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# KOMPILER
In computing, the **KOMPILER** was one of the first language compilation and runtime systems for International Business Machines\' IBM 701, the fastest commercial U.S. computer available in 1955.
Information on KOMPILER is listed on page 16 of Volume 2, Number 5 (May 1959) of the *Communications of the ACM*. Known versions are KOMPILER 2 for IBM 701 and KOMPILER 3 for the IBM 704. KOMPILER was eventually replaced by a Fortran compiler on the IBM 704
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# Sara Jane Olson
**Sara Jane Olson** (born **Kathleen Ann Soliah**, January 16, 1947) is an American far-left activist who was a member of the Symbionese Liberation Army (SLA) in 1975. The group disbanded and she was a fugitive for decades before being arrested. In 2001, she pleaded guilty to attempted murder related to a failed bombing plot. In 2003 she pleaded guilty to second-degree murder related to the death of a customer during a botched bank robbery the SLA committed in California. Known then as Soliah, she was also accused of helping a group hide Patty Hearst, a kidnapped newspaper heiress, in 1974. After being federally indicted in 1976, Soliah was a wanted fugitive for several decades. She lived for periods in Zimbabwe and the U.S. states of Washington and Minnesota.
While in Minnesota, she legally changed her name to Sara Jane Olson, married, and had a family. Arrested in 1999, she pleaded guilty in 2001 to two counts of possessing explosives with intent to murder, and in 2003 to second-degree murder, both stemming from her SLA activities in the 1970s. She was sentenced to 14 years in prison. She was mistakenly released for five days in March 2008 due to an error made in calculating her parole and was rearrested. She was released on parole on March 17, 2009.
On November 4, 2020, Olson was arrested along with several others for blocking Interstate 94 in Minneapolis during a protest.
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Kathleen Soliah was born on January 16, 1947, in Fargo, North Dakota, while her family was living in Barnesville, Minnesota. When she was eight, her conservative Lutheran family relocated to Southern California. Soliah attended the University of California, Santa Barbara, where she initially majored in English. While in college, she participated in theater and was cast in a production of *J.B.*
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# Sara Jane Olson
## Symbionese Liberation Army {#symbionese_liberation_army}
After graduating with a bachelor of arts degree in theater, Soliah moved to Berkeley, California, with her boyfriend, James Kilgore.
She met Angela Atwood at an acting audition where they both won lead roles. They became inseparable during the play\'s run. Atwood tried to sponsor Soliah as a member of the Symbionese Liberation Army (SLA), a leftist group she had joined. Soliah, Kilgore, and Soliah\'s brother Steve and sister Josephine followed the SLA closely without joining.
Atwood and five other core members of the SLA, including leader Donald DeFreeze, were killed in May 1974 during a standoff and shootout with police at a house near Watts, Los Angeles. They were being pursued for armed robbery of banks, the November 1973 murder of Oakland school superintendent Marcus Foster, and the 1974 kidnapping of heiress Patty Hearst.
The Soliahs organized memorial rallies for the SLA victims, including one in Berkeley\'s Willard Park (called Ho Chi Minh park by activists), where Soliah spoke in support of Atwood and was covertly filmed by the FBI.
She said that SLA members had been: `{{blockquote|viciously attacked and murdered by 500 pigs in L.A. while the whole nation watched. Well, I believe that Gelina [Atwood] and her comrades fought until the last minutes, and though I would like to have her with me here right now, I know that she lived happy and she died happy. And in that sense, I'm so very proud of her. SLA soldiers – I know it is not necessary to say; but keep on fighting. I'm with you and we are with you!<ref name="StarTribune"/>}}`{=mediawiki}
Soliah asserted that Atwood \"was a truly revolutionary woman \... among the first white women to fight so righteously for their beliefs and to die for what they believed in\".
Founding SLA member and fugitive Emily Harris visited Soliah, who was working at a bookstore. Soliah later recalled, \"I was glad she was alive. I expected them to be killed at any time.\" She felt sorry for the group and agreed to help the remaining members hide from the police and FBI. She assisted them by procuring supplies for their San Francisco hideout, and birth certificates of dead infants that could be reused for false identification.
### Crocker National Bank robbery and Myrna Opsahl murder {#crocker_national_bank_robbery_and_myrna_opsahl_murder}
On April 21, 1975, SLA members robbed the Crocker National Bank in Carmichael, California. In the process they killed Myrna Opsahl, a mother of four depositing money for her church.
Patty Hearst, who had acted as getaway driver during the crime, later provided the information that led police to implicate the SLA in the robbery and murder. She identified Soliah as one of the robbers. According to Hearst, Soliah kicked a pregnant teller in the abdomen, leading to her suffering a miscarriage.
Police later searched Soliah\'s room at the SLA safehouse on Precita Avenue in San Francisco. They found several rounds of 9 mm ammunition on the floor and in a 9 mm Browning Hi-Power semi-automatic pistol in Soliah\'s dresser drawer. Manufacturing marks appeared to match similar cartridges found in Opsahl\'s body during the autopsy. In 2002, new forensics technology allowed police to link these shells definitively to those found at Crocker Bank; they charged former members of SLA, including Soliah, with the crime. Prosecutor Michael Latin said that Soliah was tied to the crime through fingerprints, a palm print, and handwriting evidence. The palm print was found on a garage door where the SLA kept a getaway car.
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# Sara Jane Olson
## Symbionese Liberation Army {#symbionese_liberation_army}
### Los Angeles Police Department bombs {#los_angeles_police_department_bombs}
On August 21, 1975, a bomb that came close to detonating was discovered where a Los Angeles Police Department patrol car had been parked earlier in front of an International House of Pancakes restaurant. After the bomb was discovered, all Los Angeles police were ordered to search under their cars and another bomb was found in front of a police station about a mile away. Soliah was accused of planting the bombs in an attempt to avenge the SLA members who had died in 1974 in the shootout with LA police.
The pipe bombs were rigged to detonate as the patrol cars drove away. One police officer present that day described the first bomb as one of \"the most dangerous pipe bombs he had ever seen\" and said: `{{blockquote|This device was designed to go off when that car was moved, and the only way you move a car is to get in and drive it. This bomb wasn't directed against property. It wasn't directed against the car. You could have thrown a device under the car and lit a fuse and then ran. It was directed at whoever got in the car and moved it, however, it would have also taken out anybody in the vicinity.<ref name="MPR1"/>}}`{=mediawiki}
Soliah and five other SLA members were indicted in 1976 for setting the police bombs. She vanished before the trial could start. When Soliah was brought to trial at the turn of the century, prosecutors did not believe the evidence against her was a \"slam dunk\" but did believe it was enough to convince a jury of her guilt. Two witnesses who testified in the 1976 grand jury indictment had died by the time Soliah (now known as Sara Jane Olson) was tried. At the grand jury, a plumber who had sold materials used in the bomb had picked Soliah out of a lineup as one of the buyers. A bomb expert had said the explosive could have been built in Soliah\'s apartment. Police could not identify any fingerprints on the devices other than those of the officers who had disarmed them. But Soliah\'s fingerprint, handwriting, and signature were identified on a letter sent to order a fuse that could only be used for bomb-making. Components matching those used in the police car bombs were found in a locked closet at the Precita Avenue house where Soliah lived with the other remaining members of the SLA.
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# Sara Jane Olson
## Underground life, capture, and prosecution {#underground_life_capture_and_prosecution}
In February 1976, a grand jury indicted Soliah in the bombing case. Soliah went underground and became a fugitive for 23 years.
She moved to Minnesota, having assumed the alias Sara Jane Olson. Olson is a common surname in the state because of the large Scandinavian-American population. In 1980, she married physician Gerald Frederick \"Fred\" Peterson, with whom she had three daughters.
Olson and Peterson also lived in Zimbabwe, where Peterson worked for a British medical missionary group. After their return, they settled in Saint Paul, Minnesota, where Olson picked up her acting career. She was active in Saint Paul on community issues. Her husband described the family as interested in progressive social causes.
On March 3, 1999, and again on May 15, 1999, Soliah was profiled on the *America\'s Most Wanted* television program. After a tip generated by the show, she was arrested on June 16, 1999. Soliah was charged in the police bomb case with conspiracy to commit murder, possession of explosives, explosion, and attempt to ignite an explosive with intent to murder.
Shortly after her arrest, Soliah legally changed her name to Sara Jane Olson. She also published a cookbook, *Serving Time: America\'s Most Wanted Recipes*.
On October 31, 2001, she accepted a plea bargain and pleaded guilty to two counts of possessing explosives with intent to murder. As part of a plea bargain, the other charges were dropped.
### Plea controversy {#plea_controversy}
Immediately after entering the plea, Olson told reporters that she was innocent. She said that she had taken a plea bargain because, due to the political climate after the September 11 attacks, she believed that an accused bomber could not receive a fair jury trial:
> It became clear to me that the incident would have a remarkable effect on the outcome of this trial \... the effect was probably going to be negative. That\'s really what governed this decision, not the truth or honesty, but what was probably in my best interests and the interests of my family.
Angered by Olson\'s announcement that she had lied in court, Superior Court Judge Larry Fidler ordered another hearing on November 6. There he asked her several times if she was guilty of the charges. Olson replied, \"I want to make it clear, Your Honor, that I did not make that bomb. I did not possess that bomb. I did not plant that bomb. But under the concept of aiding and abetting, I plead guilty.\"
On November 13, Olson filed a motion requesting to withdraw her guilty plea, acknowledging that she understood the judge when he read the charges against her. Rather, she said: `{{blockquote|I realize I cannot plead guilty when I know I am not. ... Cowardice prevented me from doing what I knew I should: Throw caution aside and move forward to trial. ... I am not second-guessing my decision as much as I have found the courage to take what I know is the honest course. Please, Judge Fidler, grant my request to go to trial.<ref>{{cite news| title = Ex-fugitive seeks to withdraw plea in '70s SLA case| publisher = [[CNN]] | date = November 14, 2001| url = http://www.cnn.com/2001/LAW/11/14/olson.motion/index.html?related| access-date = 2016-09-19}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
### Sentencing in explosives charges {#sentencing_in_explosives_charges}
On December 3, 2001, Judge Fidler offered to let Olson testify under oath about her role in the case. She refused. He said, \"I took those pleas twice \... were you lying to me then or are you lying to me now?\" and denied her request to withdraw her plea.
Observers expected her to serve three to five years, but on January 18, 2002, she was sentenced to two consecutive 10-years-to-life terms. At Soliah\'s 2002 sentencing hearing on the bombing, police officer John Hall, who had been in the car parked over the bomb, talked about a little girl who stood feet away with her family: `{{blockquote|Your honor, it horrifies me to think that the lives of dozens of innocent people, like that child in the window [would have ended] in an instant had the defendant and her co conspirators successfully carried out their terrorist acts.<ref name="MPR4">{{cite web|url=http://news.minnesota.publicradio.org/features/200201/18_stoltzef_olsonsentence/|title=Ex-fugitive Sara Jane Olson sentenced to 20 years to life|website=Minnesota Public Radio|date=January 18, 2002}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Fidler said that under California law, the Board of Prison Terms could later reduce the sentence. Olson\'s lawyers asserted that due to discrepancies between 1970s laws and current California laws, Olson would most likely serve five years, which could be reduced to two years for good behavior. The Board of Prison Terms did later change the sentence.
At Olson\'s sentencing hearing, her teenage daughter Leila, her pastor, and her husband spoke in her defense. Her mother testified on the stand that Olson had never been part of the SLA. She criticized prosecutors and police, who she asserted had harassed the family.
### Sentencing in Opsahl murder {#sentencing_in_opsahl_murder}
On January 16, 2002, first-degree murder charges for the killing of Myrna Opsahl were filed against Olson and four other SLA members: Emily Harris, Bill Harris, Michael Bortin (who had married Olson\'s sister Josephine), and James Kilgore, who remained a fugitive. Judge Fidler arraigned Olson on the murder charges immediately following her sentencing hearing on January 18 for the explosives case. Olson pleaded not guilty to that charge at the time.
On November 7, 2002, along with the other three defendants, Olson pleaded guilty to a reduced charge of second-degree murder. On February 14, 2003, she was sentenced to the maximum term allowed under her plea bargain, six years, to be served concurrently with the 14-year sentence she was already serving.
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# Sara Jane Olson
## Incarceration and release {#incarceration_and_release}
The state Board of Prison Terms had scrapped Olson\'s original sentence in October 2002 in exchange for a longer 14-year sentence, saying Olson\'s crimes had the potential for great violence and targeted multiple victims. She appealed, and in July 2004, a judge said there was \"no analysis\" of how the state Board of Prison Terms had decided 14 years was appropriate and threw the sentence out. Her sentence was converted to five years and four months.
The state appealed and an appeals court panel restored her full 14-year sentence as of April 12, 2007. It ruled that a lower court did not follow procedure when it allowed Olson to appeal.
Olson served her time at the Central California Women\'s Facility in Chowchilla. Her custody status was \"Close A\", which is reserved for inmates requiring the most supervision. This status limited her privileges and required that she be counted seven times a day. It also prevented her from seeking relocation to a facility closer to her home. David Nickerson, Olson\'s attorney, said that her status reflected the Department of Corrections\' view that she was a potential flight risk.
Olson\'s husband and three daughters continued to support her during her imprisonment; they took turns visiting her frequently in Chowchilla.
In a 2007 interview with *Marie Claire* magazine (published by Hearst Corporation), Olson\'s 23-year-old daughter Emily Peterson dismissed her mother\'s radical past with the SLA. She said of her mother, \"She lived in Berkeley. It was kind of normal\... I always tell people she wasn\'t a terrorist. She was an urban guerrilla.\" Olson never publicly expressed remorse or regret for her actions.
### Release from prison and rearrest {#release_from_prison_and_rearrest}
Olson was released on parole from the Central California Women\'s Facility in Chowchilla on March 17, 2008. For five days, she stayed at her mother\'s home in Palmdale and spent some time hiking with her husband.
On March 21, 2008, she was rearrested when it was decided that she had been mistakenly released a year early from prison due to a miscalculation by the parole board. Her attorney claimed that the action was politically motivated. Olson was taken back into custody by the California Department of Corrections and placed in the California Institution for Women in Corona for another year.
### Release and parole {#release_and_parole}
After serving seven years in prison, about half her sentence, Olson was released on March 17, 2009, to serve her parole in Minnesota. Police unions in both Minnesota and California protested the arrangement, saying that they believed her parole should be served in California, where her crimes were committed.
In a letter to California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, Minnesota Governor Tim Pawlenty also protested Olson being allowed to return to Minnesota.
## Interstate 94 protest {#interstate_94_protest}
Years after her return to Minnesota, on November 4, 2020, Olson participated in a protest in Minneapolis called by the National Alliance Against Racist and Political Repression after the U.S. presidential election. Olson and several others marched onto Interstate 94, where they were met with a response from the Minneapolis Police Department and Minnesota State Patrol. Several hundred protesters were arrested.
Olson was originally charged with creating a public nuisance, but the charge was lowered to a petty misdemeanor. She rejected a plea deal offered to most of the demonstrators. On December 3, 2021, after a trial by a judge, she was convicted and fined \$378. Olson appealed the conviction on the grounds that the state lacked evidence to find her guilty of using a controlled-access highway as a pedestrian. On November 21, 2022, the judge in the appeal case said that the circumstances of the events did not support Olson\'s innocence and denied the appeal.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Soliah grew up in Palmdale, California, the daughter of Norwegian-American parents Elsie Soliah (née Engstrøm) and Martin Soliah, an English teacher and coach at Palmdale High School
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# Kent Recursive Calculator
**KRC** (**Kent Recursive Calculator**) is a lazy functional language developed by David Turner from November 1979 to October 1981 based on SASL, with pattern matching, guards and ZF expressions (now more usually called list comprehensions). Two implementations of KRC were written: David Turner\'s original one in BCPL running on EMAS, and Simon J. Croft\'s later one in C under Unix, and KRC was the main language used for teaching functional programming at the University of Kent at Canterbury (UK) from 1982 to 1985.
The direct successor to KRC is Miranda, which includes a polymorphic type discipline based on that of Milner\'s ML
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# Kremvax
**Kremvax** was originally a fictitious Usenet site at the Kremlin, named like the then large number of Usenet VAXen with names of the form *foo*vax. Kremvax was announced on April 1, 1984, in a posting ostensibly originated there by Soviet leader Konstantin Chernenko. The posting was actually forged by Piet Beertema of CWI (in Amsterdam) as an April Fool\'s prank---\"because the notion that Usenet might ever penetrate the Iron Curtain seemed so totally absurd at the time\".
Other fictitious sites mentioned in the hoax were moskvax and kgbvax. The actual origin of the email was mcvax, one of the first European sites on the internet.
Six years later, Usenet was joined by demos.su, the first genuine site based in Moscow. Some readers needed convincing that the postings from it were not just another prank. Vadim Antonov, the senior programmer at Demos and the major poster from there until mid-1991, was quite aware of all this, and referred to it frequently in his own postings. Antonov later arranged to have the domain\'s gateway site named kremvax.demos.su, turning fiction into truth and, according to one account, \"demonstrating that the hackish sense of humor transcends cultural barriers\".
During the mid-1980s, Usenet users were not aware of the official X.25 computer connections between USSR and other countries. The X.25 connections had existed since 1980, primarily via VNIIPAS and Academset to Soviet bloc countries and Austrian hosts at IIASA and IAEA. In 1983, the *San Francisco Moscow Teleport (SFMT)* venture was created to maintain USSR-American digital connections via VNIIPAS with its own Usenet analogues later known as *Sovamnet* (\"Soviet-American net\").
In 1992, the company Sun Microsystems, a commercial rival to VAX, gifted an own-made server to pioneer Soviet commercial network RELCOM. The company demanded that the server was named *KremlSun*, an allusion to then-legendary *Kremvax*, and made a root DNS server for the .su domain. The conditions were met, and the server became one of the initial devices when forming the Moscow Internet Exchange, since then the largest Russian Internet exchange point
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# KRL (programming language)
**KRL** is a knowledge representation language, developed by Daniel G. Bobrow and Terry Winograd while at Xerox PARC and Stanford University, respectively. It is a frame-based language.
> KRL was an attempt to produce a language which was nice to read and write for the engineers who had to write programs in it, processed like human memory, so you could have realistic AI programs, had an underlying semantics which was firmly grounded like logic languages, all in one, all in one language. And I think it - again, in hindsight - it just bogged down under the weight of trying to satisfy all those things at once
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# Knowledge Systems Laboratory
**Knowledge Systems Laboratory** (**KSL**) was an artificial intelligence research laboratory within the Department of Computer Science at Stanford University until 2007, located in the Gates Computer Science Building, Stanford. Work focused on knowledge representation for shareable engineering knowledge bases and systems, computational environments for modelling physical devices, architectures for adaptive intelligent systems, and expert systems for science and engineering.
KSL had projects with Stanford Medical Informatics (SMI), the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Lab (SAIL), the Stanford Formal Reasoning Group (SFRG), the Stanford Logic Group, and the Stanford Center for Design Research (CDR).
## Past members {#past_members}
This is a partial list (in alphabetical order) of past members:
- Edward Feigenbaum
- Richard Fikes
- Diana E. Forsythe
- Tom Gruber
- William Clancey
- Alon Y. Halevy
- Deborah L. McGuinness
- Paulo Pinheiro
- Derek H. Sleeman
- Barbara Hayes-Roth
- Bruce G
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# John-F.-Kennedy-Platz
**John-F.-Kennedy-Platz** (John F. Kennedy Square), formerly Rudolph-Wilde-Platz, in the Schöneberg section of Berlin is the square in front of the former city hall of West Berlin (Rathaus Schöneberg). It was here, on June 26, 1963, that US President John F. Kennedy gave his famous speech to the Berliners, in which he stated: \"*Ich bin ein Berliner*\". The square was renamed John-F.-Kennedy-Platz on 25 November 1963, three days after Kennedy\'s assassination, and a large plaque dedicated to Kennedy, mounted on wall next to the entrance to the city hall, was unveiled one year after Kennedy\'s speech
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# Kyoto Common Lisp
**Kyoto Common Lisp** (**KCL**) is an implementation of Common Lisp by Taichi Yuasa and Masami Hagiya, written in C to run under Unix-like operating systems. KCL is compiled to ANSI C. It conforms to Common Lisp as described in the 1984 first edition of Guy Steele\'s book *Common Lisp the Language* and is available under a licence agreement.
KCL was implemented from scratch, outside of the standard committee, solely on the basis of the specification. It was one of the first Common Lisp implementations ever, and exposed a number of holes and mistakes in the specification that had gone unnoticed.
## Derived software {#derived_software}
- Austin Kyoto Common Lisp (AKCL) is a collection of ports, bug fixes, and performance improvements to KCL made by William Schelter. AKCL has been ported to a range of Unix workstations.
- GNU Common Lisp (GCL) was derived from AKCL.
- Embeddable Common-Lisp (ECL) was derived from KCL.
- ManKai Common Lisp (MKCL) was derived from ECL.
- Commercial versions of Kyoto Common Lisp were Ibuki Common Lisp and Delphi Common Lisp
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# Karl Gustav Ahlefeldt
**Karl Gustav Henry Folmer Ahlefeldt** (13 March 1910 -- 25 March 1985) was a Danish film actor. He appeared in the Carl Theodor Dreyer masterpiece *Gertrud* (1965).
## Filmography
Year Title Role Notes
------ ------------------------------------- ----------------------------- -------------------
1935 *De bør forelske Dem* Erik\'s colleague
1940 *Familien Olsen* Willy Alfred Olsen
1940 *Sommerglæder* Mr
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# Kateretes
***Kateretes*** is a genus of short-winged flower beetles in the family Kateretidae. There are about six described species in *Kateretes*.
## Species
These six species belong to the genus *Kateretes*:
- *Kateretes dalmatinus* (Sturm, 1844)^g^
- *Kateretes flavicans* (Fairmaire, 1860)^g^
- *Kateretes mixtus* Kirejtshuk, 1989^g^
- *Kateretes pusillus* (Thunberg, 1794)^g\ b^
- *Kateretes rufilabris* (Latreille, 1807)^g^
- *Kateretes scissus* (Parsons, 1943)^i\ c\ g^
Data sources: i = ITIS, c = Catalogue of Life, g = GBIF, b = Bugguide
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# Caspar Schwenckfeld
**Caspar** (or **Kaspar**) **Schwen(c)kfeld von Ossig** (`{{Audio|GT Caspar Schwenkfeld von Ossig.ogg|listen}}`{=mediawiki}) (1489 or 1490 -- 10 December 1561) was a German theologian, writer, physician, naturalist, and preacher who became a Protestant Reformer and spiritualist. He was one of the earliest promoters of the Protestant Reformation in Silesia.
Schwenckfeld came to Reformation principles through Thomas Müntzer and Andreas Karlstadt. However, he developed his own principles and fell out with Martin Luther over the eucharistic controversy (1524). He had his own views on the sacraments, known as the Heavenly Flesh doctrine, that were developed in close association with Valentin Crautwald, his humanist colleague. His followers became a new sect, which was outlawed in Germany. Its ideas were influenced by Anabaptism, Pietism in Europe, and Puritanism in England.
Many of his followers were persecuted in Europe and thus forced to either convert or flee. Because of this, there are Schwenkfelder Church congregations in the United States, which was then the Thirteen Colonies of British America until American independence was achieved following the American Revolutionary War.
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Schwenckfeld was born in Ossig near Liegnitz, Silesia now Osiek, near Legnica, Poland, to noble parents in 1489. Between 1505 and 1507, he was a student in Cologne. In 1507, he enrolled at the University of Frankfurt on the Oder. Between 1511 and 1523, Schwenckfeld served the Duchy of Liegnitz as an adviser to Duke Charles I (1511--1515), Duke George I (1515--1518), and Duke Frederick II (1518--1523).
## Career
In 1518 or 1519, Schwenckfeld experienced an awakening that he called a \"visitation of God\". Martin Luther\'s writings had a deep influence on Schwenckfeld, and he embraced the \"Lutheran\" Reformation and became a student of the scriptures. In 1521, Schwenckfeld began to preach the gospel, and in 1522 won Duke Friedrich II over to Protestantism. He organized a Brotherhood of his converts for the purpose of study and prayer in 1523. In 1525, he rejected Luther\'s idea of real presence and came to a spiritual interpretation of the Lord\'s Supper, which was subsequently rejected by Luther.
Schwenckfeld began to teach that the true believer ate the spiritual body of Christ. He pushed for reformation wherever he went, but also criticized reformers that he thought went to extremes. He emphasized that for one to be a true Christian, one must not change only outwardly but inwardly. Because of the communion and other controversies, Schwenckfeld broke with Luther and followed what some describe as a \"middle way\". Because of his break from Luther and the Magisterial Reformation, scholars typically categorize Schwenckfeld as a member of the Radical Reformation. He voluntarily exiled himself from Silesia in 1529 in order to relieve pressure on and embarrassment of his duke. He lived in Strasbourg from 1529 to 1534, and then in Swabia.
### Teachings
Some of the teachings of Schwenckfeld included opposition to war, secret societies, and oath-taking, that the government had no right to command one\'s conscience, that regeneration is by grace through inner work of the Spirit, that believers feed on Christ spiritually, and that believers must give evidence of regeneration. He rejected infant baptism, outward church forms, and \"denominations\". His views on the Eucharist prompted Luther to publish several sermons on the subject in his 1526 *The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ---Against the Fanatics*.
### Publications
In 1540 Luther expelled Schwenckfeld from Silesia. In 1541, Schwenckfeld published the *Great Confession on the Glory of Christ*. Many considered the writing to be heretical. He taught that Christ had two natures, divine and human, but that he became progressively more divine. He also published a number of works about interpreting the scriptures during the 1550s, often responding to the rebuttals of the Lutheran Reformer Matthias Flacius Illyricus.
Schwenckfeld\'s *Theriotropheum Silesiae* is considered the world\'s oldest published local faunal list, containing a list of the animals of Silesia, including 150 bird species.
### Death
In 1561, Schwenckfeld became sick with dysentery, and gradually grew weaker until he died in Ulm on the morning of December 10, 1561. Due to his enemies, the fact of his death and the place of his burial were kept secret.
## Schwenkfelder Church {#schwenkfelder_church}
Schwenckfeld did not organize a separate church during his lifetime, but followers seemed to gather around his writings and sermons. In 1700, there were about 1,500 of them in Lower Silesia. Many fled Lower Silesia under persecution of the Austrian emperor, and some found refuge on the lands of Count Nicolaus Ludwig Zinzendorf and his *italic=no*. These followers became known as Schwenkfelders. A group arrived in Philadelphia in 1731, followed by five more migrations up to 1737. In 1782, the Society of Schwenkfelders was formed, and in 1909 the Schwenkfelder Church was organized.
Schwenkfelder Church has remained small with approximately 2,695 total members as of 2010, and four churches, including Schwenkfelder Missionary Church in Philadelphia. Each of its the existing churches are within a 50 mi radius of Philadelphia.
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# Caspar Schwenckfeld
## Schwenkfelder Library & Heritage Center {#schwenkfelder_library_heritage_center}
Schwenkfelder Library & Heritage Center is a small museum, library and archives in Pennsburg, Pennsylvania. It is the only institution dedicated to the preservation and interpretation of the history of Schwenkfelder, including Schwenckfeld, the Radical Reformation, religious toleration, the Schwenkfelders in Europe and America, and the Schwenkfelder Church. The Schwenkfelder Library & Heritage Center hosts exhibits and programs throughout the year
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# Keeshond
The **Keeshond** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|eɪ|s|h|ɒ|n|d}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|KAYSS|hond}}`{=mediawiki}, plur. **Keeshonden**) is a medium-sized dog with a plush, two-layer coat of silver and black fur with a ruff and a curled tail. Their closest relatives are the German spitzes such as the *Großspitz* (Large Spitz), *Mittelspitz* (Medium Spitz), *Kleinspitz* (Miniature Spitz), *Zwergspitz* (Dwarf-Spitz) or Pomeranian.
The Keeshond was previously known as the **Dutch Barge Dog**, as it was frequently seen on barges traveling the canals and rivers of the Netherlands. The Keeshond was the symbol of the Patriot faction in the Netherlands during political unrest in the years immediately preceding the French Revolution.
In the late 19th century, the breed was developed in England from imports obtained in both the Netherlands and Germany. In 1930, the Keeshond was first registered with the American Kennel Club.
## Description
### Appearance
A member of the spitz group of dogs, the Keeshond in American Kennel Club (AKC) standard is 17 in to 18 in tall and 19.25 in ± 2.4 in in the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) standard and weighs 30 lb to 40 lb. Sturdily built, they have a typical spitz appearance. Neither coarse nor refined, they have a wedge-shaped head, medium-length muzzle with a definite stop, small pointed ears, and an expressive face. The tail is tightly curled and, in profile, should be carried such that it is indistinguishable from the compact body of the dog.
#### Coat
Like most spitz-type dogs, the Keeshond has a dense double coat, with a thick ruff around the neck. Typically, the males of this breed will have a thicker, more pronounced ruff than the females. The body should be abundantly covered with long, straight, harsh hair standing well out from a thick, downy undercoat. The hair on the legs should be smooth and short, except for a feathering on the front legs and \"trousers\" on the hind legs. The hair on the tail should be profuse, forming a rich plume. The head, including muzzle, skull, and ears, should be covered with smooth, soft, short hair---velvety in texture on the ears. The coat must not part down the back.
Coat care requires line brushing on a fairly regular basis. The Keeshond typically \'blows\' its undercoat once a year for males, twice a year for females. During this time, the loss of coat is excessive and their guard hairs will lie flat to their back. It usually takes two weeks for the \'blow\' to complete, in order for new undercoat to begin growing back in. A Keeshond should never be shaved, as their undercoat provides a natural barrier against heat and cold. Keeping their coat in good condition will allow efficient insulation in both hot and cold weather.
#### Color
The color should be a mixture of grey and black and some white as well. The undercoat should be very pale grey or cream (not tawny). The hair of the outer coat is black tipped, the length of the black tips producing the characteristic shading of color. The color may vary from light to dark, but any pronounced deviation from the grey color is not permissible. The plume of the tail should be very light grey when curled on back and the tip of the tail should be black. Legs and feet should be cream. Ears should be very dark---almost black.
Shoulder line markings (light grey) should be well defined. The color of the ruff and \"trousers\" is generally lighter than that of the body. \"Spectacles\" and shadings, as later described, are characteristic of the breed and must be present to some degree. There should be no pronounced white markings.
According to the American Kennel Club breed standard, the legs and feet are to be cream; feet that are totally black or white are severe faults. Black markings more than halfway down the foreleg, except for pencilling, are faulted.
The other important marking is the \"spectacles\", a delicate dark line running from the outer corner of each eye toward the lower corner of each ear, which, coupled with markings forming short eyebrows, is necessary for the distinct expressive look of the breed. All markings should be clear, not muddled or broken. Absence of the spectacles is considered a serious fault. The eyes should be dark brown, almond-shaped with black eye rims.
Ears should be small, dark, triangular, and erect.
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# Keeshond
## Description
### Temperament
Keeshonden tend to be very playful, with quick reflexes and strong jumping ability. They are thoughtful, eager to please and very quick learners, which means they are also quick to learn things their humans did not intend to teach them. However, Keeshonden make excellent agility and obedience dogs. In fact, so amenable to proper training is this bright, sturdy dog that they have been successfully trained to serve as guide dogs for the blind; only their lack of size has prevented them from being more widely used in this role.
They love children and are excellent family dogs, preferring to be close to their humans whenever possible. They generally get along with other dogs as well and will enjoy a good chase around the yard. Keeshonden are very intuitive and empathetic and are often used as comfort dogs. Most notably, at least one Keeshond, Tikva, was at Ground Zero following the September 11 attacks to help comfort the rescue workers. The breed has a tendency to become especially clingy towards their owners, more so than most other breeds. If their owner is out, or in another room behind a closed door, they may sit, waiting for their owner to reappear, even if there are other people nearby. Many have been referred to as their \"owner\'s shadow\", or \"velcro dogs\".
They are known by their loud, distinctive bark. Throughout the centuries, the Keeshond has been very popular as a watch dog on barges on canals in the Netherlands and middle Europe. This trait is evident to this day, and they are alert dogs that warn their owners of any new visitors. Although loud and alert, Keeshonden are not aggressive towards visitors. They generally welcome visitors affectionately once their family has accepted them. Unfortunately, barking may become a problem if not properly handled. Keeshonden that are kept in a yard, and not allowed to be with their humans, are unhappy and often become nuisance barkers.
