktionary|kilo-}}`{=mediawiki}
**Kilo** is a decimal unit prefix in the metric system denoting multiplication by one thousand (10^3^). It is used in the International System of Units, where it has the symbol **k**, in lowercase.
The prefix *kilo* is derived from the Greek word *χίλιοι* (*chilioi*), meaning \"thousand\".
In 19th century English it was sometimes spelled chilio, in line with a puristic opinion by Thomas Young. As an opponent of suggestions to introduce the metric system in Britain, he qualified the nomenclature adopted in France as barbarous.
## Examples
- one kilogram (kg) is 1000 grams
- one kilometre (km) is 1000 metres
- one kilojoule (kJ) is 1000 joules
- one kilolitre (kL) is 1000 litres
- one kilobaud (kBd) is 1000 bauds
- one kilohertz (kHz) is 1000 hertz
- one kilodalton (kDa) is 1000 daltons
- one kilobit (kb) is 1000 bits
- one kilobyte (kB) is 1000 bytes
- one kiloohm is (kΩ) is 1000 ohms
- one kilosecond (ks) is 1000 seconds
- one kilotonne (kt) is 1000 tonnes
By extension, currencies are also sometimes preceded by the prefix kilo-:
- one kiloeuro (k€) is 1000 euros
- one kilodollar (k\$) is 1000 dollars
## kilobyte
For the kilobyte, a second definition has been in common use in some fields of computer science and information technology. It uses *kilobyte* to mean 2^10^ bytes (= 1024 bytes), because of the mathematical coincidence that 2^10^ is approximately 10^3^. The reason for this application is that digital hardware and architectures natively use base 2 exponentiation, and not decimal systems. JEDEC memory standards still permit this definition, but acknowledge the correct SI usage.
NIST comments on the confusion caused by these contrasting definitions: \"Faced with this reality, the *IEEE Standards Board* decided that IEEE standards will use the conventional, internationally adopted, definitions of the SI prefixes\", instead of kilo for 1024. To address this conflict, a new set of binary prefixes has been introduced, which is based on powers of 2. Therefore, 1024 bytes are defined as one kibibyte (1 KiB).
## Exponentiation
When units occur in exponentiation, such as in square and cubic forms, any multiplier prefix is considered part of the unit, and thus included in the exponentiation.
- 1 km^2^ means one square kilometre or the area of a square that measures 1000 m on each side or 10^6^ m^2^ (as opposed to 1000 square meters, which is the area of a square that measures 31.6 m on each side).
- 1 km^3^ means one cubic kilometre or the volume of a cube that measures 1000 m on each side or 10^9^ m^3^ (as opposed to 1000 cubic meters, which is the volume of a cube that measures 10 m on each side)
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# Utamaro
`{{nihongo|'''Kitagawa Utamaro'''|喜多川 歌麿||{{IPA|ja|ɯ.ta.ma.ɾo}},<ref>{{cite book|script-title=ja:新明解日本語アクセント辞典|edition=2nd|editor-last=Kindaichi|editor-first=Haruhiko|editor-link=Haruhiko Kindaichi|editor-last2=Akinaga|editor-first2=Kazue|publisher=[[Sanseidō]]|date=10 March 2025|language=ja}}</ref> {{circa|1753}} – 31 October 1806}}`{=mediawiki} was a Japanese artist. He is one of the most highly regarded designers of ukiyo-e woodblock prints and paintings, and is best known for his *bijin ōkubi-e* \"large-headed pictures of beautiful women\" of the 1790s. He also produced nature studies, particularly illustrated books of insects.
Little is known of Utamaro\'s life. His work began to appear in the 1770s, and he rose to prominence in the early 1790s with his portraits of beauties with exaggerated, elongated features. He produced over 2000 known prints and was one of the few ukiyo-e artists to achieve fame throughout Japan in his lifetime. In 1804 he was arrested and manacled for fifty days for making illegal prints depicting the 16th-century military ruler Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and died two years later.
Utamaro\'s work reached Europe in the mid-nineteenth century, where it was very popular, enjoying particular acclaim in France. He influenced the European Impressionists, particularly with his use of partial views and his emphasis on light and shade, which they imitated. The reference to the \"Japanese influence\" among these artists often refers to the work of Utamaro.
## Background
Ukiyo-e art flourished in Japan during the Edo period from the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries. The art form took as its primary subjects courtesans, kabuki actors, and others associated with the *ukiyo* \"floating world\" lifestyle of the pleasure districts. Alongside paintings, mass-produced woodblock prints were a major form of the genre. Ukiyo-e art was aimed at the common townspeople at the bottom of the social scale, especially of the administrative capital of Edo. Its audience, themes, aesthetics, and mass-produced nature kept it from consideration as serious art.
In the mid-eighteenth century, full-colour *`{{Transliteration|ja|nishiki-e}}`{=mediawiki}* prints became common. They were printed by using a large number of woodblocks, one for each colour. Towards the close of the eighteenth century there was a peak in both quality and quantity of the work. Kiyonaga was the pre-eminent portraitist of beauties during the 1780s, and the tall, graceful beauties in his work had a great influence on Utamaro, who was to succeed him in fame. Shunshō of the Katsukawa school introduced the *`{{Transliteration|ja|ōkubi-e}}`{=mediawiki}* \"large-headed picture\" in the 1760s. He and other members of the Katsukawa school, such as Shunkō, popularized the form for *`{{Transliteration|ja|[[yakusha-e]]}}`{=mediawiki}* actor prints, and popularized the dusting of mica in the backgrounds to produce a glittering effect.
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# Utamaro
## Biography
### Early life {#early_life}
Little is known of Utamaro\'s life. He was born **Kitagawa Ichitarō** in c. 1753. As an adult, he was known by the given names Yūsuke, and later Yūki. Early accounts have given his birthplace as Kyoto, Osaka, Yoshiwara in Edo (modern Tokyo), or Kawagoe in Musashi Province (modern Saitama Prefecture); none of these places has been verified. The names of his parents are not known; it has been suggested his father may have been a Yoshiwara teahouse owner, or Toriyama Sekien, an artist who tutored him and who wrote of Utamaro playing in his garden as a child.
Apparently, Utamaro married, although little is known about his wife and there is no record of their having had children. There are, however, many prints of tender and intimate domestic scenes featuring the same woman and child over several years of the child\'s growth among his works.
### Apprenticeship and early work {#apprenticeship_and_early_work}
Sometime during his childhood Utamaro came under the tutelage of Sekien, who described his pupil as bright and devoted to art. Sekien, although trained in the upper-class Kanō school of Japanese painting, had become in middle age a practitioner of ukiyo-e and his art was aimed at the townspeople in Edo. His students included haiku poets and ukiyo-e artists such as Eishōsai Chōki.
Utamaro\'s first published work may be an illustration of eggplants in the *haikai* poetry anthology *Chiyo no Haru* published in 1770. His next known works appear in 1775 under the name Kitagawa Toyoaki,---the cover to a kabuki playbook entitled *Forty-eight Famous Love Scenes* which was distributed at the Edo playhouse Nakamura-za. As Toyoaki, Utamaro continued as an illustrator of popular literature for the rest of the decade, and occasionally produced single-sheet *`{{Transliteration|ja|yakusha-e}}`{=mediawiki}* portraits of kabuki actors.
The young, ambitious publisher Tsutaya Jūzaburō enlisted Utamaro and in the autumn of 1782 the artist hosted a lavish banquet whose list of guests included artists such as Kiyonaga, Kitao Shigemasa, and Katsukawa Shunshō, as well as writers such as Ōta Nanpo (1749--1823)and `{{Interlanguage link|Hōseidō Kisanji|ja|3=平沢常富}}`{=mediawiki}. It was at this banquet that it is believed the artist first announced his new art name, *Utamaro*. Per custom, he distributed a specially made print for the occasion, in which, before a screen bearing the names of his guests, is a self-portrait of Utamaro making a deep bow.
Utamaro\'s first work for Tsutaya appeared in a publication dated as 1783: *The Fantastic Travels of a Playboy in the Land of Giants*, a *`{{Transliteration|ja|[[kibyōshi]]}}`{=mediawiki}* picture book created in collaboration with his friend Shimizu Enjū, a writer. In the book, Tsutaya described the pair as making their debuts.
At some point in the mid-1780s, probably 1783, he went to live with Tsutaya Jūzaburō. It is estimated that he lived there for approximately five years. He seems to have become a principal artist for the Tsutaya firm. Evidence of his prints for the next few years is sporadic, as he mostly produced illustrations for books of *kyōka* (\"crazy verse\"), a parody of the classical *waka* form. None of his work produced during the period 1790--1792 has survived.
### Height of fame {#height_of_fame}
In about 1791 Utamaro gave up designing prints for books and concentrated on making single portraits of women displayed in half-length, rather than the prints of women in groups favoured by other ukiyo-e artists.
In 1793 he achieved recognition as an artist, and his semi-exclusive arrangement with the publisher Tsutaya Jūzaburō ended. Utamaro then went on to produce several series of well-known works, all featuring women of the Yoshiwara district.
Over the years, he also created a number of volumes of animal, insect, and nature studies and *shunga*, or erotica. Shunga prints were quite acceptable in Japanese culture, not associated with a negative concept of pornography as found in western cultures, but considered rather as a natural aspect of human behavior and circulated among all levels of Japanese society.
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# Utamaro
## Biography
### Later life {#later_life}
Tsutaya Jūzaburō died in 1797, and Utamaro thereafter lived in Kyūemon-chō, then Bakuro-chō, and finally near the Benkei Bridge. Utamaro was apparently very upset by the loss of his long-time friend and supporter. Some commentators feel that after this event, his work never reached the heights previously attained.`{{who|date=December 2015}}`{=mediawiki}
A law went into effect in 1790 requiring prints to bear a censor\'s seal of approval to be sold. Censorship increased in strictness over the following decades, and violators could receive harsh punishments. From 1799 even preliminary drafts required approval. A group of Utagawa-school offenders including Toyokuni had their works repressed in 1801. In 1804, Utamaro ran into legal trouble over a series of prints of samurai warriors, with their names slightly disguised; the depiction of warriors, their names, and their crests was forbidden at the time. Records have not survived of what sort of punishment Utamaro received.
#### Arrest of 1804 {#arrest_of_1804}
The `{{Interlanguage link|Ehon Taikōki|ja|絵本太閤記|lt=''Ehon Taikōki''}}`{=mediawiki}, published from 1797 to 1802, detailed the life of the 16th-century military ruler, Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The work was widely adapted, such as for kabuki and bunraku theatre. When artists and writers put out prints and books based on the *Ehon Taikōki* in the disparaged *ukiyo-e* style, it attracted reprisals from the government. In probably the most famous case of censorship of the Edo period, Utamaro was imprisoned in 1804, after which he was manacled along with Tsukimaro, Toyokuni, Shuntei, Shun\'ei, and Jippensha Ikku for fifty days and their publishers subjected to heavy fines.
