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# Geography of Latvia
## Geographic features {#geographic_features}
The physiography of Latvia and its neighboring areas was formed, to a large degree, during the Quaternary period and the Pleistocene ice age, when soil and debris were pushed by glaciers into mounds and hills. Undulating plains cover 75% of Latvia\'s territory and provide the main areas for farming; 25% of the territory lies in uplands of moderate-sized hills. About 27% of the total territory is cultivable, with the central Zemgale Plain south of Riga being the most fertile and profitable. The three main upland areas, in the provinces of Kurzeme (western Latvia), Vidzeme (central Latvia, Vidzeme Upland and Aluksne Upland), and Latgale (eastern Latvia), provide a picturesque pattern of fields interspersed with forests and numerous lakes and rivers. In this area, the extensive glacial moraines, eskers, and drumlins have limited the profitability of agriculture by fragmenting fields and presenting serious erosion problems.
About 10% of Latvian territory consists of peat bogs, swamps, and marshes, some of which are covered by stunted forest growth. Forests are the outstanding feature of Latvia, claiming 42% of the territory. Over the past 100 years the amount of forest territories in Latvia has doubled, and the process is still ongoing. Forest territories are expanding naturally, as well as due to intentional afforestation of barren land and land that cannot be used for agricultural purposes. More than half of the forests consist of Scots pine or Norway spruce.
Nearly all forests in Latvia are publicly accessible, and therefore one of the most widespread pastimes of the population is picking bilberries, cranberries, mushrooms, and other bounties of the natural environment.
Latvia\'s legislation on forestry is among the strictest in Europe firmly regulating wood harvesting. Each year the forests produce 25 million cubic meters of timber, while only about 12--13 million cubic meters are felled, therefore the amount of mature and old forests continue to increase.
Thanks to the significant amount of forest resources, Latvia has a well-developed wood processing industry, therefore timber and wood products are among the country\'s most important exports. Latvian wood processing companies are important players in many European markets.
The traditional Latvian approach to forestry with its small system of clear-cut areas combined with the network of forest territories that have seen little human influence, as well as the outflow of people from rural areas to urban ones have facilitated the emergence of a unique biological diversity in forests which home animal and bird species, that have died out or are very rare elsewhere in Europe.
According to a World Wildlife Fund study in 1992, Latvia has sizable populations of black stork, lesser spotted eagle, Eurasian otter, European beaver, Eurasian lynx, and grey wolf. Also in great numbers are red deer and roe deer (total 86,000), wild boar (32,000), elk (25,000) and red fox (13,000).
The variegated and rapidly changing physiography of glacial moraines and lowlands has also allowed temperate flora, such as oaks, to grow within a few hundred meters of northern flora, such as bog cotton and cloudberries. This variety and the rapid change in natural ecosystems are among the unique features of the republic.
The Soviet system left behind another windfall for naturalists. The Latvian western seacoast was a carefully guarded border region. Almost all houses near the sea were razed or evacuated. As a result, about 300 kilometers of undeveloped seashore are graced only by forests of pine and spruce and ecologically unique sand dunes. The temptation for fast profit, however, may foster violation of laws that clearly forbid any construction within one kilometer of the sea. This could lead to one of the last remaining wild shorelines in Europe becoming non-existent.
The seashore adjoining the population centers around Riga was a major focus of tourism during the Soviet era. Jūrmala has many sanitoriums and tourist accommodations, tall pines, sandy beaches, and antique architecture.
Latvia has an abundant network of rivers, contributing to the visual beauty and the economy of the country. The largest river is the Daugava, which has been an important route for several thousand years. It has been used by local tribes as well as by Vikings, Russians, and other Europeans for trade, war, and conquest. With a total length of 1,020 kilometers, the Daugava (or Zapadnaya Dvina in its upper reaches) originates in the Valday Hills in Russia\'s Tver\' Oblast, meanders through northern Belarus, and then winds through Latvia for 352 km before emptying into the Gulf of Riga. It is about 180 meters wide when it enters Latvia, increasing to between 650 and 750 meters at Riga and its opening in Baltic sea.
The river carries an average annual flow of 21 cubic kilometers. Its total descent within Latvia of ninety-eight meters has made it an attractive source of hydroelectric power production. The first hydroelectric station---Ķegums Hydro Power Plant---was built during Latvia\'s independence period. The second dam---Pļaviņas Hydro Power Plant---aroused an unusual wave of protest in 1958. Most Latvians opposed the flooding of historical sites and a particularly scenic gorge with rare plants and natural features, such as the Staburags, a cliff comparable in cultural significance to the Lorelei in Germany. The construction of the dam was endorsed in 1959, however, after the purge of relatively liberal and nationally oriented leaders under Eduards Berklavs and their replacement by Moscow-oriented, ideologically conservative cadres led by Arvīds Pelše. The third dam---Riga Hydroelectric Power Plant---just above Riga, did not provoke much protest because of the seeming hopelessness of the cause. The proposed fourth dam, at the town of Daugavpils on the Daugava River, became the rallying point for protest in 1986-87 by hundreds of thousands of Latvians. This dam was not constructed, in spite of the vast expenditures already poured into the project.
Smaller rivers include the Lielupe, in central Latvia, with an average annual flow of 3.6 cubic kilometers; the Venta, in the west, with 2.9 cubic kilometers; the Gauja, in the northeast, with 2.5 cubic kilometers; and the Aiviekste, in the east, with 2.1 cubic kilometers. Very little hydroelectric power is generated by their waters, although planners are now thinking of reactivating some of the abandoned older dams and turbines. The Gauja is one of Latvia\'s most attractive, relatively clean rivers and has an adjoining large Gauja National Park along both of its banks as one of its notable features. Its cold waters attract trout and salmon, and its sandstone cliff and forest setting are increasingly a magnet for tourists interested in the environment.
More than 60% of the annual water volume of Latvia\'s six largest rivers comes from neighboring countries, mainly from Belarus and Lithuania. These adjoining resources create obvious needs for cooperation, especially in pollution control. The dangers from a lack of cooperation were brought home to Latvians in November 1990, when a polymer complex in Navapolatsk, Belarus, accidentally spilled 128 tons of cyanide derivatives into the Daugava River with no warning to downstream users in Latvia. Only the presence of numerous dead fish alerted Latvian inhabitants to the danger.
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# Geography of Latvia
## Climate
In the summer, daylight hours are long and in the winter short. In December it is still pitch dark at 9:00 A.M., and daylight disappears before 4:00 P.M. The climate is tempered by the Gulf Stream flowing across the Atlantic Ocean from Mexico. Average temperatures in winter are reasonably mild, ranging in January from -1.7 °C in Liepāja, on the western coast, to -6.6 °C in the southeastern town of Daugavpils. July temperatures range from 17.4 °C in Liepāja to 17.6 °C in Daugavpils. Latvia\'s proximity to the sea brings high levels of humidity and precipitation, with average annual precipitation of 633 mm in Riga. There, an average of 180 days per year have precipitation, forty-four days have fog, and only seventy-two days are sunny. Continuous snow cover lasts eighty-two days, and the frost-free period lasts 177 days.
This precipitation has helped provide the abundant water for Latvia\'s many rivers and lakes, but it has created many problems as well. A large part of agricultural land requires drainage. Much money has been spent for land amelioration projects involving the installation of drainage pipes, the straightening and deepening of natural streams, the digging of drainage ditches, and the construction of polder dams. During the 1960s and 1970s, drainage work absorbed about one-third of all agricultural investments in Latvia. Although accounting for only one-third of 1% of the territory, Latvia was responsible for 11% of all artificially drained land in the former Soviet Union.
An additional problem associated with precipitation is the difficulty of early mechanized sowing and harvesting because of waterlogged fields. Heavy precipitation occurs, especially during harvest time in August and September, requiring heavy investment outlays in grain-drying structures and ventilation systems. In 1992 Latvia experienced the driest summer in recorded weather history, but unusually heavy rains in the preceding spring kept crop damage below the extent expected. The moist climate has been a major factor orienting Latvian agriculture toward animal husbandry and dairying. Even most of the field crops, such as barley, oats, and potatoes, are grown for animal feed.
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# Geography of Latvia
## Area and boundaries {#area_and_boundaries}
**Area:**\
*total:* 64589 km2\
*land:* 62249 km2\
*water:* 2340 km2
**Land boundaries:**\
*total:* 1382 km\
*border countries:* Belarus 171 km, Estonia 343 km, Lithuania 576 km, Russia 292 km
**Coastline:** 498 km
**Maritime claims:**\
*territorial sea:* 12 nmi\
*exclusive economic zone:* 28,452 km2 with 200 nmi\
*continental shelf:* 200 m depth or to the depth of exploitation
**Extreme points:** *Main article: List of extreme points of Latvia*
- North : (58.085137 25.199203 type:landmark_region:LV display=inline)
- South : (55.674971 26.597213 type:landmark_region:LV display=inline)
- West : (56.353933 20.970153 type:landmark_region:LV display=inline)
- East : (56.276911 28
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# Politics of Latvia
The **politics of Latvia** takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the prime minister is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. The President holds a primarily ceremonial role as Head of State. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament, the Saeima. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. `{{Democracy Index rating|Latvia|flawed democracy|2022}}`{=mediawiki}
## Political developments since independence {#political_developments_since_independence}
On March 19, 1991, the Supreme Council passed a law explicitly guaranteeing \"equal rights to all nationalities and ethnic groups\" and \"guarantees to all permanent residents in the Republic regardless of their nationality, equal rights to work and wages.\" The law also prohibits \"any activity directed toward nationality discrimination or the promotion of national superiority or hatred.\"
In autumn 1992 Latvia re-implemented significant portions of its 1922 constitution and in spring 1993 the government took a census to determine eligibility for citizenship. After almost three years of deliberations, Latvia finalized a citizenship and naturalization law in summer 1994.
In the 5--6 June 1993 elections, with a turnout of over 90%, eight of Latvia\'s 23 registered political parties passed the four per cent threshold to enter parliament. The Popular Front, which spearheaded the drive for independence two years previously with a 75% majority in the last parliamentary elections in 1990, did not qualify for representation. The centrist Latvian Way party received a 33% plurality of votes and joined with the Farmer\'s Union to head a centre-right coalition government.
Led by the opposition National Conservative Party, right-wing nationalists won a majority of the seats nationwide and also captured the Riga mayoralty in the 29 May 1994 municipal elections. OSCE and COE observers pronounced the elections free and fair, and turnout averaged about 60%. In February 1995, the Council of Europe granted Latvia membership.
With President Bill Clinton\'s assistance, on 30 April 1994 Latvia and Russia signed a troop withdrawal agreement. Russia withdrew its troops by 31 August 1994 but maintained several hundred technical specialists to staff an OSCE-monitored phased-array ABM radar station at Skrunda until 31 August 1998.
The 30 September-1 October 1995 elections produced a deeply fragmented parliament with nine parties represented and the largest party -- the newly founded centrist Democratic Party \"Saimnieks\" -- commanding only 18 of 100 seats. Attempts to form right-of-centre and left-wing governments failed; 7 weeks after the election, a broad but fractious coalition government of six of the nine parties was voted into office under Prime Minister Andris Šķēle, a nonpartisan businessman. The also-popular president, Guntis Ulmanis, had limited constitutional powers but played a key role in leading the various political forces to agree finally to this broad coalition. In June 1996, the Saeima re-elected Ulmanis to another 3-year term. In the summer of 1997, the daily newspaper *Diena* revealed that half the cabinet ministers and two-thirds of parliamentarians appeared to violate the 1996 anti-corruption law, which bars senior officials from holding positions in private business. Under pressure from Šķēle, several ministers subsequently resigned or were fired. However, after months of increasing hostility between Šķēle and leading coalition politicians, the coalition parties demanded and received the prime minister\'s resignation on 28 July. The new government was formed by the recent Minister of Economy Guntars Krasts. It included the same parties and mostly the same ministers as Šķēle\'s government. It pursued the same course of reform, albeit not as vigorously.
In the 1998 elections, the Latvian party structure began to consolidate with only six parties winning seats in the Saeima. Andris Šķēle\'s newly formed People\'s Party garnered a plurality with 24 seats. Though the election represented a victory for the centre-right, personality conflicts and scandals within the two largest right of centre parties -- Latvian Way and the People\'s Party -- prevented stable coalitions from forming. Two shaky governments under Vilis Krištopans and Andris Šķēle quickly collapsed in less than a year. In May 2000, a compromise candidate was found in the form of Andris Bērziņš, the Latvian Way mayor of Rīga. His four-party coalition government lasted till the next elections in 2002.
In 1999, the Saeima elected Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga, a compromise candidate with no party affiliation, to the presidency. Though born in Rīga in 1937, she settled in Canada during the years of the Soviet occupation, becoming a well-respected academic in the subject of Latvian culture. Since her election, she has become one of the most popular political figures in Latvia.
Local elections in 2001 represented a victory for the left-of-center parties in several municipalities, including Rīga. A leftist coalition in the Rīga City Council elected Gundars Bojārs, a Social Democrat, to the office of mayor.