The Keeshond is very bright in work and obedience. The Keeshond ranks 18th in Stanley Coren\'s *The Intelligence of Dogs*, being of excellent working/obedience intelligence. This intelligence makes a Keeshond a good choice for the dog owner who is willing to help a dog learn the right lessons, but also entails added responsibility.
## Health
Keeshonden are generally a very healthy breed. Though congenital health issues are not common, the conditions which have been known to sometimes occur in Keeshonden are hip dysplasia, luxating patellas (trick knee), epilepsy, Cushing\'s disease, diabetes, primary hyperparathyroidism, and hypothyroidism. Von Willebrand\'s disease has been known in Keeshonden but is very rare. An accurate [test for the gene causing primary hyperparathyroidism](http://www.vet.cornell.edu/labs/goldstein/) (or PHPT) has recently been developed at Cornell University. As with any breed, it is important when buying a puppy to make sure that both parents have been tested and certified free from inherited problems. Test results may be obtained from the breeder, and directly from the Orthopaedic Foundation For Animals site.
A 2024 UK study found a life expectancy 12.3 years based on a sample of 55 deaths for the breed compared to an average of 12.7 for purebreeds and 12 for crossbreeds.
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# Keeshond
## History
The Keeshond was named after the 18th-century Dutch Patriot, Cornelis (Kees) de Gyselaer (spelled \'Gijzelaar\' in Modern Dutch), leader of the rebellion against the House of Orange. The dog became the rebels\' symbol; and, when the House of Orange returned to power, this breed almost disappeared. The word \'keeshond\' is a compound word: \'Kees\' is a nickname for Cornelius (de Gyselaer), and \'hond\' is the Dutch word for dog. In the Netherlands, \"keeshond\" is the term for German Spitzes that encompass them all from the toy or dwarf (Pomeranian) to the Wolfspitz (Keeshond). The sole difference among the German Spitzes is their coloring and size guidelines. There are debates over the origin of the breed; many English references point to the Keeshond as we know it originating in the Netherlands. On the other hand, according to the FCI, the breed is cited as being part of the German Spitz family, originating in Germany along with the Pomeranian (toy or dwarf German Spitz) and American Eskimo dog (small or standard German Spitz).
The first standard for \"Wolfspitz\" was posted at the Dog Show of 1880 in Berlin. The Club for German Spitzes was founded in 1899. The German standard was revised in 1901 to specify the characteristic color that we know today, \"silver grey tipped with black\". In the late 19th century the \"Overweight Pomeranian\", a white German Spitz and most likely a Standard German Spitz, was shown in the British Kennel Club. The \"Overweight Pomeranian\" was no longer recognized by the British Kennel Club in 1915. In the 1920s, Baroness van Hardenbroeck took an interest in the breed and began to build it up again. The Nederlandse Keeshond Club was formed in 1924. The Dutch Barge Dog Club of England was formed in 1925 by Mrs. Wingfield-Digby and accepted into the British Kennel Club in 1926, when the breed and the club were renamed to Keeshond.
Carl Hinderer is credited with bringing his Schloss Adelsburg Kennel, which he founded in 1922 in Germany, with him to America in 1923. His German Champion Wolfspitz followed him two by two in 1926. At that time, less than ten years after World War I, Germany was not regarded fondly in England and America; and the Wolfspitz/Keeshond was not recognized by the AKC. Consequently, Hinderer had to register each puppy born in the U.S. with his club in Germany. Despite this, he joined the Maryland KC and attended local shows.
Hinderer regularly wrote to the AKC, including the New York headquarters, to promote the Wolfspitz. While going through New York on his way to Germany in 1930, Hinderer visited the AKC offices and presented \"Wachter\", his Germany champion, to AKC President, Dr. DeMond, who promptly agreed to start the recognition process, with some caveats including changing the name to Keeshond, and asked Hinderer to bring back all the relevant data from Germany. Hinderer also translated the German standard to English for the AKC. The Keeshond was accepted for AKC registration in 1930.
Despite intense lobbying the FCI would not accept the Keeshond as a separate breed since it viewed the Wolfspitz and Keeshond as identical. In 1997, the German Spitz Club updated its standard so that the typically smaller Keeshond preferred in America and other English-speaking countries could be included. This greatly expanded the gene pool and unified the standard internationally for the first time. Now bred for many generations as a companion dog, the Keeshond easily becomes a loving family member.
As a result of the breed\'s history and friendly disposition, Keeshonden are sometimes referred to as \"The Smiling Dutchman\"
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# Kremlin (fortification)
A **kremlin** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|r|ɛ|m|l|ɪ|n}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|KREM-lin}}`{=mediawiki} `{{IPA||||LL-Q1860 (eng)-Vealhurl-Kremlin.wav}}`{=mediawiki}; `{{lang-rus|кремль|r=kreml’|p=ˈkrʲemlʲ|a=LL-Q7737 (rus)-Cinemantique-кремль.wav}}`{=mediawiki}) is a major fortified central complex found in historic Russian cities. The word is often used to refer to the Moscow Kremlin and metonymically to the government based there. Other such fortresses are called *detinets*, such as the Novgorod Detinets.
## Etymology
The Russian word is of uncertain origin. Different versions include the word originating from the Turkic languages, the Greek language or from Baltic languages. The word may share the same root as *kremen*\' (`{{lang-rus|кремень|r=kremenj|p=krʲɪˈmʲenʲ|a=LL-Q7737 (rus)-DomesticFrog-кремень.wav}}`{=mediawiki}), meaning \'flint\'.
## History
### Kremlins in Rus\' {#kremlins_in_rus}
The Slavs began to build fortresses to protect their lands from enemies in the ninth century. It is known that the Scandinavians called the Slavic lands the land of fortresses---\"Gardariki\". Arabic geographer Al-Bakri wrote: \"And that is how the Slavs build a large part of their fortresses: they head for meadows, rich in water and reeds, and there mark a round or rectangular place, depending on the shape they want to make a fortress, and they dig around the moat, and the dugout earth is dumped in a rampart, reinforcing it with planks and piles, like beaten earth, until the wall reaches the desired height. Then they measure the door at whichever side they want, and approach by a wooden bridge\". In ancient times, a wooden fence was built on the crest of a rampart, a palisade or zapolot (the wall made of logs, vertically one above the other, and connected with horizontally laid timbers). The way of defending the settlement was primitive; later wooden fortress walls became more preferable.
In the 8th century, the earliest known stone and wooden fortress---Lubšanská fortress near Staraya Ladoga was built. The ancient stone and wooden kremlins include a fortress on Truvorov settlement near Izborsk (9th century) and the first Stara Ladoga Kremlin (the end of the 9th century, later rebuilt). Single stone towers, gates and bends of walls appeared in other cities (Vladimir, Kyiv, Novgorod, Pereyaslavl): the Golden Gate of Kievan citadel and the gate of the Vladimir Kremlin bearing the same name survived.
A special type of wooden and stone Kremlins appeared under the influence of architectural traditions of Poland and Hungary. They were characterised by the juxtaposition of wooden walls and towers with vezha---high stone towers standing inside the fortress, which were used as watchtowers. Constructions, called Volyn towers, were erected, for example, in the citadels of Kholmsk, Kamenets and Gorodeni.
During the Mongol-Tatar invasion, many Russian wooden and stone-wooden fortresses were taken and destroyed by the Mongols. The long-lasting Mongol-Tatar yoke slowed down the development of Russian fortification architecture for a century and a half, as internecine wars stopped and the need to build fortresses disappeared.
The tradition of fortress construction was preserved in Novgorod and Pskov lands which were not damaged by the Mongol invasion. Here are built not only kremlins (Izborsk, Porkhov) but---for the first time in Russia---fortresses, which were not many cities in the full sense of the word, as defensive structures (Koporie, Oreshek, Yam, Korela, Ostrov, Kobyla). The strongest of the Russian fortresses was the Pskov Kremlin, which had no equal in Russia in the number of sustained sieges.
### Kremlins of the Russian state {#kremlins_of_the_russian_state}
The term Kremlin (in the variant Kremnik) is first encountered in chronicles of 1317 in accounts of the construction of the Tver Kremlin, where a wooden city-fortress was erected, which was clayed and whitewashed.
Wooden fortresses were erected everywhere in the Russian state---from the Far East lands to the Swedish borders. They were numerous in the South, where they served as a link of fortified fortification zones cutting off the way to the central regions from Crimean Tatars. Aesthetically wooden fortresses were not inferior to stone ones---and we can regret that the towers of wooden kremlins have not survived to this day. Wooden fortresses were built quickly: in 1638 in Mtsensk fortress walls of Bolshoi Ostrog and Pletny Gorod with a total length of about 3 kilometres with 13 towers and almost one hundred meters long bridge over the River Zusha were erected in 20 days. The town of Sviyazhsk was built similarly during the Kazan campaign in the spring of 1551: fortress walls about 2.5 kilometres long, many churches and houses were erected in a month.
Later on, many Kremlins were rebuilt and strengthened. Thus, the Moscow Kremlin under Ivan the Third was reconstructed of bricks.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, about 30 stone fortresses were built in the Russian State. New Kremlins have regular geometric forms in plan (Zaraisky and Tula Kremlins). The Tula Kremlin is unique because it was built in a valley (which was possible because of undeveloped siege artillery of nomad Tatars).
Construction of the Kremlin lasted until the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries. The last Kremlin structure was built of stone between 1699 and 1717 in the town of Tobolsk (the easternmost Kremlin in Russia).
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# Kremlin (fortification)
## In Russia {#in_russia}
### World Heritage Sites {#world_heritage_sites}
- Moscow Kremlin (better known simply as the *Kremlin*)
- Novgorod Detinets
- Solovetsky Monastery
- Suzdal Kremlin
- Kazan Kremlin
### Intact
- Astrakhan Kremlin
- Kolomna Kremlin
- Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin
- Pskov Kremlin
- Rostov Kremlin (a bishop\'s residence, not formally considered a kremlin)
- Smolensk Kremlin
- Tobolsk Kremlin (the sole stone kremlin in Siberia)
- Tula Kremlin
- Zaraysk Kremlin
- Ivangorod Fortress (not formally considered a kremlin)
- Oreshek Fortress (not formally considered a kremlin)
- Staraya Ladoga
- Alexandrov Kremlin (a czar residence, not formally considered a kremlin)
- Korela Fortress (not formally considered a kremlin)
- Izborsk Kremlin
### In ruins {#in_ruins}
- Gdov Kremlin
- Porkhov Kremlin
- Serpukhov Kremlin
- Velikie Luki Kremlin
- Torzhok Kremlin
- Mozhaysk Kremlin
- Fortress of Koporye (not formally considered a kremlin)
- Vyazma Kremlin (one tower)
- Syzran Kremlin (one tower, 1683)
- Ufa
### Existing and unwalled {#existing_and_unwalled}
- Vladimir Kremlin (Tower Golden Gate and bank)
- Dmitrov
- Ryazan
- Vologda (a bishop residence, not formally considered a kremlin)
- Yaroslavl (two towers)
- Pereslavl-Zalessky
- Khlynov (Vyatka)
- Volokolamsk
### Traces remain {#traces_remain}
- Borovsk
- Opochka
- Zvenigorod
- Starodub
- Tver -- a wooden fortress was burned down in a fire in 1763
- Sknyatino -- underwater since flooding during the 1930s.
- Yam fortress (not formally considered a kremlin)
- Fortress of Radonezh
- Ryazan
- (60 km from modern Ryazan)
- Ostrov (14th-15th centuries)
- Belgorod (bank of fortress)
- Vereya
- Kaluga
- Kleshchin
- Kostroma
- Pustozyorsk
- Uglich
- Staritsa
- Sviyazhsk
- Cheboksary
- Yuryev-Polsky
- Aleksin
- Opochka
- Oryol
- Rurikovo Gorodische
- Mtsensk
- Raskiel
### Modern imitations {#modern_imitations}
- Izmaylovo Kremlin
- Yoshkar Ola
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# Kremlin (fortification)
## Outside Russia {#outside_russia}
After the disintegrations of the Kievan Rus, the Russian Empire and the USSR, some fortresses considered Kremlin-type, remained beyond the borders of modern Russia. Some are listed below:
- Belz, Ukraine (only traces)
- Kyiv, Ukraine (reconstructed tower of the Golden Gate)
- Putyvl, Ukraine
- Novhorod-Siverskyi, Ukraine
- Chernihiv, Ukraine (only traces)
- Kamyanyets, Belarus (shafts and Belaya Vezha tower)
- Belgorod Kievsky, Ukraine (now village Belgorodka)
The same structure in Novgorodshina, Ukraine and other Old Russian territories is also called dytynets (*дитинець*, from *dytyna* -- child). The term has been in use since the 11th century. The term *kremlin* first appeared in 14th century in various Russian territories, where it replaced *dytynets*.
Many Russian monasteries have been built in a fortress-like style similar to that of a kremlin. For a partial list, see Monasteries in Russia
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# Koo Stark
**Kathleen Norris Stark** (born April 26, 1956), better known as **Koo Stark**, is an American photographer and actress, known for her relationship with Prince Andrew. She is a patron of the Julia Margaret Cameron Trust, which runs the museum of the Victorian pioneer photographer.
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Stark was born in New York. Her parents were Wilbur Stark, a writer and producer, and Kathi Norris, a writer and television presenter in New York City. She is the youngest of three children. At the time of her birth, the family lived in Manhattan. Her grandfather, Edwin Earl Norris, was a cabinetmaker and musician, playing horn and viola in the Newark Symphony Orchestra. Her mother\'s family were Presbyterians. After a divorce in the 1960s, her mother remarried.
Koo Stark attended the Hewitt School in New York and the Glendower Preparatory School in Kensington, London. After training at a stage school, she began her acting career.
## Career
### Acting
Her first film role was in the comedy *All I Want Is You\... and You\... and You\...* (1974), produced by her father. In 1975 she appeared in *Las adolescentes* (The Adolescents), opposite Anthony Andrews, and starred in an episode of *Shades of Greene*. Also that year she had an uncredited role as a bridesmaid in *The Rocky Horror Picture Show*. Her best-remembered performance is the lead role in the erotic film *Emily* (1976), directed by Henry Herbert, 17th Earl of Pembroke. Uncertain whether to accept the part, Stark did so on the advice of Graham Greene, with whom she had worked the year before. Of working with her in *Emily*, actor Victor Spinetti later wrote \"I found Koo Stark to be an enchanting girl and terribly bright and interesting\".
She also appeared in *Cruel Passion* (1977), a film based on the novel *Justine*. Around the same time, she played the part of Camie Marstrap in *Star Wars* (1977); the scenes in which she appeared were cut from the film before its original release, but can be seen in *Star Wars: Behind the Magic* (1998).
Stark also began to work as a fashion model, particularly for Norman Parkinson. In February 1981, she was an understudy in the Edward Albee play *Who\'s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?* at the National Theatre.
She appeared in the comedy *Eat the Rich* (1987), and then featured in \"Timeslides\", an episode of the sci-fi show *Red Dwarf* (1989), playing Lady Sabrina Mulholland-Jjones, the fiancée of a more successful Dave Lister.
In September 1987, she returned to the stage, taking the part of Vera Claythorne in Agatha Christie\'s *And Then There Were None* at the Duke of York\'s Theatre. The *London Theatre Record* posed the question \"Why has a girl so obviously three-dimensional chosen a part so obviously two-dimensional?\" She played Miss Scarlett in the 1991 series of *Cluedo*, succeeding Toyah Willcox and befriending Rula Lenska.
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# Koo Stark
## Career
### Photography
Stark has worked as a photographer since the 1980s, and may have been the first person to turn the tables on the pursuing paparazzi by taking photos of them. Prince Andrew has told how in 1983 a photographic printer, Gene Nocon, invited Stark to take photographs of people taking photos of her, for his exhibition, *Personal Points of View*, planned for October. She persuaded Nocon to include Andrew\'s work as well. Her early photographs led to a book deal, for which she took lessons from Norman Parkinson. She travelled to Tobago, where he lived, and he became her mentor. Her book *Contrasts* (1985) included about a hundred of her photographs. She went on to study the work of leading photographers, including Angus McBean, whom she met and photographed, developing her interests in photography to include reportage, portraits, landscapes, still life, and other work.
The book *Contrasts* was launched at Hamiltons Gallery, London, in September 1985, at an exhibition of the same name. In 1994, the Gallery Bar at the Grosvenor House Hotel in Park Lane hosted an exhibition called \'The Stark Image\', forty photographs by Stark, including several previously unpublished. In 1998, her work was featured at the Como Lario in Holbein Place, Belgravia. In July 2001 she had an exhibition called \'Stark Images\" at the Fruitmarket Gallery in Edinburgh, duplicated from June to July 2001 at Dimbola Lodge on the Isle of Wight. A solo exhibition of portraits was at the Winter Gardens, Ventnor, from September to October 2010, and another at Dimbola Lodge from February to April 2011.
On 22 April 1987, a charity auction at Christie\'s, St James\'s, for the Campaign to Protect Rural England, featured signed work by David Bailey, Patrick Lichfield, Don McCullin, Terence Donovan, Fay Godwin, Heather Angel, Clive Arrowsmith, Linda McCartney, Koo Stark, and fifteen others, Views by Stark, including some of Kirby Muxloe Castle, were in G. H. Davies\'s *England\'s Glory* (1987), a CPRE book launched at the same time.
Pictures by Stark have appeared in *Country Life* and other magazines. Several of her portraits are in the National Portrait Gallery, and work is also in the collections of the Victoria and Albert Museum, both in London.
A Leica user, Stark has said her camera transcends mere function and is a personal friend. A solo exhibition hosted by the Leica gallery in Mayfair in May 2017 was entitled *Kintsugi*, a Japanese word for a way of renovating things that have been broken. Stark explained the title: \"Kintsugi is a way of learning to see individual beauty, and to appreciate the value of experience and honesty. It is the antithesis of digital, airbrushed, Photoshop-homogenised \'beauty\'.\" In August the exhibition was repeated in Manchester, to mark the opening of a new Leica store there.
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# Koo Stark
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Stark has been a practising Buddhist since meeting the Dalai Lama. She continues to live in London and is a member of the Chelsea Arts Club. She is a Patron of the Julia Margaret Cameron Trust, at Dimbola Lodge on the Isle of Wight, home of the Victorian pioneer photographer Julia Margaret Cameron.
### Relationships
Stark met Prince Andrew in February 1981, and they were close for some two years, before and after his active service in the Falklands War. Tina Brown has claimed that this was Andrew\'s only serious love affair. In October 1982 they took a holiday together on the island of Mustique. According to Lady Colin Campbell, Andrew was in love, and the Queen was \"much taken with the elegant, intelligent, and discreet Koo\". However, in 1983, after 18 months of dating, they split up under pressure from the Queen. In 1997, Prince Andrew became the godfather of Stark\'s daughter, and in 2015, when the Prince was accused by Virginia Roberts over the Jeffrey Epstein connection, Stark came to his defence, stating that he was a good man and she could help to rebut the claims.
Stark married Tim Jefferies, manager of a photographic gallery, in August 1984, at St Saviour\'s, Chalk Farm, with the minister, Christopher Neil-Smith, commenting that \"It was such a quiet affair you wouldn\'t have known it was happening.\" They stayed together for a year, later divorcing.
She was later engaged to Warren Walker, an American banker, but he cancelled their wedding before the birth of their daughter, Tatiana, in May 1997.
### Legal cases {#legal_cases}
In 1988, Stark brought a successful libel action against *The Mail on Sunday* over an untrue story headed \'Koo dated Andy after she wed\'. In 1989, *The Spectator* reported that she had received £300,000 from one newspaper \"for years of inaccurate persecution\" and was also collecting money from others.
In another libel action in 2007, Stark won an apology and substantial damages from *Zoo Weekly* magazine, which had described her as a porn star. She commented \"I am relieved that my name has been cleared of this false, highly damaging and serious allegation which has been proved to be completely untrue.\" In 2011 *The Daily Telegraph* called her an early \"Kate Middleton prototype\" and suggested that if she had not appeared in the film *Emily* early in her career she might have gone on to become the Duchess of York.
In November 2012, Stark appeared at Hammersmith magistrates court accused of stealing a painting by Dutch master Anthonie van Borssom, worth £40,000, from the home of her ex-partner, American financier Warren Walker. She strenuously denied the allegation. Before the matter came to trial, the painting was returned to Walker and by agreement the prosecution was abandoned.
In November 2022, Stark was awarded substantial damages and received an apology in a court case brought against *Daily Mail*{{\'}}s parent company for a 2019 article which falsely referred to her as \"a soft porn actress\".
### Health
About 1993, Stark was hit by a taxi in Old Compton Street, London, losing two teeth and also suffering a deep wound to her forehead, after a collision with her camera. This accident left her temporarily disfigured, but the wound eventually healed leaving a small scar just under the hair-line.
In 2002 Stark was diagnosed with breast cancer and underwent a double mastectomy and chemotherapy, causing her to lose her hair for a time.
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# Koo Stark
## Filmography
### Film
Year Title Role Notes
------ ------------------------------------------------- -------------------- ------------
1974 *All I Want Is You\... and You\... and You\...* Jennifer Ready
1975 *The Rocky Horror Picture Show* Bridesmaid Uncredited
1975 *The Adolescents* Ana
1976 *Emily* Emily / Daughter
1977 *Cruel Passion* Justine Jerome
1984 *Electric Dreams* Girl in Soap Opera
1987 *Eat the Rich* Hazel
### Television
Year Title Role Notes
------ -------------------- -------------------------------- -------------------------------
1975 *Shades of Greene* Girl Episode: \"The Blue Film\"
1977 *The Sunday Drama* Deborah Episode: \"The Cuckoo Calls\"
1986 *The Two Ronnies* Alice Episode #12
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# Karl Böttiger
**Karl August Böttiger** (8 June 1760 -- 17 November 1835) was a German archaeologist and classicist, and a prominent member of the literary and artistic circles in Weimar and Jena.
## Biography
Böttiger was born in Reichenbach, in the kingdom of Saxony, and educated at Schulpforta and Leipzig. Under the influence of Johann Gottfried Herder, he was for 13 years headmaster at the gymnasium and consistorial councillor in Weimar, from 1790 to 1804. For the remaining 31 years of his life, he resided at Dresden as director of the Museum of Antiquities, and was active as a journalist and public lecturer. As a schoolmaster, he had published a considerable number of pedagogic and philological programs. In 1810, Böttiger with Swiss painter Heinrich Meyer released a monograph on the painting in the Vatican known as the \"Aldobrandini marriage\". His archaeological works, mainly produced at Dresden, fall into three groups:
The first of these is private antiquities, best represented by his *Sabina, or morning scenes in the dressing room of a wealthy Roman lady* (*Sabina, oder Morgenszenen im Putzzimmer einer reichen Römerin*; 1803, 2 vols.; 2nd edition, 1806), which was translated into French and served as a model for Wilhelm Adolf Becker\'s *Gallus* and *Charicles*. The second, the Greek theatre, which Böttiger had been interested in since his time as a drama critic in Weimar; his unfavorable review of August Wilhelm Schlegel\'s *Ion* was withdrawn at the request of Goethe. It was mainly as a schoolmaster in Weimar that he wrote his papers on the distribution of the parts, on the masks and dresses, and on the machinery of the ancient stage, as well as a dissertation on the masks of the Furies in 1801. Thirdly, he worked in the domain of ancient art and mythology; his work in this area was popular but, according to some 20th-century critics, superficial.
His accomplishments in Dresden led him to be noticed by the court of the Kingdom of Saxony, and he was the Aulic councilor of the kings of Saxony. Böttiger supplied the descriptive letter-press to the 1797 German edition of Tischbein\'s reproductions from William Hamilton\'s second collection of Greek vases, and thus introduced the study of Greek vase-painting into Germany. He published lectures on the history of ancient sculpture in 1806, and painting in 1811, and edited the three volumes of an archaeological periodical called *Amalthea* from 1820 to 1825, which included contributions from the most eminent classical archaeologists of the day.
In 1832 Böttiger was elected a member of the French Institute. He died in Dresden. His pupil, who edited many of Böttiger\'s works after his death, was the German classicist Karl Julius Sillig. There are two medals that were commissioned for him. One on the occasion of his 70th birthday in 1830 and the other after he died.
His son, Karl Wilhelm Böttiger (15 August 1790 -- 26 November 1862; not to be confused with the Swedish writer Carl Wilhelm Böttiger), was a historian and biographer of his father. He wrote *Karl August Böttiger. Eine biographische Skizze*, a biographical sketch (Leipzig, 1837). From his father\'s papers, he edited the posthumous work *Litterarische Zustände und Zeitgenossen* (Literary circumstances and contemporaries, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1838). Karl Wilhelm Böttiger contributed the history of Saxony to Heeren and Ukert\'s *Europäische Staatengeschichte*, and his *Allgemeine Geschichte für Schule und Haus* (Universal history for school and home) and *Deutsche Geschichte für Schule und Haus* (German history for school and home) passed through many editions. From 1821 until his death he was professor of history in Erlangen.
## Works
- *Griechische Vasengemälde* (1797--1800)
- *Ideen zur Archäologie der Malerei*, i
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# Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
The **Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions** were political statements drafted in 1798 and 1799 in which the Kentucky and Virginia legislatures took the position that the federal Alien and Sedition Acts were unconstitutional. The resolutions argued that the states had the right and the duty to declare unconstitutional those acts of Congress that the Constitution did not authorize. In doing so, they argued for states\' rights and strict construction of the Constitution. The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions of 1798 were written secretly by Vice President Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, respectively.
The principles stated in the resolutions became known as the \"Principles of \'98\". Adherents argued that the states could judge the constitutionality of federal government laws and decrees. The Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 argued that each individual state has the power to declare that federal laws are unconstitutional and void. The Kentucky Resolution of 1799 added that when the states determine that a law is unconstitutional, nullification by the states is the proper remedy. The Virginia Resolutions of 1798 refer to \"interposition\" to express the idea that the states have a right to \"interpose\" to prevent harm caused by unconstitutional laws. The Virginia Resolutions contemplated joint action by the states.
The Resolutions were produced primarily as campaign material for the 1800 United States presidential election and had been controversial since their passage, eliciting disapproval from ten state legislatures. Ron Chernow assessed the theoretical damage of the resolutions as \"deep and lasting \... a recipe for disunion\". George Washington was so appalled by them that he told Patrick Henry that if \"systematically and pertinaciously pursued\", they would \"dissolve the union or produce coercion\". Their influence reverberated right up to the Civil War and beyond. In the years leading up to the Nullification Crisis, the resolutions divided Jeffersonian democrats, with states\' rights proponents such as John C. Calhoun supporting the Principles of \'98 and President Andrew Jackson opposing them. Years later, the passage of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 led anti-slavery activists to quote the Resolutions to support their calls on Northern states to nullify what they considered unconstitutional enforcement of the law.
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# Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
## Provisions of the Resolutions {#provisions_of_the_resolutions}
The resolutions opposed the federal Alien and Sedition Acts, which extended the powers of the federal government. They argued that the Constitution was a \"compact\" or agreement among the states. Therefore, the federal government had no right to exercise powers not specifically delegated to it. If the federal government assumed such powers, its acts could be declared unconstitutional by the states. So, states could decide the constitutionality of laws passed by Congress. Kentucky\'s Resolution 1 stated:
> That the several states composing the United States of America are not united on the principle of unlimited submission to their general government; but that, by compact, under the style and title of a Constitution for the United States, and of amendments thereto, they constituted a general government for special purposes, delegated to that government certain definite powers, reserving, each state to itself, the residuary mass of right to their own self-government; and that whensoever the general government assumes undelegated powers, its acts are unauthoritative, void, and of no force; that to this compact each state acceded as a state, and is an integral party, its co-States forming, as to itself, the other party; that this government, created by this compact, was not made the exclusive or final judge of the extent of the powers delegated to itself, since that would have made its discretion, and not the Constitution, the measure of its powers; but that, as in all other cases of compact among powers having no common judge, each party has an equal right to judge for itself, as well of infractions as of the mode and measure of redress.
A key provision of the Kentucky Resolutions was Resolution 2, which denied Congress more than a few penal powers by arguing that Congress had no authority to punish crimes other than those specifically named in the Constitution. The Alien and Sedition Acts were asserted to be unconstitutional, and therefore void, because they dealt with crimes not mentioned in the Constitution:
> That the Constitution of the United States, having delegated to Congress a power to punish treason, counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States, piracies, and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations, and no other crimes, whatsoever; and it being true as a general principle, and one of the amendments to the Constitution having also declared, that \"the powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people,\" therefore the act of Congress, passed on the 14th day of July, 1798, and intitled \"An Act in addition to the act intitled An Act for the punishment of certain crimes against the United States,\" as also the act passed by them on the---day of June, 1798, intitled \"An Act to punish frauds committed on the bank of the United States,\" (and all their other acts which assume to create, define, or punish crimes, other than those so enumerated in the Constitution,) are altogether void, and of no force whatsoever.
The Virginia Resolution of 1798 also relied on the compact theory and asserted that the states have the right to determine whether actions of the federal government exceed constitutional limits. The Virginia Resolution introduced the idea that the states may \"interpose\" when the federal government acts unconstitutionally, in their opinion:
> That this Assembly doth explicitly and peremptorily declare, that it views the powers of the federal government as resulting from the compact to which the states are parties, as limited by the plain sense and intention of the instrument constituting that compact, as no further valid than they are authorized by the grants enumerated in that compact; and that, in case of a deliberate, palpable, and dangerous exercise of other powers, not granted by the said compact, the states, who are parties thereto, have the right, and are in duty bound, to interpose, for arresting the progress of the evil, and for maintaining, within their respective limits, the authorities, rights and liberties, appertaining to them.
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# Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
## History of the Resolutions {#history_of_the_resolutions}
There were two sets of **Kentucky Resolutions**. The Kentucky General Assembly passed the first resolution on November 16, 1798, and the second on December 3, 1799. Jefferson wrote the 1798 Resolutions. The author of the 1799 Resolutions is not known with certainty. Both resolutions were stewarded by John Breckinridge who was falsely believed to have been their author.
James Madison wrote the **Virginia Resolution**. The Virginia General Assembly passed it on December 24, 1798.
The Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 stated that acts of the national government beyond the scope of its constitutional powers are \"unauthoritative, void, and of no force\". While Jefferson\'s draft of the 1798 Resolutions had claimed that each state has a right of \"nullification\" of unconstitutional laws, that language did not appear in the final form of those Resolutions. Rather than purporting to nullify the Alien and Sedition Acts, the 1798 Resolutions called on the other states to join Kentucky \"in declaring these acts void and of no force\" and \"in requesting their repeal at the next session of Congress\".
The Kentucky Resolutions of 1799 were written to respond to the states who had rejected the 1798 Resolutions. The 1799 Resolutions used the term \"nullification\", which had been deleted from Jefferson\'s draft of the 1798 Resolutions, resolving: \"That the several states who formed \[the Constitution\], being sovereign and independent, have the unquestionable right to judge of its infraction; and, That a nullification, by those sovereignties, of all unauthorized acts done under color of that instrument, is the rightful remedy.\" The 1799 Resolutions did not assert that Kentucky would unilaterally refuse to enforce the Alien and Sedition Acts. Rather, the 1799 Resolutions declared that Kentucky \"will bow to the laws of the Union\" but would continue \"to oppose in a constitutional manner\" the Alien and Sedition Acts. The 1799 Resolutions concluded by stating that Kentucky was entering its \"solemn protest\" against those Acts.
The Virginia Resolution did not refer to \"nullification\", but instead used the idea of \"interposition\" by the states. The Resolution stated that when the national government acts beyond the scope of the Constitution, the states \"have the right, and are in duty bound, to interpose, for arresting the progress of the evil, and for maintaining, within their respective limits, the authorities, rights and liberties, appertaining to them\". The Virginia Resolution did not indicate what form this \"interposition\" might take or what effect it would have. The Virginia Resolutions appealed to the other states for agreement and cooperation.
Numerous scholars (including Koch and Ammon) have noted that Madison had the words \"void, and of no force or effect\" excised from the Virginia Resolutions before adoption. Madison later explained that he did this because an individual state does not have the right to declare a federal law null and void. Rather, Madison explained that \"interposition\" involved a collective action of the states, not a refusal by an individual state to enforce federal law, and that the deletion of the words \"void, and of no force or effect\" was intended to make clear that no individual state could nullify federal law.
The Kentucky Resolutions of 1799, while claiming the right of nullification, did not assert that individual states could exercise that right. Rather, nullification was described as an action to be taken by \"the several states\" who formed the Constitution. The Kentucky Resolutions thus ended up proposing joint action, as did the Virginia Resolution.