Government documents of the case are no longer extant, and there are few other documents relating to the incident. It appears that Utamaro was most prominent of the group. The artists might have offended the authorities by identifying the historical figures by name and with their identifying crests and other symbols, which was prohibited, and by depicting Hideyoshi with prostitutes of the pleasure quarters. Utamaro\'s censored prints include one of the *daimyō* Katō Kiyomasa lustily gazing at a Korean dancer at a party, another of Hideyoshi holding the hand of his page Ishida Mitsunari in a sexually suggestive manner, and another of Hideyoshi with his five consorts viewing the cherry blossoms at the temple Daigo-ji in Kyoto, a historical event famous for displaying Hideyoshi\'s extravagance. This last displays the names of each consort while placing them in the typical poses of courtesans at a Yoshiwara party.
Utamaro (c. 1802--04) Katō Kiyomasa.jpg\|Katō Kiyomasa at a party with Korean dancers Utamaro (c. 1802--04) Taikō gosai rakutō yūzan no zu.jpg\|*Hideyoshi and his Five Wives Viewing the Cherry-blossoms at Higashiyama*
### Death
Records give Utamaro\'s death date as the 20th day of the 9th month of the year Bunka, which equates to 31 October 1806. He was given the Buddhist posthumous name Shōen Ryōkō Shinshi. Apparently with no heirs, his tomb at the temple `{{Interlanguage link|Senkōji|ja|3=専光寺 (世田谷区北烏山)}}`{=mediawiki} was left untended. A century later, in 1917, admirers of Utamaro had the decayed grave repaired.
## Pupils
Utamaro had a number of pupils, who took names such as Kikumaro (later Tsukimaro), Hidemaro, and Takemaro. These artists produced works in the master\'s style, though none are considered of Utamaro\'s quality. Sometimes he allowed them to sign his name. Of his students, Koikawa Shunchō married Utamaro\'s widow on the master\'s death and took on the name `{{interlanguage link|Utamaro II|ja|喜多川歌麿 (2代目)}}`{=mediawiki}. After 1820 he produced his work under the name *Kitagawa Tetsugorō*.
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# Utamaro
## Analysis
What little information about Utamaro\'s life that has been passed down is often contradictory, so analysis of his development as an artist relies chiefly on his work itself. Utamaro is known primarily for his *bijin-ga* portraits of female beauties, though his work ranges from *kachō-e* \"flower-and-bird pictures\" to landscapes to book illustrations.
Utamaro\'s early *bijin-ga* follow closely the example of Kiyonaga. In the 1790s his figures became more exaggerated, with thin bodies and long faces with small features. Utamaro experimented with line, colour, and printing techniques to bring out subtle differences in the features, expressions, and backdrops of subjects from a wide variety of class and background. Utamaro\'s individuated beauties were in sharp contrast to the stereotyped, idealized images that had been the norm.
By the end of the 1790s, especially following the death of his patron Tsutaya Jūzaburō in 1797, Utamaro\'s prodigious output declined in quality. By 1800 his exaggerations had become more extreme, with faces three times as long as they are wide and body proportions of eight heads length to the body. By this point, critics such as Basil Stewart consider Utamaro\'s figures to \"lose much of their grace\"; these later works are less prized amongst collectors.
Utamaro produced more than two thousand prints during his working career, amongst which are over 120 *bijin-ga* print series. He made illustrations for nearly 100 books and about 30 paintings. He also created a number of paintings and *surimono*, as well as many illustrated books, including more than thirty *shunga* books, albums, and related publications. Among his best-known works are the series *Ten Studies in Female Physiognomy*, *A Collection of Reigning Beauties*, *Great Love Themes of Classical Poetry* (sometimes called *Women in Love* containing individual prints such as *Revealed Love* and *Pensive Love*), and *Twelve Hours in the Pleasure Quarters*. His work appeared from at least 60 publishers, of which Tsutaya Jūzaburō and Izumiya Ichibei were the most important.
He alone, of his contemporary *ukiyo-e* artists, achieved a national reputation during his lifetime. His sensuous beauties generally are considered the finest and most evocative *bijinga* in all of *ukiyo-e*.
He succeeded in capturing the subtle aspects of personality and the transient moods of women of all classes, ages, and circumstances. His reputation has remained undiminished since. Kitagawa Utamaro\'s work is known worldwide, and he generally is regarded as one of the half-dozen greatest *ukiyo-e* artists of all time.
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# Utamaro
## Legacy
Utamaro was recognized as a master in his own age. He appears to have achieved a national reputation at a time when even the most popular Edo ukiyo-e artists were little known outside the city. Due to his popularity Utamaro had many imitators, some of whom likely signed their work with his name; this is believed to include students of his and his successor, Utamaro II. On rare occasions Utamaro signed his work \"the genuine Utamaro\" to distinguish himself from these imitators. Forgeries and reprints of Utamaro\'s work are common; he produced a large body of work, but his earlier, more popular works are difficult to find in good condition.
A wave of interest in Japanese art swept France from the mid-19th century, called *Japonisme*. Exhibitions in Paris of Japanese art began to be staged in the 1880s, include an Utamaro exhibition in 1888 by the German-French art dealer Siegfried Bing. The French Impressionists regarded Utamaro\'s work on a level akin with Hokusai and Hiroshige. French artist-collectors of Utamaro\'s work included Monet, Degas, Gauguin, and Toulouse-Lautrec
Utamaro had an influence on the compositional, colour, and sense of tranquility of the American painter Mary Cassatt\'s work. The *shin-hanga* (\"new prints\") artist Goyō Hashiguchi (1880--1921) was called the \"Utamaro of the Taishō period\" (1912--1926) for his manner of depicting women. The painter character Seiji Moriyama in the British novelist Kazuo Ishiguro\'s *An Artist of the Floating World* (1986) has a reputation as a \"modern Utamaro\" for his combination of Western techniques Utamaro-like feminine subjects.
In 2016 Utamaro\'s *Fukaku Shinobu Koi* set the record price for an ukiyo-e print sold at auction at €`{{val|745000}}`{=mediawiki}.
The 2016 role-playing game *Persona 5* has a character named Yusuke Kitagawa after Utamaro\'s surname.
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# Utamaro
## Historiography
The only surviving official record of Utamaro is a stele at Senkō-ji Temple, which gives his death date as the 20th day of the 9th month of the year Bunka, which equates to 31 October 1806. The record states he was 54 by East Asian age reckoning, by which age begins at 1 rather than 0. From this a birth year of c. 1753 is deduced.
Utamaro has gained general acceptance as one of the form\'s greatest masters. The earliest document of ukiyo-e artists, *Ukiyo-e Ruikō*, was first compiled while Utamaro was active. The work was not printed, but exists in various manuscripts that different writers altered and expanded. The earliest surviving copy, the *Ukiyo-e Kōshō*, wrote of Utamaro:
: Kitagawa Utamaro, personal name Yūsuke
: At the start entered the studio of Toriyama Sekien and studied pictures in the Kanō school. Later drew pictures of the styles and manners of men and women and resided temporarily with *ezōshiya* Tsutaya Jūzaburō. Now lives in Benkeibashi. Many *nishiki-e*.
The earliest comprehensive historical and critical works on ukiyo-e came from the West, and often denied Utamaro a place in the ukiyo-e canon. Ernest Fenollosa\'s *Masters of `{{not a typo|Ukioye}}`{=mediawiki}* of 1896 was the first such overview of ukiyo-e. The book posited ukiyo-e as having evolved towards a late-18th-century golden age that began to decline with the advent of Utamaro, which he condemned for his \"gradual elongation of the figure, and an adoption of violent emotion and extravagant attitudes\". Fenollosa had harsher criticism for Utamaro\'s pupils, who he considered to have \"carried the extravagances of their teacher to a point of ugliness\". In his *Chats on Japanese Prints* of 1915, Arthur Davison Ficke concurred that with Utamaro ukiyo-e entered a period of exaggerated, manneristic decadence.
Laurence Binyon, the Keeper of Oriental Prints and Drawings at the British Museum, wrote an account in *Painting in the Far East* in 1908 that was similar to Fenollosa\'s, considering the 1790s a period of decline, but placing Utamaro amongst the masters. He called Utamaro \"one of the world\'s artists for the intrinsic qualities of his genius\" and \"the greatest of all the figure-designers\" in ukiyo-e, with a \"far greater resource of composition\" than his peers and an \"endless\" capacity for \"unexpected invention\". James A. Michener re-evaluated the development of ukiyo-e in *The Floating World* of 1954, in which he places the 1790s as \"the culminating years of ukiyo-e\", when \"Utamaro brought the grace of Sukenobu to its apex\". `{{Interlanguage link|Seiichirō Takahashi|ja|3=高橋誠一郎}}`{=mediawiki}\'s *Traditional Woodblock Prints of Japan* of 1964 set the golden age of ukiyo-e at the period of Kiyonaga, Utamaro, and Sharaku, followed by a period of decline with the declaration beginning in the 1790s of strict sumptuary laws that dictated what could be depicted in artworks.
The French art critic Edmond de Goncourt published *Outamaro*, the first monograph on Utamaro, in 1891, with help from the Japanese art dealer Tadamasa Hayashi. British ukiyo-e scholar Jack Hillier had the monograph *Utamaro: Colour Prints and Paintings* published in 1961.