Between local elections in 2001 and Saeima elections in 2002, two new parties formed: the conservative New Era Party led by Einars Repše and Christian Democratic Latvia\'s First Party. Both of them promised to fight corruption and made that the most important issue in the 2002 elections. Six parties were elected to Saeima in 2002 elections. New Era Party with 26 seats out of 100 became the largest party in the parliament. Several previously successful parties such as Latvian Way and the Social Democrats did not reach the 5% threshold of the popular vote needed to be in the parliament. This was mostly due to voters perceiving these parties as corrupt. After elections, Einars Repše formed a government consisting of his New Era Party and three other parties.
In 2003, Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga was re-elected to the presidency for the second term, until 2007. On 20 September 2003, Latvia voted to join the European Union in a referendum. Virtually all of the major political parties and major Latvian-language media supported the \'YES\' vote. Latvian government also spent a significant amount of money for the \'YES\' campaign. The \'NO\' campaign lacked both funding and media access. Out of voters who participated in the referendum, 66.9% of cast votes in favour of EU. The vote was largely along the ethnic lines. It is estimated that 84% of ethnic Latvians voted \'YES\', while 91% of ethnic Russians voted \'NO\'.
After the referendum, Repše\'s government started to fall apart and he eventually resigned in January 2004. A new government, led by Indulis Emsis, head of the conservative Union of Greens and Farmers (ZZS) was approved by the parliament in March 2004. The government was a coalition of the ZZS, the People\'s Party (TP), and the Latvia\'s First Party (LPP); the coalition had only 46 out of 100 seats in Latvia\'s parliament, but was also supported by the leftist National Harmony Party (TSP). After the Saeima did not accept the budget for 2005 proposed by the government of Indulis Emsis, the government resigned. On 2 December 2004, Aigars Kalvītis became the new prime minister and thus head of the government.
Kalvītis was the first prime minister in the history of post-soviet independent Latvia whose government was reelected by an election in 2006. New Era Party, however, weakened, so a coalition reshuffle took place, and a 4-party centre-right coalition emerged. The government lasted only until 5 December 2007, when Kalvitis resigned due to his continuous and unsuccessful attempts to dismiss Aleksejs Loskutovs, the head of KNAB, the State Anti-Corruption Agency, after Loskutovs had investigated shadowy matters of the PM\'s party.
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# Politics of Latvia
## Political developments since independence {#political_developments_since_independence}
After negotiations, a \"crisis-handling\" government was formed, with the participation of the same parties, led by former PM Ivars Godmanis, a respectable public figure, and member of Latvian Way. The government tried to impose austerity measures, with moderate success. This was accompanied, though, with a widespread public opposition, which resulted in two referendums, one on pensions, the other on constitutional amendments, which would have allowed the electorate to initiate the dissolution of the parliament.
Both of the referendums failed, but the country entered into the worst political crisis since the independence from the Soviet Union, together with the economic situation severely deteriorating, due to the world financial crisis. The popularity of the governing parties melted and was below the parliamentary threshold. By the end of 2008, parties had a hard time agreeing on further budget cuts, (mainly in the social sphere) the planned reorganization of the government, and layoffs.
On 13 January 2009, there were severe riots in Riga, with protesters attacking the building of the parliament. The President Valdis Zatlers gave an ultimatum to parties, saying that should they not agree on constitutional amendments about the dissolution of the Saeima, he would dissolve the parliament by the end of March. After background talks and a failed vote of no confidence, PM Ivars Godmanis chose to resign in late February. On the 26 February, Zatlers nominated the candidate of New Era Party, MEP Valdis Dombrovskis to the post of prime minister. After talks, on 4 March 2009 five parties confirmed their participation in the coalition: New Era, People\'s Party, Union of Greens and Peasants, For Fatherland and Freedom/LNNK, and Civic Union.
In 2010 parliamentary election ruling centre-right coalition won 63 out of 100 parliamentary seats. Left-wing opposition Harmony Centre supported by Latvia\'s Russian-speaking minority got 29 seats. In 2014 parliamentary election was won again by the ruling centre-right coalition formed by the Unity Party, the National Alliance and the Union of Greens and Farmers. They got 61 seats and Harmony got 24. In 2018 parliamentary election pro-Russian Harmony (former Harmony Centre) was again the biggest party securing 23 out of 100 seats. the second and third were the populist KPV LV and New Conservative Party. Ruling coalition, comprising the Union of Greens and Farmers, the National Alliance and the Unity party, lost.
In November 2013, Latvian prime minister Valdis Dombrovskis, in office since 2009, resigned after at least 54 people were killed and dozens injured in the collapse at a supermarket in Riga. In December 2015, country\'s first female prime minister, in office since January 2014, Laimdota Straujuma resigned. In February 2016, a coalition of Union of Greens and Farmers, The Unity and National Alliance was formed by new prime minister Maris Kucinskis. In January 2019, Latvia got a government led by new prime minister Krisjanis Karins of the centre-right New Unity. Karins\' coalition was formed by five of the seven parties in parliament, excluding only the pro-Russia Harmony party and the Union of Greens and Farmers.
On 15 September 2023, Evika Siliņa became the new prime minister of Latvia, following resignation of former prime minister Krišjānis Kariņš previous month. Siliņa's government is a three-party coalition between her own New Unity (JV) party, the Greens and Farmers Union (ZZS), and the social-democratic Progressives (PRO) with total 52 of 100 seats in the 2022 Latvian parliamentary election. Harmony, the former largest political party in the Saeima, lost all its seats. Some former Harmony supporters appeared to support for a new Eurosceptic populist party, For Stability!, that split from Harmony in 2021.
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# Politics of Latvia
## Citizenship and language issues {#citizenship_and_language_issues}
The current edition of the citizenship law was adopted in 1998 after much debate and pressure from Russia and European Union, amending a more restrictive law, initially passed in 1994. In accordance with the law, Latvian citizens are those who had Latvian citizenship prior to June 17, 1940, and their descendants. Those who settled in Latvia during the Soviet occupation, with exception of those who did so subsequent to retirement from the Soviet Army, or were employees, informers, agents or safehouse keepers of the KGB, or of the security services, intelligence services or other special services of some other foreign state, can obtain Latvian citizenship via naturalization. Other categories of persons not eligible for naturalization include convicted criminals, state officials and servicemen of armed forces of a foreign state, members of Communist Party as well as members of certain affiliate organizations, who, after 13 January 1991, have acted against the Latvian State. Naturalization criteria include a conversational knowledge of Latvian, an oath of loyalty, renunciation of former citizenship, a 5-year residency requirement, and a knowledge of the Latvian constitution. As of November 2005, about 109,000 persons applied for naturalization and about 103,000 of them were granted Latvian citizenship.
In 2006, approximately 18 per cent of the total population (420,000 inhabitants of Latvia, slightly less than half of ethnically non-Latvian population) had no Latvian citizenship. Most of them have Latvian non-Citizen Passports, which give them a status similar to permanent residency in other countries. They can reside in Latvia indefinitely and obtain most of the public services (*e.g.*, education and healthcare) according to the same conditions as the citizens of Latvia. Non-citizens of Latvia cannot vote during municipal and state elections and are not allowed to work in government, the police and civil services. Several foreign nations also treat citizens and non-citizens of Latvia differently, admitting citizens of Latvia without a visa but requiring visas from non-citizens. Russia used to have the opposite practice, requiring visas from both citizens and non-citizens of Latvia, but allowing non-citizens to travel to Russia with a cheaper visa.
As a transitional clause, the Latvian law allows dual citizenship for those who were forced to leave Latvia during the Soviet or Nazi occupation and adopted another citizenship while away from Latvia. In order to be eligible for dual citizenship, they had to claim it by July 1, 1995. After that date the other citizenship must be renounced upon the acceptance of Latvian citizenship.
Latvian is the sole state language in Latvia; while the threatened Livonian language is recognized as \"the language of the indigenous (autochthon) population\". The Latgalian written language is also protected \"as a historic variant of the Latvian language.\" All other languages are considered foreign by the law on state languages. Two parliamentary parties, Harmony Centre and ForHRUL, have requested that Russian (26.9% of inhabitants, according to the 2011 census, are Russians) be given official status.
Since 1999, the education laws have forbidden the public universities to instruct students in languages other than Latvian (there are exclusions made for linguistics, some international projects and non-budget groups). The law included a provision allowing for instruction in Latvian only in public high schools since 2004. Following large-scale protests in 2003---2004 organized by the Headquarters for the Protection of Russian Schools, the law was amended, requiring instruction in Latvian within at least 60% of the curriculum.
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# Politics of Latvia
## Executive branch {#executive_branch}
!scope=\"row\"\| President \|Edgars Rinkēvičs \|Independent \|8 July 2023 \|- !scope=\"row\"\| Prime Minister \|Evika Siliņa \|Unity \|15 September 2023 \|}
The president is elected by Parliament for a maximum of two terms of four years, by secret ballot and by an absolute majority of the vote (Constitution of Latvia, Articles 35, 36 and 39).
The president is a largely ceremonial head of state, and in common with other presidents in parliamentary republics, the President of Latvia has influence and authority rather than power.
Although the president is formally the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, signs treaties, represents Latvia abroad, and officially appoints ambassadors and other key officials, these powers are constitutionally exercised on the binding advice of the prime minister, who is politically responsible for them (Constitution of Latvia, Article 53). The president does, however, have personal discretion over the proposal of legislation to the Parliament, vetoing legislation, calling referendums on legislation, and nominating the prime minister. The president also has the right, *in extremis*, to call a referendum on the premature dissolution of Parliament: if the referendum is passed, Parliament is dissolved; but if the referendum fails, the president must resign.
The prime minister is appointed by the president. The prime minister then chooses the Council of Ministers (Cabinet) which has to be accepted by the Parliament. The Parliament can remove the prime minister and Cabinet by means of a vote of no-confidence (Constitution of Latvia, Article 59).
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
The unicameral Parliament (**Saeima**) has 100 members, elected for a four-year term by proportional representation with a 5% threshold. The parliamentary elections are held on the first Saturday of October. Locally, Latvia elects municipal councils, consisting of 7 to 60 members, depending on the size of the municipality, also by proportional representation for a four-year term.
## Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
**Summary of the 1 October 2022 Latvian Saeima election results**
Party \% Seats +/--
------------------------------------------------------------- ------- ------- ------
JV 19.19 26 +18
ZZS 12.58 16 +5
AS 11.14 16 New
NA 9.40 13 0
For Stability! 6.88 11 New
LPV 6.31 9 New
PRO 6.21 10 +10
Source: [CVK](https://sv2022.cvk.lv/pub/velesanu-rezultati)
## Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
Judges\' appointments are confirmed by Parliament and are irrevocable, except on the decision of the Judicial Disciplinary Board or on the judgment of a criminal court. There is a special Constitutional Court, with the authority to rule on the constitutionality of laws, whose members must be confirmed by an absolute majority vote of Parliament, by secret ballot
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# Telecommunications in Latvia
**Telecommunications in Latvia** encompass a broad range of services including the internet, telephones, television, and radio.
## Internet and digital progress {#internet_and_digital_progress}
### Users and skills {#users_and_skills}
In Latvia, the digital engagement and proficiency of the population closely align with European Union (EU) averages. In 2022, internet usage among individuals reached 90%, marginally above the EU average of 89%. When it comes to digital skills, 51% of Latvians aged 16 to 74 have at least basic digital skills, slightly below the EU average of 54%. Additionally, 24% of the population have above basic digital skills, narrowly under the EU\'s 26%. Latvia demonstrates promising progress in digital content creation, with 64% of its population possessing basic skills in this area, nearing the EU average of 66%.
### Fixed broadband {#fixed_broadband}
As of 2022, Latvia has achieved 92% household coverage with Fixed Very High Capacity Network (VHCN), surpassing the EU average of 73%, and 91% coverage with Fibre to the Premises (FTTP), well above the EU\'s 56%. The uptake of broadband services at speeds of at least 100 Mbps in Latvia is 62%, slightly above the EU average of 55%. However, the adoption of 1 Gbps broadband is notably low at less than 0.1%, compared to the EU average of 13.8%. In efforts to further improve its fixed broadband infrastructure, Latvia has made strategic investments, including a EUR 4 million investment from the Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF) aimed at \'last-mile\' VHCN development, and an additional EUR 8.7 million from the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF). These investments are directed towards enhancing high-speed internet access across the country.
### Mobile broadband {#mobile_broadband}
In Latvia, mobile broadband adoption was at 86% among individuals in 2021, just below the EU average of 87%. By mid-2022, 5G coverage in Latvia had reached 42% of populated areas, which is considerably lower than the EU average of 81%. The allocation of 5G spectrum in Latvia stood at 63% of the total harmonized 5G spectrum by 2023, approaching the EU average of 68%. To further develop its 5G infrastructure, Latvia has allocated nearly EUR 8.3 million from the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) for constructing passive infrastructure along the Rail Baltica, which is part of the country\'s efforts to expand 5G coverage.