The Resolutions joined the foundational beliefs of Jefferson\'s party and were used as party documents in the 1800 election. As they had been shepherded to passage in the Virginia House of Delegates by John Taylor of Caroline, they became part of the heritage of the \"Old Republicans\". Taylor rejoiced in what the House of Delegates had made of Madison\'s draft: it had read the claim that the Alien and Sedition Acts were unconstitutional as meaning that they had \"no force or effect\" in Virginia---that is, that they were void. Future Virginia Governor and U.S. Secretary of War James Barbour concluded that \"unconstitutional\" included \"void, and of no force or effect\", and that Madison\'s textual change did not affect the meaning. Madison himself strongly denied this reading of the Resolution.
The long-term importance of the Resolutions lies not in their attack on the Alien and Sedition Acts, but rather in their strong statements of states\' rights theory, which led to the rather different concepts of nullification and interposition.
### Responses of other states {#responses_of_other_states}
The resolutions were submitted to the other states for approval, but with no success. Seven states formally responded to Kentucky and Virginia by rejecting the Resolutions and three other states passed resolutions expressing disapproval, with the other four states taking no action. No other state affirmed the resolutions. At least six states responded to the Resolutions by taking the position that the constitutionality of acts of Congress is a question for the federal courts, not the state legislatures. For example, Vermont\'s resolution stated: \"It belongs not to state legislatures to decide on the constitutionality of laws made by the general government; this power being exclusively vested in the judiciary courts of the Union.\" In New Hampshire, newspapers treated them as military threats and replied with foreshadowings of civil war. \"We think it highly probable that Virginia and Kentucky will be sadly disappointed in their infernal plan of exciting insurrections and tumults,\" proclaimed one. The state legislature\'s unanimous reply was blunt:
Alexander Hamilton, then building up the army, suggested sending it into Virginia, on some \"obvious pretext\". Measures would be taken, Hamilton hinted to an ally in Congress, \"to act upon the laws and put Virginia to the Test of resistance\". At the Virginia General Assembly, delegate John Mathews was said to have objected to the passing of the resolutions by \"tearing them into pieces and trampling them underfoot.\"
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# Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
## History of the Resolutions {#history_of_the_resolutions}
### The Report of 1800 {#the_report_of_1800}
In January 1800, the Virginia General Assembly passed the Report of 1800, a document written by Madison to respond to criticism of the Virginia Resolution by other states. The Report of 1800 reviewed and affirmed each part of the Virginia Resolution, affirming that the states have the right to declare that a federal action is unconstitutional. The Report went on to assert that a declaration of unconstitutionality by a state would be an expression of opinion, without legal effect. The purpose of such a declaration, said Madison, was to mobilize public opinion and to elicit cooperation from other states. Madison indicated that the power to make binding constitutional determinations remained in the federal courts:
Madison then argued that a state, after declaring a federal law unconstitutional, could take action by communicating with other states, attempting to enlist their support, petitioning Congress to repeal the law in question, introducing amendments to the Constitution in Congress, or calling a constitutional convention.
However, in the same document Madison explicitly argued that the states retain the ultimate power to decide about the constitutionality of the federal laws, in \"extreme cases\" such as the Alien and Sedition Act. The Supreme Court can decide in the last resort only in those cases which pertain to the acts of other branches of the federal government, but cannot takeover the ultimate decision-making power from the states which are the \"sovereign parties\" in the Constitutional compact. According to Madison states could override not only the Congressional acts, but also the decisions of the Supreme Court:
: The resolution supposes that dangerous powers, not delegated, may not only be usurped and executed by the other departments, but that the judicial department, also, may exercise or sanction dangerous powers beyond the grant of the Constitution; and, consequently, that the ultimate right of the parties to the Constitution, to judge whether the compact has been dangerously violated, must extend to violations by one delegated authority as well as by another---by the judiciary as well as by the executive, or the legislature.
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: However true, therefore, it may be, that the judicial department is, in all questions submitted to it by the forms of the Constitution, to decide in the last resort, this resort must necessarily be deemed the last in relation to the authorities of the other departments of the government; not in relation to the rights of the parties to the constitutional compact, from which the judicial, as well as the other departments, hold their delegated trusts. On any other hypothesis, the delegation of judicial power would annul the authority delegating it; and the concurrence of this department with the others in usurped powers, might subvert forever, and beyond the possible reach of any rightful remedy, the very Constitution which all were instituted to preserve.
Madison later strongly denied that individual states have the right to nullify federal law.
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# Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
## Influence of the Resolutions {#influence_of_the_resolutions}
Although the New England states rejected the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions in 1798--99, several years later, the state governments of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island threatened to ignore the Embargo Act of 1807 based on the authority of states to stand up to laws deemed by those states to be unconstitutional. Rhode Island justified its position on the embargo act based on the explicit language of interposition. However, none of these states actually passed a resolution nullifying the Embargo Act. Instead, they challenged it in court, appealed to Congress for its repeal, and proposed several constitutional amendments.
Several years later, Massachusetts and Connecticut asserted their right to test constitutionality when instructed to send their militias to defend the coast during the War of 1812. Connecticut and Massachusetts questioned another embargo passed in 1813. Both states objected, including this statement from the Massachusetts legislature, or General Court:
Massachusetts and Connecticut, along with representatives of some other New England states, held a convention in 1814 that issued a statement asserting the right of interposition. But the statement did not attempt to nullify federal law. Rather, it made an appeal to Congress to provide for the defense of New England and proposed several constitutional amendments.
### The Nullification Crisis {#the_nullification_crisis}
During the \"nullification crisis\" of 1828--1833, South Carolina passed an Ordinance of Nullification purporting to nullify two federal tariff laws. South Carolina asserted that the Tariff of 1828 and the Tariff of 1832 were beyond the authority of the Constitution, and therefore were \"null, void, and no law, nor binding upon this State, its officers or citizens\". Andrew Jackson issued a proclamation against the doctrine of nullification, stating: \"I consider \... the power to annul a law of the United States, assumed by one State, incompatible with the existence of the Union, contradicted expressly by the letter of the Constitution, unauthorized by its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which it was founded, and destructive of the great object for which it was formed.\" He also denied the right to secede: \"The Constitution \... forms a government not a league. \... To say that any State may at pleasure secede from the Union is to say that the United States is not a nation.\"
James Madison also opposed South Carolina\'s position on nullification. Madison argued that he had never intended his Virginia Resolution to suggest that each individual state had the power to nullify an act of Congress. Madison wrote: \"But it follows, from no view of the subject, that a nullification of a law of the U. S. can as is now contended, belong rightfully to a single State, as one of the parties to the Constitution; the State not ceasing to avow its adherence to the Constitution. A plainer contradiction in terms, or a more fatal inlet to anarchy, cannot be imagined.\" Madison explained that when the Virginia Legislature passed the Virginia Resolution, the \"interposition\" it contemplated was \"a concurring and cooperating interposition of the States, not that of a single State. \... \[T\]he Legislature expressly disclaimed the idea that a declaration of a State, that a law of the U. S. was unconstitutional, had the effect of annulling the law.\" Madison went on to argue that the purpose of the Virginia Resolution had been to elicit cooperation by the other states in seeking change through means provided in the Constitution, such as an amendment.
### The compact theory {#the_compact_theory}
The Supreme Court rejected the compact theory in several nineteenth century cases, undermining the basis for the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions. In cases such as *Martin v. Hunter\'s Lessee*, *McCulloch v. Maryland*, and *Texas v. White*, the Court asserted that the Constitution was established directly by the people, rather than being a compact among the states. Abraham Lincoln also rejected the compact theory saying the Constitution was a binding contract among the states and no contract can be changed unilaterally by one party.
### School desegregation {#school_desegregation}
In 1954, the Supreme Court decided *Brown v. Board of Education*, which ruled that segregated schools violate the Constitution. Many people in southern states strongly opposed the *Brown* decision. James J. Kilpatrick, an editor of the *Richmond News Leader*, wrote a series of editorials urging \"massive resistance\" to integration of the schools. Kilpatrick, relying on the Virginia Resolution, revived the idea of interposition by the states as a constitutional basis for resisting federal government action. A number of southern states, including Arkansas, Louisiana, Virginia, and Florida, subsequently passed interposition and nullification laws in an effort to prevent integration of their schools.
In the case of *Cooper v. Aaron*, the Supreme Court unanimously rejected Arkansas\' effort to use nullification and interposition. The Supreme Court held that under the Supremacy Clause, federal law was controlling and the states did not have the power to evade the application of federal law. The Court specifically rejected the contention that Arkansas\' legislature and governor had the power to nullify the *Brown* decision.
In a similar case arising from Louisiana\'s interposition act, *Bush v. Orleans Parish School Board*, the Supreme Court affirmed the decision of a federal district court that rejected interposition. The district court stated: \"The conclusion is clear that interposition is not a constitutional doctrine. If taken seriously, it is illegal defiance of constitutional authority. Otherwise, \'it amounted to no more than a protest, an escape valve through which the legislators blew off steam to relieve their tensions.\' \... However solemn or spirited, interposition resolutions have no legal efficacy.\"
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# Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
## Importance of the Resolutions {#importance_of_the_resolutions}
Merrill Peterson, Jefferson\'s otherwise very favorable biographer, emphasizes the negative long-term impact of the Resolutions, calling them \"dangerous\" and a product of \"hysteria\":
Jefferson\'s biographer Dumas Malone argued that the Kentucky resolution might have gotten Jefferson impeached for treason, had his actions become known at the time. In writing the Kentucky Resolutions, Jefferson warned that, \"unless arrested at the threshold\", the Alien and Sedition Acts would \"necessarily drive these states into revolution and blood.\" Historian Ron Chernow says of this \"he wasn\'t calling for peaceful protests or civil disobedience: he was calling for outright rebellion, if needed, against the federal government of which he was vice president.\" Jefferson \"thus set forth a radical doctrine of states\' rights that effectively undermined the constitution.\" Chernow argues that neither Jefferson nor Madison sensed that they had sponsored measures as inimical as the Alien and Sedition Acts themselves. Historian Garry Wills argued \"Their nullification effort, if others had picked it up, would have been a greater threat to freedom than the misguided \[alien and sedition\] laws, which were soon rendered feckless by ridicule and electoral pressure\". The theoretical damage of the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions was \"deep and lasting, and was a recipe for disunion\". George Washington was so appalled by them that he told Patrick Henry that if \"systematically and pertinaciously pursued\", they would \"dissolve the union or produce coercion\". The influence of Jefferson\'s doctrine of states\' rights reverberated right up to the Civil War and beyond. Future president James Garfield, at the close of the Civil War, said that Jefferson\'s Kentucky Resolution \"contained the germ of nullification and secession, and we are today reaping the fruits\"
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# Keystone Cops
The **Keystone Cops** (often spelled \"**Keystone Kops**\") are fictional, humorously incompetent policemen featured in silent film slapstick comedies produced by Mack Sennett for his Keystone Film Company between 1912 and 1917.
## History
thumb\|upright=1.2\|The Keystone Cops in a typical pose from *In the Clutches of the Gang* (1914). The chief (using the telephone) is Ford Sterling. The policeman directly behind Sterling (extreme background, left) is Edgar Kennedy. The young cop to Kennedy\'s left is a then-unknown William Frawley. The hefty policeman at extreme right is Fatty Arbuckle. The young constable with bulging eyes (fourth from right) is Arbuckle\'s nephew Al St. John. The casting of the Keystone police force changed from one film to the next; many of the members were per diem actors who remain unidentifiable.
Hank Mann created the Keystone Cops, and they were named for the Keystone studio, the film production company founded in 1912 by Sennett. Their first film was *Hoffmeyer\'s Legacy* (1912), with Mann playing the part of police chief Tehiezel, but their popularity stemmed from the 1913 short *The Bangville Police* starring Mabel Normand.
As early as 1914, Sennett shifted the Keystone Cops from starring roles to background ensemble in support of comedians such as Charlie Chaplin and Fatty Arbuckle.
The Keystone Cops served as supporting players for Chaplin, Marie Dressler and Mabel Normand in the first full-length Sennett comedy feature *Tillie\'s Punctured Romance* (1914); *Mabel\'s New Hero* (1913) with Normand and Arbuckle; *Making a Living* (1914) with Chaplin in his first pre-Tramp screen appearance; *In the Clutches of the Gang* (1914) with Normand, Arbuckle, and Al St. John; and *Wished on Mabel* (1915) with Arbuckle and Normand, among others.
Comic actors Chester Conklin, Jimmy Finlayson, and Ford Sterling were also Keystone Cops, as was director Del Lord.
The original Keystone Cops were George Jeske, Bobby Dunn, Mack Riley, Charles Avery, Slim Summerville, Edgar Kennedy, and Hank Mann. In 2010, the lost short *A Thief Catcher* was discovered at an antique sale in Michigan. It was filmed in 1914 and stars Ford Sterling, Mack Swain, Edgar Kennedy, and Al St. John and includes a previously unknown appearance of Charlie Chaplin as a Keystone Cop.
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# Keystone Cops
## Revivals
Mack Sennett continued to use the Keystone Cops intermittently through the 1920s, but their popularity had waned by the time that sound films arrived. In 1935, director Ralph Staub staged a revival of the Sennett gang for his Warner Brothers short subject *Keystone Hotel*, featuring a re-creation of the Kops clutching at their hats, leaping in the air in surprise, running energetically in any direction, and taking extreme pratfalls. The Staub version of the Keystone Cops became a template for later re-creations. 20th Century Fox\'s 1939 film *Hollywood Cavalcade* had Buster Keaton in a Keystone chase scene. *Abbott and Costello Meet the Keystone Kops* (1955) included a lengthy chase scene, showcasing a group of stuntmen dressed as Sennett\'s squad. (Two original Keystone Cops in this film were Heinie Conklin as an elderly studio guard and Hank Mann as a prop man. Sennett also starred in a cameo appearance as himself).
Richard Lester\'s *A Hard Day\'s Night* (1964) has a scene in which the Beatles are chased around the streets by police in the manner of the Keystone Cops to the tune of \"Can\'t Buy Me Love\".
In Sydney, Australia, in the 1960s, Rod Hull, Desmond Tester and Penny Spence featured in a local homage series of TV comedy shorts, *Caper Cops*. \"It's a direct steal of the American *Keystone Kops* \[sic\], but this is Sydney, Australia, in the late 1960s and who cares\...\" said creator/star Hull.
Mel Brooks directed a car chase scene in the Keystone Cops\' style in his comedy film *Silent Movie* (1976).
### Canceled cartoon shorts {#canceled_cartoon_shorts}
In the late 1960s, Warner Bros.-Seven Arts pitched to create a series of animated cartoon short films based on the Keystone Cops, before being scrapped permanently following the closure of Warner's original animation studio in 1969.
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# Keystone Cops
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
The name has since been used to criticize any group for its mistakes and lack of coordination, particularly if either trait was exhibited after a great deal of energy and activity. For example, in criticizing the Department of Homeland Security\'s response to Hurricane Katrina, Senator Joseph Lieberman claimed that emergency workers under DHS chief Michael Chertoff \"ran around like Keystone Kops, uncertain about what they were supposed to do or uncertain how to do it.\"
In sport, the term has come into common usage by television commentators, particularly in the United Kingdom and Ireland. The rugby commentator Liam Toland uses the term to describe a team\'s incompetent performance on the pitch. The phrase \"Keystone Cops defending\" has become a catchphrase for describing a situation in an English football match where a defensive error or a series of defensive errors leads to a goal. The term was also used in American Football commentary to describe the play of the New York Jets against the New England Patriots in the 2012 Butt Fumble game, with sportscaster Cris Collinsworth declaring \"This is the Keystone Cops\", after the Jets gave up 21 points in 51 seconds.
According to Dave Filoni, supervising director of the animated television series *Star Wars: The Clone Wars*, the look of the GU-series Guardian police droids is based on the appearance of the Keystone Cops.
The 1983 video game *Keystone Kapers*, released for the Atari 2600, 5200, MSX and Colecovision, by Activision, featured Officer Keystone Kelly.
The open-source 1987 video game *NetHack* features Keystone Cops as a type of enemy, appearing whenever a player steals from an in-game shop
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# Kenneth MacAlpin
**Kenneth MacAlpin** (*label=\[\[Medieval Gaelic\]\]*; *label=\[\[Scottish Gaelic\]\]*; 810 -- 13 February 858) or **Kenneth I** was King of Dál Riada (841--850), and King of the Picts (848--858), of likely Gaelic origin. According to the traditional account, he inherited the throne of Dál Riada from his father Alpín mac Echdach, founder of the Alpínid dynasty. Kenneth I conquered the kingdom of the Picts in 843--850 and began a campaign to seize all of Scotland and assimilate the Picts, for which he was posthumously nicknamed *An Ferbasach* (\"The Conqueror\"). He fought the Britons of the Kingdom of Strathclyde and the invading Vikings from Scandinavia. Forteviot became the capital of his kingdom and Kenneth relocated relics, including the Stone of Scone from an abandoned abbey on Iona, to his new domain.
Kenneth I is traditionally considered the founder of Scotland, which was then known as Alba in Gaelic, although like his immediate successors, he bore the title of King of the Picts. It was Donald II that first bore the title of King of Alba as recorded by the Annals of Ulster and the Chronicon Scotorum. One chronicle calls Kenneth the first Scottish lawgiver but there is no information about the laws he passed.
## Origin
According to the genealogy of the Scottish kings, Kenneth\'s father was Alpín mac Echdach, the King of Dál Riada, which existed in what is now western Scotland. Alpín is considered to be the grandson of Áed Find, a descendant of Cenél nGabráin, who ruled in Dál Riada. The *Synchronism of the Irish Kings* lists Alpín among the kings of Scotland. Modern historians are sceptical about the reign of Alpín in Dál Riada and his relationship with Áed, and believe this misconception is the result of negligence on the part of the scribes in some texts. The genealogy of the kings of Scotland and Dál Riada dates back to an original manuscript that was written during the reign of Malcolm III in the mid-to-late 11th century. The Rawlinson B 502 manuscript provides the following ancestry for Kenneth:
There is very limited information about Alpín, Kenneth\'s father. Some of Dál Riada\'s royal lists, which contain many scribal errors, say he ruled from 841 to 843. The *Chronicle of Huntingdon*, which was written in the late 13th century, states Alpín defeated the Picts at Galloway but the Picts then defeated him in a battle that took place in the same year, during which Alpín was killed. According to the chronicle, Alpín died on 20 July 834. This date is given in other sources but several researchers claim the date was probably copied from another source and the year of his death was obtained by recalculating the dates in the erroneous royal lists so they attribute Alpín\'s date of death to 840 or 841.
Kenneth\'s grandmother (Alpin\'s mother), is said to have been a Pictish princess, the sister of Constantine I and Óengus II. According to the Pictish tradition, a female representative of the royal dynasty could inherit the crown. This origin gave Kenneth a legitimate claim to the Pictish throne.
Kenneth I had at least one brother, Donald I, who succeeded him as king.
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# Kenneth MacAlpin
## Life and reign {#life_and_reign}
### Early years {#early_years}
Kenneth MacAlpin is believed to have been born around 810 on the island of Iona, which is part of modern-day Scotland. After his father\'s death, Kenneth succeeded him as the King of Dál Riada. His coronation took place in 840 or 841. One of the main sources on Kenneth\'s life is the 10th century *Chronicle of the Kings of Alba* which describes the reigns of Scottish kings from Kenneth I to Kenneth II (`{{reign|971|995}}`{=mediawiki}).
### Conquest of Pictavia {#conquest_of_pictavia}
According to the *Chronicle of the Kings of Alba*, Kenneth came to a region that was inhabited by the Picts, during the second year of his reign in Dál Riada. Having defeated the Picts, Kenneth ruled there for 16 years. According to the *Annals of Ulster*, compiled in the 15th century, he became the King of the Picts in 842 or 843 and died in 858. Although some sources state Kenneth ruled the Picts from 841 to 856, according to the *Chronicle of Melrose*, he became king in 843, a date that is generally accepted by most modern-day historians.
In the first half of the 9th century, the geopolitical situation in Dál Riada deteriorated. Almost the entire territory of the kingdom was mountainous and was filled with uneasy terrain. Kenneth\'s realm lay between the powerful Kingdom of Strathclyde in the south and the Druim Alban mountain ridge in the east. It was difficult to pass through the provinces of Dál Riada, most of the land was infertile, and the kingdom had lost its western territories in the Hebrides to the Vikings, who had settled in the area and were raiding the borders of Dál Riada. These conditions may have forced Kenneth to attack the Picts.
After the death of Eóganan mac Óengusa in the Battle of 839, Uurad, and then Bridei VI succeeded him as the King of the Picts. According to List One, Uurad\'s reign lasted three years, while Bridei VI reigned for a year. According to List Two, Uurad reigned for two years, while Bridei VI\'s reign lasted a month. The reigns of Uurad\'s three sons were also present in List Two. Based on these accounts, the Pictish kingdom fell in 849 or 850. Many sources dating to the following periods state that the historical kingdom of the Picts and the Scots unified in 850. List Two states that the last Pictish King was killed in Forteviot or Scone. This is probably a reference to MacAlpin\'s treason, a medieval legend first recorded in the 12th century by Giraldus Cambrensis. According to the legend, a Pictish nobleman is invited by the Scots to a meeting or a feast in Scone and is treacherously killed there. At the same time, List One gives the year 843 as the date when Kenneth received the title of King of the Picts.
Sources do not detail Kenneth\'s conquest of Pictavia. No chronicle mentions either Kenneth\'s continuing his father\'s campaign against the Picts or his supposed claim to the Pictish crown. Modern-day historians suggest Kenneth was a descendant of Pictish kings through his mother or had ties with them through his wife. Kenneth\'s grandmother (Alpin\'s mother), was also said to have been a Pictish princess, the sister of Constantine I and Óengus II. It is likely the death of Eógananhe, *Chronicle of Huntingdon* gives the following interpretation of the events that took place after Eóganan\'s death:
It is likely Kenneth killed the Pictish leaders and destroyed their armies during his conquest of Pictavia, after which he devastated the whole country. The *Annals of the Four Masters* record a single battle during Kenneth\'s campaign, which according to Isabel Henderson, proves the Picts did not show any significant resistance to Kenneth\'s forces, however, more evidence will have to be presented.
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# Kenneth MacAlpin
## Life and reign {#life_and_reign}
### King of Alba {#king_of_alba}
According to historical tradition, a new kingdom was formed after Kenneth annexed the kingdom of the Picts. This kingdom\'s Gaelic name was Alba, which was later replaced with Scotia and Scotland. The rulers of the kingdom initially held the title of King of Alba, however in reality it wasn\'t until at least 42 years after Kenneth\'s death that the title King of Alba was ever used. Kenneth is retroactively listed in the royal lists dating to later periods as the first King of Scotland; modern historians, however, argue the final unification of the kingdom took place half a century later and that Kenneth\'s main political achievement should be considered the creation of a new dynasty. This dynasty sought to dominate all of Scotland, under which the Scots assimilated the Picts, resulting in the quick disappearance of the Picts\' language and institutions.
After the conquest of Pictavia, the Scots from Dál Riada began to migrate *en masse* to the territories populated by the Picts. The list of Pictish kings concludes in 850 and the list of kings of Dál Riada also ends around the same time, meaning the title ceased to exist. Kenneth I and his administration moved to Pictavia; it is possible the Scots moved to the region before the war and that such settlements played a major role in the selection of Scone as the capital of the Kingdom. Kenneth moved relics from an abandoned abbey on Iona, where Viking raids made life untenable, to Dunkeld, which was the centre of the Church of Scotland, in 848 or 849, according to the *Chronicle of the Kings of Alba*. The coronation stone was also moved from the island to Scone, for which it is referred to as the Stone of Scone. According to archaeological excavations, Forteviot was probably originally a royal residence but the place is not mentioned in the chronicles after the death of Donald I. The mass migration of Scots to the east most likely led to the assimilation of the Picts. Although the Irish annals, which date to the late 9th century, mention the title King of the Picts, the Picts may not have remained independent. The Pictish civil system and clerical laws were completely replaced with the Scottish legal system, and it is likely similar changes occurred in other spheres of the Pictish society. The Picts did not revolt against this assimilation process.
The *Chronicle of the Kings of Alba* describes the events that occurred during Kenneth\'s reign without specifying their dates. He invaded Lothian in the Kingdom of Northumbria six times, and captured the towns of Melrose and Dunbar, and razed them. The Celtic Britons from the Kingdom of Strathclyde attacked Kenneth\'s kingdom and burnt Dunblane. Furthermore, Viking invaders raided Pictavia, ravaging the territories \"from Clunie to Dunkeld\".
Kenneth strengthened his power by arranging royal marriages with neighbouring states, marrying his daughters to the kings of Strathclyde and Ireland. According to the *Chronicle of Melrose*, Kenneth was one of the first Scottish lawgivers but his laws have not survived to the 21st century.
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# Kenneth MacAlpin
## Death and succession {#death_and_succession}
According to the *Annals of Ulster*, Kenneth died in 858. The *Chronicle of the Kings of Alba* states he died in February in Forteviot due to a tumour. Historians suggest this date might be 13 February. Kenneth was buried in Iona Abbey. Succession in the kingdom was carried out in the form of tanistry so Kenneth\'s successor was his brother Donald I rather than his eldest son. After the death of Donald I, Kenneth\'s sons, Causantín mac Cináeda and Áed mac Cináeda, inherited the crown. The Alpínid dynasty, which ruled Scotland until the beginning of the 11th century, was formed during this period.
Contemporaneous Irish annals give Kenneth and his immediate successors the title King of the Picts, but do not call him the King of Fortriu, a title that was only given to four Pictish kings who reigned in the 7th to 9th centuries. It is possible the use of the title of King of the Picts was in reference to Kenneth and his immediate successors\' claim to all of Pictavia, though there is very little evidence of the extent of their domain.
## Family
The name of Kenneth\'s wife is unknown. There is a hypothesis she may have been a Pictish princess. Kenneth\'s children were:
- Causantín mac Cináeda (`{{reign|862|877}}`{=mediawiki}), King of Alba;
- Áed of the White Flowers (`{{reign|877|878}}`{=mediawiki}), King of Alba;
- Unknown daughter. She married Rhun ab Arthgal (`{{reign|872|878}}`{=mediawiki}), the King of Strathclyde, and had a son, Eochaid (`{{reign|878|889}}`{=mediawiki}), who may have ruled as King of Strathclyde and/or King of the Picts;
- Máel Muire ingen Cináeda. She married Áed Findliath (`{{reign|862|879}}`{=mediawiki}), the High King of Ireland.
There is also a theory the wife of Amlaíb Conung (`{{reign|853|871}}`{=mediawiki}), the King of Dublin, was a daughter of Kenneth
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# Khandi Alexander
**Harriet Rene** \"**Khandi**\" **Alexander** (born September 4, 1957) is an American dancer, choreographer, and actress. She began her career as a dancer in the 1980s, and was a choreographer for Whitney Houston\'s world tours from 1988 to 1992.
During the 1990s, Alexander appeared in a number of films, including *CB4* (1993), *What\'s Love Got to Do with It* (1993), *Sugar Hill* (1994), and *There\'s Something About Mary* (1998). She starred as Catherine Duke in the NBC sitcom *NewsRadio* from 1995 to 1998. She also had a major recurring role in the NBC medical drama *ER* (1995--2001) as Jackie Robbins, sister to Dr. Peter Benton. Alexander also received critical acclaim for her leading performance in the HBO miniseries *The Corner* in 2000.
From 2002 to 2009, Alexander starred as Dr. Alexx Woods in the CBS police procedural series *CSI: Miami*. From 2010 to 2013, she starred as LaDonna Batiste-Williams in the HBO drama *Treme*. Later in 2013, she joined the cast of the ABC drama *Scandal* as Maya Lewis, Olivia Pope\'s mother, for which she received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination in 2015. Alexander also received a Critics\' Choice Television Award nomination for playing Bessie Smith\'s sister Viola in the 2015 HBO film *Bessie*.
## Early life {#early_life}
Khandi Alexander was born in Jacksonville, Florida, the daughter of Alverina Yavonna (Masters), an opera and jazz singer, and Henry Roland Alexander, who owned a construction company. She was raised in Queens, New York, and was educated at Queensborough Community College. She appeared on Broadway, starring in *Chicago*, Bob Fosse\'s *Dancin\'*, and *Dreamgirls*. She was a choreographer for Whitney Houston\'s world tour from 1988 to 1992, and also appeared as a dancer in Natalie Cole\'s video for \"Pink Cadillac\" in 1988.
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# Khandi Alexander
## Career
Alexander began her acting career in the late 1980s. She made her television debut on the 1985 sketch-comedy show *FTV*. Since the early 1990s, Alexander has concentrated on film and TV, playing supporting roles in several movies, including *CB4*, *Joshua Tree*, *What\'s Love Got to Do with It*, *Poetic Justice*, and *Sugar Hill*.
In 1995, Alexander was cast as Catherine Duke on the NBC comedy series *NewsRadio*. She stayed with the show until season 4, episode 7, \"Catherine Moves On\", then returned for a final appearance in the season 5 premiere episode, \"Bill Moves On\" to memorialize Phil Hartman. She played the recurring character of Jackie Robbins in the medical drama series *ER*. Alexander has made a number of guest appearances on other television shows, including *Law & Order: Special Victims Unit*, *NYPD Blue*, *Third Watch*, *Cosby*, *Better Off Ted*, *La Femme Nikita*, and *Body of Proof*.
In 2000, Alexander won critical acclaim for her performance as Fran Boyd, a mother addicted to drugs in the Emmy Award-winning HBO miniseries *The Corner*. She later appeared in the films *Emmett\'s Mark* and *Dark Blue*, and starred opposite Rob Lowe in the Lifetime television movie *Perfect Strangers*. In 2002 through 2008, she portrayed the character of Alexx Woods, a medical examiner in the CBS police drama *CSI: Miami*. Alexander left *CSI: Miami* shortly before the end of the 2007--2008 season. Her final appearance aired on May 5, 2008. On February 2, 2009, she returned to the role of Alexx Woods for a guest appearance in the episode \"Smoke Gets in Your CSI\'s\". She returned again as Alexx Woods in guest appearances in the episodes \"Out of Time\" on September 21, 2009, and \"Bad Seed\" on October 19, 2009.
In fall 2008, Alexander was cast as a lead character in the HBO drama pilot *Treme*, that premiered on April 11, 2010. She played a bar owner in a neighborhood of New Orleans affected by Hurricane Katrina. She received critical acclaim for her performance in the show. Alexander starred in the award-winning HBO television series by David Simon from 2010 to 2013. The series ended after four seasons. She later was cast in Shonda Rhimes\' drama series *Scandal* as Maya Lewis, Kerry Washington\'s character Olivia Pope\'s mother. In 2015, she was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series for her performance.
In 2014, Alexander was cast as older sister of Queen Latifah\'s title character in the HBO Film *Bessie* about iconic blues singer Bessie Smith. She was nominated for a Critics\' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Movie/Miniseries.
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# Khandi Alexander
## Filmography
### Film
Year Film Role Notes
------ ---------------------------------- --------------------------- -------
1985 *Streetwalkin\'* Star
*A Chorus Line* Dancer
1987 *Maid to Order* Hooker in Jail
1993 *CB4* Sissy
*Joshua Tree* Maralena Turner
*Menace II Society* Karen Lawson
*What\'s Love Got to Do with It* Darlene
*Poetic Justice* Simone
1994 *Sugar Hill* Ella Skuggs
*House Party 3* Janelle
*Greedy* Laura Densmore, P.I.