## Print series {#print_series}
A partial list of his print series and their dates includes:
- *Utamakura* (1788) attributed
- *Chosen Poems* (1791--1792)
- *Ten Types of Women\'s Physiognomies* (1792--1793)
- *Famous Beauties of Edo* (1792--1793)
- *Ten Learned Studies of Women* (1792--1793)
- *Anthology of Poems: The Love Section* (1793--1794)
- *Snow, Moon, and Flowers of the Green Houses* (1793--1795)
- \'\'Five Shades of Ink in the Northern Quarter (1794--1795)
- *Array of Supreme Beauties of the Present Day* (1794)
- *Twelve Hours of the Green Houses* (1794--1795)
- *Renowned Beauties from the Six Best Houses* (1795--96)
- *Flourishing Beauties of the Present Day* (1795--1797)
- *An Array of Passionate Lovers* (1797--1798)
- *Ten Forms of Feminine Physiognomy* (1802)
## Paintings
- *Shinagawa no Tsuki*, *Yoshiwara no Hana*, and *Fukagawa no Yuki*
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# Utamaro
## Gallery
<File:Japan> Ukiyo-é Painting Jeux de miroir 1797-Kitagawa Utamaro (4801276901).jpg\|Women playing with the mirror, 1797 <File:Kitagawa> Utamaro - Toji san bijin (Three Beauties of the Present Day)From Bijin-ga (Pictures of Beautiful Women), published by Tsutaya Juzaburo - Google Art Project.jpg\|*Three Beauties of the Present Day* c. 1793 <File:Kitagawa> Utamaro - Hairdresser (Kamiyui) - from the series \'Twelve types of women\'s handicraft (Fujin tewaza juniko)\' - Google Art Project.jpg\|Hairdresser from the series Twelve types of women\'s handicraft <File:Kitagawa> Utamaro - Beauty at her toilet.jpg\|*Sugatami Shichinin Keshō* <File:Kitagawa> Utamaro 002.jpg\|Woman drinking wine <File:Kitagawa> Utamaro Ararekomon.jpg\|*Hari-shigoto* (\"Needlework\"), c. 1794--95 <File:Kitagawa> Utamaro - The Courtesan Ichikawa of the Matsuba Establishment - Google Art Project.jpg\|The Courtesan Ichikawa of the Matsuba Establishment from the series Famous Beauties of Edo <File:'Karagoto> of the Brothel House Chojiya\' by Utamaro, Honolulu Museum of Art.jpg\|Karagoto of the House of Chojiya in Edo-cho Nichome from the series A Comparison of Courtesan Flowers <File:Utamaro> (c. 1797) Tsuitate no Danjo.jpg\|*Tsuitate no Danjo*, c. 1797 <File:Kitagawa> Utamaro Mother and Child.png\|Mother and Child <File:Client> Lubricating a Male Prostitute Shunga by Kitagawa Utamaro 1790s.png\|Man lubricating a male prostitute while someone in the background peeks through the curtains and watches <File:Flickr> - ...trialsanderrors - Utamaro, Young lady blowing on a poppin, 1790
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# Karel van het Reve
**Karel van het Reve** (19 May 1921 -- 4 March 1999) was a Dutch writer, translator and literary historian, teaching and writing on Russian literature.
He was born in Amsterdam and was raised as a communist. He lost his \'faith\' in his twenties and became an active critic and opponent of the Soviet regime. With his help, work of dissident Andrei Sakharov was smuggled to the west, and his Alexander Herzen Foundation published dissident Soviet literature.
He is considered to be one of the finest Dutch essayists, his interests ranging from the fallacies of Marxism to nude beach etiquette. His works include a history of Russian literature, 2 novels and several collections of essays. In 1978, Karel van het Reve delivered the Huizinga Lecture, under the title: *Literatuurwetenschap: het raadsel der onleesbaarheid* (Literary studies: the enigma of unreadability).
His brother, Gerard Reve, was a prominent prose writer.
The main-belt asteroid 12174 van het Reve, discovered by the Palomar--Leiden Survey in 1977, was named in his honor
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# Kia Asamiya
, best known by the pen name `{{nihongo|'''Kia Asamiya'''|麻宮 騎亜|Asamiya Kia}}`{=mediawiki}, is a Japanese manga artist whose work spans multiple genres and appeals to diverse audiences.
## Biography
Before becoming a manga artist, Asamiya graduated from the Tokyo Designer School, then worked as a character designer for a number of anime series, and even designed models for some of the later Godzilla films (1980s). For this career, he used his real name, and maintained the two professional identities separately for many years. Several of the anime series that he worked on were very popular inside and outside Japan, most notably *Sonic Soldier Borgman* and *Project A-ko*. Even after focusing primarily on his manga career, Asamiya continued to do character designs and creative consultation on anime series based on his stories, occasionally under the Kikuchi name.
In the early 2000s, Asamiya shifted his focus from teenage and young-adult stories to stories designed for children and for an American audience. In the former case, he credits his children as a motivation but, in the latter case, he points to a long-standing desire to work with his favorite American characters. To that end, he has worked on projects with Image Comics, Marvel Comics, and DC Comics, with projects such as *Batman: Child of Dreams*, as well as developing a manga adaptation of the film *Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace*.
He is well known for using influences from American comics, television, and films in his work, and describes himself as a big fan of Batman and *Star Wars*. One of the most widely published Japanese manga artist, nearly all of his stories have been translated into other languages, including English. His two most successful and popular manga series to-date are *Martian Successor Nadesico* and *Silent Möbius*.
While many Japanese artists (and artists in general) are quite reclusive, Asamiya often makes an effort to be available to his fans. He maintains a website with news and information about his studio, TRON (named after the Disney film *Tron*). He aids and assists his official fan club by sending them regular announcements and limited-edition merchandise. Despite these actions, he shunned all public photography and had the habit of depicting himself with a placeholder sign for a face. It has become a trademark feature of his books that instead of a picture of the artist, there is an elaborately decorated rectangle sporting the words \"Now Printing\" (a message used in Japan for placeholder images).
## Works
### Manga
- *Shin Seiki Vagrants* (1986--1988)
- *Silent Möbius* (1989--1999)
- *Silent Möbius Klein* (1994)---prequel
- *Silent Möbius Tales* (2003)
- *Silent Möbius QD* (2013--2018)
- *Gunhed* (1990)---adaptation of the film
- *Compiler* (1991--1993)
- *Assembler 0X* (1992)
- *Dark Angel* (1992--1997)
- *Dark Angel: Phoenix Resurrection* (2001--2002)
- *Steam Detectives* (1994--2000)
- *New Steam Detectives* (2001--2003)
- *Martian Successor Nadesico* (1996--1999)
- *Corrector Yui* (1999--2000)
- *Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace* (1999)---adaptation of the film
- *Batman: Child of Dreams* (2000--2001)
- *Gacha Gacha Family Ebiru-Kun* (2000--2001)
- *D-Divine* (2001)
- *Color Pri* (2004)
- *Junk: Record of the Last Hero* (2004--2007)
- *My Favorite Carrera* (2004--2012)
- *Kanojo no Carrera RS* (2013--2015)
- *Zero Angel -Sōheki no Datenshi* (2016--2018)
- (2019--)
### American comics {#american_comics}
- *The Titans* (2001) #32, 33, 36 Covers Only
- *Star Wars Tales* (2001, 2002) #8 Cover only, #11 \"Prey\" Story & Art
- *Marvel Double Shot* (2002) Vol 1. #1 Art
- *Captain Marvel* (2002) Vol. 2, #2 Cover Only
- *X-Men: Evolution* (2002) #6
- *Iron Man* (2002) Vol. 3, #55 Cover Only
- *Fantastic Four* (2002) Vol. 3 #59 Cover Only
- *Avengers* (2002) Vol 3. #60
- *New X-Men* (2003) #134 co-artist
- *Uncanny X-Men* (2003) #416-420 art
- *Hellboy: Weird Tales* (2004) #8 \"Toy Soldier\" Co-Writer & Artist
- *Star Wars* Tokyopop (2006) #1-2 Covers Only
- *Civil War* (2015) #3 Cover Only
- *Monsters Unleashed* (2017) Vol
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# Kazaa
**Kazaa Media Desktop** (`{{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|z|ɑː}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|ka|ZAH}}`{=mediawiki}) (once stylized as \"**KaZaA**\", but later usually written \"**Kazaa**\") was a peer-to-peer file sharing application using the FastTrack protocol licensed by Joltid Ltd. and operated as Kazaa by Sharman Networks. Kazaa was subsequently under license as a legal music subscription service by Atrinsic, Inc., which lasted until August 2012.
Kazaa Media Desktop was commonly used to exchange MP3 music files and other file types, such as videos, applications, and documents over the Internet. The Kazaa Media Desktop client could be downloaded free of charge; however, it was bundled with adware and for a period there were \"No spyware\" warnings found on Kazaa\'s website. During the years of Kazaa\'s operation, Sharman Networks and its business partners and associates were the target of copyright-related lawsuits, related to the content distributed via Kazaa Media Desktop on the FastTrack protocol.
By August 2012, the Kazaa website was no longer active.
## History
Kazaa and FastTrack were originally created and developed by Estonian programmers from BlueMoon Interactive including Jaan Tallinn and sold to Swedish entrepreneur Niklas Zennström and Danish programmer Janus Friis (who were later to create Skype and later still Joost and Rdio). Kazaa was introduced by the Dutch company Consumer Empowerment in March 2001, near the end of the first generation of P2P networks typified by the shutdown of Napster in July 2001. Skype itself was based on Kazaa\'s P2P backend, which allowed users to make a call by directly connecting them with each other.
Initially, some users of the Kazaa network were users of the Morpheus client program, formerly made available by MusicCity. Eventually, the official Kazaa client became more widespread. In February 2002, when Morpheus developers failed to pay license fees, Kazaa developers used an automatic update ability to shut out Morpheus clients by changing the protocol. Morpheus later became a client of the gnutella network.
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# Kazaa
## Lawsuits
Consumer Empowerment was sued in the Netherlands in 2001 by the Dutch music publishing body, Buma/Stemra. The court ordered Kazaa\'s owners to take steps to prevent its users from violating copyrights or else pay a heavy fine. In October 2001 a lawsuit was filed against Consumer Empowerment by members of the music and motion picture industry in the US. In response Consumer Empowerment sold the Kazaa application to Sharman Networks, headquartered in Australia and incorporated in Vanuatu. In late March 2002, a Dutch court of appeal reversed an earlier judgment and stated that Kazaa was not responsible for the actions of its users. Buma/Stemra lost its appeal before the Dutch Supreme Court in December 2003.
In 2003, Kazaa signed a deal with Altnet and Streamwaves to try to convert users to paying, legal customers. Searchers on Kazaa were offered a free 30-second sample of songs for which they were searching and directed to sign up for the full-featured Streamwaves service.
However, Kazaa\'s new owner, Sharman, was sued in Los Angeles by the major record labels and motion pictures studios and a class of music publishers. The other defendants in that case (Grokster and MusicCity, makers of the Morpheus file-sharing software) initially prevailed against the plaintiffs on summary judgment (Sharman joined the case too late to take advantage of that ruling). The summary judgment ruling was upheld by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, but was unanimously reversed by the US Supreme Court in a decision titled *MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd.*
Following that ruling in favor of the plaintiff labels and studios, Grokster almost immediately settled the case. Shortly thereafter, on 27 July 2006, it was announced that Sharman had also settled with the record industry and motion picture studios. As part of that settlement, the company agreed to pay \$100 million in damages to the four major music companies---Universal Music, Sony BMG, EMI and Warner Music---and an undisclosed amount to the studios. Sharman also agreed to convert Kazaa into a legal music download service. Like the creators of similar products, Kazaa\'s owners have been taken to court by music publishing bodies to restrict its use in the sharing of copyrighted material.