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# Telecommunications in Latvia
## Internet and digital progress {#internet_and_digital_progress}
### Digital public services {#digital_public_services}
In 2022, 77% of internet users in Latvia utilized e-government services, higher than the EU average of 74%. The country achieved scores of 87 out of 100 for digital public services for citizens and 86 out of 100 for businesses, exceeding the EU averages of 77 and 84, respectively. Additionally, Latvia\'s access to e-health records scored 79 out of 100, outperforming the EU average of 72. Latvia participates in the \'GovTech4all\' consortia to advance public sector innovation. Despite high e-government service usage, additional efforts are underway to enhance the appeal of these services. The country has taken regulatory steps to improve online public service accessibility and is expanding the State and Municipal Unified Customer Service Centres (CSCs) network, aiming for 592 CSCs by 2026.
## Telephones
**Calling code:** +371
**International call prefix:** 00
**Fixed lines:**
- \~174,000 lines, 122nd in the world (2022);
- \~501,000 lines, 97th in the world (2012);
- \~644,000 lines (2007).
**Mobile cellular:**
- \~2.2 million lines, 147th in the world (2022);
- \~2.3 million lines (2012);
- \~2.2 million lines (2007).
**Telephone system:** Recent efforts have focused on bringing competition to the telecommunications sector; the number of fixed lines is decreasing as mobile-cellular telephone service expands; the number of telecommunications operators has grown rapidly since the fixed-line market opened to competition in 2003; combined fixed-line and mobile-cellular subscribership is roughly 150 per 100 persons; the Latvian network is now connected via fiber optic cable to Estonia, Finland, and Sweden (2008).
Until 2003 Lattelecom had a monopoly in the fixed telecommunications market. This led to overwhelming use of cellular phones for private customers, fixed lines being requested mostly by companies. In Latvia, there exist more than 2 million mobile cellular phone lines but only 174,000 fixed phone connections as of 2022.
Since the fixed-line voice communication monopoly ended on January 1, 2003, several companies entered the market for fixed voice communication services: Aeronavigācijas serviss, Baltcom TV, Beta Telecom, Latvenergo Tehniskais Centrs, OPTRON, Rigatta, Telecentrs, Telenets, Telekom Baltija, CSC Telecom and Bite Latvija. These voice telephony providers provide services for cheaper foreign calls, as well as local calls. The telecom regulator SPRK tries to provide a competitive environment so that new operators can compete with Lattelecom which owns most of the last-mile connections.
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
**Radio stations:**
- Publicly owned broadcaster operates 6 radio networks with dozens of stations throughout the country; dozens of private broadcasters also operate radio stations (2007);
- AM 1, FM 234 (2016).
**Radios:** 1.76 million (1997).`{{update after|2014|2|20}}`{=mediawiki}
The state public radio broadcaster is Latvijas Radio.
**Television stations:**
- Several national and regional commercial TV stations are foreign-owned, 2 national TV stations are publicly owned; system supplemented by privately owned regional and local TV stations; cable and satellite multi-channel TV services with domestic and foreign broadcasts available (2007);
- 44 plus 31 repeaters (1995).
**Televisions:** 1.22 million (1997).`{{update after|2014|2|20}}`{=mediawiki}
The state public television broadcaster is Latvijas Televīzija.
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# Telecommunications in Latvia
## Internet censorship and surveillance {#internet_censorship_and_surveillance}
There is no OpenNet Initiative (ONI) country profile, but Latvia is shown as no evidence of Internet filtering in all areas for which ONI tests (political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools) on the ONI global Internet filtering maps.
The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press. There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail.
In September 2010 the government\'s Corruption Prevention and Combating Bureau (KNAB), which enforces campaign laws, removed a satirical film, The Last Bear Slayer, from the on-demand playlist of the partially state-owned cable provider, Lattelecom. The KNAB stated that the film might have constituted election advertising. Reporters Without Borders charged that the prohibition constituted improper censorship, but noted it was ineffective because the film was widely available on the Internet.
On June 1, 2014 new subsection 22 of section 19 of Electronic Communications Law was enforced to enable blocking unlicensed gambling websites. Since then, the Lotteries and Gambling Supervisory Inspection of Latvia has been maintaining the list of blocked websites
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# Transport in Latvia
This article provides an overview of the transport infrastructure of Latvia.
## Road system {#road_system}
It is mandatory to keep headlights on while driving, even in daylight; most cars commercially sold in Latvia are equipped to make this automatic.
### Highways
Number E-road Route Length (km)
-------- ----------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------ -------------
A1 Rīga - Ainaži (EE border) 101
A2 Rīga - Sigulda - Veclaicene (EE border) 196
A3 Inčukalns - Valmiera - Valka (EE border) 101
A4 `{{jct|country=EUR|E|77}}`{=mediawiki} Rīga ring road (Baltezers - Saulkalne) 20
A5 `{{jct|country=EUR|E|77}}`{=mediawiki} Rīga ring road (Salaspils - Babīte) 40
A6 `{{jct|country=EUR|E|262}}`{=mediawiki} Rīga - Daugavpils - Krāslava - Pāternieki (BY border) 307
A7 Rīga - Bauska - Grenctāle (LT border) 85
A8 Rīga - Jelgava - Meitene (LT border) 76
A9 Rīga - Skulte - Liepāja 199
A10 Rīga - Ventspils 190
A11 Liepāja - Rucava (LT border) 57
A12 `{{jct|country=EUR|E|262}}`{=mediawiki} Jēkabpils - Rēzekne - Ludza - Terehova (RU border) 166
A13 Grebņeva (RU border) - Rēzekne - Daugavpils - Medumi (LT border) 163
A14 Daugavpils ring road (Tilti - Kalkūne) 15
A15 Rēzekne ring road 7
### Length of the road system {#length_of_the_road_system}
Roads Paved, km Unpaved, km Total, km
-------------------------- ----------- ------------- -----------
State-owned roads
Highways (A) 1651.1 \- 1651.1
Regional roads (P) 4189.9 1127.5 5317.4
Local roads (V) 2616.7 10533.4 13150.1
Municipality-owned roads
Roads 1055.6 29593.5 30649.1
Streets 4588.2 3446.4 8034.6
Other roads
Forest roads \- 10142 10142
Private house roads 500 3000 3500
Total 14601.5 57842.8 72444.3
## Railways
*Main article: Rail transport in Latvia* `{{see also|Latvijas dzelzceļš}}`{=mediawiki} Latvian Railways is the main state-owned railway company in Latvia. It\'s daughter companies both carry out passengers services as well as carry a large quantity of freight cargo, and freight trains operate over the whole current passenger network, and a number of lines currently closed to passenger services.
There is also a narrow-gauge railway between Gulbene and Aluksne, operated by the Industrial Heritage Trust, using Russian and Polish built heritage rolling stock. Three narrow gauge trains a day operate on the 33 km route between the two towns.
\
*total:* 2,347 km\
*Russian gauge:* 2,314 km `{{RailGauge|1520mm}}`{=mediawiki} gauge (270 km electrified)\
*narrow gauge:* 33 km `{{RailGauge|750mm}}`{=mediawiki} gauge (2002)
### Passenger rail {#passenger_rail}
*Vivi* is the only passenger-carrying operator in Latvia.
Domestic passenger lines with current service are:
- Torņakalns -- Tukums II Railway
- Riga -- Jelgava Railway
- Jelgava -- Liepāja Railway
- Riga -- Daugavpils Railway
- Krustpils -- Rēzekne -- Zilupe (border of Russia)
- Rīga -- Sigulda -- Cēsis -- Valmiera -- Valga (border of Estonia)
- Zemitāni -- Skulte Railway
- Pļaviņas -- Gulbene
### Rail links with adjacent countries {#rail_links_with_adjacent_countries}
- Russia - yes
- Lithuania - yes
- Belarus - yes
- Estonia - yes
## Airports
Riga International Airport is the only major airport in Latvia, carrying around 5 million passengers annually. It is the largest airport in the Baltic states and has direct flights to over 80 destinations in 30 countries. It is also the main hub of airBaltic.
In the recent years airBaltic also operated from Liepāja International Airport as well as Ventspils International Airport but operations in both of these airports were ceased until 2017, when airBaltic relaunched flights from Riga to Liepaja.
Currently there are plans for further development in several regional airports, including Jūrmala Airport, Liepāja, Ventspils as well as Daugavpils International Airport.
### Airfields
As of 2003, there were a total of 51 airfields in Latvia, with 27 of them having paved runways.
**Airports - with paved runways** *total:* 27\
*2,438 to 3,047 m:* 7\
*1,524 to 2,437 m:* 2\
*914 to 1,523 m:* 2\
*under 914 m:* 16 (2003)
**Airports - with unpaved runways** *total:* 24\
*2,438 to 3,047 m:* 1\
*1,523 to 2,438 m:* 2\
*914 to 1,523 m:* 1\
*under 914 m:* 20 (2003)
## Ports and harbors {#ports_and_harbors}
Key ports are located in Riga (Freeport of Riga and Riga Passenger Terminal), Ventspils (Free port of Ventspils), and Liepāja (Port of Liepāja). Most transit traffic uses these and half the cargo is crude oil and oil products.
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# Transport in Latvia
## Waterways
300 km (perennially navigable)
## Pipelines
Crude oil 412 km; refined products 421 km; natural gas 1,097 km (2003)
## Merchant marine {#merchant_marine}
\
*Total:* 11 ships (with a volume of `{{GT|1,000|disp=long}}`{=mediawiki} or over) totaling `{{GT|53,153}}`{=mediawiki}/`{{DWT|37,414|metric|disp=long}}`{=mediawiki}\
*note:* includes some foreign-owned ships registered here as a flag of convenience: Germany 1, Greece 1, Ukraine 1 (2002 est
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# Geography of Lebanon
**Lebanon** is a small country in the Levant region of the Eastern Mediterranean, located at approximately 34˚N, 35˚E. It stretches along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and its length is almost three times its width. From north to south, the width of its terrain becomes narrower. Lebanon\'s mountainous terrain, proximity to the sea, and strategic location at a crossroads of the world were decisive factors in shaping its history.
The country\'s role in the region, as indeed in the world at large, was shaped by trade. It serves as a link between the Mediterranean world and India and East Asia. The merchants of the region exported oil, grain, textiles, metal work, and pottery through the port cities to Western markets.
## Physical geography and regions {#physical_geography_and_regions}
The area of Lebanon is 10452 km2. The country is roughly rectangular in shape, becoming narrower toward the south and the farthest north. Its widest point is 88 km, and its narrowest is 32 km; the average width is about 56 km. Because Lebanon straddles the northwest of the Arabian Plate, it is sometimes geopolitically grouped together with nations with adjacent tectonic proximations such as Syria, Yemen, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, the Egyptian Sinai, Palestine, Israel and the UAE.
The physical geography of Lebanon is influenced by natural systems that extend outside the country. Thus, the Beqaa Valley is part of the Great Rift system, which stretches from southern Turkey to Mozambique in Africa. Like any mountainous country, Lebanon\'s physical geography is complex. Land forms, climate, soils, and vegetation differ markedly within short distances. There are also sharp changes in other elements of the environment, from good to poor soils, as one moves through the Lebanese mountains.
A major feature of Lebanese topography is the alternation of lowland and highland that runs generally parallel with a north-to-south orientation. There are four such longitudinal strips between the Mediterranean Sea and Syria: the coastal strip (or the maritime plain), western Lebanon, the central plateau, and eastern Lebanon.
The extremely narrow coastal strip stretches along the shore of the eastern Mediterranean. Hemmed in between sea and mountain, the sahil, as it is called in Lebanon, is widest in the north near Tripoli, where it is only 6.5 km wide. A few kilometers south at Juniyah the approximately 1.5-kilometer-wide plain is succeeded by foothills that rise steeply to 750 m within 6.5 km from the sea. For the most part, the coast is abrupt and rocky. The shoreline is regular with no deep estuary, gulf, or natural harbor. The maritime plain is especially productive of fruits and vegetables.
The western range, the second major region, is the Lebanon Mountains, sometimes called Mount Lebanon, or Lebanon proper before 1920. Since Roman days the term Mount Lebanon has encompassed this area. Antilibanos (Anti-Lebanon) was used to designate the eastern range. Geologists believe that the twin mountains once formed one range. The Lebanon Mountains are the highest, most rugged, and most imposing of the whole maritime range of mountains and plateaus that start with the Nur Mountains in northern Syria and end with the towering massif of Sinai. The mountain structure forms the first barrier to communication between the Mediterranean and Lebanon\'s eastern hinterland. The mountain range is a clearly defined unit having natural boundaries on all four sides. On the north it is separated from the Al-Ansariyah mountains of Syria by Nahr al-Kabir (\"the great river\"); on the south it is bounded by Al Qasimiyah River, giving it a length of 169 kilometers. Its width varies from about 56.5 km near Tripoli to 9.5 km on the southern end. It rises to alpine heights southeast of Tripoli. Qurnat as Sawda\' (\"the black nook\") reaches 3360 m and is the highest mountain of Lebanon. Of the other peaks that rise east of Beirut, Mount Sannine (2695 m) is the highest. Ahl al Jabal (\"people of the mountain\"), or simply jabaliyyun, has referred traditionally to the inhabitants of western Lebanon. Near its southern end, the Lebanon Mountains branch off to the west to form the Shuf Mountains.