1996 *No Easy Way* Diana Campbell
1998 *There\'s Something About Mary* Joanie
1999 *Thick as Thieves* Janet
2002 *Fool Proof* Icarus
*Emmett\'s Mark* Detective Middlestat
*Dark Blue* Janelle Holland
2006 *Rain* Latishia Arnold
2007 *First Born* Dierdre
2013 *The-N-word* Ms. Greene Short
2016 *A Woman, a Part* Leslie
*Pushing Dead* Dot
*Patriots Day* Veronica the Interrogator
2018 *Fahrenheit 451* Toni Morrison
### Television
Year Title Role Notes
------------ ------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------
1985 *FTV* Various Characters TV series
1987 *Rags to Riches* The Delights Episode: \"Pilot\"
1988 *Duet* Nurse Episode: \"Special Delivery\"
1989 *A Different World* Theressa Stone Episode: \"Citizen Wayne\"
1992 *The Edge* Various Characters Episode: \"Episode #1.11\"
1993 *Shameful Secrets* Rosalie TV movie
1994 *To My Daughter with Love* Harriet TV movie
1995--98 *NewsRadio* Catherine Duke Main cast (season 1--4), guest (season 5)
1995--2001 *ER* Jackie Robbins Recurring cast (season 1--8)
1996 *Terminal* Dr. Deborah Levy TV movie
1998 *La Femme Nikita* Terry Episode: \"Soul Sacrifice\"
1999 *Cosby* Karen Episode: \"The Awful Truth\"
*NYPD Blue* Sonya Episode: \"What\'s Up, Chuck?\"
*Spawn 3: Ultimate Battle* Lakesha / Nurse (voice) Episode: \"Seed of the Hellspawn\"
*X-Chromosome* Yolanda (voice) TV series
*Partners* Charlie TV movie
2000 *Rude Awakening* Juanita Wilson Episode: \"Star 80 Proof\"
*The Corner* Denise Francine \'Fran\' Boyd Main cast
*Third Watch* Beverly Saunders Episode: \"History\"
2001 *Law & Order: Special Victims Unit* Sgt. Karen Smythe Episode: \"Paranoia\"
2002 *CSI: Crime Scene Investigation* Dr. Alexx Woods Episode: \"Cross Jurisdictions\"
2002--09 *CSI: Miami* Dr
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# Khoisan languages
The **Khoisan languages** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɔɪ|s|ɑː|n}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respelling|KOY|sahn}}`{=mediawiki}; also **Khoesan** or **Khoesaan**) are a number of African languages once classified together, originally by Joseph Greenberg. Khoisan is defined as those languages that have click consonants and do not belong to other African language families. For much of the 20th century, they were thought to be genealogically related to each other, but this is no longer accepted. They are now held to comprise three distinct language families and two language isolates.
All but two Khoisan languages are indigenous to southern Africa; these are classified into three language families. The Khoe family appears to have migrated to southern Africa not long before the Bantu expansion. Ethnically, their speakers are the Khoekhoe and the San (Bushmen). Two languages of eastern Africa, those of the Sandawe and Hadza, were originally also classified as Khoisan, although their speakers are ethnically neither Khoekhoe nor San.
Before the Bantu expansion, Khoisan languages, or languages like them, were likely spread throughout southern and eastern Africa. They are currently restricted to the Kalahari Desert, primarily in Namibia and Botswana, and to the Rift Valley in central Tanzania.
Most of the languages are endangered, and several are moribund or extinct. Most have no written record. The only widespread Khoisan language is Khoekhoe (also known as Khoekhoegowab, Nàmá or Damara) of Namibia, Botswana and South Africa, with a quarter of a million speakers; Sandawe in Tanzania is second in number with some 40--80,000, some monolingual; and the ǃKung language of the northern Kalahari spoken by some 16,000 or so people. Language use is quite strong among the 20,000 speakers of Naro, half of whom speak it as a second language.
Khoisan languages are best known for their use of click consonants as phonemes. These are typically written with characters such as **ǃ** and **ǂ**. Clicks are quite versatile as consonants, as they involve two articulations of the tongue which can operate partially independently. Consequently, the languages with the greatest numbers of consonants in the world are Khoisan. The Juǀʼhoan language has 48 click consonants among nearly as many non-click consonants, strident and pharyngealized vowels, and four tones. The ǃXóõ and ǂHõã languages are even more complex.
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# Khoisan languages
## Validity
Khoisan was proposed as one of the four families of African languages in Joseph Greenberg\'s classification (1949--1954, revised in 1963). However, linguists who study Khoisan languages reject their unity, and the name \"Khoisan\" is used by them as a term of convenience without any implication of linguistic validity, much as \"Papuan\" and \"Australian\" are. It has been suggested that the similarities of the Tuu and Kxʼa families are due to a southern African Sprachbund rather than a genealogical relationship, whereas the Khoe (or perhaps Kwadi--Khoe) family is a more recent migrant to the area, and may be related to Sandawe in East Africa.
Ernst Oswald Johannes Westphal is known for his early rejection of the Khoisan language family (Starostin 2003). Bonny Sands (1998) concluded that the family is not demonstrable with current evidence. Anthony Traill at first accepted Khoisan (Traill 1986), but by 1998 concluded that it could not be demonstrated with current data and methods, rejecting it as based on a single typological criterion: the presence of clicks. Dimmendaal (2008) summarized the general view thus: \"\[I\]t has to be concluded that Greenberg\'s intuitions on the genetic unity of Khoisan could not be confirmed by subsequent research. Today, the few scholars working on these languages treat the three \[southern groups\] as independent language families that cannot or can no longer be shown to be genetically related\" (p. 841). Starostin (2013) accepts a relationship between Sandawe and Khoi is plausible, as is one between Tuu and Kxʼa, but sees no indication of a relationship between Sandawe and Khoi on the one hand and Tuu and Kxʼa on the other, or between any of them and Hadza.
Janina Brutt-Griffler writes: \"Given that such colonial borders were generally arbitrarily drawn, they grouped large numbers of ethnic groups that spoke many languages.\" She hypothesizes that this took place within efforts to prevent the spread of English during European colonization and prevent the entrance of the majority into the middle class.
## Khoisan language variation {#khoisan_language_variation}
Anthony Traill noted the Khoisan languages\' extreme variation. Despite their shared clicks, the Khoisan languages diverge significantly from each other. Traill demonstrated this linguistic diversity in the data presented in the below table. The first two columns include words from the two Khoisan language isolates, Sandawe and Hadza. The following three are languages from the Khoe family, the Kxʼa family, and the Tuu family, respectively.
Sandawe Hadza Khoe Ju ǃXóõ
-------------- ---------- -------------- --------- -------- --------
\'person\' ǀnomese ʼúnù khoe ʒú tâa
\'man\' ǀnomese ɬeme kʼákhoe ǃhõá tâa á̰a
\'child\' ǁnoό waʼa ǀūá dama ʘàa
\'ear\' kéké ɦatʃʼapitʃʼi ǂée ǀhúí ǂnùhã
\'eye\' ǀgweé ʼákhwa ǂxái ǀgàʼá ǃʼûĩ
\'ostrich\' saʼútà kénàngu ǀgáro dsùú qûje
\'giraffe\' tsʼámasu tsʼókwàna ǃnábe ǂoah ǁqhūũ
\'buffalo\' ǀeu nákʼóma ǀâo ǀàò ǀqhái
\'to hear\' khéʼé ǁnáʼe kúm tsʼàʼá tá̰a
\'to drink\' tsʼee fá kxʼâa tʃìi kxʼāhã
: style=\"text-align: left;\" \| Khoisan language words, as reported in 2005 by Britannica
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# Khoisan languages
## Families
alt=Khoisan language map\|thumb\|upright=2\|Present distribution of speakers of Khoisan languages
The branches that were once considered part of so-called Khoisan are now considered independent families, since it has not been demonstrated that they are related according to the standard comparative method.
See Khoe languages for speculations on the linguistic history of the region.
### Hadza
With about 800 speakers in Tanzania, Hadza is no longer seen as a Khoisan language and appears to be unrelated to any other language. Genetically, the Hadza people are unrelated to the Khoisan peoples of Southern Africa, and their closest relatives may be among the Pygmies of Central Africa.
### Sandawe
There is some indication that Sandawe (about 40,000 speakers in Tanzania) may be related to the Khoe family, such as a congruent pronominal system and some good Swadesh-list matches, but not enough to establish regular sound correspondences. Sandawe is not related to Hadza, despite their proximity.
### Khoe
The Khoe family is both the most numerous and diverse family of Khoisan languages, with seven living languages and over a quarter million speakers. Although little Kwadi data is available, proto-Khoe--Kwadi reconstructions have been made for pronouns and some basic vocabulary.
- ?**Khoe--Kwadi**
- Kwadi (extinct)
- Khoe
- Khoekhoe This branch appears to have been affected by the Kxʼa--Tuu *sprachbund*.
- Nama (ethnonyms Khoekhoen, Nama, Damara) (a dialect cluster including ǂAakhoe and Haiǁom)
- Eini (extinct)
- South Khoekhoe
- Korana (moribund)
- Xiri (moribund; a dialect cluster)
- Tshu--Khwe (or *Kalahari)* Many of these languages have undergone partial click loss.
- East Tshu--Khwe (East Kalahari)
- Shua (a dialect cluster including Deti, Tsʼixa, ǀXaise, and Ganádi)
- Tsoa (a dialect cluster including Cire Cire and Kua)
- West Tshu--Khwe (West Kalahari)
- Kxoe (a dialect cluster including ǁAni and Buga)
- Naro (a dialect cluster, including ǂHaba)
- Gǁana--Gǀwi (a dialect cluster including Gǁana and Gǀwi)
A Haiǁom language is listed in most Khoisan references. A century ago the Haiǁom people spoke a Ju dialect, probably close to ǃKung, but they now speak a divergent dialect of Nama. Thus their language is variously said to be extinct or to have 18,000 speakers, to be Ju or to be Khoe. (Their numbers have been included under Nama above.) They are known as the *Saa* by the Nama, and this is the source of the word *San*.
### Tuu
The Tuu family consists of two language clusters, which are related to each other at about the distance of Khoekhoe and Tshukhwe within Khoe. They are typologically very similar to the Kxʼa languages (below), but have not been demonstrated to be related to them genealogically (the similarities may be an areal feature).
- **Tuu**
- Taa
- ǃXoon (4200 speakers. A dialect cluster.)
- Lower Nossob (Two dialects, ǀʼAuni and ǀHaasi. Extinct.)
- ǃKwi
- Nǁng (1 speaker. A dialect cluster.)
- ǀXam (A dialect cluster. Extinct.)
- ǂUngkue (A dialect cluster. Extinct.)
- ǁXegwi (Extinct.)
### Kxʼa
The Kxʼa family is a relatively distant relationship formally demonstrated in 2010.
- **Kxʼa**
- ǂʼAmkoe (200 speakers, Botswana. Moribund. A dialect cluster of Nǃaqriaxe, (Eastern) ǂHoan, and Sasi).
- ǃKung (also *ǃXun* or *Ju,* formerly *Northern Khoisan)* is a dialect cluster. (\~45,000 speakers.) Juǀʼhoan is the best-known dialect.
### Classification by Starostin (2013) {#classification_by_starostin_2013}
Starostin (2013) gives the following classification of the Khoisan \"macrofamily\", which he considers to be a single coherent language family. However, this classification is not widely accepted.
- **Khoisan**
- Hadza
- Macro-Khoisan (excl. Hadza)
- Sandawe--Khoe--Kwadi
- Sandawe
- Khoe--Kwadi
- Kwadi
- Central Khoisan (= Khoe)
- Khoekhoe
- Kalahari Khoe
- Peripheral Khoisan
- Southern Khoisan (= !Kwi--Taa \~ Tuu)
- !Kwi
- Taa
- Ju--ǂHoan
- Western ǂHoan
- Northern Khoisan (= Ju)
In the tree on page 472, Starostin really writes \"Western ǂHoan\", which is a synonym for Taa, but evidently means Eastern ǂHoan, that is, ǂʼAmkoe.
## Other \"click languages\" {#other_click_languages}
Not all languages using clicks as phonemes are considered Khoisan. Most others are neighboring Bantu languages in southern Africa: the Nguni languages (Xhosa, Zulu, Swazi, Phuthi, and Northern Ndebele); Sotho; Yeyi in Botswana; and Mbukushu, Kwangali, and Gciriku in the Caprivi Strip. Clicks are spreading to a few additional neighboring languages. Of these languages, Xhosa, Zulu, Ndebele and Yeyi have intricate systems of click consonants; the others, despite the click in the name *Gciriku,* more rudimentary ones. There is also the South Cushitic language Dahalo in Kenya, which has dental clicks in a few score words, and an extinct and presumably artificial Australian ritual language called Damin, which had only nasal clicks.
The Bantu languages adopted the use of clicks from neighboring, displaced, or absorbed Khoisan populations (or from other Bantu languages), often through intermarriage, while the Dahalo are thought to have retained clicks from an earlier language when they shifted to speaking a Cushitic language; if so, the pre-Dahalo language may have been something like Hadza or Sandawe. Damin is an invented ritual language, and has nothing to do with Khoisan.
These are the only languages known to have clicks in normal vocabulary. Occasionally other languages are said by laypeople to have \"click\" sounds
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# Kendall Square Research
**Kendall Square Research** (**KSR**) was a supercomputer company headquartered originally in Kendall Square in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1986, near Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). It was co-founded by Steven Frank and Henry Burkhardt III, who had formerly helped found Data General and Encore Computer and was one of the original team that designed the PDP-8. KSR produced two models of supercomputer, the KSR1 and KSR2. It went bankrupt in 1994.
## Technology
The KSR systems ran a specially customized version of the OSF/1 operating system, a Unix variant, with programs compiled by a KSR-specific port of the Green Hills Software C and FORTRAN compilers. The architecture was shared memory implemented as a cache-only memory architecture or \"COMA\". Being all cache, memory dynamically migrated and replicated in a coherent manner based on the access pattern of individual processors. The processors were arranged in a hierarchy of rings, and the operating system mediated process migration and device access. Instruction decode was hardwired, and pipelining was used. Each KSR1 processor was a custom 64-bit reduced instruction set computing (RISC) CPU clocked at 20 MHz and capable of a peak output of 20 million instructions per second (MIPS) and 40 million floating-point operations per second (MFLOPS). Up to 1088 of these processors could be arranged in a single system, with a minimum of eight. The KSR2 doubled the clock rate to 40 MHz and supported over 5000 processors. The KSR-1 chipset was fabricated by Sharp Corporation while the KSR-2 chipset was built by Hewlett-Packard.
### Software
Besides the traditional scientific applications, KSR with Oracle Corporation, addressed the massively parallel database market for commercial applications. The KSR-1 and -2 supported Micro Focus COBOL and C/C++ programming languages, and the Oracle database and the MATISSE OODBMS from ADB, Inc. Their own product, the KSR Query Decomposer, complemented the functions of the Oracle product for SQL uses. The TUXEDO transaction monitor for OLTP was also provided. The KAP program (Kuck & Associate Preprocessor) provided for pre-processing for source code analysis and parallelization. The runtime environment was termed PRESTO, and was a POSIX compliant multithreading manager.
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# Kendall Square Research
## Technology
### Hardware
The KSR-1 processor was implemented as a four-chip set in 1.2 micrometer complementary metal--oxide--semiconductor (CMOS). These chips were: the cell execution unit, the floating point unit, the arithmetic logic unit, and the external I/O unit (XIO). The CEU handled instruction fetch (two per clock), and all operations involving memory, such as loads and stores. 40-bit addresses were used, going to full 64-bit addresses later. The integer unit had 32, 64-bit-wide registers. The floating point unit is discussed below. The XIO had the capacity of 30 MB/s throughput to I/O devices. It included 64 control and data registers.
The KSR processor was a 2-wide VLIW, with instructions of 6 types: memory reference (load and store), execute, control flow, memory control, I/O, and inserted. Execute instructions included arithmetic, logical, and type conversion. They were usually triadic register in format. Control flow refers to branches and jumps. Branch instructions were two cycles. The programmer (or compiler) could implicitly control the *quashing* behavior of the subsequent two instructions that would be initiated during the branch. The choices were: always retain the results, retain results if branch test is true, or retain results if branch test is false. Memory control provided synchronization primitives. I/O instructions were provided. Inserted instructions were forced into a flow by a coprocessor. Inserted load and store were used for direct memory access (DMA) transfers. Inserted memory instructions were used to maintain cache coherency. New coprocessors could be interfaced with the inserted instruction mechanism. IEEE standard floating point arithmetic was supported. Sixty-four 64-bit wide registers were included.
The following example of KSR assembly performs an indirect procedure call to an address held in the procedure\'s constant block, saving the return address in register `c14`. It also saves the frame pointer, loads integer register zero with the value 3, and increments integer register 31 without changing the condition codes. Most instructions have a delay slot of 2 cycles and the delay slots are not interlocked, so must be scheduled explicitly, else the resulting hazard means wrong values are sometimes loaded.
finop ; movb8_8 %i2,%c10
finop ; cxnop
finop ; cxnop
add8.ntr 75,%i31,%i31 ; ld8 8(%c10),%c4
finop ; st8 %fp,504(%sp)
finop ; cxnop
movi8 3, %i0 ; jsr %c14,16(%c4)
In the KSR design, all of the memory was treated as cache. The design called for no *home* location- to reduce storage overheads and to software transparently, dynamically migrate/replicate memory based on where it was utilized; a Harvard architecture, separate bus for instructions and memory was used. Each node board contained 256 KB of I-cache and D-cache, essentially primary cache. At each node was 32 MB of memory for main cache. The system level architecture was shared virtual memory, which was physically distributed in the machine. The programmer or application only saw one contiguous address space, which was spanned by a 40-bit address. Traffic between nodes traveled at up to 4 gigabytes per second. The 32 megabytes per node, in aggregate, formed the physical memory of the machine.
Specialized input/output processors could be used in the system, providing scalable I/O. A 1088 node KSR1 could have 510 I/O channels with an aggregate in excess of 15 GB/s. Interfaces such as Ethernet, FDDI, and HIPPI were supported.
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# Kendall Square Research
## History
As the company scaled up quickly to enter production, they moved in the late 1980s to 170 Tracer Lane, Waltham, Massachusetts.
KSR refocused its efforts from the scientific to the commercial marketplace, with emphasis on parallel relational databases and OLTP operations. It then got out of the hardware business, but continued to market some of its data warehousing and analysis software products.
The first KSR1 system was installed in 1991. With new processor hardware, new memory hardware and a novel memory architecture, a new compiler port, a new port of a relatively new operating system, and exposed memory hazards, early systems were noted for frequent system crashes. KSR called their cache-only memory architecture (COMA) by the trade name *Allcache*; reliability problems with early systems earned it the nickname *Allcrash*, although memory was not necessarily the root cause of crashes. A few KSR1 models were sold, and as the KSR2 was being rolled out, the company collapsed amid accounting irregularities involving the overstatement of revenue.
KSR used a proprietary processor because 64-bit processors were not commercially available. However, this put the small company in the difficult position of doing both processor design and system design. The KSR processors were introduced in 1991 at 20 MHz and 40 MFlops. At that time, the 32-bit Intel 80486 ran at 50 MHz and 50 MFlops. When the 64-bit DEC Alpha was introduced in 1992, it ran at up to 192 MHz and 192 MFlops, while the 1992 KSR2 ran at 40 MHz and 80 MFlops.
One customer of the KSR2, the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, a United States Department of Energy facility, purchased an enormous number of spare parts, and kept their machines running for years after the demise of KSR.
KSR, along with many of its competitors (see below), went bankrupt during the collapse of the supercomputer market in the early 1990s. KSR went out of business in February 1994, when their stock was delisted from the stock exchange.
In April of 1996, the SEC filed a complaint against the company and several officers (Burkhardt III, the CEO and President; Peter Appleton Jones, the highest-ranked sales executive; and Karl G Wassman III, the CFO and CAO) for issuing materially false and misleading financial statements for six quarters in 1992 and 1993. These individuals and Thomas J MacCormack, director of contracts administration, were also accused of selling KSR stock while in possession of material nonpublic information. While no one admitted or denied wrongdoing, all individuals settled. All were ordered to pay disgorgements representing losses avoided as well as fines and interest accrued. Burkhardt paid some \$1.1 million; MacCormack over \$31,000. Though Wassman was ordered to pay in excess of \$200,000, and Appleton Jones in excess of \$300,000, they had spent their illicit gains in the meanwhile and all fines but \$40,000 each were waived \"on demonstrated inability to pay a greater amount.\"
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# Kendall Square Research
## Competition
KSR\'s competitors included MasPar Computer Corporation, Thinking Machines, Meiko Scientific, and various old-line (and still surviving) companies like IBM and Intel
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# Kinglassie
**Kinglassie** (Scottish Gaelic: *Cill Ghlaise*) is a small village and parish in central Fife, Scotland. It is located two miles southwest of Glenrothes. It has a population of around `{{Scottish locality population|name|POP=Kinglassie}}`{=mediawiki} (`{{Scottish settlement population citation|year}}`{=mediawiki}) The civil parish has a population of 22,543 (in 2011).
## History
The village of Kinglassie (properly pronounced Kin-glassie, but locals have said King-lassie for decades) lies to the north of the Lochty Burn, 2 mi southwest of Glenrothes in Fife, and two miles southeast of Perth and Kinross district.
The name of the village derives from Scottish Gaelic, although the exact meaning is obscure. The name was first recorded as \"Kilglassin\" in 1127. The first element, kil, is from the Gaelic, *cill*, meaning monk\'s cell or church, but was changed to kin or *ceann*, meaning head or end, by the 13th century. The element \'glassie\' may refer to the Irish saint Glaisne, or may be glasin, meaning the place of the burn. Taken together this gives \"St Glaisne\'s Church\" or \"Church of the Burn\" as possible meanings.
Little of antiquity remains, except for the Dogton Stone, with its Celtic cross, situated in a field about a mile (1.5 km) to the south. For many years, Kinglassie was a weaving village, but in the 19th and 20th centuries it developed as a mining town.
From a very early period through to the Reformation, Scotland was dotted over with certain divisions of lands known as \"Schyres.\" Thus, in the immediate neighbourhood of Kinross were *Kynros-Schyre*, *Portmocke-Schyre*, *Kinglassy-Schyre*, *Muchard-Schyre*, and *Doloure-Schyre*. These Schyres must not be confused with the shire of the present day; they were simply divisions of land, similar in extent to an average modern parish.
Kinglassie has a primary school, Mitchell Hall (1896) and the Miners\' Welfare Institute (est. 1931). Fife Airport lies about a mile (1.5 km) to the north and, on a hill overlooking the farm of Redwells, stands Blythe\'s Folly, a 15.6 m tower built in 1812 by an eccentric Leith ship owner. Kinglassie\'s development during the late 19th and early 20th centuries was marked by its rapid expansion to house mine workers. Many mine workers perished or were injured during the life of the mine. The mine was plagued by water flooding problems. The Kinglassie Pit started in 1908 and closed in 1967. The Westfield open cast coal mine lies to the west of the village and is still regarded as the biggest man-made hole in Europe by local people.
Glastian of Kinglassie B (AC) (also known as Glastian of MacGlastian) was born in Fife, Scotland. He died at Kinglassie (Kinglace), Scotland, in 830. As bishop of Fife, Saint Glastian mediated in the bloody civil war between the Picts and the Scots. When the Picts were subjugated, Glastian did much to alleviate their lot. He is the patron saint of Kinglassie in Fife and is venerated in Kyntire (Benedictines, Husenbeth).
## School
Kinglassie Primary School has a roll of approximately 270 pupils. The school was built to designs by the architect George Charles Campbell in 1912. It has a butterfly type plan consisting of two single storey rendered wings either side of a hexagon shaped hall. The central portion of the façade is two storeys high and of red sandstone, with generous steps leading to a central formal entrance. It is a category B listed building.
The Pupil Council represents pupils in the school. The eco-committee consists of pupils, staff, parents, and members of the wider community, and is proactive in promoting conservation initiatives throughout the school. A parent council represents the parent body and raises funds for various initiatives. In addition, children are supported in class by a growing number of parent helpers and the school is well-supported by parents generally.
## Local landmarks {#local_landmarks}
Blythe\'s Tower, built in 1812, is a four-storey square tower, 15.8 m high, built of rubble with ashlar string courses and a crenellated parapet. It is a category B listed building. The tower\'s interior was formerly floored to afford access to an observation platform. The tower was built by a linen merchant to view ships as they entered the Forth, affording him the opportunity to procure the best goods at port. During World War II, the tower was used as a look out tower by the home guard.
Image:Blythe\'s Folly.jpg\|Blythe\'s Folly, atop Redwells Hill to the North of Kinglassie. Image:Blythe\'s tower and Kinglassie 2007.JPG\|Kinglassie from the South with Blythe\'s Tower atop Redwells hill to the North.
The Dogton Stone, lies in a field to the south of Kinglassie at Grid reference -- NT 236 968. The stone is a fragment of a free standing cross erected by the Picts, it probably dates from the 9th Century. The lower portion of the stone is all that remains of the cross and badly eroded decoration including a figure of an armed horseman above two beasts can be discerned. No one is certain why the stone was erected at this spot. It is a scheduled monument.
The Mitchell Hall, built in 1896, was donated to the community by Alexander Mitchell. Mitchell also donated the first Parish Church organ. The Mitchell Hall is used by local community groups and is an asset to the wider Fife community.
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# Kinglassie
## Culture
- The Kinglassie & District Pipe Band was reformed in 1982. It is currently in Grade 4a and its members are mostly of school age.
- Fife mining museum, formed in 1992, is located in Kinglassie at the back of the Kinglassie Miners Welfare Institute. The museum closed recently.
- The town is a key stop on the Fife Pilgrim Way walking route, being a historically popular rest point for pilgrims making their way to St Andrews.
## Notable people {#notable_people}
- Sir William Reid (25 April 1791 -- 31 October 1858), governor of Bermuda (1839--46), Barbados (1846--48), and Malta (1851--58); knighted 1851.
- Jimmy Bonthrone, footballer and manager (16 June 1929 -- 7 June 2008) played for East Fife 1947--58, Dundee 1958--60; manager, East Fife 1963--69, Aberdeen 1971--75; general manager, East Fife 1980--94; married (two sons).
- Willie Fernie (22 November 1928 -- 1 July 2011) was a Scottish footballer who played for the Scotland national football team in both the 1954 and 1958 FIFA World Cups. He also played for Celtic 1948--1958, Middlesbrough 1958--1960, St. Mirren 1961--1963, Partick Thistle 1963, Alloa 1963, Fraserburgh 1963--1964, Coleraine 1964 and Bangor 1964--1965 before becoming manager of Kilmarnock FC 1973--1977.
- T. McEwen junior, Scottish Motorcycle Speed Champion, the championships held on the West Sands, St Andrews on Saturday`{{update after|2011|12|09}}`{=mediawiki}. He retained the medium-weight and heavyweight titles he secured in 1937`{{clarify|date=December 2011}}`{=mediawiki} and also added the light-weight championship.
- Alan Murray, founder of Alan Murray Architects, award-winning Edinburgh architectural firm
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# Khwaja Ahmad Abbas
**Khwaja Ahmad Abbas** (7 June 1914 -- 1 June 1987) was an Indian film director, screenwriter, novelist, and journalist in Urdu, Hindi and English.
He won four National Film Awards in India. Internationally, his films won the *italic=no* (Golden Palm Grand Prize) at Cannes Film Festival (out of three *italic=no* nominations) and the Crystal Globe at Karlovy Vary International Film Festival. As a director and screenwriter, he is considered one of the pioneers of Indian parallel or neo-realistic cinema.
As a director, he made Hindustani films. *\[\[Dharti Ke Lal\]\]* (1946), about the Bengal famine of 1943, which was one of Indian cinema\'s first social-realist films, and opened up the overseas market for Indian films in the Soviet Union. *Pardesi* (1957) was nominated for the *italic=no*. *Shehar Aur Sapna* (1963) won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film, while *Saat Hindustani* (1969) and *Do Boond Pani* (1972) both won the National Film Awards for Best Feature Film on National Integration.
As a screenwriter, he wrote a number of neo-realistic films, such as *Dharti Ke Lal* (which he also directed), *\[\[Neecha Nagar\]\]* (1946) which won the *italic=no* at the first Cannes Film Festival, *Naya Sansar* (1941), *Jagte Raho* (1956), and *Saat Hindustani* (which he also directed). He is also known for writing Raj Kapoor\'s films, including the *italic=no*-nominated *Awaara* (1951), as well as *Shree 420* (1955), *Mera Naam Joker* (1970), *Bobby* (1973) and *Henna* (1991).
His column \'Last Page\' was one of the longest-running newspaper columns in the history of Indian journalism. It began in 1935, in *The Bombay Chronicle*, and moved to the *Blitz* after the *Chronicle*\'s closure, where it continued until his death in 1987. He was awarded the Padma Shri by the Government of India in 1969.
In total, his works include 74 books, 90 short stories, 3000 journalistic articles and 40 films.
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# Khwaja Ahmad Abbas
## Biography
### Family background {#family_background}
Abbas belonged to the Ansari family of Panipat, tracing its roots back to Abu Ayyub al-Ansari, a close companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and among the famed personalities that it produced we find: the 12th century Sufi saint Abdullah Ansari of Herat in Afghanistan; his maternal great-grandfather Altaf Hussain Hali, a student of Mirza Ghalib and himself an Urdu poet of repute; his paternal grandfather Khwaja Ghulam Abbas, one of the chief rebels of the 1857 Rebellion movement, and the first martyr of Panipat to be blown from the mouth of a cannon; his father Ghulam-us-Sibtain, among the first graduates from Aligarh Muslim University, who was a tutor of a prince and a businessman who modernised the preparation of Unani medicines; Abbas\'s mother, Masroora Khatoon, was the daughter of Khwaja Sajjad Husain, an educator keen on female education, having established the first school for girls in Panipat.
### Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Abbas was born in Panipat, undivided Punjab. He attended Hali Muslim High School, which was established by his maternal grandfather, Hali. He was instructed to read the Arabic text of the Quran and matriculated at the age of fifteen.
He gained a Bachelor of Arts degree in English literature in 1933 and a Bachelor of Laws degree in 1935 from Aligarh Muslim University.
### Illness and death {#illness_and_death}
Abbas suffered from a heart attack in the 60s, followed by another more serious heart attack, a paralytic stroke as well a on set accident injuring his legs, but he kept working till his death at the age of 72 on 1 June 1987.
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# Khwaja Ahmad Abbas
## Career
### Journalism
After leaving university,K.A Abbas began his career as a journalist at the *National Call*, a New Delhi-based newspaper. Later while studying law in 1934, started *Aligarh Opinion*.
He joined *The Bombay Chronicle* in 1935 as a political correspondent and later, became a film critic for the newspaper.
He entered films as a part-time publicist for Bombay Talkies in 1936, a production house owned by Himanshu Rai and Devika Rani, to whom he sold his first screenplay *Naya Sansar* (1941).
While at *The Bombay Chronicle* (1935--1947), he started a weekly column called \'Last Page\', which he continued when he joined the Blitz magazine. \"The Last Page\", (\'Azad Kalam\' in the Urdu edition) became the longest-running political column in India\'s history (1935--87). A collection of these columns was later published as two books. He continued to write for The Blitz and Mirror until his last days.
Abbas interviewed several renowned personalities in literary and non-literary fields, including the Russian Prime Minister Khrushchov, American President Roosevelt, Charlie Chaplin, Mao-Tse-Tung and Yuri Gagarin.
### Cinema
Meanwhile, he had started writing scripts for other directors, *\[\[Neecha Nagar\]\]* for Chetan Anand and *\[\[Dr. Kotnis Ki Amar Kahani\]\]* for V. Shantaram.
In 1945, he made his directorial debut with a film based on the Bengal famine of 1943, *\[\[Dharti Ke Lal\]\]* (*Children of the Earth*), for the Indian People\'s Theatre Association (IPTA). In 1951, he founded his own production company called Naya Sansar, which consistently produced films that were socially relevant including, *Anhonee*, *Munna*, *Rahi* (1953), based on a Mulk Raj Anand story, was on the plight of workers on tea plantations, the National Film Award winner, *Shehar Aur Sapna* (1964) and *Saat Hindustani* (1969), which won the Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration and is also remembered as Bollywood icon Amitabh Bachchan\'s debut film. He wrote the story and screenplay for the controversial themed film in 1974 *Call Girl* directed by Vijay Kapoor, starring Vikram and Zaheera.
He went on to write scripts for *Jagte Raho* and prominent Raj Kapoor films including *Awaara, Shri 420, Mera Naam Joker, Bobby* and *Henna*.
### Literature
Abbas wrote 74 books in English, Hindi and Urdu and was considered the leading light of the Urdu short story. His best known fictional work remains \'Inquilab\', which made him a household name in Indian literature. Like Inquilab, many of his works were translated into many Indian and foreign languages, like Russian, German, Italian, French and Arabic.
His autobiography, *I Am not an Island: An Experiment in Autobiography*, was published in 1977 and again in 2010.
### Censorship case {#censorship_case}
In 1968, Abbas made a documentary film called *Char Shaher Ek Kahani* (A Tale of Four Cities). The film depicted the contrast between the luxurious life of the rich in the four cities of Calcutta, Bombay, Madras and Delhi and that of the squalor and poverty of the poor. He approached the Central Board of Film Certification to obtain a \'U\' (Unrestricted Public Exhibition) certificate. Abbas was, however, informed by the regional office of the Board that the film was not eligible to be granted a \'U\' certificate, but was suitable for exhibition only for adults. His appeal to the revising committee of the Central Board of Film Certification led to the decision of the censors being upheld.