While the U.S. action was still pending, the record industry commenced proceedings against Sharman on its home turf. In February 2004, the Australian Record Industry Association (ARIA) announced its own legal action against Kazaa, alleging massive copyright breaches. The trial began on 29 November 2004. On 6 February 2005, the homes of two Sharman Networks executives and the offices of Sharman Networks in Australia were raided under a court order by ARIA to gather evidence for the trial.
On 5 September 2005, the Federal Court of Australia issued a landmark ruling that Sharman, though not itself guilty of copyright infringement, had \"authorized\" Kazaa users illegally to swap copyrighted songs. The court ruled six defendants---including Kazaa\'s owners Sharman Networks, Sharman\'s Sydney-based boss Nikki Hemming and associate Kevin Bermeister---had knowingly allowed Kazaa users illegally to swap copyrighted songs. The company was ordered to modify the software within two months (a ruling enforceable only in Australia). Sharman and the other five parties faced paying millions of dollars in damages to the record labels that instigated the legal action.
On 5 December 2005, the Federal Court of Australia ceased downloads of Kazaa in Australia after Sharman Networks failed to modify their software by the 5 December deadline. Users with an Australian IP address were greeted with the message \"Important Notice: The download of the Kazaa Media Desktop by users in Australia is not permitted\" when visiting the Kazaa website. Sharman planned to appeal against the Australian decision, but ultimately settled the case as part of its global settlement with the record labels and studios in the United States.
In yet another set of related cases, in September 2003, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) filed suit in civil court against several private individuals who had shared large numbers of files with Kazaa; most of these suits were settled with monetary payments averaging \$3,000. Sharman Networks responded with a lawsuit against the RIAA, alleging that the terms of use of the network were violated and that unauthorized client software (such as Kazaa Lite) was used in the investigation to track down the individual file sharers. An effort to throw out this suit was denied in January 2004. However, that suit was also settled in 2006 (see above).
Most recently, in Duluth, Minnesota, the recording industry sued Jammie Thomas-Rasset, a 30-year-old single mother. On 5 October 2007, Thomas was ordered to pay the six record companies (Sony BMG, Arista Records LLC, Interscope Records, UMG Recordings Inc., Capitol Records Inc. and Warner Bros. Records Inc.) \$9,250 for each of the 24 songs they had focused on in this case. She was accused of sharing a total of 1,702 songs through her Kazaa account. Along with attorney fees, this would have cost Thomas half a million dollars. Thomas testified that she does not have a Kazaa account, but her testimony was complicated by the fact that she had replaced her computer\'s hard drive after the alleged downloading took place, and later than she originally said in a pre-trial deposition. Thomas-Rasset appealed the verdict and was given a new trial. In June 2009 that jury awarded the recording industry plaintiffs a judgment of \$80,000 per song, or \$1.92 million. This is less than half of the \$150,000 amount authorized by statute. The federal court found the award \"monstrous and shocking\" and reduced it to \$54,000. The recording industry offered to accept a settlement of \$25,000, with the money going to charities that support musicians. Apparently undaunted, Thomas-Rasset was able to obtain a third trial on the issue of damages. In November 2010 she was again ordered to pay for her violation, this time \$62,500 per song, for a total of \$1.5 million. Her attorneys raised a challenge to the constitutional validity of massive statutory damages, where actual damages would have been \$24. But this challenge was rejected by the supreme court in 2013. The final judgement against Thomas-Rasset was \$222,000.
## Bundled malware {#bundled_malware}
In 2006 StopBadware.org identified Kazaa as a spyware application. They identified the following components:
- **Cydoor** (spyware): Collects information on the PC\'s surfing habits and passes it on to Cydoor Desktop Media.
- **B3D** (adware): An add-on which causes advertising popups if the PC accesses a website which triggers the B3D code.
- **Altnet** (adware): A distribution network for paid \"gold\" files.
- **The Best Offers** (adware): Tracks user\'s browsing habits and internet usage to display advertisements similar to their interests.
- **InstaFinder** (hijacker): Redirects URL typing errors to InstaFinder\'s web page instead of the standard search page.
- **TopSearch** (adware): Displays paid songs and media related to a Kazaa search.
- **RX Toolbar** (spyware): The toolbar monitors all sites visited with Microsoft Internet Explorer and provides links to competitors\' websites.
- **New.net** (hijacker): A browser plugin that allowed users to access several of its own unofficial Top Level Domain names, e.g., .chat and .shop. The main purpose of this was to sell domain names such as www.record.shop which is actually www.record.shop.new.net (ICANN did not allow third-party registration of generic top level domains until 2012).
In response, \"clean\" third-party clients such as Kazaa Lite (which also provided slightly extended functionality) gained popularity with Kazaa users. First released in April 2002, by mid-2005 Kazaa Lite was almost as widely used as the official Kazaa client itself. As it connected to the same FastTrack network, it could exchange files with all Kazaa users.
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# Kazaa
## Transitional period {#transitional_period}
Kazaa\'s legal issues ended after a settlement of \$100 million in reparations to the recording industry. Without further recourse, and until the lawsuit was settled, the RIAA actively sued thousands of people across the U.S. for sharing copyrighted music over the network. Particularly, students were targeted and most were threatened with a penalty of \$750 per song. Although the lawsuits were mainly in the U.S., other countries also began to follow suit. Beginning in 2008, however, RIAA announced an end to individual lawsuits.
While Napster lasted just three years, Kazaa survived much longer. However, the lawsuits (and a failed venture into a legal, monthly music subscription service similar to Napster) eventually ended the company
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# Kingston upon Thames
**Kingston upon Thames**, colloquially known as **Kingston**, is a town in the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames, south-west London, England. It is situated on the River Thames, 10 mi south-west of Charing Cross. It is an ancient market town, notable as the place where some Saxon kings were crowned.
Historically in the county of Surrey, the ancient parish of Kingston covered both the town itself and a large surrounding area. The town was an ancient borough, having been formally incorporated in 1441, with a long history prior to that as a royal manor. From 1836 until 1965 the town formed the Municipal Borough of Kingston-upon-Thames. From 1893 to 2020 Kingston was the seat of Surrey County Council. The town became part of Greater London in 1965, when the modern borough was also created as one of the 32 London boroughs.
Kingston is identified as a metropolitan centre in the London Plan and is one of the biggest retail centres in the UK, receiving 18 million visitors a year. It is also home to Kingston University.
The Kingston upon Thames post town corresponds to the KT1 and KT2 postcodes. The wider borough also includes the post towns of New Malden, Surbiton, Chessington, parts of Worcester Park and peripheral parts of several other post towns based outside the borough. The Kingston upon Thames post town roughly corresponds to the six wards of Canbury Gardens, Coombe Hill, Kingston Gate, Kingston Town, Norbiton and Tudor, which had a combined population of 54,925 at the 2021 census, while the borough overall counted 168,063.
## Toponymy
Kingston was called *Cyninges tun* in 838 AD, *Chingestune* in 1086, *Kingeston* in 1164, *Kyngeston super Tamisiam* in 1321 and *Kingestowne upon Thames* in 1589. The name means \'the king\'s manor or estate\' from the Old English words *cyning* and *tun*. It belonged to the king in Saxon times and was the earliest royal borough.
There was historically some variation between authorities as to whether Kingston was \'on\' or \'upon\' Thames, and whether the name should be hyphenated or not. The Post Office initially adopted \'Kingston-on-Thames\', the Ordnance Survey used \'Kingston upon Thames\', and the old borough council preferred the hyphenated \'Kingston-upon-Thames\'. As late as 1959 the borough council was petitioning the other bodies to standardise the name as \'Kingston-upon-Thames\'. The London Borough created in 1965 used the form \'Kingston upon Thames\' without hyphens, since when that form has been used by the council, Ordnance Survey, and as the post town.
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# Kingston upon Thames
## History
### Early history {#early_history}
The first surviving record of Kingston is from AD 838 as the site of a meeting between King Egbert of Wessex and Ceolnoth, Archbishop of Canterbury. Kingston lay on the boundary between the ancient kingdoms of Wessex and Mercia, until in the early tenth century when King Æthelstan united both to create the kingdom of England. According to the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle*, two tenth-century kings were consecrated in Kingston: Æthelstan (925), and Æthelred the Unready (978). There are certain other kings who are said to have been crowned there, but for whom the evidence (including the writings of Florence of Worcester and Ralph de Diceto) is less substantial: Edward the Elder (902), Edmund I (939), Eadred (946), Eadwig (956), Edgar the Peaceful (c. 960) and Edward the Martyr (975). It was later thought that the coronations were conducted in the chapel of St Mary, which collapsed in 1730. Tradition dating to the 18th century holds that a large stone recovered from the ruins played a part in the coronations. It was initially used as a mounting block, but in 1850 it was moved to a more dignified place in the market before finally being moved to its current location in the grounds of the Guildhall.
From Medieval times Shrovetide Football was played annually at Kingston upon Thames and in surrounding towns including Richmond and Twickenham. The windows of the houses and shops were boarded up and from 12 noon the inhabitants would kick several balls around the town before retiring to the public houses. The last game was played in 1866, by which time the urban development of the town meant it caused too much damage and the custom was outlawed.
### Local government {#local_government}
Kingston upon Thames formed an ancient parish in the Kingston hundred of Surrey. The parish of Kingston upon Thames covered a large area including numerous chapelries and townships which subsequently became separate parishes, including Hook, Kew, New Malden, Petersham, Richmond, Surbiton, Thames Ditton and East Molesey.
Kingston was a royal manor. It was granted various charters allowing it the right to hold markets and fairs, with the oldest surviving charter being from King John in 1208. A subsequent charter in 1441 formally incorporated the town as a borough.
The borough covered a much smaller area than the ancient parish, although as new parishes were split off the borough and parish eventually became identical in 1894. The borough was reformed to become a municipal borough in 1836 under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, becoming the Municipal Borough of Kingston-upon-Thames. It had been long been known as a royal borough through custom; its right to the title was formally confirmed by George V in 1927. Kingston upon Thames was the seat of Surrey County Council from 1893, when it moved from Newington to a new headquarters at County Hall. The county council remained based at County Hall until 2020, despite Kingston having been removed from its administrative area in 1965.