The third geographical region is the Beqaa Valley. This central highland between the Lebanon Mountains and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains is about 177 km in length and 9.6 to 16 kilometers wide and has an average elevation of 762 m. Its middle section spreads out more than its two extremities. Geologically, the Beqaa is the medial part of a depression that extends north to the western bend of the Orontes River in Syria and south to Jordan through Arabah to Aqaba, the eastern arm of the Red Sea. The Beqaa is the country\'s chief agricultural area and served as a granary of Roman Syria. Beqaa is the Arabic plural of buqaah, meaning a place with stagnant water.
Emerging from a base south of Homs in Syria, the eastern mountain range, or Anti-Lebanon (Lubnan ash Sharqi), is almost equal in length and height to the Lebanon Mountains. This fourth geographical region falls swiftly from Mount Hermon to the Hawran Plateau, whence it continues through Jordan south to the Dead Sea. The Barada Gorge divides Anti-Lebanon. In the northern section, few villages are on the western slopes, but in the southern section, featuring Mount Hermon (2860 meters), the western slopes have many villages. Anti-Lebanon is more arid, especially in its northern parts, than Mount Lebanon and is consequently less productive and more thinly populated.
<File:Jayroun>, Lebanon - panoramio.jpg\|Jayroun <File:White> mule in the Dunnieh Mountains, North Lebanon.jpg\|White mule in the Dunnieh Mountains <File:Jabal> Moussa Biosphere Reserve 03.jpg\|Jabal Moussa Biosphere Rerserve <File:View> of the Kadisha Valley, Lebanon.jpg\|Kadisha valley <File:Lebanese> coastline, Oct 2012.jpg\|Lebanese coastline <File:Bteghrine> from Haret Ali.JPG\|Mount Lebanon <File:Mount> Sannine.jpg\|Mount Sannine
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# Geography of Lebanon
## Climate
Lebanon has a Mediterranean climate characterized by a long, hot, and dry summer, and a cool, rainy winter. Fall is a transitional season with a lowering of temperature and little rain; spring occurs when the winter rains cause the vegetation to revive. Topographical variation creates local modifications of the basic climatic pattern. Along the coast, summers are warm and humid, with little or no rain. Heavy dews form, which are beneficial to agriculture. The daily range of temperature is not wide. A west wind provides relief during the afternoon and evening; at night the wind direction is reversed, blowing from the land out to sea.
Winter is the rainy season, with major precipitation falling after December. Rainfall is generous but is concentrated during only a few days of the rainy season, falling in heavy cloudbursts. The amount of rainfall varies greatly from one year to another. A hot wind blowing from the Egyptian desert called the khamsin (Arabic for \"fifty\"), may provide a warming trend during the fall but more often occurs during the spring. Bitterly cold winds may come from Southern Europe. Along the coast the proximity to the sea provides a moderating influence on the climate, making the range of temperatures narrower than it is inland, but the temperatures are cooler in the northern parts of the coast where there is also more rain.
In the Lebanon Mountains the gradual increase in altitudes produces extremely cold winters with more precipitation and snow. The summers have a wider daily range of temperatures and less humidity. In the winter, frosts are frequent and snows heavy; in fact, snow covers the highest peaks for much of the year. In the summer, temperatures may rise as high during the daytime as they do along the coast, but they fall far lower at night. Inhabitants of the coastal cities, as well as visitors, seek refuge from the oppressive humidity of the coast by spending much of the summer in the mountains, where numerous summer resorts are located. The influence of the Mediterranean Sea is abated by the altitude and, although the precipitation is even higher than it is along the coast, the range of temperatures is wider and the winters are more severe.
The Beqaa Valley and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains are shielded from the influence of the sea by the Lebanon Mountains. The result is considerably less precipitation and humidity and a wider variation in daily and yearly temperatures. The khamsin does not occur in the Beqaa Valley, but the north winter wind is so severe that the inhabitants say it can \"break nails\". Despite the relatively low altitude of the Beqaa Valley (the highest point of which, near Baalbek, is only 1100 m) more snow falls there than at comparable altitudes west of the Lebanon Mountains.
Because of their altitudes, the Anti-Lebanon Mountains receive more precipitation than the Beqaa Valley, despite their remoteness from maritime influences. Much of this precipitation appears as snow, and the peaks of the Anti-Lebanon, like those of the Lebanon Mountains, are snow-covered for much of the year. Temperatures are cooler than in the Beqaa Valley.
The Beqaa Valley is watered by two rivers that rise in the watershed near Baalbek: the Orontes flowing north (in Arabic it is called Nahr al-Asi, \"the Rebel River\", because this direction is unusual), and the Litani flowing south into the hill region of the southern Biqa Valley, where it makes an abrupt turn to the west in southern Lebanon. The river's lower course is known as Qāsimiyyah. The Orontes continues to flow north into Syria and eventually reaches the Mediterranean in Turkey. Its waters, for much of its course, flow through a channel considerably lower than the surface of the ground. The Nahr Barada, which waters Damascus, has as its source a spring in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains.
Smaller springs and streams serve as tributaries to the principal rivers. Because the rivers and streams have such steep gradients and are so fast moving, they are erosive instead of depository in nature. This process is aided by the soft character of the limestone that composes much of the mountains, the steep slopes of the mountains, and the heavy rainstorms. The only permanent lake is Lake Qaraoun, about ten kilometers east of Jezzine. There is one seasonal lake, fed by springs, on the eastern slopes of the Lebanon Mountains near Yammunah, about 40 km southeast of Tripoli.
Temperatures are rising in Lebanon as a part of global warming. Lebanon is considered to be part of the Fertile Crescent, yet in the meantime with the severe climate changes, it might lose fertility.
Image:Danniyeh.jpg\|Snow-covered karstic formations in the Danniyeh mountains. Image:Satellite image of Lebanon in March 2002.jpg\|Lebanon from space. Snow cover can be seen on the western and eastern mountain ranges. Image:March 2011 Snow in Lebanon.jpg\|Snow in Lebanon\'s two mountain ranges, Jebel Liban and Jabal ash Sharqi in March 2011.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
: Beirut mean sea temperature
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# Geography of Lebanon
## Area and boundaries {#area_and_boundaries}
Area\
Total: 10452 km2\
Land: 10282 km2\
Water: 170 km2
**Land boundaries:**\
*Total:* 454 km\
*Border countries:*Israel 79 km, Syria 375 km
**Coastline:** 225 km
**Maritime claims:**\
*Territorial sea:* 12 nmi\
*Exclusive Economic Zone:* 19,516 km2
**Elevation extremes:**\
*Lowest point:* Mediterranean Sea 0 m (sea level)\
*Highest point:* Qurnat as Sawda\' 3088 m
## Environmental concerns {#environmental_concerns}
Natural hazards include dust storms.
Current environmental degradation concerns include deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, air pollution in Beirut from vehicular traffic and the burning of industrial wastes, and pollution of coastal waters from raw sewage and oil spills.
Lebanon\'s rugged terrain historically helped isolate, protect, and develop numerous factional groups based on religion, clan, and ethnicity.
### Air quality in Lebanon {#air_quality_in_lebanon}
As a result of increasingly hot summers and its location within the Mediterranean region, which is often cited for having long episodes of pollution, Lebanon, Beirut in particular, is at high risk for air pollution. Approximately 93 percent of Beirut\'s population is exposed to high levels of air pollution, which can most often be attributed to vehicle-induced emissions, whether it be long-range travel or short commuting traffic. The cost of air pollution to health may exceed ten million dollars a year. The levels of air pollution in Beirut are increasing annually, and were already above acceptable WHO (World Health Organization) standards by 2011. The most noted pollution in Beirut is particulate matter (street dust), chemicals in the air, and vehicle exhaust. Air pollution is exacerbated by city structure and inadequate urban management as indicated by high buildings on narrow streets, which contain air pollutants. Some recommendations for improvement of air quality include encouragement of carpooling and citywide biking, alternative fuels for vehicles, and a widened public transit sector.
The question of air quality has received considerable attention and funding by Lebanon\'s foreign partners. Between 2013 and 2017, the Lebanese ministry of environment was granted a donation of over 10 million Euros by Greece and the European Union to establish a national air monitoring network, which included at its peak 25 stations. This network was launched in October 2017 at a major event bringing together 26 different institutions; it was to serve as the cornerstone of Lebanon\'s National Strategy for Air Quality Management, which was released at the end of the same year. By mid-2019, however, the ministry of environment ceased to maintain and operate this network, involving budgetary restrictions. Stations were subsequently looted, even in central Beirut.
### Land pollution in Lebanon {#land_pollution_in_lebanon}
Sukleen, Lebanon\'s largest waste disposal company has a waste management process that goes through several stages, including clean-up and collection, sorting and composting, and burial. However, many argue that Lebanon needs a much better system for disposal of waste to reduce pollution and environmental degradation. The Litani River is Lebanon\'s largest river and many farms use the river\'s water to irrigate land and crops. Because of Lebanon\'s poor waste management system, a lot of waste and pollution ends up in the Litani and contaminates the crops, in turn endangering the health of consumers and farmers alike, contributing to environmental degradation, as well as hurting the agricultural reputation and economy.
### Trash protests of January 2014 {#trash_protests_of_january_2014}
In January 2014, protests in the town of Naameh began to arise, effectively blocking disposal of garbage at the landfill for three days. The protests were instated in response to the continued use of the landfill in Naameh beyond the date it was originally meant to close. The landfill began as a six-year project in 1997, but has remained open for seventeen years as of 2015, and without a sufficient alternative location for garbage disposal, it is likely that it will remain open for the foreseeable future. In 1997, Naameh became the country\'s primary landfill and was initially supposed to hold two million tons of waste. The landfill currently holds ten million tons of trash, and is still in use. Residents of the area in 2014 did not want to extend the landfill agreement, and staged the protests to prevent future plans.
The company in charge of the majority of the area\'s collection and cleanup of trash is called Sukleen. It serves 364 towns and municipalities within Beirut and Mount Lebanon. The total waste collected by the company rose from 1,140 tons daily in 1994, to 3,100 tons in 2014. Sukleen is the largest government-contracted private waste management company in Lebanon. In response to the protests, which were asking the government for more efficient waste management systems along with the closure of the landfill in Naameh, Sukleen responded to environmentalists by halting service to Beirut and Mount Lebanon for three days. Because the Naameh landfills were closed and Sukleen was out of service, trash began to pile up in the streets of the city, affecting everyone citywide and drawing attention to the issue of city/region waste-management issues
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# Transport in Lebanon
**Transportation in Lebanon** varies greatly in quality from the ultramodern Beirut International Airport to poor road conditions in many parts of the country. The Lebanese civil war between 1975 and 1990 and the 2006 Lebanon War with Israel severely damaged the country\'s infrastructure.
## Roads
Lebanon has over 8,000 km of roads throughout the country, generally in good condition, although it varies. Many highways are part of the Arab Mashreq International Road Network. The main roads in the country are as follows:
- Beirut - Byblos - Tripoli - Aarida
- Beirut - Sidon - Tyre - Naqoura
- Beirut - Bhamdoun Al Mhatta - Chtaura - Masnaa
- Chtaura - Zahlé - Baalbek - Qaa
- Chtaura - Qab Elias - Machgara - Nabatieh
- Tripoli - Bsharri - Baalbek
- Amaret Chalhoub - Jouret El Ballout - Baabdat
### Motorways
Part of the main road network have been updated to dual carriageway, four-lane motorways, which are the following:
- Beirut - Tripoli. Length: 81 km.
- Beirut - Kfar Badde. Length: 65 km.
- Beirut - Mdeyrej. Length: 33 km.
- Tripoli - Khane. Length: 20 km.
## Buses
An overland trans-desert bus service between Beirut, Haifa, Damascus and Baghdad was established by the Nairn Transport Company of Damascus in 1923.
Beirut has frequent bus connections to other cities in Lebanon and major cities in Syria. The Lebanese Commuting Company, or LCC in short, is just one of a handful brands of public transportations all over Lebanon. On the other hand, the publicly owned buses are managed by le Office des Chemins de Fer et des Transports en Commun (OCFTC), or the Railway and Public Transportation Authority in English. Buses for northern destinations and Syria leave from Charles Helou Station.
In August 2024, Lebanon relaunched a new public bus system with the support of ACTC, aiming to operate 11 bus lines. However, as of today, only 7 lines are officially running according to their website, with lines B1, B3, and ML3 divided into 2 lines of different directions.