Khwaja Ahmad Abbas further appealed to the Central Government but the government decided to grant the film a \'U\' certificate provided certain scenes were cut. Following this, Abbas approached the Supreme Court of India by filing a writ petition under Article 19(1) of the Indian Constitution. He claimed that his fundamental right of free speech and expression was denied by the Central Government\'s refusal to grant the film a \'U\' certificate. Abbas also challenged the constitutional validity of pre-censorship on films.
However the Supreme Court of India upheld the constitutional validity of pre-censorship on films.
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# Khwaja Ahmad Abbas
## Awards and honours {#awards_and_honours}
### Films
- 1942: BFJA Awards: Best Screenplay: *Naya Sansar* (1941)
- 1946: Wrote screenplay for *\[\[Neecha Nagar\]\]*, which became the only Indian film to win the *italic=no* (Golden Palm) at the Cannes Film Festival.
- 1951: Wrote screenplay for *Awaara*, which was nominated for the *italic=no* at the Cannes Film Festival.
- 1956: Wrote screenplay for *Jagte Raho*, which won the Crystal Globe Grand Prix at the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival in 1957, and the Certificate of Merit at the fourth National Film Awards.
- 1958 Cannes Film Festival: *Pardesi* nominated for *italic=no* (Golden Palm)
- 1960: All India Certificate of Merit for the Second Best Children\'s Film -- *Idd Mubarak*
- 1964: National Film Award for Best Feature Film: *Shehar Aur Sapna*
- 1964: Maharashtra State Award: *Fakira*
- 1965: International Film Festival Awards at Santa Barbara, USA: *Hamara Ghar*
- 1966: Jury Member: 16th Berlin International Film Festival
- 1970: Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration at National Film Awards: *Saat Hindustani*
- 1972: Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration at National Film Awards: *Do Boond Pani*
- 1980: Gold Award for direction: *The Naxalites*
### Literary
Haryana State Robe of Honour for literary achievements in 1969, the Ghalib Award for his contribution to Urdu prose literature in 1983
Vorosky Literary Award of the Soviet Union in 1984, Urdu Akademi Delhi Special Award 1984, Maharashtra State Urdu Akademi Award in 1985 and the Soviet Award for his contribution to the cause of Indo-Soviet Friendship in 1985.
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# Khwaja Ahmad Abbas
## Filmography
- *Naya Sansar* (1941) -- Screenplay, Story
- \(1946\) -- Screenwriter, director, producer
- \(1946\) -- Screenwriter, Story
- \(1946\) -- Screenwriter
- \(1947\) -- Director
- *Awara* (1951) -- Screenwriter, Dialogue
- *Anhonee* (1952) -- Screenwriter, Dialogue, Story, director, producer
- *Rahi* 1953 -- Director
- *Munna* (1954) -- Screenwriter, director, producer
- *Shree 420* (1955) -- Screenwriter, Dialogue, Story
- *Jagte Raho* (1956) -- Screenwriter
- *Pardesi* (1957)-- Screenwriter, director
- *Char Dil Char Rahen* (1959) -- Screenwriter, Dialogue, director
- *Eid Mubarak* (1960) Documentary / Short -- Director
- *Gir Game Sanctuary* (1961) Documentary -- Director
- *Flight to Assam* (1961) -- Director
- *Gyara Hazar Ladkian* (1962) -- Director
- *Teen Gharaney* (1963) -- Director
- *Shehar Aur Sapna* (1964) -- Director, screenwriter
- *Hamara Ghar* (1964) -- Director
- *Tomorrow Shall Be Better* (1965) Documentary -- Director
- *Aasman Mahal* (1965) -- Director
- *Bambai Raat Ki Bahon Mein* (1967) -- Writer, director, producer
- *Dharti Ki Pukaar* (1967) Short Film -- Director
- *Chaar Shaher Ek Kahani* (1968) Documentary -- Director
- *Saat Hindustani* (1969) -- Director, producer
- *Mera Naam Joker* (1970) -- Screenwriter, Story
- *Do Boond Pani* (1971) -- Director
- *Bharat Darshan* (1972) Documentary - Director
- *Luv Kush* (1972) Short film - Director
- *Bobby* (1973) -- Screenwriter, Story
- *Kal Ki Baat* (1973) Short Film -- Director
- Call Girl (1973) - Story and Screenplay
- *Achanak* (1973) -- Screenwriter
- *Juhu* (1973) (TV) -- Director
- *Faslah* (1974) -- Director, producer
- *Papa Miya of Aligarh* (1975) Documentary -- Director
- *Phir Bolo Aaye Sant Kabir* (1976) Documentary -- Director
- *Dr. Iqbal* (1978) -- Documentary -- Director
- *The Naxalites* (1980) -- Screenwriter, director
- *Hindustan Hamara* (1983) Documentary / Short -- Director
- *Love in Goa* (1983) -- Screenwriter
- *Nanga Fakir* (1984) (TV) -- Director
- *Ek Aadmi* (1988) -- Director
- *Akanksha* (1989) (TV) -- Dialogue, Screenplay
- *Henna* (1991) -- Story
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# Khwaja Ahmad Abbas
## Books
He wrote 74 books in English, Urdu and Hindi, including:
- *Outside India: The Adventures of a Roving Reporter*, Hali Pub. House, Delhi, 1939.
- *An Indian looks at America* (The Rampart library of good reading), 1943.
- *An Indian looks at America*, Thacker, Bombay, 1943.
- *Tomorrow is ours! A novel of the India of Today*; Bombay, Popular Book Depot, 1943.
- \"Let India fight for freedom\", Bombay, *Sound* magazine (Publication dept.), 1943.
- *Defeat for death: A story without names*, Padmaja Publications 1944.
- \"\...and One Did Not Come Back!\", *Sound* magazine, 1944
- *A report to Gandhiji: A survey of Indian and world events during the 21 months of Gandhiji\'s incarceration*, 1944
- *Invitation to Immortality*: a one-act play, Bombay: Padma Pub., 1944.
- *Not all Lies*. Delhi: Rajkamal Pub., 1945.
- *Blood and stones and other stories*. Bombay: Hind Kitabs, 1947
- *Rice and other stories*, Kutub, 1947
- *Kashmir fights for freedom*, 1948
- *I Write as I Feel*, Hind Kitabs, Bombay, 1948
- *Cages of freedom and other stories*, Bombay, Hind Kitabs Ltd., 1952.
- *China can make it: Eye-witness account of the amazing industrial progress in new China*, 1952.
- *In the Image of Mao Tse-Tung*, Peoples Publishing House, 1953
- *INQILAB. First Great Novel of the Indian Revolution*, Jaico Publishing House, 1958
- *Face To Face with Khrushchov*, Rajpal & Sons, 1960
- *Till We Reach the Stars. The Story of Yuri Gagarin*, Asia Pub. House, 1961
- *The Black sun and Other stories*, Jaico Publishing House, 1963.
- *Raat ki bahon mein*, Hindi, Radhakr̥ishṇa Prakashan, 1965.
- *Indira Gandhi; return of the red rose*, Hind Pocket Books, New Delhi, 1966.
- *Divided heart*, Paradise Publications, 1968
- *When Night Falls*, 1968.
- *Chabili*, Hindi, Allahabad, Mitra Prakashan, 1968.
- *The most beautiful woman in the world*, Paradise Publications, 1968
- *Salma aur Samundar*, Urdu/Hindi, New Delhi, Komala Pocket Books, 1969.
- *Mera Naam Joker*, 1970
- *Maria*, Delhi, Hind Pocket Books, 1971.
- *Teen Pahiye*, Urdu/Hindi, Delhi, Rajpal & Sons, 1971.
- *Bobby*, Urdu/Hindi, 1973
- *Boy meets Girl*, Sterling Publishers, 1973
- *That Woman: Her Seven Years in Power*; New Delhi, Indian Book Co., 1973
- *Jawaharlal Nehru: Portrait of an integrated Indian*; New Delhi, NCERT, 1974.
- *Fasilah*, Urud/Hindi, Hind Pocket Books, Delhi, 1974
- *Distant dream, New Delhi*, Sterling Pub., 1975.
- *The walls of glass*: A novel, 1977
- *Barrister-at-law: A play about the early life of Mahatma Gandhi*, New Delhi, Orient Paperbacks, 1977.
- *Men and women: Specially selected long and short stories*, 1977
- *Mad, mad, mad world of Indian films*, 1977
- *I Am not an Island: An Experiment in Autobiography*, New Delhi, 1977.
- *Four Friends*, Arnold-Heinemann, New Delhi, 1977.
- *20 March 1977: a day like any other day*, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 1978.
- *Janata in a jam?*, 1978.
- *The Naxalites*, Lok Publications, 1979.
- *Bread, beauty, and revolution: being a chronological selection from the Last pages, 1947 to 1981*, Marwah Publications, New Delhi, 1982.
- *Nili Sari aur Doosri Kahaniyan̲*, Urdu, Maktabah-e-Jamia, New Delhi, 1982.
- *The gun and other stories*, Arnold-Heinemann, New Delhi, 1985.
- *The Thirteenth Victim,* Amar Prakashan, 1986.
- *The World Is My Village: A Novel With An Index*, Ajanta, 1984. `{{ISBN|978-81-202-0104-0}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Bombay My Bombay: A Love Story of the City*, Ajanta Publications/Ajanta Books International, 1987. `{{ISBN|978-81-202-0174-3}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Indira Gandhi: The Last Post*; Bombay, Ramdas G. Bhatkal, 1989
- *Defeat for death: a story without names*. Baroda: Padmaja Pub
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# Katherine MacLean
**Katherine Anne MacLean** (January 22, 1925 -- September 1, 2019) was an American science fiction author best known for her short fiction of the 1950s which examined the impact of technological advances on individuals and society.
## Profile
Damon Knight wrote, \"As a science fiction writer she has few peers; her work is not only technically brilliant but has a rare human warmth and richness.\" Brian Aldiss noted that she could \"do the hard stuff magnificently,\" while Theodore Sturgeon observed that she \"generally starts from a base of hard science, or rationalizes psi phenomena with beautifully finished logic.\"
According to *The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction*, she \"was in the vanguard of those sf writers trying to apply to the soft sciences the machinery of the hard sciences\".
Her stories have been included in anthologies and a few have had radio and television adaptations. Three collections of her stories have been published.
It was while she worked as a laboratory technician in 1947 that she began writing science fiction. Strongly influenced by Ludwig von Bertalanffy\'s General Systems Theory, her fiction has often demonstrated foresight about scientific advances.
She died on September 1, 2019, at the age of 94.
## Awards
MacLean received a Nebula Award in 1971 for her novella \"The Missing Man\" (*Analog*, March, 1971) and she was a Professional Guest of Honor at the first WisCon in 1977. She was honored in 2003 by the Science Fiction Writers of America as an SFWA Author Emeritus. In 2011, she received the Cordwainer Smith Rediscovery Award.
## Collections
*The Diploids and Other Flights of Fancy* (Avon, 1962), her first short story collection, includes \"The Diploids\" (a.k.a. \"Six Fingers\"), \"Feedback\", \"Pictures Don\'t Lie\", \"Incommunicado\", \"The Snow Ball Effect\", \"Defense Mechanism\" and \"And Be Merry\" (a.k.a. \"The Pyramid in the Desert\").
Her second collection, *The Trouble with You Earth People* (Donning/Starblaze, 1980) contains \"The Trouble with You Earth People\", \"The Gambling Hell and the Sinful Girl\", \"Syndrome Johnny\", \"Trouble with Treaties\" (with Tom Condit), \"The Origin of the Species\", \"Collision Orbit\", \"The Fittest\", \"These Truths\", \"Contagion\", \"Brain Wipe\" and her Nebula Award-winning \"The Missing Man\".
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# Katherine MacLean
## Short stories and novelettes {#short_stories_and_novelettes}
- \"Defense Mechanism\" (1949). This tale of hidden telepathic abilities was Katherine MacLean\'s first story to see print when it was published in *Astounding Science Fiction* (October, 1949).
- \"And Be Merry\" (1950). Originally in *Astounding Science Fiction* (February, 1950), this story was first anthologized in Groff Conklin\'s *Omnibus of Science Fiction* (Crown, 1952) and has also been published under the title \"The Pyramid in the Desert.\" In January 2006, MacLean reflected on the science behind the story:
:
: \"And Be Merry\" (Eat Drink and Be Merry for Tomorrow We Die) A lab biologist, female, takes advantage of her husband going off on an archeology trip, to use the privacy to experiment on herself for rejuvenation by a severe and dangerous method. Succeeding, she contemplates immortality, finding that safety from accidental death has become so valuable to her that she becomes a coward, cowering from all possible risk, seeing shelter in a hospital, and is only rescued from mindless panic by her husband finding her, realizing the source of her terror and rescuing her from immortality by claiming she has a slow growing tumor in an unreachable part of the body.
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:
: Finding she has no chance of evading eventual death, she immediately loses her obsession with safety, becomes interested in biochemistry again, and invents a new theory. (New at the time.) Mutation from background radiation does not just strike the sperm and egg making chromosome changes in the embryo and mutated progeny, it also strikes the chromosomes in each cell of any living creature, damages and mutates them also, and produces cancer. This cannot be prevented. She called it \"somatic mutation\" and used the new concept of body deterioration by slow radiation damage (age) to underpin her rediscovered recklessness, and be happy.
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:
: Even now most biotechs have not fully accepted the implication that every cell in the body can generate an entire copy of the person. But perhaps a copy will be changed and mutated for the worse by exposure to ambient radiation and other mutagens. Perhaps a cell needs to generate a placenta around it to develop into an entire body. Something like that is holding up the biochemists from successfully making copies of individuals from body or blood cells. Not for long! I wrote three more stories with novel genetic ideas before 1953. Some have not been followed up by scientists yet.
- \"Incommunicado\" (1950). In this novelette about communication and computers, written by MacLean in 1947, she demonstrated an ability to foresee the future evolution of personal computers. Passages in this story anticipate such latter-day digital configurations as Google Book Search, Google Video Search, PDA devices, podcasting and portable music players. At a space station operated by a computer, the station\'s workers begin to unconsciously develop a musical rapport with their computer in a feedback loop. When published in the June 1950 issue of *Astounding Science Fiction*, cover artist Miller contributed one of the more striking *Astounding* covers of the 1950s, blending an emotional musical performance with cyber technology. The story was reprinted a decade later in Groff Conklin\'s anthology, *Six Great Short Science Fiction Novels* (Dell, 1960), followed by MacLean\'s collection, *The Diploids* (Avon, 1962). In January, 2006, MacLean recalled this incident, trying to gate-crash a convention of electronic engineers a few years after *Incommunicado* was published in 1950:
:
: In the 1930s and 1940s, scientists and boys planning to be scientists read *Astounding* (*Analog*) with close attention to the hottest most promising ideas and took them up as soon as they could get funded lab space. They did not openly express their gratitude to science fiction, because the funding depended on keeping claim to have originated the ideas they had put so much work into testing and verifying\....
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:
: \"I hastily looked around for a door to a lecture hall where I could sneak some listening time and get a line on current research, and be out of sight before the desk was reoccupied by the guardian of the gate\....
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```
:
: Too late, a man built like a fullback in a business suit was bearing down on me. \"I see you don\'t have your badge. May I have your name? I\'ll look it up in the registry\....\"
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```
:
: \"Katherine MacLean, I came in because I am interested in\--\"
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:
: He interrupted. \"Katherine MacLean! Are you that Katherine MacLean?\" He gripped my hand and hung on. Who was that Katherine Maclean? Was I being mistaken for someone else?
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:
: \"Are you the Katherine MacLean who wrote \'Incommunicado\'?\"
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:
: Speechless with relief, I nodded. I would not be arrested or thrown out if they would accept me as a science fiction writer. He kept his grip on my hand and turned around and bellowed to his group of chatting friends, \"Guess who I\'ve got here. The little woman who wrote \'Incommunicado\'!\"
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:
: \...I had not been aware that my playing with communication ideas would attract the attention of prestigious Bell Telephone researchers. I had left radio and wavelength theory to my Dad as one of his hobbies and learned early that I could get a nasty shock from playing with his wiring. I could not account for their enthusiasm. I went back to the typewriter and lost myself in the story again.
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:
: The point is, that scientists not only read *Astounding-Analog*, they were fans of the writers and understood all the Ideas, even the obscure Ideas that were merely hinted at.
- \"Contagion\" (1950). Originally published in *Galaxy Science Fiction* (October 1950), reprinted in *Women of Wonder* (1975).
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- \"Feedback\" (1951). A sociological setback occurs when conformity becomes a closed circle, prompting even more conformity; a teacher who speaks in favor of individuality is regarded as subversive. Originally in *Astounding Science Fiction* (July, 1951).
- \"Syndrome Johnny\" (1951). Published before it was even certain that DNA carried genetic information, this story is about a series of engineered retroviral plagues, initially propagated by blood transfusion, that are genetically re-engineering the human race. First published in *Galaxy Science Fiction* (July, 1951).
- \"Pictures Don\'t Lie\'\" (1951). Radio contact with extraterrestrial ship arriving on Earth. Originally in *Galaxy Science Fiction* (August, 1951), it was adapted to radio, television and comic books. The adaptation on the UK series *Out of This World* was telecast August 11, 1962. The EC Comics version of this story was \"Chewed Out!\", illustrated by Joe Orlando for *Weird Science* 12 (March--April 1952). In expanding the basic premise and adding comedic elements, scripter Al Feldstein established the setting as Blytheville, Arkansas. On several occasions MacLean noted that she ranked EC\'s interpretation as superior to her own story.
- \"The Man Who Staked the Stars\" (1952, as Charles Dye). A business mobster under investigation is slowly turned against himself by an internal doppelgänger. Originally in *Planet Stories* (July, 1952). This story is available online free in Project Gutenberg.
- \"The Snowball Effect\" (1952). A sociology professor, challenged to prove his theories of the dynamic growth of organizations, rewrites the rules of a smalltown sewing circle to have \"more growth drive than the Roman Empire.\" He is far more successful than he ever anticipated. Originally in *Galaxy Science Fiction* (September, 1952), and adapted for the X Minus One radio series in 1956.
- \"Games\" (1953). A boy becomes the characters in his make-believe games. Originally in *Galaxy Science Fiction* (March, 1953). Available online
- \"The Diploids\" (1953). In this novella, a young lawyer suspects he may be an alien because of certain physical and biochemical abnormalities but discovers that he is a commercial human embryonic cell line, sold for research and illegally grown to maturity. Originally in *Thrilling Wonder Stories* (April, 1953). Also titled \"Six Fingers.\"
- \"Cosmic Checkmate\" (1958). This collaboration by MacLean and Charles V. De Vet, published in *Astounding Science Fiction* (March, 1958), was nominated for a 1959 Hugo. It was expanded as *Second Game* in 1962 and again in 1981. Two gamers play a multi-level game to determine whether Earth\'s civilization wins.
- \"Unhuman Sacrifice\" (1958). Published in *Astounding Science Fiction* (November, 1958), reprinted in Damon Knight\'s anthology *A Century of Science Fiction* (1962). The attempts of a missionary to spread the word on an alien planet are frustrated by the aliens\' life cycle.
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- \"[Interbalance](https://archive.org/details/Fantasy_Science_Fiction_v019n04_1960-10_PDF/page/n61/mode/2up?view=theater)\" (1960). Published in *Fantasy & Science Fiction* (October 1960).
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# Katherine MacLean
## Short stories and novelettes {#short_stories_and_novelettes}
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- \"The Kidnapping of Baroness 5\" (1995) Originally published in *Analog*; republished in the anthologies *Women of Other Worlds* (edited by Helen Merrick & Tess Williams) and *A Woman\'s Liberation* (edited by Connie Willis and Sheila Williams). In a post-apocalyptic world, a geneticist struggles to help preserve and lengthen the lives of the genetically damaged descendants of the survivors of a genetic experiment to extend the human lifespan that went horribly wrong. Instead, with each generation, lifespan gets shorter, and as less and less knowledge is passed down to each succeeding generation, society has regressed to a feudal state. She fits into society by casting herself as a sort of \"good witch\" cum healer, passing off her medical expertise and her efforts to correct the damage to the human aging process as magic.
## Novels
- *The Man in the Bird Cage* (1971)
- *Missing Man* (1975). In a balkanized New York City, an engineer working for the city\'s disaster planning section has his inside knowledge exploited to cause disasters. The novel is a fix-up of MacLean\'s three Rescue Squad stories, including the 1971 Nebula Award-winning novella of the same name.
- *Dark Wing* (1979) with husband Carl West. In a world where medical knowledge has been outlawed, a young man discovers a medical kit, remnant of times past, which he uses to help those around him and to fight his way towards a better understanding of science and medicine.
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# Katherine MacLean
## Memoir
- For Martin Greenberg\'s *Fantastic Lives: Autobiographical Essays by Notable Science Fiction Writers* (Southern Illinois University Press, 1981) she wrote \"The Expanding Mind,\" a memoir of her youth and the impact of science fiction on the mind of a young girl.
- For Eric Leif Davin\'s *Partners in Wonder: Women and the Birth of Science Fiction, 1926-1965*, MacLean supplied a detailed description of her negotiations with John W. Campbell in regard to the publication of her earliest stories.
## Listen to {#listen_to}
- [*X Minus One*: \"The Snowball Effect\" (August 14, 1956)](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R5Mi680AXSk)
- [*X Minus One*: \"Pictures Don\'t Lie\" (October 24, 1956)](http://www.otr.net/r/xmn1/71.ram)
- Episode 4 of the podcast [*Buxom Blondes with Ray Guns*](http://projectiveplanes.com/bbwrg/) (Hannah Wolfe, February 17, 2018) features two 1954 stories by Katherine MacLean
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# Klement Gottwald
**Klement Gottwald** (`{{IPA|cs|ˈklɛmɛnt ˈɡotvalt}}`{=mediawiki}; 23 November 1896 -- 14 March 1953) was a Czech communist politician, who was the leader of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia from 1929 until his death in 1953 -- titled as general secretary until 1945 and as chairman from 1945 to 1953. He was the first leader of Communist Czechoslovakia from 1948 to 1953.
Following the collapse of democratic Czechoslovakia after the Munich Agreement, the right-wing leadership of the Czechoslovak Second Republic banned the Communist Party, forcing Gottwald to emigrate to the Soviet Union in November 1938. In 1943, Gottwald agreed with representatives of the Czechoslovak-government-in-exile located in London, along with President Edvard Beneš, to unify domestic and foreign anti-fascist resistance and form the National Front. He was the 14th prime minister of Czechoslovakia from July 1946 until June 1948, the first Communist to hold the post. In June 1948, he was elected as Czechoslovakia\'s first Communist president, four months after the 1948 coup d\'état in which his party seized power with the backing of the Soviet Union. He held the post until his death.
## Early life {#early_life}
### Childhood and youth {#childhood_and_youth}
Klement Gottwald was born on 23 November 1896, but it is unclear if in Dědice (today part of Vyškov) or in Hoštice-Heroltice. His mother was an unmarried maidservant. Before World War I he was trained in Vienna as a carpenter but also actively participated in the activities of the Social Democratic youth movement.
### Personal life {#personal_life}
Klement Gottwald was married to Marta Gottwaldová who came from a poor family and was an illegitimate child. Although his wife stood by him through his endeavours, and was his faithful companion, she never joined the Communist Party. They had one daughter, Marta (1920--1998), who married Alexey Čepička.
### First World War {#first_world_war}
From 1915 to 1918 Gottwald was a soldier in the Austro-Hungarian Army. It is believed that he fought in the Battle of Zborov, which would mean that he fought there against future General and President Ludvík Svoboda, who fought on the side of the Czechoslovak Legion. Thomas Jakl of the Military History Institute called Gottwald\'s participation in the Battle of Zborov a legend: Gottwald was in a hospital in Vienna during the time of the battle. In the summer of 1918, Gottwald deserted from the army. After the establishment of the first Czechoslovak Republic, he served for two years in the Czechoslovak Army. From 1920 to 1921 he worked in Rousinov as a cabinetmaker.
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# Klement Gottwald
## Career
### Sports instructor and journalist {#sports_instructor_and_journalist}
After the collapse of the Workers\' Gymnastic Union, the Communist-oriented party of the organization split off in 1921 and created the Federation of Workers\' Gymnastic Unions (FDTJ). Gottwald was able to unify the organization to gain considerable power in the local districts, and became the *\[\[starosta\]\]* of the 20th district of the FDTJ. In June 1921, he participated in the first Spartakiada in Prague. In September 1921 he moved from Rousinov to Banská Bystrica, where he became the editor of the communist magazine *Hlas Ľudu* (\"Voice of the people\" in Slovak). At the same time, he was planning FDTJ events at the Banská Bystrica district. He became the local *starosta* of the district, and was the managing director of the 47th district of the FDTJ. Later, he moved to Žilina and became editor in chief of *Spartakus* magazine. In 1922 he moved to Vrútky, where by decision of the Communist Party Central Committee, they merged a number of communist magazines and consolidated editors. In 1924, the editorial staff, along with Gottwald, moved to Ostrava.
### Beginning of political activity {#beginning_of_political_activity}
thumb\|right\|upright=1.5\|Gottwald\'s identification card during his time in the Comintern, 1935 In 1926, Gottwald became a functionary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ), and editor of the Communist Press. From 1926 to 1929 he worked in Prague, where he aided the Secretariat of the KSČ to form a pro-Moscow opposition against the anti-Moscow leadership then in power. From 1928 he was a member of the Comintern. Following a Comintern policy initiated by Stalin, he carried out the Bolshevization of the Party.
In February 1929, at the Fifth Congress of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia of the KSČ, Gottwald was elected party general secretary, alongside Josef Guttmann, Jan Šverma, Rudolf Slánský, Václav Kopecký and Pavel Reiman, together known as the Karlín Boys.
In the second half of 1930, the Communist Party carried out a number of reforms in accordance and response with the changes in those of the foreign policy of the Soviet Union, namely the introduction of the policy on the formation of a popular front against fascism. In September and October 1938, Gottwald was one of the main leaders of the opposition against the adoption of the Munich Agreement.
### Exile to the USSR {#exile_to_the_ussr}
After the banning of the Communist Party, Gottwald emigrated to the Soviet Union in November 1938. While there, he opposed the party policy of backing the Molotov--Ribbentrop pact of 1939. After the attack on the Soviet Union in June 1941, Soviet leadership saw the front against fascism as a great opportunity to assert themselves in Czechoslovakia, promoting interest in supporting Gottwald after the liberation of Czechoslovakia. In 1943, Gottwald agreed with representatives of the Czechoslovak-government-in-exile located in London, along with President Edvard Beneš, to unify domestic and foreign anti-fascist resistance and form the National Front. This proved helpful for Gottwald as it helped secure Communist influence in post-war Czechoslovakia.
### Return to Czechoslovakia and events leading up to the coup {#return_to_czechoslovakia_and_events_leading_up_to_the_coup}
In 1945, Gottwald gave up the general secretary\'s post to Rudolf Slánský and was elected to the new position of party chairman. On 10 May 1945, Gottwald returned to Prague as the deputy premier under Zdeněk Fierlinger and as the chairman of the National Front. In March 1946, he became prime minister after leading the KSČ to a 38% share of the vote. This was easily the best showing for a Czechoslovak party in a free election at the time; previously, no party had ever won more than 25 percent.
Gottwald was a firm supporter of the expulsion of ethnic Germans from Czechoslovakia, gaining mainstream credibility with many Czechs through the use of nationalist rhetoric, exhorting the population to \"prepare for the final retribution for White Mountain, for the return of the Czech lands to the Czech people. We will expel for good all descendants of the alien German nobility.\"
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# Klement Gottwald
## Сoup d\'état {#сoup_détat}
By the summer of 1947, however, the KSČ\'s popularity had significantly dwindled, particularly after the Soviets pressured Czechoslovakia to turn down Marshall Plan aid after initially accepting it. Most observers believed Gottwald would be turned out of office at the elections due in May 1948. The Communists\' dwindling popularity, combined with France and Italy dropping the Communists from their coalition governments, prompted Joseph Stalin to order Gottwald to begin efforts to eliminate parliamentary opposition to Communism in Czechoslovakia.
Outwardly, though, Gottwald kept up the appearance of working within the system, announcing that he intended to lead the Communists to an absolute majority in the upcoming election---something no Czechoslovak party had ever done. The endgame began in February 1948, when a majority of the Cabinet directed the Communist interior minister, Václav Nosek, to stop packing the police force with Communists. Nosek ignored this directive, with Gottwald\'s support. In response, 12 non-Communist ministers resigned. They believed that without their support, Gottwald would be unable to govern and be forced to either give way or resign. Beneš initially supported their position, and refused to accept their resignations. At that point, Gottwald dropped all pretense of liberal democracy. He not only refused to resign, but demanded the appointment of a Communist-dominated government under threat of a general strike. His Communist colleagues occupied the offices of the non-Communist ministers.
On 25 February, Beneš, fearing Soviet intervention, gave in. He accepted the resignations of the non-Communist ministers and appointed a new government in accordance with Gottwald\'s specifications. Although ostensibly still a coalition, it was dominated by Communists and pro-Moscow Social Democrats. The other parties were still nominally represented, but with the exception of Foreign Minister Jan Masaryk they were fellow travellers handpicked by the Communists. From this date forward, Gottwald was effectively the most powerful man in Czechoslovakia.
On 9 May, the National Assembly, now a docile tool of the Communists, approved the so-called Ninth-of-May Constitution. While it was not a completely Communist document, its Communist imprint was strong enough that Beneš refused to sign it. Later that month, elections were held in which voters were presented with a single list from the National Front, now a Communist-controlled patriotic organization. Beneš resigned on 2 June. In accordance with the 1920 Constitution, Gottwald took over most presidential functions until 14 June, when he was formally elected as President.
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# Klement Gottwald
## Leadership of Czechoslovakia {#leadership_of_czechoslovakia}
Gottwald initially tried to take a semi-independent line. However, that changed shortly after a meeting with Stalin. Under Stalin\'s direction, Gottwald imposed the Stalinist Soviet model of government on the country. He nationalized the country\'s industry and initiated the collectivization of Czechoslovak farms. There was considerable resistance within the government to Soviet influence on Czechoslovak politics. In response, Gottwald instigated a series of purges. Perceived opponents were often jailed or condemned to forced labor. His regime conducted a number of show trials, including the trial of the non-Communist politician Milada Horakova as well as fellow comrades and Communist party leaders Rudolf Slánský and Vlado Clementis, both of whom were executed in December 1952. Many Communist leaders subjected to show trials had been part of a tight-knit group of Communists around Gottwald in the interwar period. In a famous photograph from 21 February 1948, described also in *The Book of Laughter and Forgetting* by Milan Kundera, Clementis stands next to Gottwald. When Clementis was charged in 1950, he was erased from the photograph (along with the photographer Karel Hájek) by the state propaganda department.
## Death
Gottwald was a long-time alcoholic and suffered from heart disease caused by syphilis that had gone untreated for several years. Shortly after attending Stalin\'s funeral on 9 March 1953, one of his arteries burst. He died five days later on 14 March 1953, aged 56. He was the first Czechoslovak president to die in office.
Gottwald\'s embalmed body was initially displayed in a mausoleum at the site of the Jan Žižka national monument in the district of Žižkov, Prague. In 1962, the personality cult ended and it was no longer deemed appropriate to show Gottwald\'s body. There are accounts that in 1962 Gottwald\'s body had blackened and was decomposing due to a botched embalming, although other witnesses have disputed this. His body was cremated, the ashes returned to the Žižka Monument and placed in a sarcophagus.
After the end of the communist period, Gottwald\'s ashes were removed from the Žižka Monument (in 1990) and placed in a common grave at Prague\'s Olšany Cemetery, together with the ashes of about 20 other communist leaders which had also originally been placed in the Žižka Monument. The Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia now maintains that common grave.
## Legacy
He was succeeded as *de facto* leader of Czechoslovakia by Antonín Novotný, who became First Secretary of the KSČ. Antonín Zápotocký, who had been prime minister since 1948, succeeded Gottwald as president.
In tribute, Zlín, a city in Moravia, now the Czech Republic, was renamed *Gottwaldov* after him from 1949 to 1989. Zmiiv, a city in Kharkiv Oblast, Ukrainian SSR, was named *Gotvald* after him from 1976 to 1990.