In 1965, Greater London was created and the old municipal borough was abolished. Its former area was merged with that of the Municipal Borough of Surbiton and the Municipal Borough of Malden and Coombe, to form the London Borough of Kingston upon Thames. At the request of Kingston upon Thames London Borough Council another royal charter was granted by Queen Elizabeth II entitling it to continue using the title \"Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames\" for the new borough.
### Urban development {#urban_development}
Kingston was built at the first crossing point of the Thames upstream from London Bridge and a bridge still exists at the same site. It was this \'great bridge\' that gave it its early importance in the 13th century. Kingston was occupied by the Romans, and later it was either a royal residence or a royal demesne. There is a record of a council held there in 838, at which Egbert of Wessex, King of Wessex, and his son Ethelwulf of Wessex were present. In the Domesday Book it was held by William the Conqueror. Its domesday assets were: a church, five mills, four fisheries worth 10s, 27 ploughs, 40 acre of meadow, woodland worth six hogs. It rendered £31 10s (£31.50).
In 1730, the chapel containing the royal effigies collapsed, burying the sexton, who was digging a grave, the sexton\'s daughter and another person. The daughter survived this accident and was her father\'s successor as sexton. Kingston sent members to early Parliaments, until a petition by the inhabitants prayed to be relieved from the burden. Another chapel, the collegiate chapel of St Mary Magdalene, The Lovekyn Chapel, still exists. It was founded in 1309 by a former mayor of London, Edward Lovekyn. It is the only private chantry chapel to survive the Reformation.
With the coming of the railway in the 1830s, there was much building development to the south of the town. Much of this became the new town of Surbiton, but the Surbiton Park estate, built in the grounds of Surbiton Place in the 1850s, remained part of Kingston during the period of the Municipal Borough of Kingston-upon-Thames.
A permanent military presence was established in the borough with the completion of The Barracks in 1875.
### Economic development {#economic_development}
Kingston evolved as a market town from the Saxon period, with goods transported on the Thames and over land via the crossing point. Rights to hold markets were amongst the liberties granted by the royal charter of 1208 and the market formally established in 1242. A horse fair was held at a site on the downstream side of the river north of the bridge and a market extended from there to around the church by the 17th century and further south towards the course of the Hogsmill River. Goods traded included oats, wheat, rye, malt, apples and other fruit, flowers, wool, leather and cheese. Cattle, meat and fish were also traded. The regular Saturday market was supplemented by a Wednesday market in 1662. In addition to markets, regular fairs were held. Local industries included pottery, brick making, tanning, leather-working, fishing, milling, brewing and boat-building.
The presence of fabric and wood-working craft skills associated with boat-building was a factor in the choice of Kingston as the site chosen by Tommy Sopwith to expand production of early aircraft from Sopwith Aviation\'s origins at Brooklands. Well known aviation personalities Sydney Camm, Harry Hawker and Tommy Sopwith were responsible for much of Kingston\'s achievements in aviation. For much of the 20th century, Kingston was a major military aircraft manufacturing centre specialising in fighter aircraft -- first with Sopwith Aviation, H G Hawker Engineering, later Hawker Aircraft, Hawker Siddeley and eventually British Aerospace. The renowned Sopwith Camel, Hawker Fury, Hurricane, Hunter and Harrier jump jet were all designed and built in the town and examples of all of these aircraft can be seen today at the nearby Brooklands Museum in Weybridge. British Aerospace finally closed its Lower Ham Road factory in 1992; part of the site was subsequently redeveloped for housing but the riverside part houses a community centre and sports complex.
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# Kingston upon Thames
## History
### Recent developments {#recent_developments}
Following the construction of the Kingston Relief Road (commonly known as the \"Kingston one-way system\") in 1989, major shopping streets in the town centre and the historic Market Place were pedestrianised. Two major commercial developments were also built in Kingston town centre - with John Lewis Kingston department store opening in 1990 and the Bentall Centre shopping centre opening in 1992. In the early 2000s, the Charter Quay development south of Kingston Bridge completed the riverside walk, as well as adding bars, restaurants and the Rose Theatre, which opened in 2008 with Sir Peter Hall as the director. Also, in 2001, the old Kingston bus garage and bus station, closed the previous year, was demolished and the site redeveloped as the Rotunda complex, with an Odeon Cinema, restaurants and tenpin bowling.
## Governance
Kingston straddles two Parliamentary constituencies: the area north of the railway line is part of Richmond Park, which is represented by Sarah Olney of the Liberal Democrats, and the area south of the railway line (including the ancient town centre) is part of Kingston and Surbiton which is represented by Ed Davey of the Liberal Democrats.
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# Kingston upon Thames
## Notable locations {#notable_locations}
Central Kingston is a busy, largely pedestrian and predominantly retail centre, with a small number of commercial offices and civic buildings.
The shopping centre includes a shopping mall, \"The Bentall Centre\", containing the Bentalls department store and large branches of chain stores found in many British high streets. There is a large branch of the John Lewis department store group, with a Waitrose supermarket in the basement. A smaller 1960s shopping centre called Eden Walk exists nearby. The Rotunda, in a former Bentalls furniture depository building (a local landmark), includes a bowling alley, fitness centre, a 15-screen Odeon multiplex cinema and a few restaurants.
The ancient market is still held daily in the Market Place, including such produce as fish, jewellery, exotic foods, local foods and flowers.
Kingston\'s civic buildings include Kingston Museum, public library, modern Crown Court, smaller County Court and the Guildhall. The Guildhall is located by the part-culverted mouth of the Hogsmill River, and houses Kingston Council and magistrates\' court. A short distance away is the County Hall Building which houses the main offices of Surrey County Council. From 1893 to 1965, before Kingston became one of the 32 London boroughs of Greater London, it was the county town of Surrey following the period of 1791--1893 when Newington had this role. Guildford has officially reclaimed this ancient, now ceremonial title as Kingston is no longer administered by Surrey.
Kingston\'s main open space is the River Thames, with its lively frontage of bars and restaurants. Downstream there is a walk through Canbury Gardens towards Teddington Lock. Upstream there is a promenade crossing the Hogsmill river and reaching almost to Surbiton. Eagle Brewery Wharf is a council-owned public space located on the riverside. Across Kingston Bridge is a tree lined river bank fronting the expanse of Hampton Court Park.
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# Kingston upon Thames
## Economy
Kingston has many pubs and restaurants and several public houses in the centre have become restaurants or bars. The more traditional pubs tend to be in the northern part of the town (Canbury) and include The Canbury Arms, Park Tavern, The Wych Elm and Willoughby Arms. Further south are found the Druid\'s Head, the Spring Grove, The Cricketers, The Albion Tavern, The Duke of Buckingham, and several small local pubs around Fairfield. The Druid\'s Head is notable as one of the first taverns to make syllabub, the famous dessert, in the 18th century. There are several Chinese, Indian, Thai and Italian restaurants.
The local newspapers are the weekly *Surrey Comet*, which celebrated its 150th year in 2004, and the *Kingston Guardian*.
In 2010 retail footprint research, Kingston ranked 25th in terms of retail expenditure in the UK at £810 million, equal to Covent Garden and just ahead of Southampton. This puts it as generating the fifth highest level of retail sales in Greater London, passing Croydon, with just four West End alternatives ahead. In 2005, Kingston was 24th with £864 million, and 3rd in London. In a 2015 study by CACI, Kingston was ranked 28th in the UK in the Hot 100 Retail Locations - and the second highest in Greater London after Croydon. In 2018, Kingston was ranked joint 5th in the UK by Knight Frank in the \"High Street Investment Ranking\", only bettered by Cambridge, Bath, Chichester and Reading.
In 2013 Kingston became the location for a local currency scheme, designed to boost and strengthen the local economy in Kingston, as part of the Transition towns initiative. The Kingston pound began as a digital currency, and from 2018 existed in paper format, with denominations of K£1;K£5;K£10;and K£20 designed by graphic design students from Kingston University. These were taken out of circulation in 2021, but have been sold to many collectors all over the world. The Kingston Pound is a \'tagged\' sterling that can be exchanged either way on a 1 for 1 basis without any penalty.
As of 2011, Kingston upon Thames has the fourth highest retail turnover for comparison goods in Greater London, £432 million annually, only bettered by the West End, Shepherd\'s Bush and Stratford. As of 2012, Kingston has 276438 sqm of total town centre floorspace, the 3rd highest in London.
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# Kingston upon Thames
## Culture
A notable dramatic arts venue is the Rose Theatre, opened on 16 January 2008 and seating about 900 people. The audience are arranged around the semi-circular stage. All Saints Church is host to classical choral and music concerts mostly on Saturdays and houses a Frobenius organ. There are a number of choral societies including the Kingston Orpheus Choir and the Kingston Choral Society, an amateur symphony orchestra the Kingston Philharmonia, and the Kingston and District Chamber Music Society. A number of annual festivals are organised by the Council and Kingston Arts Council including Kingston Readers\' Festival, Think-in-Kingston and the Festival of the Voice. Kingston University runs the Stanley Picker Gallery and Kingston Museum has a changing gallery on the first floor. A regular singing group at the Rose Theatre caters to schools and families.
John Galsworthy the author was born on Kingston Hill and Jacqueline Wilson grew up, and went to school in Kingston and still lives there today. Both are commemorated at Kingston University -- Galsworthy in the newest building and Wilson in the main hall. Also commemorated at the university is photographer Eadweard Muybridge who was born at Kingston and changed the spelling of his first name in reference to the name of the Saxon king on the Coronation Stone. He was a pioneer in the photography of the moving image. R. C. Sherriff the playwright is also associated with Kingston, writing his first play to support Kingston Rowing Club. An earlier writer born in Kingston was John Cleland.
Kingston has been covered in literature, film and television. It is where the comic Victorian novel *Three Men in a Boat* by Jerome K. Jerome begins; cannons aimed against the Martians in H. G. Wells\' *The War of the Worlds* are positioned on Kingston Hill; in *The Rainbow* by D. H. Lawrence the youngest Brangwen dreams of a job in Kingston upon Thames in a long, lyrical passage; Mr. Knightly in *Emma* by Jane Austen regularly visits Kingston, although the narrative never follows him there.
Fine art is also a prominent feature in the history of Kingston. Both John Hoyland and Jeremy Moon worked from permanent studios in Kingston and many artists and designers have studied at the university including Fiona Banner, John Bratby, David Nash and Jasper Morrison.
Early in his music career, the guitarist and singer-songwriter Eric Clapton spent time busking in Kingston upon Thames, having grown up and studied in the area. Rock band Cardiacs were formed in the town.