The lines running are:
- [Line B1](https://static1.squarespace.com/static/63ca665eb640c642daf6c192/t/66eb3eecd8a09a575546fbd1/1726693103679/LINE+B1.pdf)
- [Line B2](https://static1.squarespace.com/static/63ca665eb640c642daf6c192/t/66ec388d18d1ea6dfbb72a63/1726757011988/LINE+B2.pdf)
- [Line B3](https://static1.squarespace.com/static/63ca665eb640c642daf6c192/t/66eb3f186a3034371feee7b9/1726693146242/LINE+B3.pdf)
- [Line ML3](https://static1.squarespace.com/static/63ca665eb640c642daf6c192/t/66eb3e44d0856403015aeb7c/1726692936180/LINE+ML3.pdf)
The fare for the bus service varies depending on the line, ranging between £L70,000 (\$0.78) and £L100,000 (\$1.12) as of 2024. Looking ahead, there are plans to expand the network further outside inter-city communication within beirut.
## Ferries
Apart from the international airport, the Port of Beirut is another port of entry. As a final destination, anyone can also reach Lebanon by ferry from Cyprus, or Greece or by road from Damascus, etc. The Port of Tripoli (Lebanon) is also a port of entry.
A ferry line connecting Tasucu to Tripoli connects Turkey to Lebanon without passing through Syria. However, it is mainly used for trucks and cargo.
In 2025, the Cypriot and Lebanese governments announced the launch of a new ferry route, connecting Larnaca to Jounieh.
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# Transport in Lebanon
## Taxis and services {#taxis_and_services}
In order to get from one place to another, people can either use a service or taxis. Cabs can be recognized by their red license plates (indicating that it is licensed for public transportation). The driver would pull aside for if the person hails while seeing him. He will then ask for his destination and then will decide whether he will drive the passenger with the regular fare, an extra, or not at all.
### Types of taxis in Lebanon {#types_of_taxis_in_lebanon}
- **Service-taxis**
One has to specify one\'s destination and enter the taxi only if one\'s destination corresponds to the itinerary of the Service-taxi. The driver stops to pick up additional passengers anywhere on the streets and drop them off.
*Service-Taxi Taxi*
- Local
- £L2,000 (\$1.33) per person or £L4,000 (\$2.66) per person depending on how close/far the destination is. Prices within Beirut could vary depending on traffic and distance but overall should not exceed £L4,000 per person (Maximum of £L5,000 for Beirut outskirts). However, the driver could ask for more if the passenger intends to go to an area with high traffic like Hamra Street.
- Long Distance
- Starts from £L5,000 (\$3.33) and goes up from there. For example, from Beirut to Sidon, the drivers usually charge in between £L50,000 (\$33.33) and £L75,000 (\$50).
- **Traditional Taxis**
The driver must not pick up additional passengers. Most of these taxis are not equipped with meters, so it is important to negotiate the fare before embarking. The regular taxi fare starts at £L10,000 (\$6.66).
- **Online services**
Uber and Careem are both available in Lebanon as online services.
- **On-call taxis**
Pick up people who have pre-booked by phone.
### Carpooling
Carpolo App (https://www.carpolo.co/download-app) is an alternative mode of transportation in Lebanon. Upon downloading the app, users post their un-used seats and the app connects them with people who have matching rides
## Port infrastructure {#port_infrastructure}
### Airport
The main national airport is the Beirut Rafic Hariri International Airport and is located in the southern suburbs. The Travel and Tourism Competitiveness report ranked the country 51st in terms of air transport infrastructure.
In 2017, a delegation from Lebanon\'s Civil Aviation Authority inspected the Rene Mouawad Air Base in order to assess the needs and requirements of reconstructing the air base.
## Cable Car {#cable_car}
A cable car, Téléphérique de Jounieh, operates in the Mount Lebanon Governorate between the coast of Jounieh and Harissa. The cable car has been active since 1965.
## Rail transport {#rail_transport}
The Lebanese rail system is not currently in use, with services having ceased due to the country\'s political difficulties
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# History of Lesotho
The history of people living in the area now known as **Lesotho** (`{{IPAc-en|l|ə|ˈ|s|uː|t|uː|,_|-|ˈ|s|oʊ|t|oʊ}}`{=mediawiki}`{{refn|{{Cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Lesotho |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200322182038/https://www.lexico.com/definition/lesotho |url-status=dead |archive-date=2020-03-22 |title=Lesotho |dictionary=[[Lexico]] UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}} }}`{=mediawiki}`{{refn|{{MerriamWebsterDictionary|access-date=2016-01-21|Lesotho}}}}`{=mediawiki}) goes back as many as 400 years. Present Lesotho (then called Basotholand) emerged as a single polity under King Moshoeshoe I in 1822. Under Moshoeshoe I, Basotho joined other clans in their struggle against the Lifaqane associated with famine and the reign of Shaka Zulu from 1818 to 1828.
The subsequent evolution of the state was shaped by contact with the British and Dutch colonists from Cape Colony. Missionaries invited by Moshoeshoe I developed orthography and printed works in the Sesotho language between 1837 and 1855. The country set up diplomatic channels and acquired guns for use against the encroaching Europeans and the Korana people. Territorial conflicts with both British and Boer settlers arose periodically, including Moshoeshoe\'s notable victory over the Boers in the Free State--Basotho War, but the final war in 1867 with an appeal to Queen Victoria, who agreed to make Basutoland a British suzerainty. In 1869, the British signed a treaty at Aliwal with the Boers that defined the boundaries of Basotholand and later Lesotho, which by ceding the western territories effectively reduced Moshoeshoe\'s kingdom to half its previous size.
The extent to which the British exerted direct control over Basotholand waxed and waned until Basotholand's independence in 1966 when it became the Kingdom of Lesotho. However, when the ruling Basotho National Party (BNP) lost the first post-independence general elections to the Basotho Congress Party (BCP), Leabua Jonathan refused to cede and declared himself Tona Kholo (Sesotho translation of prime minister). The BCP began an insurrection that culminated in a January 1986 military coup, that then forced the BNP out of office. Power was transferred to King Moshoeshoe II, until then a ceremonial monarch, but forced into exile when he lost favor with the military the following year. His son was installed as King Letsie III. Conditions remained tumultuous, including an August 1994 self-coup by Letsie III, until 1998 when the Lesotho Congress for Democracy (LCD) came to power in elections that were deemed fair by international observers. Despite protests from opposition parties, the country has remained relatively stable since.
## Ancient history {#ancient_history}
Lesotho\'s southern and eastern mountains (including Maloti) were occupied by the San people and their ancestors for thousands of years as evidenced by rock art. The San lived as semi nomadic hunter-gatherers.
At some stage, during their migration south from a tertiary dispersal area Bantu speaking peoples came to settle the lands that now make up Lesotho as well as a more extensive territory of fertile lands that surround modern-day Lesotho. The AmaZizi people are regarded as among the first to settle Lesotho in the aftermath of the Bantu expansion. The Zizi gained a reputation as skilled iron workers. Both the Zizi and neighboring tribes claimed that they originated from the Bantu settlers who would later branch out into the Nguni and the Sotho, garnering their leader considerable prestige.
## Medieval history {#medieval_history}
The Lesotho highlands attracted migrations by local hunter-gatherers between 550 and 1300 during the Medieval Warm Period, while the Drakensberg area was completely abandoned. Some of the highland inhabitants at the time also held cattle for food.
## Early modern history {#early_modern_history}
There were several severe disruptions to the Basotho people in the early 19th century. One view states that the first of these were marauding Zulu clans, displaced from Zululand as part of the Lifaqane (or Mfecane), wrought havoc on the Basotho peoples they encountered as they moved first west and then north. The second that no sooner than the Zulu has passed to the north than the first Voortrekkers arrived, some of whom obtained hospitality during their difficult trek north. Early Voortrekker accounts describe how the lands surrounding the mountain retreat of the Basotho had been burnt and destroyed, in effect leaving a vacuum that subsequent Voortrekkers began to occupy.
However, this interpretation of history for the entire southern region of Africa is a matter of dispute. One attempt at refutation came by Norman Etherington in *The Great Treks: The Transformation of Southern Africa, 1815-1854* (Longman, 2001). Etherington argues that no such thing as the Mfecane occurred, the Zulu were no more marauding than any other group in the region, and the land the Voortrekkers saw as empty was not settled by either Zulu or Basotho because those people did not value open lowland plains as pasture.
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# History of Lesotho
## Basutoland
### Free State--Basotho Wars {#free_statebasotho_wars}
In 1818, Moshoeshoe I `{{IPAc-en|m|oʊ-|ˈ|ʃ|w|eɪ|ʃ|w|eɪ}}`{=mediawiki} consolidated various Basotho groupings and became their king. During Moshoeshoe\'s reign (1823--1870), a series of wars (1856--68) were fought with the Boers who had settled in traditional Basotho lands. These wars resulted in the extensive loss of land, now known as the \"Lost Territory\".
A treaty was signed with the Boers of Griqualand in 1843 and an agreement was made with the British in 1853 following a minor war. The disputes with the Boers over land, however, were revived in 1858 with Senekal\'s War and again, more seriously, in 1865 with the Seqiti War. The Boers had several military successes, killing possibly 1,500 Basotho soldiers, and annexed an expanse of arable land which they were able to retain following a treaty at Thaba Bosiu. Further conflict led to an unsuccessful attack on Thaba Bosiu and the death of a Boer commandant, Louw Wepener, but by 1867, much of Moshoeshoe\'s land and most of his fortresses had been taken.
Fearing defeat, Moshoeshoe made further appeals to High Commissioner Philip Wodehouse for British assistance. On 12 March 1868, the British Cabinet agreed to place the territory under British protection and the Boers were ordered to leave. In February 1869, the British and the Boers agreed to the Convention of Aliwal North, which defined the boundaries of the protectorate. The arable land west of the Caledon River remained in Boer\'s hands and is referred to as the Lost or Conquered Territory. Moshoeshoe died in 1870 and was buried atop Thaba Bosiu.
### Annexation by the Cape Colony {#annexation_by_the_cape_colony}
In 1871 the protectorate was annexed to the Cape Colony. The Basotho resisted the British and in 1879 a southern chief, Moorosi, rose in revolt. His campaign was crushed, and he was killed in the fighting. The Basotho then began to fight amongst themselves over the division of Moorosi\'s lands. The British extended the Cape Peace Preservation Act of 1878 to cover Basutoland and attempted to disarm the natives. Much of the colony rose in revolt in the Gun War (1880-1881), inflicting significant casualties upon the colonial British forces sent to subdue it. A peace treaty of 1881 failed to quell sporadic fighting.
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# History of Lesotho
## Basutoland
### Return to crown colony {#return_to_crown_colony}
Cape Town\'s inability to control the territory led to its return to crown control in 1884 as the Territory of Basutoland. The colony was bound by the Orange River Colony, Natal Colony, and Cape Colony. It was divided into seven administrative districts: Berea, Leribe, Maseru, Mohale\'s Hoek, Mafeteng, Qacha\'s Nek and Quthing. The colony was ruled by the British Resident Commissioner, who worked through the *pits* (national assembly) of hereditary native chiefs under one paramount chief. Each chief ruled a ward within the territory. The first paramount chief was Lerothodi, the son of Moshoeshoe. During the Second Boer War the colony was neutral. The population grew from around 125,000 in 1875, to 310,000 in 1901, and 349,000 by 1904.
When the Union of South Africa was founded in 1910 the colony was still controlled by the British and moves were made to transfer it to the Union. However, the people of Basutoland opposed this and it did not occur.
During World War I, over 4,500 Basuto enlisted into the military, most of whom served in the South African Native Labour Corps which fought on the Western Front. In 1916, Basutoland raised over £40,000 for the war effort. A year later, the troopship SS Mendi was sunk off the coast of the Isle of Wight, and over 100 Basuto were killed in the sinking.
The differing fates of the seSotho-speaking peoples in the Protectorate of Basotholand and in the lands that became the Orange Free State are worth noting. The Orange Free State became a Boer-ruled territory. At the end of the Boer War, it was colonized by the British, and this colony was subsequently incorporated by Britain into the Union of South Africa as one of four provinces. It is still part of the modern-day Republic of South Africa, now known as the Free State. In contrast, Basotholand, along with the two other British Protectorates in the sub-Saharan region (Bechuanaland and Swaziland), was precluded from incorporation into the Union of South Africa. These protectorates were individually brought to independence by Britain in the 1960s. By becoming a protectorate, Basotholand, and its inhabitants were not subjected to Afrikaner rule, which saved them from experiencing Apartheid, and so generally prospered under more benevolent British rule. Basotho residents of Basotholand had access to better health services and education and came to experience greater political emancipation through independence. These lands protected by the British, however, had a much smaller capacity to generate income and wealth than had the \"lost territory\", which had been granted to the Boers.