A major square and park in Bratislava was named *Gottwaldovo námestie* after him, later becoming Námestie Slobody *(Freedom square)* immediately following the Velvet Revolution. The original eponym persists today, the square being referred to by locals as *Gottko*. A bridge in Prague that is now called Nuselský Most was once called Gottwaldův Most, and the abutting metro station now called Vyšehrad was called Gottwaldova.
A Czechoslovak 100 Koruna banknote issued on 1 October 1989 as part of the 1985--89 banknote series included a portrait of Gottwald. This note was so poorly received by Czechoslovaks that it was removed from official circulation on 31 December 1990 and was promptly replaced with the previous banknote issue of the same denomination.
In 2005 he was voted \"The Greatest Villain\" in the *Největší Čech* poll of the Czech Television (a program under the BBC licence 100 Greatest Britons). He received 26% of the votes.
Wiesenau in Brandenburg, (former East) Germany keeps a street named after Gottwald
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# Kettlebaston
**Kettlebaston** is a village and a civil parish with just over 30 inhabitants in the Babergh district of Suffolk, England, located around 3 mi east of Lavenham. From the 2011 Census the population of the village was not maintained and is included in the civil parish of Chelsworth. It derives its name from Kitelbeornastuna, (Kitelbjorn\'s farmstead - O.Scand. pers. name + O.E. Tun), later evolving to Kettlebarston, (which is how the name is still pronounced), and finally to the current spelling. Its existence was first recorded in 1086 in the *Domesday Book*.
## History
Once in an area of great wealth, the demise of the mediaeval wool trade was indirectly the saving of the village, (as we know it today), since the locals were unable to afford the expense of upgrading their houses with the latest architectural fashions. The number of timber-framed houses slowly declined over the years, as did the population - from over 200 at its peak, to the point when the village was on the brink of extinction. By the 1960s, with the road no more than an unmade track, and no electricity or mains water supplies, (it still has no gas or main drains), Kettlebaston was barely standing. In the \"Spotlight On The Suffolk Scene\" article, of the *Chronicle & Mercury* in June 1949, it was noted that a great many houses were category five - derelict, and ready for demolition.
As the agricultural workers left the land in search of other jobs, due to the increased mechanisation of farm work, \"outsiders\" discovered the secluded beauty of the rural Suffolk countryside, and a new age dawned. The tiny workmen\'s cottages, which once housed huge families - and some stock and chickens according to local accounts - were lovingly renovated and converted, and the village was reborn, and went on to proudly win Babergh Best Kept Village, and runner up in the Suffolk Community Council Best Kept Village Competition, in 1989.
The village sign, bearing two crossed sceptres topped with doves, was erected to mark the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. It also commemorates that, in 1445, Henry VI granted the manor of Kettlebaston to William de la Pole, 1st Marquess of Suffolk, in return for the service of carrying a golden sceptre at the coronation of all the future Kings of England, and an ivory sceptre to carry at the coronation of Margaret of Anjou, and all future Queens. This honour continued until Henry VIII resumed the manor, although it was later regranted it was without the royal service.
### Parish church {#parish_church}
The parish church of St Mary the Virgin has Norman origins, and features a font from around 1200. The building is listed as Grade I. It is recorded that the church was then \"built anew\" in 1342, remaining largely unchanged until targeted by Protestant iconoclasts in the 1540s. Today it features one of Suffolk\'s finest post-Reformation rood screens, designed by Father Ernest Geldart and decorated by Patrick Osborne, and Enid Chadwick, and a rare Sacred Heart altar upon a Stuart Holy Table. It now lacks the small lead spire which once topped the tower.
Bell № Weight ate Founder
-------- --------- ------ -----------------------------------------
Treble 5cwt 1636 John Darbie of Ipswich
Two 6cwt 1699 Henry Pleasant of Sudbury
Tenor 9wt 2qr 1567 Stephen Tonni II of Bury St Edmunds
: Church bells of St Mary\'s Kettlebaston
Regarded as a place of pilgrimage to the followers of the Anglo-Catholic movement from all over the UK, Kettlebaston was the liturgically highest of all Suffolk\'s Anglican churches. From 1930, until his retirement in 1964, Reverend Father Harold Clear Butler said Roman Mass every day, and celebrated High Mass and Benediction on Sundays. He also removed state notices from the porch, and refused to keep registers, or to recognise the office of the local Archdeacon of Sudbury. Despite opposition, the church finally received electric heating and lighting in 2014.
## The village today {#the_village_today}
The current village has no shop, school, or pub.
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# Kettlebaston
## Notable residents {#notable_residents}
- Patrick Murdoch ( -1774); author, publisher and mathematician
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# Karl Amadeus Hartmann
**Karl Amadeus Hartmann** (2 August 1905 -- 5 December 1963) was a German composer. A major figure of the musical life of post-war Germany, he has been described as the greatest German symphonist of the 20th century.
## Life
Born in Munich, the son of Friedrich Richard Hartmann, and the youngest of four brothers of whom the elder three became painters, Hartmann was himself torn, early in his career, between music and the visual arts. He was much affected in his early political development by the events of the unsuccessful Workers' Revolution in Bavaria that followed the collapse of the German empire at the end of World War I (see Bavarian Soviet Republic). He remained an idealistic socialist for the rest of his life.
At the Munich Academy in the 1920s, Hartmann studied with Joseph Haas, a pupil of Max Reger, and later received intellectual stimulus and encouragement from the conductor Hermann Scherchen, an ally of the Schoenberg school, with whom he had a nearly lifelong mentor-protégé relationship. He voluntarily withdrew completely from musical life in Germany during the Nazi era, while remaining in Germany, and refused to allow his works to be played there. An early symphonic poem, *Miserae* (1933--1934, first performed in Prague, 1935) was condemned by the Nazi regime but his work continued to be performed, and his fame grew, abroad. A number of Hartmann\'s compositions show the profound effect of the political climate. His *Miserae* (1933--34) was dedicated to his \'friends\...who sleep for all eternity; we do not forget you (Dachau, 1933--34)\', referring to Dachau Concentration Camp, and was condemned by the Nazis. His piano sonata *27 April 1945* portrays 20,000 prisoners from Dachau whom Hartmann witnessed being led away from Allied forces at the end of the war.`{{Better source needed|date=August 2021}}`{=mediawiki}
During World War II, though already an experienced composer, Hartmann submitted to a course of private tuition in Vienna by Schoenberg's pupil Anton Webern (with whom he often disagreed on a personal and political level). Although stylistically their music had little in common, he clearly felt that he needed, and benefited from, Webern\'s acute perfectionism.
After the fall of Adolf Hitler, Hartmann was one of the few prominent surviving anti-fascists in Bavaria whom the postwar Allied administration could appoint to a position of responsibility. In 1945, he became a *dramaturge* at the Bavarian State Opera and there, as one of the few internationally recognized figures who had survived untainted by any collaboration with the Nazi regime, he became a vital figure in the rebuilding of (West) German musical life. Perhaps his most notable achievement was the Musica Viva concert series, which he founded and ran for the rest of his life in Munich. Beginning in November 1945, the concerts reintroduced the German public to 20th-century repertoire, which had been banned since 1933 under National Socialist aesthetic policy. Hartmann also provided a platform for the music of young composers in the late 1940s and early 1950s, helping to establish such figures as Hans Werner Henze, Luigi Nono, Luigi Dallapiccola, Carl Orff, Iannis Xenakis, Olivier Messiaen, Luciano Berio, Bernd Alois Zimmermann and many others. Hartmann also involved sculptors and artists such as Jean Cocteau, Le Corbusier, and Joan Miró in exhibitions at Musica Viva.
He was accorded numerous honours after the war, including the Musikpreis of the city of Munich in March 1949. This was followed by the Kunstpreis of the Bayerische Akademie der Schönen Künste (1950), the Arnold Schönberg Medal of the IGNM (1954), the Große Kunstpreis of the Land Nordrhein-Westfalen (1957), as well as the Ludwig Spohr Award of the city of Braunschweig, the Schwabing Kunstpreis (1961) and the Bavarian Medal of Merit (1959). Hartmann became a member of the Academy of Arts in Munich (1952) and Berlin (1955) and received an honorary doctorate from Spokane Conservatory, Washington (1962). His socialist sympathies did not extend to the Soviet Union\'s variety of communism, and in the 1950s, he refused an offer to move to East Germany.
Hartmann continued to base his activities in Munich for the remainder of his life, and his administrative duties came to absorb much of his time and energy. This reduced his time for composition, and his last years were dogged by serious illness. In 1963, he died of stomach cancer at the age of 58, leaving his last work -- an extended symphonic *Gesangsszene* for voice and orchestra on words from Jean Giraudoux's apocalyptic drama *Sodom and Gomorrah* -- unfinished.
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# Karl Amadeus Hartmann
## Output and style {#output_and_style}
Hartmann completed a number of works, most notably eight symphonies. The first of these, and perhaps emblematic of the difficult genesis of many of his works, is Symphony No. 1, *Essay for a Requiem* (*Versuch eines Requiems*). It began in 1936 as a cantata for alto solo and orchestra loosely based on a few poems by Walt Whitman. It soon became known as *Our Life: Symphonic Fragment* (*Unser Leben: Symphonisches Fragment*) and was intended as a comment on the generally miserable conditions for artists and liberal-minded people under the early Nazi regime. After the defeat of the Third Reich in World War II, the regime\'s real victims had become clear, and the cantata\'s title was changed to *Symphonic Fragment: Attempt at a Requiem* to honor the millions killed in the Holocaust. Hartmann revised the work in 1954--55 as his Symphony No. 1, and published it in 1956. As this example indicates, he was a highly self-critical composer and many of his works went through successive stages of revision. He also suppressed most of his substantial orchestral works of the late 1930s and the war years, either allowing them to remain unpublished or, in several cases, reworking them -- or portions of them -- into the series of numbered symphonies that he produced in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Perhaps the most frequently performed of his symphonies are No. 4, for strings, and No. 6; probably his most widely known work, through performances and recordings, is his Concerto funebre for violin and strings, composed at the beginning of World War II and making use of a Hussite chorale and a Russian revolutionary song of 1905.
Hartmann attempted a synthesis of many different idioms, including musical expressionism and jazz stylization, into organic symphonic forms in the tradition of Bruckner and Mahler. His early works are both satirical and politically engaged. But he admired the polyphonic mastery of J.S. Bach, the profound expressive irony of Mahler, and the neoclassicism of Igor Stravinsky and Paul Hindemith. In the 1930s he developed close ties with Béla Bartók and Zoltán Kodály in Hungary, and this is reflected in his music to some extent. In the 1940s, he began to take an interest in Schoenbergian twelve-tone technique; though he studied with Webern his own idiom was closer to Alban Berg. In the 1950s, Hartmann started to explore the metrical techniques pioneered by Boris Blacher and Elliott Carter. Among his most-used forms are three-part adagio slow movements, fugues, variations and toccatas.
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# Karl Amadeus Hartmann
## Reputation and legacy {#reputation_and_legacy}
Significantly, `{{clarify span|text=no major West German conductor|explain=Leitner not "major"?|date=March 2014}}`{=mediawiki} championed his music following his death: Scherchen, his most noted advocate, died in 1966. Some have suggested that this accelerated the disappearance of Hartmann\'s music from public view in the years following his death. Conductors who regularly performed Hartmann\'s music include Rafael Kubelik and Ferdinand Leitner, who recorded the third and sixth symphonies. More recent champions of works by Hartmann include Ingo Metzmacher and Mariss Jansons.
Hans Werner Henze said of Hartmann\'s music:
> Symphonic architecture was essential for him\... as a suitable medium for reflecting the world as he experienced and understood it -- as an agonizingly dramatic battle, as contradiction and conflict -- in order to be able to achieve self-realization in its dialectic and to portray himself as a man among men, a man of this world, and not out of this world.
The English composer John McCabe wrote his *Variations on a Theme of Karl Amadeus Hartmann* (1964) in tribute. It uses the opening of Hartmann\'s Fourth Symphony as its theme. Henze made a version of Hartmann\'s Piano Sonata No. 2 for full orchestra.
## List of works {#list_of_works}
### Operas
- *Wachsfigurenkabinett*, five short operas (1929--30; three not completed), libretti by Erich Bormann
- *Das Leben und Sterben des heiligen Teufels*
- *Der Mann, der vom Tode auferstand* (unfinished; completed by Günter Bialas and Hans Werner Henze)
- *Chaplin-Ford-Trott*, \'scenic jazz cantata\' (unfinished; completed by Wilfried Hiller)
- *Fürwahr?* (unfinished; completed by Henze)
- *Die Witwe von Ephesus*
- *Des Simplicius Simplicissimus Jugend* (1934--35; revised 1956--57 as *Simplicius Simplicissimus*), libretto by Hermann Scherchen, Wolfgang Petzer and Hartmann after Jakob von Grimmelhausen
### Symphonic works {#symphonic_works}
\(i\) Up to 1945 -- mostly later suppressed
- *Miserae*, Symphonic Poem (1933--34)
- Symphony *L\'Oeuvre* (1937--38; material re-used in Symphony No. 6)
- Symphonic Concerto for string orchestra and soprano (1938; later partly used in Symphony No. 4)
- *Sinfonia Tragica* (1940, rev. 1943; first movement re-used in Symphony No. 3)
- *Symphoniae Drammaticae* (1941--43), consisting of:
- Overture *China kampft* (1942, rev. 1962 as Symphonische Ouvertüre)
- Symphonische Hymnen (1941--43)
- Symphonic Suite *Vita Nova* for reciter and orchestra (1941--42, unfinished)
- *Adagio* for large orchestra (1940--44, revised as Symphony No. 2)
- Symphony *Klagegesang* (1944; portions re-used in Symphony No. 3)
\(ii\) After 1945
- Symphony No. 1, *Versuch eines Requiems* for alto and orchestra (1955) -- revised version of *Symphonisches Fragment* (on texts by Walt Whitman)
- Symphony No. 2 (1946) -- revised version of *Adagio*
- Symphony No. 3 (1948--49) -- adapted from portions of Symphony *Klagegesang* and *Sinfonia Tragica*
- Symphony No. 4 for string orchestra (1947--48) -- adapted from Symphonic Concerto for strings
- Symphony No. 5, *Symphonie concertante* (1950) -- adapted from Concerto for wind and double basses
- Symphony No. 6 (1951--53) -- adapted from Symphony *L\'Oeuvre*
- Symphony No. 7 (1957--58)
- Symphony No. 8 (1960--62)
### Concertos
- *Lied* for trumpet and wind instruments (1932)
- Concerto for wind instruments and solo trumpet (1933); recomposed as Concerto for wind instruments and double basses (1948--49), whence Symphony No.5
- Cello Concerto (1933, lost, probably unfinished)
- Symphonie-Divertissement for bassoon, tenor trombone, double bass and chamber orchestra (c. 1934, unfinished)
- *Kammerkonzert* for clarinet, string quartet and string orchestra (1930--35)
- *Concerto funebre* for violin and string orchestra (1939, rev. 1959) (originally entitled *Musik der Trauer*)
- Concerto for piano, wind instruments and percussion (1953)
- Concerto for viola, piano, wind instruments and percussion (1954--56)
### Vocal works {#vocal_works}
- Cantata (1929) for 6-part a cappella choir on texts by Johannes R. Becher and Karl Marx
- *Profane Messe* (1929) for a cappella chorus on a text by Max See
- Kantate for soprano and orchestra on texts by Walt Whitman (1936); later retitled *Lamento* and in 1938 revised as Symphonisches Fragment, whence Symphony No.1
- *Friede Anno \'48* (1936--37) for soprano solo, mixed chorus and piano; revised 1955 as *Lamento* for soprano and piano
- *Gesangsszene* (1962--63) for baritone and orchestra on a text from *Sodom and Gomorrah* by Jean Giraudoux
### Chamber and instrumental {#chamber_and_instrumental}
- 2 Kleine Suiten for piano (c. 1924--6)
- 2 Sonatas for unaccompanied violin (1927)
- 2 Suites for Unaccompanied violin (1927)
- Jazz Toccata and Fugue for piano (1927--28)
- *Tanzsuite* for clarinet, bassoon, horn, trumpet and trombone (1931)
- *Kleines Konzert* for string quartet and percussion (1932)
- *Burleske Musik* for wind instruments, percussion and piano (1931)
- Sonatina for piano (1931)
- *Toccata variata* for wind instruments, piano and percussion (1931--32)
- Piano Sonata No.1 (1932)
- String Quartet No.1, *Carillon* (1933)
- Piano Sonata No.2, *27.IV.45* (1945)
- String Quartet No
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# Kobellite
**Kobellite** is a gray, fibrous, metallic mineral with the chemical formula `{{chem2|Pb22Cu4(Bi,Sb)30S69}}`{=mediawiki}. It is also a sulfide mineral consisting of antimony, bismuth, and lead. It is a member of the izoklakeite -- berryite series with silver and iron substituting in the copper site and a varying ratio of bismuth, antimony, and lead. It crystallizes with monoclinic pyramidal crystals. The mineral can be found in ores and deposits of Hvena, Sweden; Ouray, Colorado; and Wake County, North Carolina, US. The mineral was named after Wolfgang Franz von Kobell (1803--1882), a German mineralogist
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# Kayak
A **kayak** is a small, narrow human-powered watercraft typically propelled by means of a long, double-bladed paddle. The word *kayak* originates from the Inuktitut word *qajaq* (`{{IPA|kl|qajɑq|IPA}}`{=mediawiki}). In British English, the kayak is also considered to be a kind of canoe.
There are countless different types of kayaks due to the craft being easily adaptable for different environments and purposes. The traditional kayak has an enclosed deck and one or more cockpits, each seating one occupant or **kayaker**, differentiating the craft from an open-deck canoe. The cockpit is sometimes covered by a spray deck that prevents unwanted entry of water from waves or splashes. Even within these confines, kayaks vary vastly in respect to materials, length, and width, with some kayaks such as the sprint kayak designed to be fast and light, and others such as the whitewater kayak designed to be sturdy and maneuverable.
Some modern paddlecrafts, which still claim the title \"kayak\", remove integral parts of the traditional design; for instance, by eliminating the cockpit and seating the paddler on top of a canoe-like open deck, commonly known as a sit-on-top kayak. Other designs include inflated air chambers surrounding the craft; replacing the single hull with twin hulls; and replacing handheld paddles with other human-powered propulsion methods such as pedal-driven propeller and \"flippers\". Some kayaks are also fitted with external sources of propulsion, such as a battery-powered electric motor to drive a propeller or flippers, a sail (which essentially modifies it into a sailboat), or even a completely independent gasoline outboard engine (which converts it into a *de facto* motorboat).
The kayak was first used by the indigenous Aleut, Inuit, Yupik and possibly Ainu hunters in subarctic regions of the world.
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# Kayak
## History
Kayaks (Inuktitut: *qajaq* (ᖃᔭᖅ `{{IPA|iu|qaˈjaq}}`{=mediawiki}), Yup\'ik: *qayaq* (from *qai-* \"surface; top\"), Aleut: *Iqyax*) were originally developed by the Inuit, Yup\'ik, and Aleut. They used the boats to hunt on inland lakes, rivers and coastal waters of the Arctic Ocean, North Atlantic, Bering Sea and North Pacific oceans. These first kayaks were constructed from stitched seal or other animal skins stretched over a wood or whalebone-skeleton frame. (Western Alaskan Natives used wood whereas the eastern Inuit used whalebone due to the treeless landscape.) Kayaks are believed to be at least 4,000 years old. The oldest kayaks remaining are exhibited in the North America department of the State Museum of Ethnology in Munich, with the oldest dating from 1577.
Subarctic people made many types of boats for different purposes. The Aleut baidarka was made in double or triple cockpit designs, for hunting and transporting passengers or goods. An umiak is a large open-sea canoe, ranging from 17 to, made with seal skins and wood, originally paddled with single-bladed paddles and typically had more than one paddler.
Subarctic builders designed and built their boats based on their own experience and that of the generations before them passed on through oral tradition. The word \"kayak\" means \"man\'s boat\" or \"hunter\'s boat\", and subarctic kayaks were a personal craft, each built by the man who used it and closely fitting his size for maximum maneuverability. For this reason, kayaks were often designed ergonomically using one\'s own body proportions as units of measure. The paddler wore a tuilik, a garment that was stretched over the rim of the kayak coaming and sealed with drawstrings at the coaming, wrists, and hood edges. This enabled the \"eskimo roll\" and rescue to become the preferred methods of recovery after capsizing, especially as few Inuit could swim; their waters are too cold for a swimmer to survive for long.
Instead of a *tuilik*, most traditional kayakers today use a spray deck made of waterproof synthetic material stretchy enough to fit tightly around the cockpit rim and body of the kayaker, and which can be released rapidly from the cockpit to permit easy exit (in particular in a wet exit after a capsizing).
Inuit kayak builders had specific measurements for their boats. The length was typically three times the span of his outstretched arms. The width at the cockpit was the width of the builder\'s hips plus two fists (sometimes less). The typical depth was his fist plus the outstretched thumb (hitch hiker). Thus typical dimensions were about 17 ft long by 20 - wide by 7 in deep.
Traditional kayaks encompass three types: *Baidarkas*, from the Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands, the oldest design, whose rounded shape and numerous chines give them an almost blimp-like appearance; *West Greenland* kayaks, with fewer chines and a more angular shape, with gunwales rising to a point at the bow and stern; and *East Greenland* kayaks that appear similar to the West Greenland style, but often fit more snugly to the paddler and possess a steeper angle between gunwale and stem, which lends maneuverability.
Most of the Aleut people in the Aleutian Islands eastward to Greenland Inuit relied on the kayak for hunting a variety of prey---primarily seals, though whales and caribou were important in some areas. Skin-on-frame kayaks are still being used for hunting by Inuit in Greenland, because the smooth and flexible skin glides silently through the waves.
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# Kayak
## 20th century & contemporary kayaks {#th_century_contemporary_kayaks}
Contemporary traditional-style kayaks trace their origins primarily to the native boats of Alaska, northern Canada, and Southwest Greenland. The use of fabric kayaks on wooden frames called a foldboat or folding kayak (German Faltboot or Hardernkahn) became widely popular in Europe beginning in 1907 when they were mass-produced by Johannes Klepper and others. This type of kayak was introduced to England and Europe by John MacGregor in 1860, but Klepper was the first person to mass-produce these boats made of collapsible wooden frames covered by waterproof rubberized canvas. By 1929, Klepper and Company were making 90 foldboats a day. Joined by other European manufacturers, by the mid-1930s there were an estimated half-million foldboat kayaks in use throughout Europe. First Nation masters of the roll taught this technique to Europeans during this time period.
These boats were tough and intrepid individuals were soon doing amazing things in them. In June 1928, a 29-year-old German kayaker named Franz Romer rigged his 20 ft foldboat with a sail and departed from Las Palmas in the Canary Islands carrying 590 lbs of tinned food and 55 gal of fresh water, reaching Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands after 2730 nmi and 58 days, becoming the first recorded person to traverse the Atlantic Ocean on a sea kayak. Romer continued west to Puerto Rico after resting for six weeks, planning to eventually arrive at New York City, but unfortunately perished at sea after leaving Port of San Juan on September 11 (missing the hurricane warning by merely an hour) and running into the devastating Okeechobee hurricane some two days later at the southwestern edge of the Bermuda Triangle (likely near the northeastern shores of the Dominican Republic) during his journey towards Florida. Four years later in May 1932, another German named Oskar Speck left Ulm and paddled his foldboat kayak southeast down the Danube, eventually reaching the Torres Strait Islands on the Australian north coast seven years later in September 1939, after having traveled roughly 14000 mi along the shores of the Eastern Mediterranean, Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean, Java Sea and Coral Sea.
These watercraft were brought to the United States and used competitively in 1940 at the first National Whitewater Championship held in America near Middledam, Maine, on the Rapid River (Maine). One \"winner,\" Royal Little, crossed the finish line clinging to his overturned foldboat. Upstream, the river was \"strewn with many badly buffeted and some wrecked boats.\" Two women were in the competition, Amy Lang and Marjory Hurd. With her partner Ken Hutchinson, Hurd won the double canoe race. Lang won the doubles foldboat event with her partner, Alexander \"Zee\" Grant.
In the late 1930s and early 1940s, Alexander \"Zee\" Grant was most likely America\'s best foldboat pilot. Grant kayaked the Gates of Lodore on the Green River (Colorado River tributary) in Dinosaur National Monument in 1939 and the Middle Fork Salmon River in 1940. In 1941, Grant paddled a foldboat through Grand Canyon National Park. He outfitted his foldboat, named Escalante, with a sponson on each side of his boat and filled the boat with beach balls. As with nearly all American foldboat enthusiasts of the day, he did not know how to roll his boat.
Fiberglass mixed with resin composites, invented in the 1930s and 1940s, were soon used to make kayaks and this type of watercraft saw increased use during the 1950s, including in the US. Kayak Slalom World Champion Walter Kirschbaum built a fiberglass kayak and paddled it through Grand Canyon in June 1960. He knew how to roll and only swam once, in Hance Rapid (see List of Colorado River rapids and features). Like Grant\'s foldboat, Kirschbaum\'s fiberglass kayak had no seat and no thigh braces. In June 1987, Ed Gillet, using a stock off the shelf *traditional design* 20 foot long by 31 inch wide fiberglass tandem kayak paddled over 2,000 miles non-stop from Monterey, California to Hawaii, landing his vessel there on August 27, 1987, after 64 days of paddling. Gillet had navigated his kayak by using a traditional sextant and compass, along with approximately 600 pounds of food and water, including a device to convert sea water to fresh water. Within six days of reaching Hawaii, both he and his yellow kayak were featured on *The Tonight Show*, hosted by Johnny Carson.
Inflatable rubberized fabric boats were first introduced in Europe and rotomolded plastic kayaks first appeared in 1973. Most kayaks today are made from roto-molded polyethylene resins. The development of plastic and rubberized inflatable kayaks arguably initiated the development of freestyle kayaking as we see it today since these boats could be made smaller, stronger, and more resilient than fiberglass boats.
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# Kayak
## Design principles {#design_principles}
Typically, kayak design is largely a matter of trade-offs: directional stability (\"tracking\") vs maneuverability; stability vs speed; and primary vs secondary stability. Multihull kayaks face a different set of trade-offs. The paddler\'s body shape and size is an integral part of the structure, and will also affect the trade-offs made.
Attempting to lift and carry a kayak by oneself or improperly is a significant cause of kayaking injuries. Good lifting technique, sharing loads, and not using needlessly large and heavy kayaks prevent injuries.
### Displacement
If the displacement of a kayak is not enough to support the passenger(s) and gear, it will sink. If the displacement is excessive, the kayak will float too high, catch the wind and waves uncomfortably, and handle poorly; it will probably also be bigger and heavier than it needs to be. Being excessively big will create more drag, and the kayak will move more slowly and take more effort. Rolling is easier in lower-displacement kayaks. On the other hand, a higher deck will keep the paddler(s) drier and make self-rescue and coming through surf easier. Many beginning paddlers who use a sit-in kayak feel more secure in a kayak with a weight capacity substantially more than their own weight. Maximum volume in a sit-in kayak is helped by a wide hull with high sides. But paddling ease is helped by lower sides where the paddler sits and a narrower width.
While the kayak\'s buoyancy must be more than the loaded kayak, the optimal amount of excess buoyancy varies somewhat with kayak type, purpose, and personal taste (squirt boats, for instance, have very little positive buoyancy). Displacements vary with paddler weight. Most manufacturers include kayaks for paddlers weighing 65 -, with some kayaks for paddlers down to 50 kg. Kayaks made for paddlers under 100 lbs are almost all very beamy and intended for beginners.
### Length
As a general rule, a longer kayak is faster: it has a higher hull speed. It can also be narrower for a given displacement, reducing the drag, and it will generally track (follow a straight line) better than a shorter kayak. On the other hand, it is less maneuverable. Very long kayaks are less robust, and may be harder to store and transport. Some recreational kayak makers try to maximize hull volume (weight capacity) for a given length as shorter kayaks are easier to transport and store.
Kayaks that are built to cover longer distances such as touring and sea kayaks are longer, generally 16 to. With touring kayaks the keel is generally more defined (helping the kayaker track in a straight line). Whitewater kayaks, which generally depend upon river current for their forward motion, are short, to maximize maneuverability. These kayaks rarely exceed 8 ft in length, and *play boats* may be only 5 - long. Recreational kayak designers try to provide more stability at the price of reduced speed, and compromise between tracking and maneuverability, ranging from 9 -.
### Rocker
Length alone does not fully predict a kayak\'s maneuverability: a second design element is *rocker*, i.e. its lengthwise curvature. A heavily *rockered* boat curves more, shortening its effective waterline. For example, an 18 ft kayak with no rocker is in the water from end to end. In contrast, the bow and stern of a rockered boat are out of the water, shortening its lengthwise waterline to only 16 ft. Rocker is generally most evident at the ends, and in moderation improves handling. Similarly, although a rockered whitewater boat may only be about a meter shorter than a typical recreational kayak, its waterline is far shorter and its maneuverability far greater. When surfing, a heavily rockered boat is less likely to lock into the wave as the bow and stern are still above water. A boat with less rocker cuts into the wave and makes it harder to turn while surfing.
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# Kayak
## Design principles {#design_principles}
### Beam profile {#beam_profile}
The overall width of a kayak\'s cross-section is its *beam*. A wide hull is more stable and packs more displacement into a shorter length. A narrow hull has less drag and is generally easier to paddle; in waves, it will ride more easily and stay dryer.
A narrower kayak makes a somewhat shorter paddle appropriate and a shorter paddle puts less strain on the shoulder joints. Some paddlers are comfortable with a sit-in kayak so narrow that their legs extend fairly straight out. Others want sufficient width to permit crossing their legs inside the kayak.
#### Types of stability {#types_of_stability}
thumb\|upright=2.5\|Hypothetical cross-sections of kayaks. Left to right: High primary stability but low secondary stability, lower primary stability but \~same secondary stability, lower primary but higher secondary stability, two extra chines, four extra chines. More chines (angles) give a more rounded profile, decreasing stability, tracking, and the wetted area, and increasing speed.\|alt=1) a five-sided polygon which is nearly a wide rectangle, with the lower long side (the boat\'s bottom) a bit shorter than the upper (the deck) and the fifth point (the keel) slightly bending the nearly-flat bottom downwards. 2) The short sides retain the same angle, but the keel is a bit lower and the chines a bit higher. 3) The chines are substantially closer together and higher than the keel so that the angles of the hull at the chines and at the keel are all three approximately equal. 4) Two additional chines make a seven-sided polygon which approximates a half-circle with the flat side up. 5) A 9-sided polygon approximating a half-circle more closely. *Primary* (sometimes called *initial*) stability describes how much a boat tips, or rocks back and forth when displaced from level by paddler weight shifts. *Secondary* stability describes how stable a kayak feels when put on edge or when waves are passing under the hull perpendicular to the length of the boat. For kayak rolling, *tertiary* stability, or the stability of an upside-down kayak, is also important (lower tertiary stability makes rolling up easier).
Primary stability is often a big concern to a beginner, while secondary stability matters both to beginners and experienced travelers. By example, a wide, flat-bottomed kayak will have high primary stability and feel very stable on flat water. However, when a steep wave breaks on such a boat, it can be easily overturned because the flat bottom is no longer level. By contrast, a kayak with a narrower, more rounded hull with more hull flare can be edged or leaned into waves and (in the hands of a skilled kayaker) provides a safer, more comfortable response on stormy seas. Kayaks with only moderate primary, but excellent secondary stability are, in general, considered more seaworthy, especially in challenging conditions.
The shape of the cross section affects stability, maneuverability, and drag. Hull shapes are categorized by roundness, flatness, and by the presence and angle of chines. This cross-section may vary along the length of the boat.
A chine typically increases secondary stability by effectively widening the beam of the boat when it heels (tips). A V-shaped hull tends to travel straight (track) well but makes turning harder. V-shaped hulls also have the greatest secondary stability. Conversely, flat-bottomed hulls are easy to turn, but harder to direct in a constant direction. A round-bottomed boat has minimal area in contact with the water, and thus minimizes drag; however, it may be so unstable that it will not remain upright when floating empty, and needs continual effort to keep it upright. In a skin-on-frame kayak, chine placement may be constrained by the need to avoid the bones of the pelvis.
Sea kayaks, designed for open water and rough conditions, are generally narrower at 22 - and have more secondary stability than recreational kayaks, which are wider 26 -, and have a flatter hull shape and more primary stability.