Recently,`{{when|date=September 2020}}`{=mediawiki} a scene from *Mujhse Dosti Karoge*, a Bollywood film starring Hrithik Roshan as the leading actor, was filmed by the toppled telephone boxes sculpture in Old London Road.
The 1974 Doctor Who story \"Invasion of the Dinosaurs\" used several locations in the town for filming. The 2008 series of *Primeval*, shown on ITV1 in January, featured almost an entire episode filmed inside the Bentall Centre and John Lewis department stores. Kingston featured in *Primeval* again in May 2009 with several scenes shot in and around the Market Place. Nipper, the famous \"His Master\'s Voice\" dog, is buried in the town under Lloyds Bank. His owners lived nearby in Fife Road.
Kingston Green Fair was held annually from 1987 to 2008 in Canbury Gardens, next to the river, on the Spring Bank Holiday. The word \"Green\" in the title refers to the ethos of the fair as promoting sustainable development. For instance no meat or other products derived from dead animals were allowed to be sold, and no electricity was permitted on the site unless generated by wind, sun, or bicycle power.
### Public art {#public_art}
One of the more unusual sights in Kingston is *Out of Order* by David Mach, a sculpture in the form of twelve disused red telephone boxes that have been tipped up to lean against one another in an arrangement resembling dominoes. The work was commissioned in 1988 as part of the landscaping for the new Relief Road, and was described by its creator as \"anti-minimalist\".
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# Kingston upon Thames
## Transport
### Rail
Kingston is principally served by Kingston railway station, which opened in 1863.
The station is in London fare zone 6 and is served by South Western Railway trains from London Waterloo. Trains to Waterloo link Kingston directly to destinations such as Wimbledon, Clapham Junction and Vauxhall. Eastbound trains travel to Shepperton via Teddington, Hampton and Sunbury. Eastbound trains also travel on the Kingston loop line towards Teddington, Strawberry Hill, Twickenham and Richmond, after which trains continue towards Waterloo. From Waterloo, trains to Kingston are advertised towards \"Shepperton\" and \"Strawberry Hill\".
A nearby station in Norbiton (in fare zone 5) is on the same lines.
Nearby Surbiton station -- originally named Kingston when it opened in 1838 -- is on the South West Main Line in London fare zone 6. Surbiton is also served by South Western Railway trains from Waterloo. Southbound services link Surbiton to destinations in Surrey and Hampshire, such as Hampton Court, Guildford, Woking and Basingstoke. The station building at Surbiton was built in 1937, designed in an Art Deco style by James Robb Scott. It has been Grade II listed since 1983.
### Bus
Kingston is served by two bus stations, Cromwell Road and Fairfield, and a large number of bus stops, with destinations across Greater London and Surrey including links directly to Heathrow Airport.
### Road
The Kingston Bypass passes to the south and east of Kingston. The bypass carries the A3, which links the area to Merton, Wandsworth, Clapham and the City of London to the north. To the south, the A3 runs to Portsmouth via Guildford and Petersfield.
A portion of the bypass carries the A309 to Thames Ditton, Hampton Court and the A308.
There are several radial routes including:
- **A238** towards Raynes Park, Wimbledon, Colliers Wood and Tooting
- **A240** towards Surbiton, Tolworth, Ewell, Epsom, Banstead and Reigate
- **A2043** towards New Malden, Worcester Park, Cheam and Sutton
- **A307** northbound towards Petersfield, Richmond and the M4, or southbound towards Thames Ditton, Esher and Cobham
- **A308** eastbound towards the A3, Putney and Wandsworth and westbound towards Hampton Court, Sunbury-on-Thames (for M3) and Staines-upon-Thames
- **A310** via A308 northbound towards Teddington, Twickenham and Hounslow
#### Kingston Relief Road {#kingston_relief_road}
In the 1960s, planners proposed a partially elevated ring road encircling the town centre, to alleviate congestion on major shopping streets and traffic heading towards Kingston Bridge. After objections from local residents, an interim one-way system was implemented in July 1963. Following this, the Kingston Relief Road was constructed in Kingston town centre in the late 1980s. Commonly known as the \"Kingston one-way system\", the road encircles the town centre, allowing for major shopping streets such as Clarence Street to be pedestrianised. On the western side of the town centre, the road passes underneath John Lewis Kingston before crossing the River Thames via Kingston Bridge. As part of the project, two bus stations were constructed, cycle lanes installed and several artworks commissioned including *Out of Order* by David Mach and *River Celebration* by Carole Hodgson.
### River
Kingston Town End and Kingston Turks piers are situated in Kingston. Turk Launches operates a Summer-only river tour between Hampton Court and Richmond St Helena.
### Cycling
There is a network of cycle lanes throughout Kingston linking the area to destinations throughout south-west London and England.
Key routes include:
- **National Cycle Route 4** - A route from Greenwich in south-east London to St Davids in west Wales. NCR4 follows the route of the River Thames near Kingston, crossing from the south side of the river to the north over Kingston Bridge. Northbound, the route runs towards Central London and Greenwich via Ham, Richmond Park and Barnes. Westbound, NCR4 runs towards Reading via Walton, Egham and Eton. The route is part of **EuroVelo 2**, a route from Moscow to Galway.
- **Cycleway 28** - A two-way, segregated cycle track between Kingston and Seething Wells along Portsmouth Road.
- **Cycleway 29** - A cycle route, much of which is two-way and segregated from other road traffic between Kingston and Fishponds Park. Much of the route follows Penrhyn Road and Ewell Road.
- **Cycleway 30** - A segregated cycle track between C29 at Kingston to Putney Vale, following the route of A308 London Road.
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# Kingston upon Thames
## Education
Kingston is the location of Kingston University and Kingston College. Primary schools in the town include Latchmere School, Fernhill School, St Luke\'s School, King Athelstan School and St Agatha\'s Catholic Primary School. Secondary schools in the town include The Kingston Academy, Tiffin School, Tiffin Girls\' School and Kingston Grammar School, all of which have large catchment areas across Greater London and Surrey.
The growth and development of Kingston Polytechnic, and its transformation into Kingston University in 1992, has made Kingston a university town.
## Religious sites {#religious_sites}
The 12th-century All Saints Church serves the Church of England parish of Kingston which lies ecclesiastically in the Diocese of Southwark, although there has been a church in Kingston since at least 838. The suffragan or Area Bishop of Kingston is the Rt Rev Dr Richard Cheetham. Other Anglican churches in Kingston, of more recent date, are St John the Evangelist and St Luke.
Kingston lies in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Southwark, and there is a Roman Catholic Church dedicated to Saint Agatha.
Kingston is also the home of the Kingston Surbiton & District Synagogue. It also has a Quaker meeting house, a Mosque and a Sikh Gurdwara.
Lady Booth Road, formerly Fairfield Road, is named to commemorate the former location of the Salvation Army citadel.
## Sport
Kingston is the home of four association football clubs, Chelsea F.C. Women who play at the Kingsmeadow Stadium, Corinthian-Casuals and Kingstonian who play in Tolworth, and Chessington & Hook United who play in Chessington. Chelsea F.C. Women play in the FA Women\'s Super League, whereas Kingstonian, Corinthian-Casuals and Chessington & Hook United are non-league clubs.
Kingston Athletic Club and Polytechnic Harriers are based at the neighbouring Kingsmeadow athletics stadium. This stadium has a 400m track which is floodlit, a gym and 5-a-side football facilities. Kingston Rugby Club is based on the outskirts of the town, and Kingston Rowing Club (founded in 1858) is based in Canbury Gardens on the River Thames. The Club holds two large timed race events (HEADs) in the Spring and Autumn. Kingston Regatta takes place on the river just above the bridge over a weekend in early July.
The town has a large leisure centre next to Fairfield named the Kingfisher Centre, which contains an indoor swimming pool and gymnasium. Sport in Kingston is promoted and encouraged by Sport Kingston, an organisation funded by the Royal Borough of Kingston.
Kingston Wildcats School of Basketball is a community basketball development club that practices and plays its home fixtures at Chessington School, competing in the Surrey League and Basketball England National League.
Old Kingstonaian Hockey Club, Old Cranleighan Hockey Club, Surbiton Hockey Club and Teddington Hockey Club are local field hockey clubs that compete in the Women\'s England Hockey League, the Men\'s England Hockey League and the London Hockey League.
### London 2012 Summer Olympics {#london_2012_summer_olympics}
Prior to the opening of the games, Kingston hosted the 2012 Summer Olympics torch relay on two occasions with the flame travelling through the borough on 24 July 2012 and aboard the *Gloriana* in a cauldron on 27 July 2012 en route to the Olympic Stadium for the opening ceremony. The borough was the setting for four cycling events during the Olympics, the men\'s road race, women\'s road race, men\'s road time trial and women\'s road time trial.
Following the games, the London--Surrey Classic professional road bicycle race ran through the town from 2013 to 2018, using a similar course to the Olympic road race. Following the COVID-19 pandemic, the race will not return to Kingston, with the RideLondon festival using the roads of Essex instead.
## Geography
Kingston is 3 mi south-east of Twickenham, 5 mi north-east of Walton-on-Thames, and 6 mi north-west of Sutton.
### Nearest places {#nearest_places}
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## Town twinning {#town_twinning}
Kingston upon Thames has been twinned with Oldenburg in Germany since 2010. It also has been historically twinned with Delft in the Netherlands. Since 2016, Kingston upon Thames has been twinned with Jaffna in Sri Lanka
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# Kara Sea
The **Kara Sea** is a marginal sea, separated from the Barents Sea to the west by the Kara Strait and Novaya Zemlya, and from the Laptev Sea to the east by the Severnaya Zemlya archipelago. Ultimately the Kara, Barents and Laptev Seas are all extensions of the Arctic Ocean north of Siberia.
The Kara Sea\'s northern limit is marked geographically by a line running from Cape Kohlsaat in Graham Bell Island, Franz Josef Land, to Cape Molotov (Arctic Cape), the northernmost point of Komsomolets Island in Severnaya Zemlya.
The Kara Sea is roughly 1,450 km long and 970 km wide with an area of around 880000 km2 and a mean depth of 110 m.
Its main ports are Novy Port and Dikson and it is important as a fishing ground although the sea is ice-bound for all but two months of the year. The Kara Sea contains the East-Prinovozemelsky field (an extension of the West Siberian Oil Basin), containing significant undeveloped petroleum and natural gas. In 2014, US government sanctions resulted in Exxon having until 26 September to discontinue its operations in the Kara Sea.
## Name origin {#name_origin}
It is named after the Kara river (flowing into Baydaratskaya Bay), which is now relatively insignificant but which played an important role in the Russian conquest of northern Siberia. The Kara river name is derived from a Nenets word meaning \'hummocked ice\'.