Following the British entry into World War II, the decision was taken to draw recruits from the High Commission Territories (HTC) of Swaziland, Basutoland, and Bechuanaland. Black citizens from the HTC were to be recruited into the African Auxiliary Pioneer Corps (AAPC) labor unit due to Afrikaner opposition to armed black units. Mobilization for the AAPC was launched in late July 1941 and by October 18,000 personnel had arrived in the Middle East. The anti-colonial Basutoland Lekhorlu la Bufo (Commoner\'s League) was banned and its leaders were imprisoned for demanding that training for the recruits be improved and encouraging desertion. The AAPC performed a wide range of manual labor, providing logistical support to the Allied war effort during the North African, Dodecanese and Italian campaigns. During the Italian campaign some AAPC relieved British field artillery units of their duty. On 1 May 1943, British troopship SS *Erinpura* was torpedoed and sunk, resulting in the loss of 694 men from AAPC\'s 1919th and 1927th Basuto Companies; the unit\'s worst loss of life during the war. A total of 21,000 Basuto enlisted during the war, 1,105 of whom perished during its course. Basuto women also contributed to the war effort by knitting warm clothing for the military.
From 1948, the South African National Party put its apartheid policies into place, indirectly terminating any support among Basutos and/or UK colonial authorities for the country\'s incorporation in South Africa.
After a 1955 request by the Basutoland Council to legislate its internal affairs, in 1959 a new constitution gave Basutoland its first elected legislature. This was followed in April 1965 with general legislative elections with universal adult suffrage in which the Basotho National Party (BNP) won 31 and the Basutoland Congress Party (BCP) won 25 of the 65 seats contested.
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# History of Lesotho
## Kingdom of Lesotho {#kingdom_of_lesotho}
On October 4, 1966, the Kingdom of Lesotho attained full independence, governed by a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral Parliament consisting of a Senate and an elected National Assembly. Early results of the first post-independence elections in January 1970 indicated that the Basotho National Party (BNP) might lose control. Under the leadership of Prime Minister Chief Leabua Jonathan, the ruling BNP refused to cede power to the rival Basotholand Congress Party (BCP), although the BCP was widely believed to have won the elections. Citing election irregularities, Prime Minister Leabua Jonathan nullified the elections, declared a national state of emergency, suspended the constitution, and dissolved the Parliament. In 1973, an appointed Interim National Assembly was established. With an overwhelming pro-government majority, it was largely the instrument of the BNP, led by Prime Minister Jonathan. In addition to the Jonathan regime\'s alienation of Basotho powerbrokers and the local population, South Africa had virtually closed the country\'s land borders because of Lesotho\'s support of cross-border operations of the African National Congress (ANC). Moreover, South Africa publicly threatened to pursue more direct action against Lesotho if the Jonathan government did not root out the ANC presence in the country. This internal and external opposition to the government combined to produce violence and internal disorder in Lesotho that eventually led to a military takeover in 1986.
Under a January 1986 Military Council decree, state executive and legislative powers were transferred to the King who was to act on the advice of the Military Council, a self-appointed group of leaders of the Royal Lesotho Defense Force (RLDF). A military government chaired by Justin Lekhanya ruled Lesotho in coordination with King Moshoeshoe II and a civilian cabinet appointed by the King.
In February 1990, King Moshoeshoe II was stripped of his executive and legislative powers and exiled by Lekhanya, and the Council of Ministers was purged. Lekhanya accused those involved of undermining discipline within the armed forces, subverting existing authority, and causing an impasse on foreign policy that had been damaging to Lesotho\'s image abroad.
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# History of Lesotho
## Transition to democracy {#transition_to_democracy}
Lekhanya announced the establishment of the National Constituent Assembly to formulate a new constitution for Lesotho to return the country to democratic, civilian rule by June 1992. Before this transition, however, Lekhanya was ousted in 1991 by a mutiny of junior army officers that left Phisoane Ramaema as Chairman of the Military Council.
Because Moshoeshoe II initially refused to return to Lesotho under the new rules of the government in which the King was endowed only with ceremonial powers, Moshoeshoe\'s son was installed as King Letsie III. In 1992, Moshoeshoe II returned to Lesotho as a regular citizen until 1995 when King Letsie abdicated the throne in favor of his father. After Moshoeshoe II died in a car accident in 1996, King Letsie III ascended to the throne again.
In 1993, a new constitution was implemented leaving the King without any executive authority and proscribing him from engaging in political affairs. Multiparty elections were then held in which the BCP ascended to power with a landslide victory. Prime Minister Ntsu Mokhehle headed the new BCP government that had gained every seat in the 65-member National Assembly. In early 1994, political instability increased as first the army, followed by the police and prison services, engaged in mutinies. In August 1994, King Letsie III, in collaboration with some members of the military, staged a coup, suspended Parliament, and appointed a ruling council. As a result of domestic and international pressures, however, the constitutionally elected government was restored within a month.
In 1995, there were isolated incidents of unrest, including a police strike in May to demand higher wages. For the most part, however, there were no serious challenges to Lesotho\'s constitutional order in the 1995-96 period. In January 1997, armed soldiers put down a violent police mutiny and arrested the mutineers.
In 1997, tension within the BCP leadership caused a split in which Dr. Mokhehle abandoned the BCP and established the Lesotho Congress for Democracy (LCD) followed by two-thirds of the parliament. This move allowed Mokhehle to remain as prime minister and leader of a new ruling party while relegating the BCP to opposition status. The remaining members of the BCP refused to accept their new status as the opposition party and ceased attending sessions. Multiparty elections were again held in May 1998.
Although Mokhehle completed his term as prime minister, due to his failing health, he did not vie for a second term in office. The elections saw a landslide victory for the LCD, gaining 79 of the 80 seats contested in the newly expanded Parliament. As a result of the elections, Mokhehle\'s Deputy Prime Minister, Pakalitha Mosisili, became the new prime minister. The landslide electoral victory caused opposition parties to claim that there were substantial irregularities in the handling of the ballots and that the results were fraudulent. The conclusion of the Langa Commission, a commission appointed by Southern African Development Community (SADC) to investigate the electoral process, however, was consistent with the view of international observers and local courts that the outcome of the elections was not affected by these incidents. While the report found the election results to be free of fraud or malpractice, opposition protests in the country intensified. The protests culminated in a violent demonstration outside the royal palace in early August 1998 and an unprecedented level of violence, looting, casualties, and destruction of property. In early September, junior members of the armed services mutinied. The Government of Lesotho requested that a SADC task force intervene to prevent a military coup and restore stability to the country. To this end, joint force, consisting of South African and (later) Botswana troops, entered Lesotho on September 22, 1998, to put down the mutiny and restore the democratically elected government. The army mutineers were brought before a court-martial. After stability returned to Lesotho, the SADC task force withdrew from the country in May 1999, leaving only a small task force (joined by Zimbabwe and troops) to provide training to the LDF. In the meantime, an Interim Political Authority (IPA), charged with reviewing the electoral structure in the country, was created in December 1998 and devised a proportional electoral system to ensure that there be opposition in the National Assembly. The new system retained the existing 80 elected Assembly seats but added 40 seats to be filled on a proportional basis. Elections were held under this new system in May 2002, and the LCD won again, gaining 54% of the vote. For the first time, however, opposition political parties won significant numbers of seats, and despite some irregularities and threats of violence from Major General Lekhanya, Lesotho experienced its first peaceful election. Nine opposition parties now hold all 40 of the proportional seats, with the BNP having the largest share (21). The LCD has 79 of the 80 constituency-based seats.
In June 2014, Prime Minister Thomas Thabane suspended parliament because of conflict within his coalition, leading to criticisms that he was undermining the government. In August, after Thabane attempted to remove Lieutenant General Kennedy Tlai Kamoli from the head of the army, the Prime Minister fled the country for three days, alleging a coup was taking place. Kamoli denied that any coup had occurred.
On 19 May 2020, Thomas Thabane formally stepped down as prime minister of Lesotho following months of pressure after he was named as a suspect in the murder of his ex-wife. Moeketsi Majoro, the economist and former Minister of Development Planning, was elected as Thabane\'s successor.
In June 2022, in protests against neoliberal and fiscal austerity policies that promoted cuts in resources for public education, Lesotho students were killed on the campus of the National University of Lesotho in the repression of the protest carried out by the Lesotho Mounted Police Service. On 28 October 2022, Sam Matekane was sworn in as Lesotho\'s new prime minister after forming a new coalition government. His Revolution for Prosperity party, formed earlier same year, won the 7 October elections
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# Geography of Lesotho
**Lesotho** is a mountainous, landlocked country located in Southern Africa. It is an enclave, surrounded by South Africa. The total length of the country\'s borders is 909 km. Lesotho covers an area of around 30355 km2, of which a negligible percentage is covered with water.
The most popular geographic fact about Lesotho, apart from its status as an enclave, is that it is the only independent state in the world that lies entirely above 1000 m in elevation. Its lowest point is at 1400 m, the highest low point of any country. Because of its elevation, the country\'s climate is cooler than in most other regions at the same latitude. Its climate zone can be classified as continental.
## Location
Lesotho is a country in Southern Africa, located at around 29°30\' south latitude and 28°30\' east longitude. It is the 141st largest country in the world, with a total land area of 30355 km2, of which a negligible percentage is covered with water. Lesotho is completely surrounded by South Africa, making it one of only three countries in the world that are enclaved within another country; the other two are San Marino and Vatican City, both located within Italy. The total length of the South African border is 909 km. Lesotho\'s status as an enclave also means that it is landlocked and largely dependent on South Africa. The nearest major shipping port is Durban.
## Physical geography {#physical_geography}
Lesotho can be roughly divided into three geographic regions: the lowlands, following the southern banks of the Caledon River, and in the Senqu river valley; the highlands formed by the Drakensberg and Maloti mountain ranges in the east and central parts of the country; and the foothills that form a divide between the lowlands and the highlands. The lowest elevation in the country is at the junction of the Makhaleng and Orange (Senqu) rivers (at the South African border), which at 1400 m is the highest lowest point of any country. Lesotho is the only independent state in the world that lies entirely above 1000 m in elevation. The highest point is the peak of the Thabana Ntlenyana mountain, which reaches an elevation of 3482 m. Over 80% of Lesotho lies above 1800 m.
Even though very little of Lesotho is covered in water, the rivers that run across the country are an important part of Lesotho\'s economy. Much of the country\'s export income comes from water, and much of its power comes from hydroelectricity. The Orange River rises in the Drakensberg mountains in northeastern Lesotho and flows across the entire length of the country before exiting to South Africa at the Mohale\'s Hoek District in the southwest. The Caledon River marks the northwestern part of the border with South Africa. Other rivers include the Malibamatso, Matsoku and Senqunyane.
The bedrock of Lesotho belongs to the Karoo Supergroup, consisting mostly of shale and sandstone. Peatlands can be found in the highlands of Lesotho, most extensively in the mountainous escarpment near the country\'s eastern border. The summit of Thabana Ntlenyana is partially encircled by bogs.
Solifluction deposits, blockfields, blockstreams and stone garlands can be found across the higher portions of the Lesotho Highlands. These features were formed in connection to the periglacial conditions that prevailed during the last glacial period in the area.
## Political geography {#political_geography}
*Main article: Districts of Lesotho* Lesotho is divided into 10 administrative districts, each with its own capital, called a camptown. The districts are further subdivided into 80 constituencies, which consist of 129 local community councils. The distribution of population in Lesotho overlaps with the country\'s varied ecological conditions; poverty too is linked to ecological conditions.
Districts (in alphabetical order):
- Berea
- Butha-Buthe
- Leribe
- Mafeteng
- Maseru
- Mohale\'s Hoek
- Mokhotlong
- Qacha\'s Nek
- Quthing
- Thaba-Tseka
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# Geography of Lesotho
## Climate
Because of its altitude, the country remains cooler throughout the year than most other regions at the same latitude. Lesotho has a temperate climate, with hot summers and cold winters. Maseru and its surrounding lowlands often reach 30 C in the summer. Winters can be cold with the lowlands getting down to -7 C and the highlands to -20 C at times.
The yearly precipitation varies from around 600 mm in the lowland valleys to around 1200 mm in areas of the northern and eastern escarpment bordering South Africa. Most of the rain falls as summer thunderstorms: 85% of the annual precipitation falls between the months of October and April. The winters---between May and September are usually very dry. Snow is common in the deserts and low valleys between May and September; the higher peaks can experience occasional significant snowfall year-round. Annual variance in rainfall is quite erratic, which leads to periodic droughts in the dry season (May to September) and flooding, which can be severe in the rainy season (October--April).
## Extreme points {#extreme_points}
This is a list of the extreme points of Lesotho, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location
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# Telecommunications in Lesotho
**Telecommunications in Lesotho** include radio, television, print and online newspapers, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.
## Radio
- Radio stations: 2 state-owned radio stations; government controls most private broadcast media; transmissions of multiple international broadcasters are available (2008).
- Radio stations in Lesotho:
- Radio Lesotho 1050AM.
- Ultimate 950AM.
- Radio Lesotho 93.3FM, Maseru only.
- People\'s Choice (PCFM) 95.6FM, Maseru only.
- Radio France International (RFI) 95.4FM, Maseru only.
- Thaha-Khube 97.1FM, Maseru only.
- Harvest 98.8FM, Maseru only.
- Moafrica 99.3FM, Maseru only.
- Ultimate 99.8FM, Maseru only.
- Kereke Evangel, 102FM.
- Catholic radio 103.3FM.
- Jeso KE Karabo 105.2FM, Maseru only.
- Joy 106.9FM, Maseru only.