#### Stability from body shape and skill level {#stability_from_body_shape_and_skill_level}
<File:Weight> distribution kayak.svg\|The position of the center of gravity is affected by body shape. The lower the CoG, the higher the primary stability. <File:Stability> for beginners.svg\|Two different approaches to giving beginners more stability; left, a wider kayak, right, outriggers lashed across the stern deck
The body of the paddler must also be taken into account. A paddler with a low center of gravity (COG) will find all boats more stable; for a paddler with a high center of gravity, all boats will feel tippier. On average, women have a lower COG than men. Women generally may fit a kayak about 10% narrower than the kayak that would fit a similarly sized man. Commercial kayaks made for women are rare. Unisex kayaks are built for men. Younger children have proportionately smaller and lighter bodies, but near-adult-size heads, and thus a higher center of gravity. A paddler with narrow shoulders will also want a narrower kayak.
Newcomers will often want a craft with high primary stability (see above). The southern method is a wider kayak. The West Greenland method is a removable pair of outriggers, lashed across the stern deck. Such an outrigger pair is often homemade of a small plank and found floats such as empty bottles or plastic ducks. Outriggers are also made commercially, especially for fishing kayaks and sailing. If the floats are set so that they are both in the water, they give primary stability, but produce more drag. If they are set so that they are both out of the water when the kayak is balanced, they give secondary stability.
### Hull surface profile {#hull_surface_profile}
Some kayak hulls are categorized according to the shape from bow to stern
Common shapes include:
- Symmetrical: the widest part of the boat is halfway between bow and stern.
- Fish form: the widest part is *forward* (in front) of the midpoint.
- Swede form: the widest part is *aft* (behind) midpoint.
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# Kayak
## Design principles {#design_principles}
### Seating position and contact points {#seating_position_and_contact_points}
Traditional-style and some modern types of kayaks (e.g. sit-on-top) require that paddler be seated with their legs stretched in front of them, in a right angle, in a position called the \"L\" kayaking position. Other kayaks offer a different sitting position, in which the paddler\'s legs are not stretched out in front of them, and the thigh brace bears more on the inside than the top of the thighs (see diagram).
A kayaker must be able to move the hull of their kayak by moving their lower body, and brace themselves against the hull (mostly with the feet) on each stroke. Most kayaks therefore have footrests and a backrest. Some kayaks fit snugly on the hips; others rely more on thigh braces. Mass-produced kayaks generally have adjustable bracing points. Many paddlers also customize their kayaks by putting in shims of closed-cell foam (usually EVA), or more elaborate structures, to make it fit more tightly.
Paddling puts substantial force through the legs, alternately with each stroke. The knees should therefore not be hyperextended. Separately, if the kneecap is in contact with the boat, or the knee joint is in torsion, this will cause pain and may injure the knee. Insufficient foot space will cause painful cramping and inefficient paddling. The paddler should generally be in a comfortable position.
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# Kayak
## Materials and construction {#materials_and_construction}
Today almost all kayaks are commercial products intended for sale rather than for the builder\'s personal use.
Fiberglass hulls are stiffer than polyethylene hulls, but they are more prone to damage from impact, including cracking. Most modern kayaks have steep V sections at the bow and stern, and a shallow V amidships. Fiberglass kayaks may be \"laid-up\" in a mold by hand, in which case they are usually more expensive than polyethylene kayaks, which are rotationally molded in a machine. The deck and hull are often made separately and then joined at a horizontal seam.
Plastic kayaks are rotationally molded (\'rotomolded\') from a various grades and types of polyethylene resins ranging from soft to hard. Such kayaks are seamless and particularly resistant to impact, but heavy.
Inflatable kayaks are increasingly popular due to their ease of storage and transport, as well as the ability to be deflated for extended portage. Although slower than hardshell kayaks, many higher-end models often constructed of hypalon, as opposed to cheaper PVC designs, begin to approach the performance of traditional sea kayaks. Being inflatable they are virtually unsinkable and often more stable than hardshell designs. New drop-stitch technology means slab, rather than tube shapes are used in the designs with higher inflation pressures (up to 10 psi), leading to considerably faster, though often less stable kayaks which rival hardshell boats in performance.
Solid wooden hulls don\'t necessarily require significant skill and handiwork, depending on how they are made. Three main types are popular, especially for the home builder: plywood stitch & glue (S&G), strip-built, and hybrids which have a stitch & glue hull and a strip-built deck. Kayaks made from wood sheathed in fiberglass have proven successful, especially as the price of epoxy resin has decreased in recent years.
Stitch & glue designs typically use modern, marine-grade plywood with a thickness of about 3 to. After cutting out the required pieces of hull and deck (kits often have these pre-cut), a series of small holes are drilled along the edges. Copper wire is then used to \"stitch\" the pieces together through the holes. After the pieces are temporarily stitched together, they are glued with epoxy and the seams reinforced with fiberglass. When the epoxy dries, the copper stitches are removed. Sometimes the entire boat is then covered in fiberglass for additional strength and waterproofing though this adds greatly to the weight and is unnecessary. Construction is fairly straightforward, but because plywood does not bend to form compound curves, design choices are limited. This is a good choice for the first-time kayak builder as the labor and skills required (especially for kit versions) is considerably less than for strip-built boats which can take three times as long to build.
Strip-built designs are similar in shape to rigid fiberglass kayaks but are generally both lighter and tougher. Like their fiberglass counterparts the shape and size of the boat determines performance and optimal uses. The hull and deck are built with thin strips of lightweight wood, often thuja (Western Red cedar), pine or redwood. The strips are edge-glued together around a form, stapled or clamped in place, and allowed to dry. Structural strength comes from a layer of fiberglass cloth and epoxy resin, layered inside and outside the hull. Strip--built kayaks are sold commercially by a few companies, priced US\$4,000 and up. An experienced woodworker can build one for about US\$400 in 200 hours, though the exact cost and time depend on the builder\'s skill, the materials and the size and design. As a second kayak project, or for the serious builder with some woodworking expertise, a strip--built boat can be an impressive piece of work. Kits with pre-cut and milled wood strips are commercially available.
Skin-on-frame (SOF) boats are often more traditional in design, materials, and construction. They were traditionally made with driftwood frames, jointed, pegged, and lashed together, and covered with stretched seal skin, as those were the most readily available materials in the Arctic regions (other skins and baleen framing members were also used at need). A \"poor man\'s kayak\" might be frameless and stuffed with a snow \"frame\". Today, seal skin is usually replaced with canvas or nylon cloth covered with paint, polyurethane, or a hypalon rubber coating, on a wooden or aluminum frame. Modern skin-on-frame kayaks often possess greater impact resistance than their fiberglass counterparts, but are less durable against abrasion or sharp objects. They are often the lightest kayaks. Like the older skin-on-frame kayaks, they are often home-built to fit a specific paddler. Engineer Xyla Foxlin built a kayak out of transparent fibreglass as well as LEDs to create a floating vessel that lights up at night, which she calls the *Rainbowt*.
A special type of skin-on-frame kayak is the folding kayak. It has a collapsible frame, of wood, aluminum or plastic, or a combination thereof, and a skin of water-resistant and durable fabric. Many types have air sponsons built into the hull, making the kayak float even if flooded.
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# Kayak
## Modern design {#modern_design}
Most modern kayaks differ greatly from the original traditional subarctic kayaks in design, manufacturing and usage. They are often designed with computer-aided design (CAD) software, often in combination with CAD customized for naval design.
Modern kayaks serve diverse purposes, ranging from slow and easy touring on placid water, to racing and complex maneuvering in fast-moving whitewater, to fishing and long-distance ocean excursions. Modern forms, materials and construction techniques make it possible to effectively serve these needs while continuing to leverage the insights of the original Arctic inventors.
## Types
Major kayak types
--------------------
Sea kayak
Whitewater kayak
Recreational kayak
Sprint kayak
Modern kayaks have evolved into specialized types that may be broadly categorized according to their application as *sea or touring kayaks*, *whitewater* (or *river*) *kayaks*, *surf kayaks*, *racing kayaks*, *fishing kayaks,* and *recreational* kayaks. The broader kayak categories today are \'sit-in\' (SI), which is inspired mainly by traditional kayak forms, \'sit-on-top\' (SOT), which evolved from paddle boards that were outfitted with footrests and a backrest, \'hybrid\', which are essentially canoes featuring a narrower beam and a reduced free board enabling the paddler to propel them from the middle of the boat, using a double blade paddle (i.e. \'kayak paddle\'), and twin hull kayaks offering each of the paddler\'s legs a narrow hull of its own. In recent decades, kayaks design have proliferated to a point where the only broadly accepted denominator for them is their being designed mainly for paddling using a kayak paddle featuring two blades i.e. \'kayak paddle\'. However, even this inclusive definition is being challenged by other means of human powered propulsion, such as foot activated pedal drives combined with rotating or sideways moving propellers, electric motors, and even outboard motors.
### Recreational
*Main article: Recreational kayak* Recreational kayaks are designed for the casual paddler interested in fishing, photography, or a peaceful paddle on a lake, flatwater stream or protected salt water away from strong ocean waves. These boats presently make up the largest segment of kayak sales. Compared to other kayaks, recreational kayaks have a larger cockpit for easier entry and exit and a wider beam (27 --) for more stability. They are generally less than 12 ft in length and have limited cargo capacity. Less expensive materials like polyethylene and fewer options keep these boats relatively inexpensive. Most canoe/kayak clubs offer introductory instruction in recreational boats. They do not perform as well in the sea. The recreational kayak is usually a type of touring kayak.
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# Kayak
## Types
### Sea
*Sea kayaks* are typically designed for travel by one, two or even three paddlers on open water and in many cases trade maneuverability for seaworthiness, stability, and cargo capacity. Sea-kayak sub-types include \"skin-on-frame\" kayaks with traditionally constructed frames, open-deck \"sit-on-top\" kayaks, and recreational kayaks.
The sea kayak, though descended directly from traditional types, is implemented in a variety of materials. Sea kayaks typically have a longer waterline, and provisions for below-deck storage of cargo. Sea kayaks may also have rudders or skegs (fixed rudder) and upturned bow or stern profiles for wave shedding. Modern sea kayaks usually have two or more internal bulkheads. Some models can accommodate two or sometimes three paddlers.
#### Sit-on-top {#sit_on_top}
Sealed-hull (\"unsinkable\") craft were developed for leisure use, as derivatives of surfboards (e.g. paddle or wave skis), or for surf conditions. Variants include planing surf craft, touring kayaks, and sea marathon kayaks. Increasingly, manufacturers build leisure \'sit-on-top\' variants of extreme sports craft, typically using polyethylene to ensure strength and affordability, often with a skeg for directional stability.
Sit-on-top kayaks come in 1--4 paddler configurations. Sit-on-top kayaks are particularly popular for fishing and SCUBA diving, since participants need to easily enter and exit the water, change seating positions, and access hatches and storage wells. Ordinarily the seat of a sit-on-top is slightly above water level, so the center of gravity for the paddler is higher than in a traditional kayak. To compensate for the higher center of gravity, sit-on-tops are often wider and slower than a traditional kayak of the same length.
Water that enters the cockpit of a sit-on-top kayak drains out through scupper holes---tubes that run from the cockpit to the bottom of the hull. The *cockpit* is thus self-bailing. The hull may be sealed, or perforated by hatches and deck fixtures. Contrary to popular belief, the sit-on-top kayak *hull* is not self-bailing, since water penetrating it does not drain out automatically, as it does in bigger boats equipped with self-bailing systems. Furthermore, the sit-on-top hull cannot be molded in a way that would assure water tightness, and water may get in through various holes in its hull, usually around hatches and deck accessories. If the sit-on-top kayak is loaded to a point where such perforations are covered with water, or if the water paddled is rough enough that such perforations often go under water, the sit-on-top hull may fill with water without the paddler noticing it in time. If a sealed hull develops a split or hole, it will also fill and sink.
### Surf
Specialty surf boats typically have flat bottoms, and hard edges, similar to surf boards. The design of a surf kayak promotes the use of an ocean surf wave (moving wave) as opposed to a river or feature wave (moving water). They are typically made from rotomolded plastic, or fiberglass.
Surf kayaking comes in two main varieties, High Performance (HP) and International Class (IC). High Performance boats tend to have a lot of nose rocker, little to no tail rocker, flat hulls, sharp rails and up to four fins set up as either a three fin thruster or a quad fin`{{according to whom|date=December 2013}}`{=mediawiki}. This enables them to move at high speed and maneuver dynamically. International Class boats have to be at least 3 m long and until a recent rule change`{{when|date=May 2021}}`{=mediawiki} had to have a convex hull; now flat and slightly concave hulls are also allowed, although fins are not. Surfing on international boats tends to be smoother and more flowing, and they are thought of as kayaking\'s *long boarding*. Surf boats come in a variety of materials ranging from tough but heavy plastics to super light, super stiff but fragile foam--cored carbon fiber. Surf kayaking has become popular in traditional surfing locations, as well as new locations such as the Great Lakes.
#### Waveskis
*Main article: Waveski* A variation on the closed-cockpit surf kayak is called a waveski. Although the waveski offers dynamics similar to a sit--on--top, its paddling technique and surfing performance and construction can be similar to surfboard designs.
### Whitewater
*Main article: Whitewater kayaking*
Whitewater kayaks are rotomolded in a semi-rigid, high impact plastic, usually polyethylene. Careful construction ensures that the boat remains structurally sound when subjected to fast-moving water. The plastic hull allows these kayaks to bounce off rocks without leaking, although they scratch and eventually puncture with enough use. Whitewater kayaks range from 4 to long. There are two main types of whitewater kayak, playboats and river-running boats. Creekboats (for small rivers) and squirt boats are more specialized.
#### Playboat
*Main article: Playboat* One type, the *playboat*, is short, with a scooped bow and blunt stern. These trade speed and stability for high maneuverability. Their primary use is performing tricks in individual water features or short stretches of river. In playboating or *freestyle* competition (also known as *rodeo* boating), kayakers exploit the complex currents of rapids to execute a series of tricks, which are scored for skill and style.
#### Creekboats and river-running kayaks {#creekboats_and_river_running_kayaks}
The other primary type is the creek boat, which gets its name from its purpose: running narrow, low-volume waterways. Creekboats are longer and have far more volume than playboats, which makes them more stable, faster and higher-floating. Many paddlers use creekboats in \"short boat\" downriver races, and they are often seen on large rivers where their extra stability and speed may be necessary to get through rapids.
Between the creekboat and playboat extremes is a category called *river--running* kayaks. These medium--sized boats are designed for rivers of moderate to high volume, and some, known as *river running playboats*, are capable of basic playboating moves. They are typically owned by paddlers who do not have enough whitewater involvement to warrant the purchase of more--specialized boats.
#### Squirt boats {#squirt_boats}
Squirt boating involves paddling both on the surface of the river and underwater. Squirt boats must be custom-fitted to the paddler to ensure comfort while maintaining the low interior volume necessary to allow the paddler to submerge completely in the river.
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# Kayak
## Types
### Racing
#### Whitewater {#whitewater_1}
White water racers combine a fast, unstable lower hull portion with a flared upper hull portion to combine flat water racing speed with extra stability in open water: they are not fitted with rudders and have similar maneuverability to flat water racers. They usually require substantial skill to achieve stability, due to extremely narrow hulls. Whitewater racing kayaks, like all racing kayaks, are made to regulation lengths, usually of fiber reinforced resin (usually epoxy or polyester reinforced with Kevlar, glass fiber, carbon fiber, or some combination). This form of construction is stiffer and has a harder skin than non-reinforced plastic construction such as rotomolded polyethylene: stiffer means faster, and harder means fewer scratches and therefore also faster.
#### Flatwater sprint {#flatwater_sprint}
*Main article: Sprint kayak* Sprint kayak is a sport held on calm water. Crews or individuals race over 200 m, 500 m, 1000 m or 5000 m with the winning boat being the first to cross the finish line. The paddler is seated, facing forward, and uses a double-bladed paddle pulling the blade through the water on alternate sides to propel the boat forward. In competition the number of paddlers within a boat is indicated by a figure besides the type of boat; K1 signifies an individual kayak race, K2 pairs, and K4 four-person crews. Kayak sprint has been in every summer olympics since it debuted at the 1936 summer olympics. Racing is governed by the International Canoe Federation.
#### Slalom
Slalom kayaks are flat--hulled, and---since the early 1970s---feature low profile decks. They are highly maneuverable, and stable but not fast in a straight line.
#### Surfskis
*Main article: Surf skis* A specialized variant of racing craft called a *surf ski* has an open cockpit and can be up to 21 ft long but only 18 in wide, requiring expert balance and paddling skill. Surf skis were originally created for surf and are still used in races in New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa. They have become popular in the United States for ocean races, lake races and even downriver races.
#### Marathon
Marathon races vary in distances from ten kilometres to over 1000 kilometres for multi-day stage races.
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# Kayak
## Types
### Specialty and hybrids {#specialty_and_hybrids}
The term \"kayak\" is increasingly applied to craft that look little like traditional kayaks.
#### Inflatable
Inflatables, also known as the *duckies* or *IKs*, can usually be transported by hand using a carry bag. They are generally made of hypalon (a kind of neoprene), nitrilon (nitrile-rubberized fabric), PVC, or polyurethane-coated cloth. They can be inflated with foot, hand or electric pumps. Multiple compartments in all but the least expensive increase safety. They generally use low pressure air, almost always below 3 psi.
While many inflatables are non-rigid, essentially pointed rafts, best suited for use on rivers and calm water, the higher-end inflatables are designed to be hardy, seaworthy vessels. Recently some manufacturers have added an internal frame (folding-style) to a multi-section inflatable sit-on-top kayak to produce a seaworthy boat. Fully drop-stitch inflatable kayaks are also available, which are inflated to 8--10 PSI. They are much stiffer, which enhances their paddling characteristics to vastly outperform traditional inflatable kayaks.
The appeal of inflatable kayaks is their portability, their durability (they don\'t dent), ruggedness in white water (they bounce off rocks rather than break) and their easy storage. In addition, inflatable kayaks generally are stable, have a small turning radius and are easy to master, although some models take more effort to paddle and are slower than traditional kayaks.
Because inflatable kayaks aren\'t as sturdy as traditional, hard-shelled kayaks, a lot of people tend to steer away from them. However, there have been considerable advancements in inflatable kayak technology over recent years.
#### Folding
*Main article: Folding kayak* Folding kayaks are direct descendants of the skin-on-frame boats used by the Inuit and Greenlandic peoples. Modern folding kayaks are constructed from a wooden or aluminum frame over which is placed a synthetic skin made of polyester, cotton canvas, polyurethane, or Hypalon. They are more expensive than inflatable kayaks, but have the advantage of greater stiffness and consequently better seaworthiness.
Walter Höhn (English Hoehn) had built, developed and then tested his design for a folding kayak in the white-water rivers of Switzerland from 1924 to 1927. In 1928, on emigrating to Australia, he brought 2 of them with him, lodged a patent for the design and proceeded to manufacture them. In 1942 the Australian Director of Military operations approached him to develop them for Military use. Orders were placed and eventually a total of 1024, notably the MKII & MKIII models, were produced by him and another enterprise, based on his 1942 patent (No. 117779)
#### Pedal
Pedal kayaks represent a pioneering type of watercraft engineered for hands-free functionality, utilizing a propulsion system operated by the kayaker\'s feet. This mechanism usually consists of pedals that are rotated in a circular motion, akin to bicycling, generating forward momentum through a propeller or fins situated beneath the kayak. Steering is managed by a rudder or steering mechanism, typically operated by a hand lever or supplementary foot pedals for directional control.
#### Twin hull and outrigger {#twin_hull_and_outrigger}
`{{Unreferenced section|date=October 2015}}`{=mediawiki} Traditional multi-hull vessels such as catamarans and outrigger canoes benefit from increased lateral stability without sacrificing speed, and these advantages have been successfully applied in twin hull kayaks. *Outrigger kayaks* attach one or two smaller hulls to the main hull to enhance stability, especially for fishing, touring, kayak sailing and motorized kayaking. Twin hull kayaks feature two long and narrow hulls, and since all their buoyancy is distributed as far as possible from their center line, they are more stable than mono hull kayaks outfitted with outriggers.
### Fishing
While native people of the Arctic regions hunted rather than fished from kayaks, in recent years kayak sport fishing has become popular in both fresh and salt water, especially in warmer regions. Traditional fishing kayaks are characterized by wide beams of up to 42 in that increase their lateral stability. Some are equipped with outriggers that increase their stability, and others feature twin hulls enabling stand up paddling and fishing. Compared with motorboats, fishing kayaks are inexpensive and have few maintenance costs. Many kayak anglers like to customize their kayaks for fishing, a process known as \'rigging\'.
### Military
Kayaks were adapted for military use in the Second World War. Used mainly by British Commandos and special forces, principally the Combined Operations Pilotage Parties (COPPs), the Special Boat Service and the Royal Marines Boom Patrol Detachment. The latter made perhaps the best known use of them in the Operation Frankton raid on Bordeaux harbor. Both the Special Air Service (SAS) and the Special Boat Service (SBS) used kayaks for reconnaissance in the 1982 Falklands War. US Navy SEALs reportedly used them at the start of Unified Task Force operations in Somalia in 1992. The SBS currently use Klepper two-person folding kayaks that can be launched from surfaced submarines or carried to the surface by divers from submerged ones. They can be parachuted from transport aircraft at sea or dropped from the back of Chinook helicopters. US Special Forces have used Kleppers but now primarily use Long Haul folding kayaks, which are made in the US.
The Australian Military MKII and MKIII folding kayaks were extensively used during WWII in the Pacific Theater for some 33 raids and missions on and around the South-East Asian islands. Documentation for this will be found in the National Archives of Australia official records, reference No. NAA K1214-123/1/06. They were deployed from disguised watercraft, submarines, Catalina aircraft, P.T. boats, motor launches and by parachute
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# Konqueror
conqueror}}
**Konqueror** is a free and open-source web browser and file manager that provides web access and file-viewer functionality for file systems (such as local files, files on a remote FTP server and files in a disk image). It forms a core part of the KDE Software Compilation. Developed by volunteers, Konqueror can run on most Unix-like operating systems. The KDE community licenses and distributes Konqueror under GNU GPL-2.0-or-later.
The name \"Konqueror\" references the two primary competitors at the time of the browser\'s first release: \"first comes the Navigator, then Explorer, and then the Konqueror\". It also follows the KDE naming convention: the names of most KDE programs begin with the letter K.
Konqueror first appeared with version 2 of KDE on October 23, 2000. It replaced its predecessor, KFM (KDE file manager). With the release of KDE 4 in 2008, the functionalities of web browser and file manager were separated: Dolphin replaced Konqueror as the default KDE file manager, while the KDE community continues to maintain Konqueror as the default KDE web browser.
## Major supported protocols {#major_supported_protocols}
Konqueror can utilize all KIOslaves installed on the user\'s system. Some examples include:
- FTP and SFTP/SSH browser
- Samba (Microsoft file-sharing) browser
- HTTP browser
- IMAP mail client
- ISO (CD image) viewer
- VNC viewer
A complete list is available in the KDE Info Center\'s Protocols section.
## User interface {#user_interface}
Konqueror supports tabbed document interface and Split views, wherein a window can contain multiple documents in tabs. Multiple document interfaces are not supported, however it is possible to recursively divide a window to view multiple documents simultaneously, or simply open another window.
Konqueror\'s user interface is somewhat reminiscent of Microsoft\'s Internet Explorer, though it is more customizable. It works extensively with \"panels\", which can be rearranged or added. For example, one could have an Internet bookmarks panel on the left side of the browser window, and by clicking a bookmark, the respective web page would be viewed in the larger panel to the right. Alternatively, one could display a hierarchical list of folders in one panel and the content of the selected folder in another. Panels are quite flexible and can even include, among other KParts (components), a console window, a text editor, and a media player. Panel configurations can be saved, and there are some default configurations. (For example, \"Midnight Commander\" displays a screen split into two panels, where each one contains a folder, Web site, or file view.)
Navigation functions (back, forward, history, etc.) are available during all operations. Most keyboard shortcuts can be remapped using a graphical configuration, and navigation can be conducted through an assignment of letters to nodes on the active file by pressing the control key. The address bar has extensive autocompletion support for local directories, past URLs, and past search terms.
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# Konqueror
## Web browser {#web_browser}
Konqueror has been developed as an autonomous web browser project. It uses KHTML as its browser engine, which is compliant with HTML and supports JavaScript, CSS, SSL, and other relevant open standards. An alternative layout engine, *kwebkitpart*, is available from the Extragear.
While KHTML is the default web-rendering engine, Konqueror is a modular application and other rendering engines are available. In particular, the WebKitPart component using the KHTML-derived WebKit engine has seen a lot of support in the KDE 4 series. However, the KHTML rendering backend contains unique features, such as the ability to save a full archive of any given webpage into a single file with the \".war\" extension.
Konqueror integrates several customizable search services which can be accessed by entering the service\'s abbreviation code (for example, `gg:` for Google, or `wp:` for Wikipedia) followed by the search term(s). One can add their own search service; for instance, to retrieve English Wikipedia articles, a shortcut may be added with the URL `http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Search?search=\{@}&go=Go`.
KHTML\'s rendering speed is on par with that of competing browsers, but sites with customized JavaScript are often problematic due to KHTML\'s much smaller mind- and market-share, resulting in fewer JavaScript features built into the JS engine.
KJS is Konqueror\'s JavaScript engine that was originally developed by Harri Porten in 2000. On June 13, 2002, Maciej Stachowiak announced on a mailing list that Apple was releasing JavaScriptCore, a framework for Mac OS X that was based on KJS.
Kubuntu\'s 10.10 Maverick Meerkat release switched the default browser from Konqueror to rekonq, as well as a Firefox installer being added. Kubuntu subsequently switched from rekonq to Firefox, with the release of 14.04 Trusty Tahr.
## File manager {#file_manager}
Konqueror also allows browsing the local directory hierarchy---either by entering locations in the address bar, or by selecting items in the file browser window. It allows browsing in different views, which differ in their usage of icons and layout. Files can also be executed, viewed, copied, moved, and deleted.
The user can also open an embedded version of Konsole, via KDE\'s KParts technology, in which they can directly execute shell commands. In addition to the Konsole KPart, Konqueror can also use a Filelight KPart, to view a radial diagram of the user\'s filesystem.
Although this functionality has not been removed from Konqueror, as of KDE 4, Dolphin has replaced Konqueror as the default file manager. Dolphin can -- like Konqueror -- divide each window or tab into multiple panes. Konqueror makes more powerful use of this feature, allowing as many vertically and horizontally divided panes as desired. Each can link to different content or even remote locations, so that Konqueror becomes a powerful graphical tool to manage content on multiple servers all in one window, \"dragging and dropping\" files between locations.
Konqueror 20.12.2 file manager screenshot.png\|Konqueror\'s file manager Konqi-audiocd.png\|Konqueror displaying the contents of an audio CD
## File viewer {#file_viewer}
Using the KParts object model, Konqueror executes components that are capable of viewing (and sometimes editing) specific filetypes and embeds their client area directly into the Konqueror panel in which the respective files have been opened. This makes it possible to, for example, view an OpenDocument (via Calligra) or PDF document directly within Konqueror. Any application that implements the KParts model correctly can be embedded in this fashion.
KParts can also be used to embed certain types of multimedia content into HTML pages; for example, the KMPlayer KPart enables Konqueror to show embedded video on web pages.
## KIO
In addition to browsing files and websites, Konqueror utilizes KIO plugins to extend its capabilities well beyond those of other browsers and file managers. It uses components of KIO, the KDE I/O plugin system, to access different protocols such as HTTP and FTP (support for these is built-in), WebDAV, SMB (Windows shares), SFTP and FISH (a handy replacement to the latter when the SFTP subsystem is disabled on the remote host).
Similarly, Konqueror can use KIO plugins (called IOslaves) to access ZIP files and other archives, to process ed2k links (edonkey/emule), or even to browse audio CDs, (\"audiocd:/\") and rip them via drag-and-drop. Likewise, the \"man:\" and \"info:\" IOslaves can be used to fetch man and info formatted documentation.
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# Konqueror
## Konqueror Embedded {#konqueror_embedded}
An embedded systems version, **Konqueror Embedded** was previously [available](https://web.archive.org/web/20190322005854/http://www.konqueror.org/embedded/). Unlike the full version of Konqueror, Embedded Konqueror is purely a web browser. It does not require KDE or even the X window system. A single static library, it is designed to be as small as possible, while providing all necessary functions of a web browser, such as support for HTML 4, CSS, JavaScript, cookies, and SSL.
As of June 2019, this project\'s page on the KDE website has been taken down.
## Download manager`{{Anchor|KGet}}`{=mediawiki} {#download_manager}
**KGet** is a free download manager for KDE and is the default download manager for Konqueror. It is part of the KDE Network package. By default, it is the download manager used for Konqueror, but can also be used with Mozilla Firefox and Chromium-based web browsers as well as rekonq. KGet was featured by *Tux Magazine* and *Free Software Magazine*.
### History
On KDE 3, KGet 0.8.x, 1 supported HTTP/FTP download. On KDE Software Compilation 4, KGet 2 was released; it supported bandwidth throttling segmentation, multi-threading, and the BitTorrent protocol.
### Features
- Downloading files from FTP, HTTP(S) and BitTorrent sources.
- Pausing and resuming of downloading files, as well as the ability to restart a download.
- Gives of information about current and pending downloads.
- Embedding into system tray of the host system.
- Integration with the KDE Konqueror and Rekonq web browsers.
- Metalink support which contain multiple URLs for downloads, along with checksums and other information.
- Automatically tags downloaded files with download information (such as the download URL) using Nepomuk.
- Download from multiple servers to speed up download time (segmented file transfer)
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# Kutia
**Kutia** or **kutya** (*куцця* `{{IPA|be|kuˈt͡sʲːa|}}`{=mediawiki}; *кутья* `{{IPA|ru|kʊˈtʲja|}}`{=mediawiki}; *кутя* `{{IPA|uk|kʊˈtʲɑ||LL-Q8798 (ukr)-Tohaomg-кутя.wav}}`{=mediawiki}) is a ceremonial grain dish with sweet gravy traditionally served mostly by Eastern Orthodox Christians and some Catholic Christians predominantly in Belarus, Russia, Ukraine, but also in parts of Lithuania and Poland during the Christmas--Feast of Jordan holiday season or as part of a funeral feast. The word with a descriptor is also used to describe the eves of Christmas, New Year, and Feast of Jordan days.
## Etymology
The word *kutia* is a borrowing from the Greek language *κουκκί\]\]* (\'bean\') or *κόκκος\]\]* (\'grain\').
## In Ukraine {#in_ukraine}
In Ukraine kutіa is one of the two essential ritual dishes at the Ukrainian Christmas Eve supper (also known as *Svyata vecherya*). The ritual significance of kutia, as well as uzvar, is quite ancient. Ukrainian ethnographer Fedir Vovk traces the origins of these dishes to the Neolithic era. Before dinner, the kutia is placed in the icon corner (\"kut\") , the most honorable place in the house where religious icons or images are placed. The pot with the kutia was to stand there in a designated spot from Rizdvo (Christmas on December 25) to January 1, New Year\'s Day (formerly January 6 to the Old New Year in January 14). There is also a custom of sending children with kutia to relatives, usually grandparents and godparents. After dinner, the kutia is left on the table for the whole night with spoons for the dead ancestors, \"so that our relatives would have dinner and not be angry with us.\" The religious nature of the dish is emphasized by an ancient custom, when the head of the family approached the window or went out into the yard with a spoonful of kutia and, addressing the frost, invited him three times to take part in dinner with the family. When the frost does not appear, he is advised not to appear, not to do harm to crops, etc.: \"Frost, frost, come to us to eat kutia, and if you don\'t come, don\'t come for the rye, wheat and other crops.\"
Kutia is the first out of twelve dishes served for Svyata vecherya to be tasted. The head of the family takes the first spoon of the kutia, raises it up and calls out to the souls of departed family members to join them on this night. He then tastes the kutia, and throws the rest of the spoonful up to the ceiling. In rural towns, as many kernels of grain as stick to the ceiling, there should be swarms of bees and newborn cattle in the coming year. In the same vein, if there are many poppy seeds that remain on the ceiling, there would be a chance for more hen should lay as many eggs in the coming year than usual. In cities the same would imply a prosperous new year for the family and also a show of remembrance for their rural roots. Everyone present eats a spoonful of kutia, after which the other dishes are brought out and eaten.
The main ingredients used to make traditional kutia are wheatberries, poppy seeds and honey. At times, walnuts, dried fruit and raisins are added as well. Kutia is a Lenten dish and no milk or egg products can be used in this -- since December 24 is a paramony -- strict fasting and abstinence -- day in the Eastern Orthodox Church and in Byzantine Rite Catholics. There are known kutia recipes that use pearl barley or millet instead of wheatberries.