## Geography
### Extent
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Kara Sea as follows:
: *On the West.* The Eastern limit of Barents Sea \[Cape Kohlsaat to Cape Zhelaniya (Desire); West and Southwest coast of Novaya Zemlya to Cape Kussov Noss and thence to Western entrance Cape, Dolgaya Bay (70 15 N 58 25 E display=inline) on Vaigach Island. Through Vaigach Island to Cape Greben; thence to Cape Belyi Noss on the mainland\].
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: *On the North.* Cape Kohlsaat to Cape Molotov (81 16 N 93 43 E display=inline) (Northern extremity of Severnaya Zemlya on Komsomolets Island).
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: *On the East.* Komsomolets Island from Cape Molotov to South Eastern Cape; thence to Cape Vorochilov, Oktiabrskaya Revolutziya Island to Cape Anuchin. Then to Cape Unslicht on Bolshevik Island. Bolshevik Island to Cape Yevgenov. Thence to Cape Pronchisthehev on the main land (see Russian chart No. 1484 of the year 1935).
### Islands
There are many islands and island groups in the Kara Sea. Unlike the other marginal seas of the Arctic, where most islands lie along the coasts, in the Kara Sea many islands, like the Arkticheskiy Institut Islands, the Izvesti Tsik Islands, the Kirov Islands, Uedineniya or Lonely Island, Wiese Island, and Voronina Island are located in the open sea of its central regions.
The largest group in the Kara Sea is by far the Nordenskiöld Archipelago, with five large subgroups and over ninety islands. Other important islands in the Kara Sea are Bely Island, Dikson Island, Taymyr Island, the Kamennyye Islands and Oleni Island. Despite the high latitude, all islands are unglaciated except for Ushakov Island at the extreme northern limit of the Kara Sea.
### Current patterns {#current_patterns}
Water circulation patterns in the Kara Sea are complex. The Kara Sea tends to be sea ice covered between September and May, and between May and August heavily influenced by freshwater run-off (roughly 1200 km^3^ yr^−1^) from the Russian rivers (e.g., Ob, Yenisei, Pyasina, Pur, and Taz). The Kara Sea is also affected by the water inflow from the Barents Sea, which brings 0.6 Sv in August and 2.6 Sv in December. The advected water originates from the Atlantic, but it was cooled and mixed with freshwater in the Barents Sea before it reaches the Kara Sea. Simulations with the Hamburg shelf ocean model (HAMSOM) suggest that no typical water current pattern consists in the Kara Sea throughout the year. Depending on the freshwater run-off, the dominant wind patterns, and the sea ice formation, the water currents change.
### Connections to global weather {#connections_to_global_weather}
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# Kara Sea
## History
The Kara Sea was formerly known as **Oceanus Scythicus** or **Mare Glaciale** and it appears with these names in 16th century maps. Since it is closed by ice most of the year it remained largely unexplored until the late nineteenth century.
In 1556 Stephen Borough sailed in the *Searchthrift* to try to reach the Ob River, but he was stopped by ice and fog at the entrance to the Kara Sea. Not until 1580 did another English expedition, under Arthur Pet and Charles Jackman, attempt its passage. They too failed to penetrate it, and England lost interest in searching for the Northeast Passage.
In 1736--1737 Russian Admiral Stepan Malygin undertook a voyage from Dolgy Island in the Barents Sea. The two ships in this early expedition were the *Perviy*, under Malygin\'s command and the *Vtoroy* under Captain A. Skuratov. After entering the little-explored Kara Sea, they sailed to the mouth of the Ob River. Malygin took careful observations of these hitherto almost unknown areas of the Russian Arctic coastline. With this knowledge he was able to draw the first somewhat accurate map of the Arctic shores between the Pechora River and the Ob River.
In 1878, Finnish explorer Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld on ship *Vega* sailed across the Kara Sea from Gothenburg, along the coast of Siberia, and despite the ice packs, got to 180° longitude by early September. Frozen in for the winter in the Chukchi Sea, Nordenskiöld waited and bartered with the local Chukchi people. The following July, the Vega was freed from the ice, and continued to Yokohama, Japan. He became the first to force the Northeast Passage. The largest group of islands in the Kara Sea, the Nordenskiöld Archipelago, has been named in his honour. The year 1912 was a tragic one for Russian explorers in the Kara Sea. In that fateful year unbroken consolidated ice blocked the way for the Northern Sea Route and three expeditions that had to cross the Kara Sea became trapped and failed: Sedov\'s on vessel *St. Foka*, Brusilov\'s on the *St. Anna*, and Rusanov\'s on the *Gercules*. Georgy Sedov intended to reach Franz Josef Land on ship, leave a depot over there, and sledge to the pole. Due to the heavy ice the vessel could only reach Novaya Zemlya the first summer and wintered in Franz Josef Land. In February 1914 Sedov headed to the North Pole with two sailors and three sledges, but he fell ill and died on Rudolf Island. Georgy Brusilov attempted to navigate the Northeast Passage, was trapped in the Kara Sea, and drifted northward for more than two years reaching latitude 83° 17\' N. Thirteen men, headed by Valerian Albanov, left the vessel and started across the ice to Franz Josef Land, but only Albanov and one sailor (Alexander Konrad) survived after a gruesome three-month ordeal. The survivors brought the ship log of *St. Anna*, the map of her drift, and daily meteorological records, but the destiny of those who stayed on board remains unknown. In the same year the expedition of Vladimir Rusanov was lost in the Kara Sea. The prolonged absence of those three expeditions stirred public attention, and a few small rescue expeditions were launched, including Jan Nagórski\'s five air flights over the sea and ice from the NW coast of Novaya Zemlya.
After the Russian Revolution in 1917, the scale and scope of exploration of the Kara Sea increased greatly as part of the work of developing the Northern Sea Route. Polar stations, of which five already existed in 1917, increased in number, providing meteorologic, ice reconnaissance, and radio facilities. By 1932 there were 24 stations, by 1948 about 80, and by the 1970s more than 100. The use of icebreakers and, later, aircraft as platforms for scientific work were developed. In 1929 and 1930 the Icebreaker Sedov carried groups of scientists to Severnaya Zemlya, the last major piece of unsurveyed territory in the Soviet Arctic; the archipelago was completely mapped under Georgy Ushakov between 1930 and 1932.
Particularly worth noting are three cruises of the Icebreaker *Sadko*, which went farther north than most; in 1935 and 1936 the last unexplored areas in the northern Kara Sea were examined and the small and elusive Ushakov Island was discovered.
In the summer of 1942, German Kriegsmarine warships and submarines entered the Kara Sea to destroy as many Russian vessels as possible. This naval campaign was named \"Operation Wunderland\". Its success was limited by the presence of ice floes, as well as bad weather and fog. These effectively protected the Soviet ships, preventing the damage that could have been inflicted on the Soviet fleet under fair weather conditions.
In October 2010, the Russian government awarded a license to Russian oil company Rosneft for developing the East-Prinovozemelsky oil and gas structure in the Kara Sea.
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# Kara Sea
## Nuclear dumping {#nuclear_dumping}
There is concern about radioactive contamination from nuclear waste the former Soviet Union dumped in the sea and the effect this will have on the marine environment. According to an official \"White Paper\" report compiled and released by the Russian government in March 1993, the Soviet Union dumped six nuclear submarine reactors and ten nuclear reactors into the Kara Sea between 1965 and 1988. Solid high- and low-level wastes unloaded from Northern Fleet nuclear submarines during reactor refuelings were dumped in the Kara Sea, mainly in the shallow fjords of Novaya Zemlya, where the depths of the dumping sites range from 12 to 135 meters, and in the Novaya Zemlya Trough at depths of up to 380 meters. Liquid low-level wastes were released in the open Barents and Kara Seas. A subsequent appraisal by the International Atomic Energy Agency showed that releases are low and localized from the 16 naval reactors (reported by the IAEA as having come from seven submarines and the icebreaker *Lenin*) which were dumped at five sites in the Kara Sea. Most of the dumped reactors had suffered an accident.
The Soviet submarine K-27 was scuttled in Stepovogo Bay with its two reactors filled with spent nuclear fuel. At a seminar in February 2012 it was revealed that the reactors on board the submarine could re-achieve criticality and explode (a buildup of heat leading to a steam explosion vs. nuclear). The catalogue of waste dumped at sea by the Soviets, according to documents seen by Bellona, includes some 17,000 containers of radioactive waste, 19 ships containing radioactive waste, 14 nuclear reactors, including five that still contain spent nuclear fuel; 735 other pieces of radioactively contaminated heavy machinery, and the K-27 nuclear submarine with its two reactors loaded with nuclear fuel.
## Nature reserve {#nature_reserve}
The Great Arctic State Nature Reserve---the largest nature reserve of Russia---was founded on 11 May 1993, by Resolution No. 431 of the Government of the Russian Federation (RF). The Kara Sea Islands section (4,000 km^2^) of the Great Arctic Nature Reserve includes: the Sergei Kirov Archipelago, the Voronina Island, the Izvestiy TSIK Islands, the Arctic Institute Islands, the Svordrup Island, Uedineniya (Ensomheden) and a number of smaller islands. This section represents rather fully the natural and biological diversity of Arctic sea islands of the eastern part of the Kara Sea.
Nearby, the Franz Josef Land and Severny Island in northern Novaya Zemlya are also registered as a sanctuary, the Russian Arctic National Park
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16,908 |
# Kadiogo Province
**Kadiogo** is a province of Burkina Faso, located in its Centre Region. Its area is of 2,805 km^2^, containing six departments and a population of 3,032,668 (2019). Its capital is also the state capital, Ouagadougou. It features the central plateau of the country. It is highly urbanized and is both the most populated and the most densely populated province.
## Departments
Kadiogo is divided into seven departments:
+-----------------------------+------------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+
| Department | Capital city | Area in km^2^ | Population\ | Population\ |
| | | | (Census 2006) | (Census 2019) |
+=============================+==================+===============+===============+===============+
| Ouagadougou Department | Ouagadougou | 519.8 | 1,475,223 | 2,453,496 |
+-----------------------------+------------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+
| Komki-Ipala Department | Komki-Ipala | 221.1 | 20,562 | 22,556 |
+-----------------------------+------------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+
| Komsilga Department | Komsilga | 317.5 | 53,108 | 101,193 |
+-----------------------------+------------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+
| Koubri Department | Koubri | 637.8 | 43,928 | 60,802 |
+-----------------------------+------------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+
| Pabré Department | Pabré | 408.4 | 27,896 | 40,713 |
+-----------------------------+------------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+
| Saaba Department | Saaba | 447.9 | 50,885 | 285,081 |
+-----------------------------+------------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+
| Tanghin-Dassouri Department | Tanghin-Dassouri | 316
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# KAB-500KR
The **KAB-500Kr** (Correctable air bomb - 500 kg) is an electro-optical TV-guided fire and forget bomb developed by the Soviet Air Force in the 1980s. It remains in service with the CIS and various export customers.