- Soul Radio Internet based Radio
## Television
- Television stations: 1 state-owned TV station; government controls most private broadcast media; satellite TV subscription service available; transmissions of multiple international broadcasters are available (2008).
- TV stations in Lesotho:
- Lesotho Television is a state owned tv network which is operated by Lesotho National Broadcasting Services or LNBS in short, it caters for Mountain Kingdom from Current affairs, News, Culture, Reality shows, it caters in both official languages in Lesotho which is Sesotho or English (LTV 292 on DStv).
-
## Newspapers
- Main newspapers in Lesotho:
- Public Eye newspaper, [Public Eye website](http://publiceyenews.com/).
- Lesotho Times, [Lesotho Times website](http://lestimes.com/).
- Sunday Express,
- Informative News, [Informative News website](http://informativenews.co.ls/).
- AllAfrica.com
- Finite Magazine
- LENA (Lesotho News Agency)
- The Post
## Telephones
- Calling code +266
- International call prefix: 00
- Main lines: 43,100 lines in use, 168th in the world (2012).
- Mobile cellular: 1.3 million lines, 153rd in the world (2012).
- Telephone system: Rudimentary system consisting of a modest number of landlines, a small microwave radio relay system, and a small radiotelephone communication system; privatized in 2001, Telecom Lesotho was tasked with providing an additional 50,000 fixed-line connections within five years, a target not met; mobile-cellular service dominates the market and is expanding with a subscribership of roughly 65 per 100 persons in 2011; rural services are scant (2011).
- Satellite earth station: 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2011).
### Telecommunications providers {#telecommunications_providers}
Vodacom Lesotho started operating in 1996 with the Government of Lesotho as a shareholder through its stake in Lesotho Telecommunications Corporation. When the Government of Lesotho began its privatisation process in 1999, it invited bids for this share in Vodacom Lesotho. In July 2000, Sekha-Metsi Consortium, a group of local business people and public figures, was announced as the successful bidder. Sekha-Metsi now holds a 12% share in Vodacom Lesotho with the remaining share held by Vodacom Group. In 2008 Vodacom Lesotho introduced its new partnership with Vodafone.
Econet Telecom Lesotho is part of the Econet Wireless group and operates as a stand-alone entity with full local board and management control. It is the first African mobile service operator to use ForgetMeNot Africa\'s eTXT service to enable their customer base to send and receive email via any mobile capable of a simple SMS.
## Internet
- Top-level domain: .ls
- Internet users: 88,602 users, 170th in the world; 4.6% of the population, 189th in the world (2012).
- 27.93 % of households with internet access as of 2017
- Fixed broadband: 2,529 subscriptions, 169th in the world; 0.1% of the population, 163rd in the world (2012).
- Wireless broadband: Unknown (2012).
- Internet hosts: 11,030 hosts, 131st in the world (2012).
- IPv4: 40,448 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 21.0 addresses per 1000 people (2012).
- Internet Service Providers: 4 ISPs (2013).
### Internet censorship and surveillance {#internet_censorship_and_surveillance}
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight. The Internet is not widely available and almost nonexistent in rural areas due to the lack of communications infrastructure and high cost of access.
The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech, so long as they do not interfere with \"defense, public safety, public order, public morality, or public health\". The government generally respects this right. An independent press, effective judiciary, and functioning democratic political system combine generally to promote freedom of the press; however, harassment of journalists and self-censorship persist. The law prohibits expressions of hatred or contempt for any person because of the person's race, ethnic affiliation, gender, disability, or color
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# Transport in Lesotho
This article concerns systems of **transport in Lesotho**. As a landlocked country, Lesotho has no seaports or harbours, but does have road, air transport, and limited rail infrastructure.
## Roads
Prior to Lesotho\'s independence in 1966, the only paved road in the country was the Kingsway in the capital, Maseru, between the Mejametalana Airport and the Royal Palace. Since the early 1970s, the road infrastructure has been substantially developed. In 1999, Lesotho had a road network measuring at 5940 km in length, of which 1087 km were paved. The most weight has been given to connecting the district centres, but the roads within central Lesotho have also been improved, as part of the construction needs of the Lesotho Highlands Water Project.
## Railways
The only railway line in Lesotho is the Maseru branch line, which connects the capital city Maseru to the Bloemfontein--Bethlehem line in the railway network of South Africa. The final 1.6 km of this line, which opened on 18 December 1905, lies within the borders of Lesotho, running from the border bridge on the Mohokare River through the northern industrial district of Maseru to that city\'s station, the only railway station in the country.
As of 2008, there have been talks of building new railways to connect Lesotho to Durban and Port Elizabeth.
## Air transport {#air_transport}
There are a total of 28 airports in Lesotho, of which 3 have paved runways. The only international airport is the Moshoeshoe I International Airport in Mazenod, a short distance southeast from Maseru. The main runway of the Moshoeshoe Airport is the only one with a runway longer than 1,523 meters; it measures at 3,200 meters.
Of the other airports, one has a paved runway between 914 and 1,523 meters in length and one a paved runway with a length of under 914 meters. Four of the airports have unpaved runways of between 914 and 1,523 meters in length, and the others have unpaved runways of less than 914 meters. All of the classifications are made by the length of the longest runway on an airport.
## Water transport {#water_transport}
Lesotho is landlocked and completely dependent on South Africa for sea transport. The nearest major port and the transshipping point for the country is Durban. Recently due to delays out of Durban more companies have been using the Port Elizabeth facilities that are 2 hours farther south.
Inland water transport is limited to small ferry boats at river crossings, and the Government of Lesotho operates boats at major crossings.
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# Transport in Lesotho
## Intermediate means of transport {#intermediate_means_of_transport}
The main intermediate means of transport (IMTs) in use are wheelbarrows and work animals. Wheelbarrows are widespread in the urban and rural areas and are commonly used by women and men to transport food aid, grains for milling, water containers, and building materials. The importance of wheelbarrows for water collection is gradually being reduced by the provision of water taps. Also common in both highland and lowland areas are two-wheeled 'scotch carts\' with pneumatic tyres. They used to be pulled mainly by oxen, but in recent years there has been an increasing tendency to use cows (females), as farmers often do not own oxen. The carts vary in design, some being made with old pickup bodies, some made using old axles, and many being purpose-made to standard designs by small workshops in Lesotho or South Africa. Most are painted red. Discussion with workshops producing carts suggest the main problem is obtaining suitable wheels and axles, as well as other raw materials, that can be afforded by their clients.
Basotho ponies are very important in the highlands for riding. Ponies are sometimes used as pack animals to carry goods, but this is relatively uncommon. Donkeys, on the other hand are widely used as pack animals in all parts of the county. Donkeys are quite commonly ridden, mainly by young men and usually without a saddle. It is quite common for women to ride ponies, but relatively few women ride donkeys. A few people, notably older men, ride donkeys fitted with saddles. Mules are relatively uncommon, and may be used for riding or pack transport. The use of ponies, mules and donkeys to pull carts is very low. Very few two-wheeled donkey carts or horse carts, although such carts are very common in other countries in southern, eastern, western and northern Africa. In at least two urban areas (Maputsoe and Mafeteng) a small number of transport entrepreneurs use carts or wagons with pneumatic tyres pulled mainly by single ponies (and occasionally by two donkeys or a mule). In Mafeteng, the transporters use two-wheel carts, while in Maputsoe, the transporters use four-wheel wagons.
The numbers of bicycles and motorcycles in use is very low. The per-capita ownership of motorcycles in Lesotho, and also bicycles, may be among the lowest in the world. The small number of people who do use bicycles tend to be children and young men, primarily for recreation although some use them for inter-village travel. A few people use bicycles for sport, and some South Africans and other tourists travel through the highlands on bicycles. A small number of transport entrepreneurs use bicycles to gain a livelihood
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# Geography of Liberia
**Liberia** is a sub-Saharan nation in West Africa located at 6 °N, 9 °W.
## Area and boundaries {#area_and_boundaries}
Area
:\*total: 43000 mi2
:\*\**country rank in the world:* 102nd
:\*land: 37190 mi2
:\*water: 5810 mi2
Area --- comparative:
:\* Australia comparative: approximately `{{sfrac|3|5}}`{=mediawiki} larger than Tasmania
:\* Canada comparative: approximately twice the size of Nova Scotia
:\* United Kingdom comparative: slightly more than `{{sfrac|2|5}}`{=mediawiki} larger than Scotland
:\* United States comparative: slightly larger than Virginia
:\* EU comparative: approximately the size of Bulgaria
Land boundaries
:\*total: 613 mi
:\*border countries: Sierra Leone (185 mi), Guinea (367 mi), Ivory Coast (483 mi)
Coastline:
:\* Atlantic Ocean 360 mi
## Physical geography {#physical_geography}
Liberia extends from between 4.21°N and 8.34°N to 7.27°W and 11.31°W. It is roughly rectangular measuring about 510 km in length from northwest to southeast, with a width of about 275 km. The coastline is about 680 km, including river mouths and inlets up to one kilometre wide.
Drainage of the whole country is direct to the sea, with a series of short rivers flowing directly into the sea. These are, from west to east, the Mano River on the border with Sierra Leone, the Mafa River, the Lofa River, the Saint Paul River, the Mesurado River, the Farmington River, the Saint John River, the Timbo River, the Cestos River, the Sehnkwehn River, the Sinoe River, the Dugbe River, the Dubo River, the Grand Cess River and the Cavalla River on the border with Ivory Coast.
In the west, the coast is low and sandy, but in the central and eastern parts of the country it is sandy and rocky and of moderate relief, frequently broken by the mouths of the rivers. The coastal plain varies in width, being narrow between Monrovia and Buchanan, but being much wider in the west and in the Cestos Valley in the centre, narrowing again in the eastern end of the country.
Further inland the land rises, sometimes with escarpments, to a plateau some 300 to above sea level. This is divided by the river valleys and there are hilly ridges between some of the river valleys. The land rises further in the north and northwest of the country, with mountains that exceed 1000 m in several places, the highest point in the country being in the Wologizi Range at 1440 m.
### Extreme points {#extreme_points}
This is a list of the extreme points of Liberia, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.
- Northernmost point -- unnamed location on the border with Guinea in the Sodia river immediately north of the town of Voinjama, Lofa County.
- Easternmost point -- unnamed headland at the confluence of the Cavally river and the Hana river, River Gee County.
- Southernmost point -- Kablaké headland, Maryland County.
- Westernmost point - unnamed headland immediately west of the town of Sewulu at the mouth of the Mano River, Grand Cape Mount County.
## Borders and maritime claims {#borders_and_maritime_claims}
The total length of Liberia\'s land borders is 986 mi: 190 mi with Sierra Leone on the northwest, 350 mi with Guinea to the north, and 445 mi with Ivory Coast. Liberia claims an Exclusive Economic Zone of 249,734 km2 and 200 nmi.
## Terrain
Liberia has a mostly hilly terrain, it also has rolling plains along the coast to a rolling plateau and low mountains in the northeast.
### Elevation extremes {#elevation_extremes}
The lowest point on Liberia is at sea level on the Atlantic Ocean. The highest point on Liberia is 1440 m above sea level at Mount Wuteve
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# Politics of Liberia
The **Politics of Liberia** takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic modeled on the government of the United States, whereby the president is the head of state and head of government; unlike the United States, however, Liberia is a unitary state as opposed to a federation and has a pluriform `{{nowrap|[[multi-party system]]}}`{=mediawiki} rather than the two-party system that characterizes US politics. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the legislature.
Liberia is still in transition from dictatorship and civil war to democracy. Liberia\'s government is based on the American model of a republic with three equal branches of government, though in reality, the President of Liberia has usually been the dominant force in Liberian politics. Following the dissolution of the Republican Party in 1876, the True Whig Party dominated the Liberian government until the 1980 coup, eventually creating what was effectively a stable, one-party state, with little politics in the usual sense. The longest-serving president in Liberian history was William Tubman, serving from 1944 until his death in 1971. The shortest term was held by James Skivring Smith, who was interim president for all of two months in 1871. However, the political process from Liberia\'s founding in 1847, despite widespread corruption, was very stable until the end of the First Republic in 1980.
This situation changed abruptly in 1980, with the revolt against the Americo-Liberians and their True Whig Party. Currently,`{{when|date=December 2019}}`{=mediawiki} no party has majority control of the legislature.
## Political developments since 1980 {#political_developments_since_1980}
Between 1980 and 2006, Liberia was governed by a series of military and transitional governments. The president of the last of these, Charles Taylor, was forced to step down in 2003, and the United Nations installed a transitional government. Elections to select a government to replace the transitional government took place in October and November 2005. (*see 2005 Liberian general election*).
In the 1980s, Samuel K. Doe\'s government increasingly adopted an ethnic outlook as members of his Krahn ethnic group soon dominated political and military life in Liberia. This caused a heightened level of ethnic tension leading to frequent hostilities between the politically and militarily dominant Krahns and other ethnic groups in the country.