Kolyvo is a Ukrainian ritual dish similar to kutia, but includes no poppy seeds. Kolyvo is served at remembrance services.
## In Poland {#in_poland}
Kutya is known in Poland as *kutia* (`{{IPA|pl|ˈkutja|pron|pl-kutia.ogg}}`{=mediawiki}) and *kucja* (`{{IPA|pl|ˈkut͡sja|pron}}`{=mediawiki}), and it can be served as part of the Twelve-dish Christmas Eve supper, though its origins predate Christianity in Poland and can be traced back to customs of the Slavic Native Faith. However, it is eaten primarily (though not exclusively) in the eastern regions of Podlasie, the Lublin area, and Subcarpathia, near the borders with Belarus and Ukraine. It can also be commonly found among Bug River Poles and other generations with ancestry in the Eastern Borderlands, who are scattered across all of Poland. Besides Wigilia, kutia is also served on New Year\'s Eve and other special occasions, such as wakes.
Traditional old Polish kutia is made using wheat, poppy seeds (ground in a special pot called *makutra*), honey, raisins, walnuts or hazelnuts, almonds, and vanilla; some recipes also include milk or *śmietana*. Kutia is sometimes prepared using rice or kasha instead of wheat.
A number of customs and rituals in Polish tradition, such as fortune telling, are associated with kutia. This is particularly true for older generations and rural areas of eastern Poland, as well as their descendants who can be found across all regions of Poland. Kutia is also eaten among the Ukrainian and Belarusian minorities living in Poland.
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# Kutia
## Other countries {#other_countries}
A dish of boiled grains (usually wheat berries) mixed with honey, nuts, spices, and a few other ingredients is traditional in other countries as well:
- Bulgaria -- kolivo
- Greece -- koliva
- Lebanon, Palestine and Jordan -- ameh masslouk or snuniye
- Romania -- colivă
- Russia -- (also) sochivo
- Serbia -- koljivo (to wit: sacrifice), or simply: žito (ie, wheat)
- Sicily -- cuccìa
- Syria -- sliha or burbara (for Eid il-Bur-bara, St. Barbara\'s Feast throughout the Middle East)
Somewhat similar, but with a different origin, and somewhat different ingredients, is the Islamic, especially Turkish, sweet dish of Ashure
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# Knaresborough Castle
**Knaresborough Castle** is a ruined fortress overlooking the River Nidd in the town of Knaresborough, North Yorkshire, England.
## History
The castle was first built by a Norman baron in c. 1100 on a cliff above the River Nidd. There is documentary evidence dating from 1130 referring to works carried out at the castle by Henry I. In the 1170s Hugh de Moreville and his followers took refuge there after assassinating Thomas Becket.
William de Stuteville was appointed as Governor of Knaresborough castle in Easter 1173. After de Stuteville\'s death in 1203, King John gave Hubert Walter, Archbishop of Canterbury, custody of all of William de Stuteville\'s lands and castles and the wardship of his son and heir Robert de Stuteville. However, Robert died in 1205 and William\'s brother Nicholas de Stuteville became William\'s heir. A charter dated at Lambeth 5 August 1205 confirmed that Nicholas had paid a fine of 10,000 marks for his inheritance, with the exception of the castles of Knaresborough and Boroughbridge, which were retained by the King.
The King regarded Knaresborough as an important northern fortress and spent £1,290 on improvements to the castle. In August 1304, Elizabeth of Rhuddlan, a daughter of Edward I, travelled from Linlithgow Palace to Knaresborough Castle. She gave birth to her son, Humphrey, in September, assisted by a holy relic of the girdle of the Virgin, brought especially from Westminster Abbey.
The castle was rebuilt at a cost of £2,174 between 1307 and 1312 by Edward I and completed by Edward II, including the great keep. Edward II gave the castle to Piers Gaveston and stayed there himself when the unpopular nobleman was besieged at Scarborough Castle.
Philippa of Hainault took possession of the castle in 1331, at which point it became a royal residence. The queen often spent summers there with her family. Her son, John of Gaunt acquired the castle in 1372, adding it to the vast holdings of the Duchy of Lancaster. Katherine Swynford, Gaunt\'s third wife, obtained the castle upon his death.
A detailed survey of the state of the castle buildings was made in 1561. The building was used by estate auditors and law courts were held in the hall.
The castle was taken by Parliamentarian troops in 1644 during the Civil War and largely destroyed in 1648, not as the result of warfare but because of an order from Parliament to dismantle all Royalist castles. Indeed many town-centre buildings are built of \'castle stone\'.
## Present day {#present_day}
The remains of the castle are open to the public and there is a charge for entry to the interior remains. The grounds are used as a public leisure space, with a bowling green and putting green open during the summer. It is also used as a performing space. It plays host to frequent events, such as the annual FEVA (Festival of Visual Arts and Entertainment). The property is owned by the monarch as part of the Duchy of Lancaster holdings, but is administered by North Yorkshire Council.
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# Knaresborough Castle
## Description
The castle, now much ruined, comprised two walled baileys set one behind the other, with the outer bailey on the town side and the inner bailey on the cliff side. The enclosure wall was punctuated by solid towers along its length, and a pair, visible today, formed the main gate. At the junction between the inner and outer baileys, on the north side of the castle stood a tall five-sided keep, the eastern parts of which have been pulled down. The keep had a vaulted basement, at least three upper storeys, and served as a residence for the lord of the castle throughout the castle\'s history. The castle baileys contained residential buildings, and some foundations have survived. In 1789, historian Ely Hargrove wrote that the castle contained \"only three rooms on a floor, and measures, in front, only fifty-four feet.\"
### Courthouse
The former court house in the grounds was built in the 14th century probably as House of Records, and is now a museum. It was extended in the 16th and 18th centuries, and was restored in 1830 and again in the 20th century. The museum includes furniture from the original Tudor Court, as well as exhibits about the castle and the town. It is built of magnesian limestone and brick. The roof is in stone slate, with stone coping and a kneeler on the left, and hipped on the right. There are two storeys and five bays, and a single-storey two-bay extension at the rear. In the ground floor is a round-headed doorway with a hood mould, other doorways, and two horizontally-sliding sash windows. An external staircase leads up to a doorway in the upper floor with a chamfered surround and a basket arch. There are also five windows with chamfered surrounds, recessed mullions and stepped hood moulds. Inside, there is a 14th-century fireplace, 17th-century cupboards and doors, and benches and panelling from the 16th-century courtroom. The building is grade II listed.
### Prison
Attached to the courthouse is a former prison, built in 1786. The prison, later used for other purposes, is in gritstone, with stone corbels carrying the gutters, and a hipped stone slate roof. There is a single storey with cells below, and one bay. On the front is a three-light segmental-headed window with a transom, and in the left return are two large round-headed windows. The prison is also grade II listed
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# Kowtow
A **kowtow** `{{IPAc-en|'|k|au|t|au}}`{=mediawiki} (`{{zh|t=叩頭|s=叩头}}`{=mediawiki}) is the act of deep respect shown by prostration, that is, kneeling and bowing so low as to have one\'s head touching the ground. In Sinospheric culture, the kowtow is the highest sign of reverence. It was widely used to show reverence for one\'s elders, superiors, and especially the Emperor of China, as well as for religious and cultural objects of worship.
## Terminology
The word Kowtow is derived from *叩頭*/*叩头* (`{{lang-zh|first=j|j=kau3 tau4|p=kòutóu}}`{=mediawiki}). An alternative Chinese term is *磕頭*/*磕头* (`{{lang-zh|p=kētóu|j=hap6 tau4}}`{=mediawiki}); however, the meaning is somewhat altered: *叩* has the general meaning of *knock*, whereas *磕* has the general meaning of \"touch upon (a surface)\", *頭*/*头* meaning head. The date of this custom\'s origin is probably sometime during the Spring and Autumn period or the Warring States period of China\'s history (771--221 BC), because it was a custom by the time of the Qin dynasty (221--206 BC).
## Traditional usage {#traditional_usage}
In Imperial Chinese protocol, the kowtow was performed before the Emperor of China. Depending on the situation\'s solemnity, different kowtow grades would be used. In the most solemn of ceremonies, for example, at the coronation of a new Emperor, the Emperor\'s subjects would undertake the ceremony of the \"three kneelings and nine kowtows\", the so-called grand kowtow, which involves kneeling from a standing position three times, and each time, performing the kowtow three times while kneeling. Immanuel Hsu describes the \"full kowtow\" as \"three kneelings and nine knockings of the head on the ground\".
As government officials represented the majesty of the Emperor while carrying out their duties, commoners were required to kowtow to them in formal situations. For example, a commoner brought before a local magistrate must kneel and kowtow. A commoner was required to remain kneeling, whereas a person who had earned a degree in the Imperial examinations was permitted a seat.
Since one is required by Confucian philosophy to show great reverence to one\'s parents and grandparents, children may be required to kowtow to their elderly ancestors, particularly on special occasions. For example, at a wedding, the marrying couple was traditionally required to kowtow to both sets of parents, as acknowledgement of the debt owed for their nurturing.
Confucius believed there was a natural harmony between the body and mind and therefore, whatever actions were expressed through the body would be transferred over to the mind. Because the body is placed in a low position in the kowtow, the idea is that one will naturally convert to his or her mind a feeling of respect. What one does to oneself influences the mind. Confucian philosophy held that respect was important for a society, making bowing an important ritual.
## Modern Chinese usage {#modern_chinese_usage}
The kowtow, and other traditional forms of reverence, were much maligned after the May Fourth Movement. Today, only vestiges of the traditional usage of the kowtow remain. In many situations, the standing bow has replaced the kowtow. For example, some, but not all, people would choose to kowtow before the grave of an ancestor, or while making traditional offerings to an ancestor. Direct descendants may kowtow at the funeral of an ancestor, while others would simply bow. During a wedding, some couples may kowtow to their respective parents, though the standing bow is today more common. In extreme cases, the kowtow can be used to express profound gratitude, apology, or to beg for forgiveness.
The kowtow remains alive as part of a formal induction ceremony in certain traditional trades that involve apprenticeship or discipleship. For example, Chinese martial arts schools often require a student to kowtow to a master. Traditional performing arts often require the kowtow.
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# Kowtow
## Religion
Prostration is a general practice in Buddhism, and not restricted to China. The kowtow is often performed in groups of three before Buddhist statues and images or tombs of the dead. In Buddhism it is more commonly termed either \"worship with the crown (of the head)\" (頂禮 ding li) or \"casting the five limbs to the earth\" (五體投地 wuti tou di)---referring to the two arms, two legs and forehead. For example, in certain ceremonies, a person would perform a sequence of three sets of three kowtows---stand up and kneel down again between each set---as an extreme gesture of respect; hence the term *three kneelings and nine head knockings* (三跪九叩之禮).
Some Buddhist pilgrims would kowtow once for every three steps made during their long journeys, the number three referring to the Triple Gem of Buddhism, the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha. Prostration is widely practiced in India by Hindus to give utmost respect to their deities in temples and to parents and elders. In modern times, people show regards to elders by bowing down and touching their feet. Prostration is also common among the Yoruba people in West Africa. Parents raised their male children to prostrate as a sign of respect and indication of good home training while the female children are trained to kneel to elders when greeting. Due to modernisation of some sort, it is not uncommon to see boys or men slightly bow their head to an older person rather than having to fully prostrate. Similarly, girls and women now slightly tilt their knees as a sign of respect, rather than having to fully kneel down all the time.
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# Kowtow
## Diplomacy
The word \"kowtow\" came into English in the early 19th century to describe the bow itself, but its meaning soon shifted to describe any abject submission or groveling. The term is still commonly used in English with this meaning, disconnected from the physical act and the East Asian context.`{{NoteTag|Formerly, historians illustrated the abjectness of kowtowing by claiming that diplomats, such as the British [[George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney]] (1793) and [[William Pitt Amherst, 1st Earl Amherst]] (1816), refused submission before the [[Emperor of China|Emperor]], causing their visits' failure. However, as Stephen Platt has demonstrated, this oft-told tale about kowtowing does not bear itself out in the primary sources.<ref>{{cite book|author-first1=Stephen R. |author-last1=Platt|title=Imperial Twilight: the Opium War and the End of China's Last Golden Age|location=New York|publisher=Knopf|year=2018|pages=166–173|ISBN=9780307961730}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Dutch ambassador Isaac Titsingh did not refuse to kowtow during the course of his 1794--1795 mission to the imperial court of the Qianlong Emperor. The members of the Titsingh mission, including Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest and Chrétien-Louis-Joseph de Guignes, made every effort to conform with the demands of the complex Imperial court etiquette.
The Qing courts gave bitter feedback to the Afghan emir Ahmad Shah when its Afghan envoy, presenting four splendid horses to Qianlong in 1763, refused to perform the kowtow. This was likely a result of the Islamic prohibition on performing Sujud before any except God. Coming amid tense relations between the Qing and Durrani empires, Chinese officials forbade the Afghans from sending envoys to Beijing in the future.
On two occasions, the kowtow was performed by Chinese envoys to a foreign ruler -- specifically the Russian Tsar. T\'o-Shih, Qing emissary to Russia whose mission to Moscow took place in 1731, kowtowed before Tsarina Anna, as per instructions by the Yongzheng Emperor, as did Desin, who led another mission the next year to the new Russian capital at St. Petersburg. Hsu notes that the Kangxi Emperor, Yongzheng\'s predecessor, explicitly ordered that Russia be given a special status in Qing foreign relations by not being included among tributary states, i.e. recognition as an implicit equal of China.
The kowtow was often performed in intra-Asian diplomatic relations as well. In 1636, after being defeated by the invading Manchus, King Injo of Joseon (Korea) was forced to surrender by kowtowing three times to pledge tributary status to the Qing Emperor, Hong Taiji. As was customary of all Asian envoys to Qing China, Joseon envoys kowtowed three times to the Qing emperor during their visits to China, continuing until 1896, when the Korean Empire withdrew its tributary status from Qing as a result of the First Sino-Japanese War.
The King of the Ryukyu Kingdom also had to kneel three times on the ground and touch his head nine times to the ground (*三拜九叩頭禮*), to show his allegiance to the Chinese emperors
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# Kuznetsov
*Kuznetsov*-class aircraft carrier}} **Kuznetsov**, **Kuznyetsov**, **Kuznetsoff**, or **Kouznetsov** (masculine, *Кузнецов*) or **Kuznetsova** (feminine, *Кузнецова*) is the third most common Russian surname, an equivalent of the English \"Smith\" (derived from a Russian word *kuznets* that means *blacksmith*).
## Men
- Aleksandr Kuznetsov (disambiguation), several people
- Aleksey Kuznetsov (disambiguation), several people
### Artists and entertainers {#artists_and_entertainers}
- Aleksey Alekseevich Kuznetsov (born 1941), Soviet/Russian jazz guitarist and composer
- Anatoly Borisovich Kuznetsov (1930--2014), Soviet/Russian actor
- Anatoly Vasilievich Kuznetsov (1929--1979), Soviet writer, author of *Babi Yar*
- I. Kuznetsov, Russian soloist with the Alexandrov Ensemble
- Ivan Sergeyevich Kuznetsov (1867--1942), Russian architect
- Mikhail Kuznetsov (actor) (1918--1986), Soviet actor
- Nikolai Dmitriyevich Kuznetsov (1850--1929), Ukrainian portrait painter
- Pavel Varfolomevich Kuznetsov (1878--1968), Russian painter
- Sergey Kuznetsov, (born 1966), Russian writer
- Yury Kuznetsov, (born 1946), Russian actor
- Andy Kusnetzoff (born 1970), Argentine TV and radio personality
### In sports {#in_sports}
- Alex Kuznetsov (born 1987), Ukrainian-American male tennis player
- Andrey Kuznetsov (born 1991), Russian tennis player
- Artur Kuznetsov (Russian footballer) (born 1972)
- Artur Kuznetsov (Ukrainian footballer) (born 1995)
- Dmitri Kuznetsov (footballer born 1965), association football coach and former player
- Dmitri Anatolyevich Kuznetsov (born 1972), retired Russian footballer
- Evgeny Kuznetsov (born 1992), Russian ice hockey player
- Evgeny Kuznetsov (diver) (born 1990), Russian diver
- Maxim Kuznetsov (born 1977), Russian ice hockey player
- Mikhail Kuznetsov (figure skater) (born 1988), Russian figure skater
- Mikhail Kuznetsov (triathlete) (born 1971), Kazakhstani triathlete
- Oleh Kuznetsov (born 1963), Ukrainian footballer and manager
- Ruslan Kuznetsov (born 1980), Russian para-cyclist
- Pavel Kuznetsov (weightlifter), (born 1961), Russian weightlifter
- Syarhey Kuznyatsow, (born 1979), Belarusian footballer
- Serhiy Kuznetsov (footballer born 1982), Ukrainian footballer
- , Russian volleyball player
- Vasili Kuznetsov (athlete) (1932--2001), Soviet decathlete
- Vasili Kuznetsov (footballer) (born 1978), Russian footballer
- Viktor Kuznyetsov (athlete) (born 1986), Ukrainian athlete
- Viktor Kuznetsov (footballer, born 1949) (born 1949), Soviet international footballer
- Viktor Kuznetsov (swimmer) (born 1961), Soviet backstroke swimmer
- Vitali Kuznetsov (footballer) (born 1986), Russian footballer
- Vitali Kuznetsov (judoka) (1941--2011), Soviet judoka
### In politics {#in_politics}
- Alexey Kuznetsov (1905--1950), Soviet politician
- Eduard Kuznetsov (dissident) (1939--2024), Jewish Soviet dissident and human rights activist
- Eduard Kuznetsov (politician) (born 1967), Russian politician
- Vasili Kuznetsov (politician) (1901--1990), Soviet politician
- Vyacheslav Nikolayevich Kuznetsov (born 1947), Belarusian politician
### In the military {#in_the_military}
- Fyodor Kuznetsov (1898--1961), Soviet military leader
- Konstantin Kuznetsov (1902--1977), Soviet naval officer
- Nikolai Gerasimovich Kuznetsov (1904--1974), Admiral of the Fleet of the Soviet Union
- Nikolai Ivanovich Kuznetsov (1911--1944), Soviet intelligence agent and partisan
- Pavel Grigoryevich Kuznetsov (1901--1982), Soviet general
- Vasily Kuznetsov (general) (1894--1964), Soviet military leader and Hero of the Soviet Union
- Yuri Viktorovich Kuznetsov (1946--2020), Soviet military leader and Hero of the Soviet Union
### In science and engineering {#in_science_and_engineering}
- Alexander Kuznetsov (mathematician) (born 1973), Russian mathematician
- Arseniy Kuznetsov (born 1979), Russian physicist
- Pobisk Kuznetsov (1924--2000), Soviet Russian philosopher and scientist
- Nikolai Dmitriyevich Kuznetsov (1911--1995), Soviet aerospace engineer and the chief of the Kuznetsov Design Bureau
- Nikolai Yakovlevich Kuznetsov (1873--1948), Russian entomologist, paleoentomologist and physiologist
- Nikolay V. Kuznetsov (born 1979), Russian scientist, specialist in nonlinear dynamics and control theory
- Yuri A
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# Icehenge
***Icehenge*** is a science fiction novel by American author Kim Stanley Robinson, published in 1984.
Though published almost ten years before Robinson\'s Mars trilogy, and taking place in a different version of the future, *Icehenge* contains elements that also appear in his Mars series, such as extreme human longevity, Martian political revolution, historical revisionism, and shifts between primary characters.
## Plot
*Icehenge* is set at three distinct time periods, and told from the perspective of three different characters.
The first narrative is the diary of an engineer caught up in a Martian political revolution in 2248. Effectively kidnapped aboard a mutinous Martian spaceship, she provides assistance to the revolutionaries in their quest for interstellar travel, but ultimately chooses not to travel with them but to return to the doomed revolution on Mars.
The second narrative is told from the perspective of an archaeologist three centuries later. He is involved in a project investigating the failed revolution, and during this finds the engineer\'s diary buried near the remains of a ruined city. At the same time, a mysterious monument is found at the north pole of Pluto, tying up with a passing mention in the engineer\'s diary.
In the final narrative, the great-grandson of the archaeologist visits the monument on Pluto, a scaled-up version of Stonehenge carved in ice. He is investigating the possibility that both the diary and the monument were planted by a reclusive and wealthy businesswoman who lives in the orbit of Saturn.
## Development history {#development_history}
The first part of this novel was originally published as the novella *To Leave a Mark* in the November 1982 issue of *The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction*. The third part of *Icehenge* was originally published as the novella *On the North Pole of Pluto* in 1980 in the anthology *Orbit* 18 edited by Damon Knight. Robinson gave the novella in rough form to Ursula K. Le Guin to read and edit while he was enrolled in her writing workshop at UCSD in the spring of 1977. Views of Saturn from the space station visited by the narrator of the novel\'s third section were inspired by images of Saturn taken during the Voyager flybys in 1980--1981
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# Calligra Words
**Calligra Words** is a word processor, which is part of Calligra Suite and developed by KDE as free software.
## History
When the Calligra Suite was formed, unlike the other Calligra applications Words was not a continuation of the corresponding KOffice application -- KWord. The Words was largely written from scratch -- in May 2011 a completely new layout engine was announced. The first release was made available on `{{Start date|2012|04|11}}`{=mediawiki}, using the version number 2.4 to match the rest of Calligra Suite.
## Reception
Initial reception of Calligra Words shortly after the 2.4 release was mixed. While Linux Pro Magazine Online\'s Bruce Byfield wrote "Calligra needed an impressive first release. Perhaps surprisingly, and to the development team's credit, it has managed one in 2.4.", he also noted that "Words in particular is still lacking features". He concluded that Calligra is "worth keeping an eye on".
On the other hand, Calligra Words became the default word processor in Kubuntu 12.04 -- replacing LibreOffice Writer.
## Formula editor {#formula_editor}
Formulas in Calligra Words are provided by the **Formula** plugin. It is a formula editor with a WYSIWYG interface
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# Kenneth Lee Pike
**Kenneth Lee Pike** (June 9, 1912 -- December 31, 2000) was an American linguist and anthropologist. He was the originator of the theory of tagmemics, the coiner of the terms \"emic\" and \"etic\" and the developer of the constructed language Kalaba-X for use in teaching the theory and practice of translation.
In addition, he was the First President of the Bible-translating organization Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL), with which he was associated from 1935 until his death.
## Life
Pike was born in Woodstock, Connecticut, and studied theology at Gordon College, graduating with a B.A. in 1933. He initially wanted to do missionary work in China. When this was denied him, he studied linguistics with the Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL). He went to Mexico with SIL, learning Mixtec from native speakers there in 1935.
In 1937 Pike went to the University of Michigan, where he worked for his doctorate in linguistics under Charles C. Fries. His research involved living among the Mixtecs and developing a written system for the Mixtec language with his wife, Evelyn. After receiving his Ph.D. in 1942, Pike became the First President of the Summer Institute in Linguistics. Its main function was to produce translations of the Bible in unwritten languages, and in 1951 Pike published the *Mixtec New Testament*. He was the President of SIL International from 1942 to 1979.
As well as and in parallel with his role at SIL, Pike spent thirty years at the University of Michigan, during which time he served as chairman of its linguistics department, professor of linguistics, and director of its English Language Institute (he did pioneering work in the field of English language learning and teaching) and was later Professor Emeritus of the university.
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# Kenneth Lee Pike
## Work
Pike is best known for his distinction between the *emic* and the *etic*. \"Emic\" (as in \"phonemics\") refers to the role of cultural and linguistic categories as understood from within the cultural or linguistic system that they are a part of, while \"etic\" (as in \"phonetics\") refers to the analytical study of those sounds grounded outside of the system itself. Pike argued that only native speakers are competent judges of emic descriptions, and are thus crucial in providing data for linguistic research, while investigators from outside the linguistic group apply scientific methods in the analysis of language, producing etic descriptions which are verifiable and reproducible. Pike himself carried out studies of indigenous languages in Australia, Bolivia, Ecuador, Ghana, Java, Mexico, Nepal, New Guinea, Nigeria, the Philippines, and Peru.
Pike developed his theory of *tagmemics* to help with the analysis of languages from Central and South America, by identifying (using both semantic and syntactic elements) strings of linguistic elements capable of playing a number of different roles.
Pike\'s approach to the study of language put him outside the circle of the \"generative\" movement begun by Noam Chomsky, a dominant linguist in the 20th century, since Pike believed that the structure of language should be studied in context, not just as single sentences, as seen in the title of his magnum opus, *Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Behavior* (1967).
He became well known for his \"monolingual demonstrations.\" He would stand before an audience, with a large number of chalkboards. A speaker of a language unknown to him would be brought in to work with Pike. Using gestures and objects, not asking questions in a language that the person might know, Pike would begin to analyze the language before the audience.
## Honors
Pike was a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the Linguistic Society of America (LSA), the Linguistic Association of Canada and the United States (LACUS), and the American Anthropological Association. He served as president of LSA and LACUS and later was nominated for the Templeton Prize three years in a row.
When he was named to the Charles Carpenter Fries Professorship of Linguistics at the University of Michigan in 1974, the Dean\'s citation noted that \"his lifelong originality and energetic activity verge on the legendary.\" Pike was awarded honorary degrees by a number of institutions, including Huntington College, University of Chicago, Georgetown University, L\'Université Réné Descartes (Sorbonne), and Albert-Ludwig Universität. Though the Nobel Prize committee did not publicize nominations, in 1983 US Senator Alan J. Dixon and US Congressman Paul Simon announced that they had nominated Pike for the Nobel Peace Prize. Academic sponsors for his nomination included Charles F. Hockett, Sydney Lamb (Rice University), Gordon J. van Wylen (Hope College), Frank H. T. Rhodes (Cornell University), André Martinet (Sorbonne), David C.C. Li (National Taiwan Normal University), and Ming Liu (Chinese University of Hong Kong)
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# K-Meleon
\| operating system = Microsoft Windows \| genre = Web browser \| engines = Gecko, Goanna layout engine \| language count = 7 \| license = GPL \| website = `{{Official URL}}`{=mediawiki} \| standard = HTML5, CSS3, Atom }}
**K-Meleon** is a free and open-source, lightweight web browser for Microsoft Windows. It uses the native Windows API to create its user interface. Early versions of K-Meleon rendered web pages with Gecko, Mozilla\'s browser layout engine, which Mozilla\'s browser Firefox and its email client Thunderbird also use. K-Meleon became a popular Windows browser and was available as an optional default browser in Europe via BrowserChoice.eu. K-Meleon continued to use Gecko for several years after Mozilla deprecated embedding it. Current versions of K-Meleon use the Goanna layout engine, a fork of Gecko created for the browser Pale Moon.
K-Meleon began with the goal of being faster and lighter than Mozilla\'s original Internet suite. Until 2011, K-Meleon embedded Gecko in a stripped-down interface. Throughout its lifespan, K-Meleon has required small amounts of random-access memory (RAM). K-Meleon 76 supports discontinued versions of Windows such as Windows XP and Windows Vista. Mozilla no longer supports these platforms after their Firefox Quantum rewrite.
Customization is another primary design goal. Users can change the toolbars, menus, and keyboard shortcuts from text-based configuration files. K-Meleon supports macros, which are small browser extensions that users can examine, write, or edit in a text editor. K-Meleon\'s custom configuration files can trigger macros. Reviews describe the customization features as versatile but intimidating to the average user. Due to its adaptability, K-Meleon was recommended for Internet cafés and libraries in the early 2000s.
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# K-Meleon
## History
Christophe Thibault started the K-Meleon project in the 2000s, when many new browsers were launched. To open-source their once-dominant Netscape Communicator Internet suite, Netscape founded the Mozilla project. K-Meleon was one of several browsers to use Mozilla\'s browser engine Gecko. Thibault designed K-Meleon to combine Gecko with native Windows interface elements, an approach that was less resource-intensive and allowed the browser to blend into its environment.
### Embedding Gecko {#embedding_gecko}
Christophe Thibault released K-Meleon 0.1 on August 21, 2000. While working at Nullsoft, Thibault said he created the first simple release to attract attention, during a day off. For the 0.2 release, he implemented features like context menus and moved development to SourceForge to welcome contributions from open-source developers.
Thibault handed the project over to new developers, including Brian Harris, Sebastian Spaeth, Jeff Doozan, and Ulf Erikson, who began implementing browser functions through modular Kplugins. The K-Meleon team released new versions with pop-up blocking and cookie management. These releases introduced text-based configuration files called configs that allowed users to customize the browser or hide interface elements, and a macro language to extend the browser. Early reviews described K-Meleon as small, fast, limited, and visually similar to Internet Explorer.
K-Meleon was built with open-source code from Mozilla but its narrower focus offered advantages over the Mozilla Application Suite, which bundled the browser with applications for email, news, chat, and webpage editing. To create a stand-alone browser, the Galeon project embedded Mozilla\'s rendering engine. Galeon was released for Linux using GNOME\'s widget toolkit GTK. K-Meleon brought a similar approach to Windows using the operating system\'s native application programming interface (API) to create a lightweight user interface (UI). The K-Meleon developers released a stand-alone web browser for Windows two years before the Firefox alpha release. Mozilla created user interfaces via their cross-platform XML User Interface Language (XUL) layer. This technology used Gecko to lay out application interfaces. XUL allowed Mozilla to build one application for multiple operating systems but generated graphical controls that did not match the rest of the system. K-Meleon was smaller and more closely integrated into the Windows desktop than Mozilla\'s browser, and could use the native bookmarking system to access Internet Explorer\'s favorites.
K-Meleon 0.7 was released with the Mozilla 1.0 engine in October 2002. Despite AOL disbanding upstream parent company Netscape in 2003, the development of K-Meleon continued. Mozilla continued work on Gecko, and K-Meleon was updated with service packs and version 0.8. In 2005, Ulf Erikson announced version 0.9 would be the final version of K-Meleon he would build. He was the project\'s developer but stated he was no longer using K-Meleon as his primary browser after moving to Linux. In January 2006, Dorian Boissonnade became the lead developer and began working towards a 1.0 release.
K-Meleon 1.0 was released in July 2006 and made the browser fully translatable. It stored localizations in separate library-and-config files within existing K-Meleon installations. Parts of the browser could be translated in a text editor. K-Meleon 1.0 maintained support for its existing system of text-based configuration files and introduced a new graphical interface to change preferences from within the browser.
Version 1.1 expanded the macro system. Earlier versions placed all of the macros into a single config file. Initial releases came with fewer than 50 lines of macro code and instructions for end users to create their own macros. Later versions came with over 1,000 lines of macro code, and the macros users wrote and shared online. In response, K-Meleon developers separated macros into modules. Version 1.5 introduced a true tabbed interface.
In Europe, version 1.5 was an optional default Windows browser through Microsoft\'s browser ballot. Due to accusations of abusing its market position to promote Internet Explorer, Microsoft introduced a browser ballot in the European Economic Area (EEA). By 2010, it offered Windows users a choice of the 12 most popular web browsers, including K-Meleon.
### 7x releases {#x_releases}
In 2011, Mozilla ended support for embedding the Gecko layout engine; because K-Meleon had previously relied on this API, the browser\'s future became uncertain. In 2013, after years without an official, stable release, the K-Meleon group began developing version 74. While Mozilla had ended support for embedding of Gecko, it maintained a technology called XULRunner. XULRunner was a stand-alone implementation of the Gecko engine designed to launch applications. K-Meleon 74 used XULRunner instead of Mozilla\'s deprecated embedding software. Outside the new engine, version 74 brought small improvements, including better CPU use and minor bug fixes.
K-Meleon 75 included a spelling checker, form auto-completion, and a new skin system. Boissonnade began work on version 76 but suffered a hard disk drive failure during beta testing.
### Goanna branch {#goanna_branch}
Active development on K-Meleon takes place using Goanna, a fork of Gecko created for the browser Pale Moon. With Firefox Quantum, Mozilla rewrote large parts of its browser engine. In 2017, Roy Tam forked K-Meleon 76 to run on Goanna. The project\'s former lead developer Boissonnade wrote; \"Thanks for taking care of that little lizard \[after I\] left it\". K-Meleon on Goanna remains compatible with deprecated versions of Windows and can run with smaller amounts of RAM than those required by mainstream web browsers. K-Meleon has lower memory requirements than other low-resource browsers.
K-Meleon is updated on a rolling release schedule. By default, the browser is a multi-lingual portable application that can directly run from the host computer or removable media. It is also included in the PortableApps.com repository. By 2023, K-Meleon was not compatible with major web apps and social media sites. As of October 2024, the final planned release is version 76.5.5.
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