The seeker employs a gimballed daylight television imaging sensor under a wide angle glass dome. Unlike the earlier US GBU-8 HOBOS and AGM-65 Maverick which employed contrast lock technology, the -Kr series guidance system employs Scene Matching Area Correlation technology more akin to the US Navy DAMASK seeker or Tomahawk DSMAC. This results in the ability to attack low contrast targets by exploiting the contrast of nearby terrain features or objects.
The bomb is 305 cm (10 ft) long and weighs 520 kg, of which 380 kg is a hardened, armor-piercing warhead capable of penetrating up to 1.5 metres (5 ft) of reinforced concrete. The weapon\'s seeker can lock onto a target at ranges of up to 15 to, depending on visibility. The **KAB-500-OD** variant is equipped with a fuel-air explosive warhead. The technology of KAB-500Kr is also used for larger bombs, such as KAB-1500Kr based on the 1500 kg class FAB-1500 iron bomb. There is also the training bomb KAB-500Kr-U.
The KAB-500S-E is a version with satellite guidance
| 207 |
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16,916 |
# KAB-500L
The **KAB-500L** is a laser-guided bomb developed by the Soviet Air Force, entering service in 1975. It remains in service with the CIS and post-Soviet Russian Aerospace Forces.
The KAB-500L is 3.05 m long and weighs 525 kg. Its warhead makes up 450 kg of the total weight, of which roughly 50% is blast-effect high explosive. Russian sources credit it with a CEP of 7 m. The technology of the KAB-500L is also used for larger bombs, such as the KAB-1500L family.
It is also deployed by the Indian Air Force. The primary launch platform is Su-30MKI. This bomb is also used by Royal Malaysian Air Force on its Sukhoi Su-30MKM.
## KAB-500S-E {#kab_500s_e}
KAB-500S-E is a Precision-Guided Munition (PGM) whose guidance system is based on GLONASS. The weapon can be dropped from aircraft flying at an altitude from 500 metres to 5000 metres and with an airspeed of 500--1150 km/h. The CEP is 7--12 metres. These bombs were used for the first time in the Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War in September 2015
| 179 |
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16,921 |
# Knowledge Aided Retrieval in Activity Context
**Knowledge Aided Retrieval in Activity Context** (**KARNAC**) is a system being developed in the United States for use in profiling different categories of terrorist attacks to determine the components of possible future terrorist incidents.
Information for KARNAC is generally to be derived from structured, semi-structured and unstructured databases. This would include information derived from gun registrations, driver\'s licenses, residential and criminal records, as well as the Internet, newspapers and county records. For example, the system might raise an alert if someone attempted to buy components for bomb making, hired a car and rented a hotel room near the White House
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# Kerameikos
**Kerameikos** (*Κεραμεικός*, `{{IPA|el|ce.ɾa.miˈkos|pron}}`{=mediawiki}) also known by its Latinized form **Ceramicus**, is an area of Athens, Greece, located to the northwest of the Acropolis, which includes an extensive area both within and outside the ancient city walls, on both sides of the Dipylon Gate and by the banks of the Eridanos River. It was the potters\' quarter of the city, from which the English word \"ceramic\" is derived, and was also the site of an important cemetery and numerous funerary sculptures erected along the Sacred Way, a road from Athens to Eleusis.
## History and description {#history_and_description}
The area took its name from the city square or dēmos (δῆμος) of the Kerameis (Κεραμεῖς, potters), which in turn derived its name from the word κέραμος (*kéramos*, \"pottery clay\", from which the English word \"ceramic\" is derived). The \"Inner Kerameikos\" was the former \"potters\' quarter\" within the city and \"Outer Kerameikos\" covers the cemetery and also the *Dēmósion Sēma* (δημόσιον σῆμα, public graveyard) just outside the city walls, where Pericles delivered his funeral oration in 431 BC. The cemetery was also where the Ηiera Hodos (the Sacred Way, i.e. the road to Eleusis) began, along which the procession moved for the Eleusinian Mysteries. The quarter was located there because of the abundance of clay mud carried over by the Eridanos River.
The area has undergone a number of archaeological excavations in recent years, though the excavated area covers only a small portion of the ancient *dēmos*. It was originally an area of marshland along the banks of the Eridanos river which was used as a cemetery as long ago as the 3rd millennium BC. It became the site of an organised cemetery from about 1200 BC; numerous cist graves and burial offerings from the period have been discovered by archaeologists. Houses were constructed on the higher drier ground to the south. During the Archaic period increasingly large and complex grave mounds and monuments were built along the south bank of the Eridanos, lining the Sacred Way.
The building of the new city wall in 478 BC, following the Persian sack of Athens in 480 BC, fundamentally changed the appearance of the area. At the suggestion of Themistocles, all of the funerary sculptures were built into the city wall and two large city gates facing north-west were erected in the Kerameikos. The Sacred Way ran through the Sacred Gate, on the southern side, to Eleusis. On the northern side a wide road, the Dromos, ran through the double-arched Dipylon Gate (also known as the Thriasian Gate) and on to the Platonic Academy a few miles away. State graves were built on either side of the Dipylon Gate, for the interment of prominent personages such as notable warriors and statesmen, including Pericles and Cleisthenes.
After the construction of the city wall, the Sacred Way and a forking street known as the Street of the Tombs again became lined with imposing sepulchral monuments belonging to the families of rich Athenians, dating to before the late 4th century BC. The construction of such lavish mausolea was banned by decree in 317 BC, following which only small columns or inscribed square marble blocks were permitted as grave stones. The Roman occupation of Athens led to a resurgence of monument-building, although little is left of them today.
During the Classical period an important public building, the Pompeion, stood inside the walls in the area between the two gates. This served a key function in the procession (*pompē*, πομπή) in honour of Athena during the Panathenaic Festival. It consisted of a large courtyard surrounded by columns and banquet rooms, where the nobility of Athens would eat the sacrificial meat for the festival. According to ancient Greek sources, a hecatomb (a sacrifice of 100 cows) was carried out for the festival and the people received the meat in the Kerameikos, possibly in the Dipylon courtyard; excavators have found heaps of bones in front of the city wall.
The Pompeion and many other buildings in the vicinity of the Sacred Gate were razed to the ground by the marauding army of the Roman dictator Sulla, during his sacking of Athens in 86 BC; an episode that Plutarch described as a bloodbath. During the 2nd century AD, a storehouse was constructed on the site of the Pompeion, but it was destroyed during the invasion of the Heruli in 267 AD. The ruins became the site of potters\' workshops until about 500 AD, when two parallel colonnades were built behind the city gates, overrunning the old city walls. A new Festival Gate was constructed to the east with three entrances leading into the city. This was in turn destroyed in raids by the invading Avars and Slavs at the end of the 6th century, and the Kerameikos fell into obscurity. It was not rediscovered until a Greek worker dug up a stele in April 1863.
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# Kerameikos
## Archaeology
Archaeological excavations in the Kerameikos began in 1870 under the auspices of the Greek Archaeological Society. They have continued from 1913 to the present day under the German Archaeological Institute at Athens.
Latest findings in the Kerameikos include the excavation of a 2.1 m tall Kouros, unearthed by the German Archaeological Institute at Athens under the direction of Professor Wolf-Dietrich Niemeier. This Kouros is the larger twin of the one now kept in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, and both were made by the same anonymous sculptor called the Dipylon Master.
During the construction of Kerameikos metro station for the expanded Athens Metro, a plague pit and approximately 1,000 tombs from the 4th and 5th centuries BC were discovered. In 1992, Greek archaeologist Efi Baziatopoulou-Valavani excavated these sites. The plague pit is located in the northwestern corner of the cemetery and is 6.5 meters long and 1.6 meters deep, containing 89 individuals\' remains. The remains found belonged to adult males and females, as well as eight children. Many consider this pit to contain victims from the Plague of Athens, which was prevalent from 430 to 428 BC, followed by a recurrence from 427 to 426 BC.
Pottery found within the grave was used to date the burial to between 430 and 426 BC based on the styles common during that time. The burial is considered to be related to the Athenian plague not only because of the dating of the burial, but also because of the nature of the burial. The chaos caused by the Plague of Athens, as described by Thucydides, matches with the disordered nature of the pit. The pit is further thought to be a state burial, conducted for victims whose families could not afford proper burials.
Bodies were found in five successive layers within the pit, with more care shown on the bottom levels and increasingly little care shown as the burial continued upwards. Bodies were thrown in haphazardly, their positions dictated by the shape of the pit. There was soil placed between the bodies only on the lower levels, and most of the offerings were also found on the lower levels of the burial. The eight children's bodies were found on the upper-most level, and were covered with large shards of pottery.
Offerings for the dead consisted of roughly 30 small vases. Examples of the ceramics found within the pit include choes, a pelike, and numerous lekythoi. All of these pieces are common in quality and use. The excavator, Baziatopoulou, further remarks that the offerings are surprisingly few considering the number of dead buried within the pit. She then notes that this is especially true when taking into account the probable loss of one or more upper levels from prior intrusions into the burial, which would have brought the total persons buried up to approximately 150. The offerings found were scattered on the lower levels of the pit, suggesting diminishing care as the burial continued upwards.
The eight children found buried within the pit are an exception to the pattern of diminishing care as the burial progressed. Found on the upper levels, these children were not thrown in the pit haphazardly but were instead placed with care and covered with shards of pottery. These are the only ceramics found in the pit that are outside of the lower levels, and this caused Biazatopoulou to comment that the children "seem to have been treated with special care." Notably, one of the children's faces was reconstructed by professor Manolis Papagrigorakis and the child is now known as Myrtis.
The skeletal remains found within the pit were submitted to Greek orthodontics professor Manolis Papagrigorakis for examination. Upon analyzing dental pulp from the remains, he concluded that three subjects contained the bacterium *Salmonella enterica* serovar typhi, which results in typhoid fever. The pathogen responsible for the Athenian plague is much disputed, and this DNA evidence has caused scholars to view typhoid fever as a likely culprit. These are the only remains in connection with the Athenian plague to be analyzed.
Large areas adjacent to those already excavated remain in to be explored, as they lie under the fabric of modern-day Athens. Expropriation of these areas has been delayed until funding is secured.
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