Political parties remained banned until 1984. Elections were held on 15 October 1985 in which Doe\'s National Democratic Party of Liberia (NDPL) was declared the winner. The elections were characterized by widespread fraud and rigging. The period after the elections saw increased human rights abuses, corruption, and ethnic tensions. The standard of living, which had been rising in the 1970s, declined drastically.
On 12 November 1985, former Army Commanding General Thomas Quiwonkpa invaded Liberia by way of neighboring Sierra Leone and almost succeeded in toppling the government of Samuel Doe. Members of the Krahn-dominated Armed Forces of Liberia repelled Quiwonkpa\'s attack and executed him in Monrovia.
On 24 December 1989, a small band of rebels led by Doe\'s former procurement chief, Charles Taylor invaded Liberia from Ivory Coast. Taylor and his National Patriotic Front rebels rapidly gained the support of Liberians because of the repressive nature of Samuel Doe and his government. Barely six months after the rebels first attacked, they had reached the outskirts of Monrovia.
The First and Second Liberian Civil War, which was one of Africa\'s bloodiest, claimed the lives of more than 200,000 Liberians and further displaced a million others into refugee camps in neighboring countries.
The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) intervened and succeeded in preventing Charles Taylor from capturing Monrovia. Prince Johnson who had been a member of Taylor\'s National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL) but broke away because of policy differences, formed the Independent National Patriotic Front of Liberia (INPFL). Johnson\'s forces captured and killed Doe on 9 September 1990.
An Interim Government of National Unity (IGNU) was formed in Gambia under the auspices of ECOWAS in October 1990 and Dr. Amos Sawyer became president. Taylor refused to work with the interim government and continued war.
By 1992, several warring factions had emerged in the Liberian civil war, all of which were absorbed in the new transitional government. After several peace accords and declining military power, Taylor finally agreed to the formation of a five-man transitional government.
After considerable progress in negotiations conducted by the United States, United Nations, Organization of African Unity, and the Economic Community of West African States, disarmament and demobilization of warring factions were hastily carried out and special elections were held on 19 July 1997 with Charles Taylor and his National Patriotic Party emerging victorious. Taylor won the election by a large majority, primarily because Liberians feared a return to war had Taylor lost.
Unrest continued, and by 2003, two rebel groups were challenging Taylor\'s control of the country. In August 2003, Taylor resigned and fled the country and vice-president Moses Blah became acting president. On 18 August 2003, the warring parties signed the Accra Comprehensive Peace Agreement which marked the political end of the conflict.
The international community again intervened and helped set up a transitional government (National Transitional Government of Liberia) which was led by Gyude Bryant until the Liberian general election of 2005.
For more than a year, over 9,000 census-takers combed the densely forested nation mapping every structure. For three days starting 21 March 2008, they revisited each dwelling and counted the inhabitants.[1](https://web.archive.org/web/20080325002751/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/03/20/Liberia.census.ap/index.html)
In November 2011, President Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf was re-elected for a second six-year term. Following the 2017 Liberian general election, former professional football striker George Weah, considered one of the greatest African players of all time, was sworn in as president on January 22, 2018, becoming the fourth youngest serving president in Africa. The inauguration marked Liberia\'s first fully democratic transition in 74 years. Weah cited fighting corruption, reforming the economy, combating illiteracy, and improving life conditions as the main targets of his presidency. However, opposition leader Joseph Boakai defeated George Weah in the tightly contested 2023 presidential election. On 22 January 2024, Joseph Boakai was sworn in as Liberia's new president.
## Executive branch {#executive_branch}
\|President \|Joseph Boakai \|Unity Party \|22 January 2024 \|- \|Vice President \|Jeremiah Koung \|Movement for Democracy and Reconstruction \|22 January 2024 \|} The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term (renewable). The cabinet is appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate.
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# Politics of Liberia
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
Liberia has a bicameral Legislature that consists of the Senate (30 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve nine-year terms) and the House of Representatives (73 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms)
## Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
### Presidential elections {#presidential_elections}
{{#section-h:2017 Liberian general election\|President}}
### House of Representatives elections {#house_of_representatives_elections}
{{#section-h:2017 Liberian general election\|House of Representatives}}
### Senate elections {#senate_elections}
{{#section-h:2014 Liberian Senate election\|Results}}
## Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
There is a Supreme Court, criminal courts, and appeals court and magistrate courts in the counties. There also are traditional courts and lay courts in the counties. Trial by ordeal is practiced in various parts of Liberia.
## Administrative divisions {#administrative_divisions}
The basic unit of local government is the town chief. There are clan chiefs, paramount chiefs, and district commissioners. The counties are governed by superintendents appointed by the President. There are fifteen counties in Liberia
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# Mass media in Liberia
**Mass media in Liberia** include the press, radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.
Much of Liberia\'s communications infrastructure was destroyed or plundered during the two civil wars (1989--1996 and 1999--2003). With low rates of adult literacy and high poverty rates, television and newspaper use is limited, leaving radio as the predominant means of communicating with the public.
Even as it struggles with economic and political constraints, Liberia\'s media environment is expanding. The number of registered newspapers and radio stations (many of them community stations) is on the rise despite limited market potential. And politically critical content and investigative pieces do get published or broadcast.
## Press
The main newspapers are:
- *The Analyst*
- Pumah Times Newspaper
- *Daily Observer* (est. 1981), private.
- *The Daily Talk*
- *FrontPage Africa*, private.
- *The Inquirer*, private daily.
- *National Chronicle*
- *The New Dawn*, private daily.
- *New Democrat*
- *New Republic Liberia*Alphonso been in the profession for over twenty years. He has worked for many international media outlets including: West Africa Magazine, Africa Week Magazine, African Observer and did occasional reporting for CNN, BBC World Service, Sunday Times, NPR, Radio Deutchewells, Radio Netherlands. He is the current correspondent for Reuters.
Mr. Toweh holds first MA with honors in International Relations and a candidate for second master in International Peace studies and Conflict Resolution. `{{subscription required}}`{=mediawiki}
Defunct newspapers and magazines include:
- *Africa League*
- *African Nationalist*
- *Africa\'s Luminary* (est. 1839)
- *Amulet* (est. 1839)
- *Daily Listener* (est. 1950)
- *Footprints Today* (est. 1984)
- *The Friend*
- *Independent Weekly*
- *Journal of Commerce and Industry*
- *Liberia and West Africa* (ceased in 1932)
- *Liberia Herald* (est. 1826)
- *Liberian Age* (est. 1946)
- *Liberian Herald*
- *Liberian News*
- *Liberian Recorder* (est. 1897)
- *Liberian Star* (est. 1839)
- *Monrovia Observer* (est. 1878)
- *Palm Magazine*
- *SunTimes*
- *Weekly Mirror*
- *Whirlwind*
## Radio
- Radios: 790,000 radio receivers (1997).`{{update after|2014|2|7}}`{=mediawiki}
- Radio stations: 1 state-owned radio station, but no national public service broadcaster; about 15 independent radio stations broadcasting in Monrovia, with another 25 local stations operating in other areas; transmissions of 2 international broadcasters are available (2007).
- BBC World Service 103 FM.
- ELBC FM, public.
- ELWA FM and SW, private, religious-Christian.
- Pumah FM 106.3
- LUX 106.6 FM, University of Liberia.
- Radio Liberia FM, operated by the state-run Liberian Broadcasting System (LBS).
- Radio Veritas FM and SW, religious-Catholic.
- RFI English FM, the English service of Radio France Internationale.
- Sky FM
- STAR Radio FM and SW, operated in partnership with Swiss-based Hirondelle Foundation.
- Truth FM
- UNMIL Radio FM, operated by the United Nations mission.
- Voice of Firestone Liberia 89.5 FM
## Television
- Television sets: 70,000 sets (1997).`{{update after|2014|2|7}}`{=mediawiki}
- Pumah TV Channel 4
- Television stations: 4 private TV stations, none with national reach; satellite TV service available (2007).
- Clar TV, private.
- DC TV, private.
- Power TV, private.
- Real TV, private.
- Liberia Broadcasting System: Government owned Liberia National Television (LNTV).
## Telephones
`{{See also |Telephone numbers in Liberia}}`{=mediawiki}
- Calling code: +231
- International call prefix: 00
- Main lines: 3,200 lines in use, 213th in the world (2011).
- Mobile cellular: 2.4 million lines, 138th in the world (2012).
- Telephone system: the limited services available are found almost exclusively in the capital Monrovia; fixed-line service stagnant and extremely limited; telephone coverage extended to a number of other towns and rural areas by four mobile-cellular network operators; mobile-cellular subscription base growing and teledensity reached 50 per 100 persons (2011).
- Satellite earth stations: 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2010).
- Communications cables: Africa Coast to Europe (ACE) cable system, links countries along the west coast of Africa to each other and on to Portugal and France.
The fixed line infrastructure of Liberia was nearly completely destroyed during the civil wars (1989-1996 and 1999--2003).
Prior to the passage of the Telecommunications Act of 2007, the state-owned Liberia Telecommunications Corporation (LIBTELCO) held a legal monopoly for all fixed line services in Liberia, and remains the sole licensed fixed line telephone service provider in the country.
Two licensed GSM cellular mobile service providers operate in the country: Lonestar Cell and CellCom. Approximately 45% of the population has cell phone service.
## Internet
- Top-level domain: .lr
- Internet users:
- 317,717 users; 7.3% of the population, 158th in the world (2016 est.).
- 20,000 users, 194th in the world (2009).
- Fixed broadband: 78 subscriptions, 193rd in the world; less than 0.05% of the population, 192nd in the world (2012).
- Wireless broadband: Unknown (2012).
- Internet hosts: 7 hosts, 228th in the world (2012).
- IPv4: 13,312 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 3.4 addresses per 1000 people (2012).
### Notable commercial websites {#notable_commercial_websites}
While Liberia\'s commercial internet sector is still behind the majority of African countries there are still a few classifieds sites:
- [liberiacommerce.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20150801230805/http://liberiacommerce.com/)
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# Mass media in Liberia
## Internet
### Internet censorship and surveillance {#internet_censorship_and_surveillance}
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms.
The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. Libel and national security laws place some limits on freedom of speech. Individuals can generally criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal. Some journalists practice self-censorship. The constitution prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government generally respects these prohibitions in practice.
President Sirleaf endorsed and signed the World Association of Newspapers and News Publishers\' Declaration of Table Mountain in Monrovia on 21 July 2012, committing to the core principles of a free press and calling for the repeal of the criminal defamation and insult laws regularly used against journalists
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# Geography of Libya
Libya is the fourth largest country in Africa and the seventeenth largest country in the world. It is on the Mediterranean with Egypt to the east, Tunisia to the northwest, Algeria to the west, Niger and Chad to the south, and Sudan to the southeast. Although the oil discoveries of the 1960s have brought immense wealth, at the time of its independence it was an extremely poor desert state whose only important physical asset appeared to be its strategic location at the midpoint of Africa\'s northern rim.
Libya lays within easy reach of the major European nations and linked the Arab countries of North Africa with those of the Middle East, facts that throughout history had made its urban centres bustling crossroads rather than isolated backwaters without external social influences. Consequently, an immense social gap developed between the cities, cosmopolitan and peopled largely by foreigners, and the desert hinterland, where tribal chieftains ruled in isolation and where social change was minimal.
## Geographical summary {#geographical_summary}
The Mediterranean coast and the Sahara Desert are the country\'s most prominent natural features. There are several highlands but no true mountain ranges except in the largely empty southern desert near the Chadian border, where the Tibesti Massif rises to over 2,200 metres. A relatively narrow coastal strip and highland steppes immediately south of it are the most productive agricultural regions. Still farther south a pastoral zone of sparse grassland gives way to the vast Sahara Desert, a barren wasteland of rocky plateaus and sand. It supports minimal human habitation, and agriculture is possible only in a few scattered oases.
The Sahara desert is connected to the Gulf of Sidra on the coast by a barren zone, known as the Sirtica, which has great historical significance.
Along the shore of Tripolitania for more than 300 km, coastal oases alternate with sandy areas and lagoons. Inland from these lies the Jifarah Plain, a triangular area of some 15,000 square km. About 120 km inland the plain terminates in an escarpment that rises to form the Nafusa Mountains, with elevations of up to 1,000 metres, which is the northern edge of the Tripolitanian Plateau.
In the eastern part of the country, Cyrenaica, there are fewer coastal oases. Cyrenaica\'s Marj Plain covers a much smaller area than the corresponding Jifarah Plain of Tripolitania. The lowlands form a crescent about 210 km long between Benghazi and Derna and extend inland a maximum of 50 km. Elsewhere along the Cyrenaican coast, the precipice of an arid plateau reaches to the sea. Behind the Marj Plain, the terrain rises abruptly to form Jabal al Akhdar (Green Mountain), so called because of its leafy cover of pine, juniper, cypress, and wild olive. It is a limestone plateau with maximum altitudes of about 900 metres.
From Jabal al Akhdar, Cyrenaica extends southward across a barren grazing belt that gives way to the Sahara Desert, which extends still farther southwest across the Chadian frontier. Unlike Cyrenaica, Tripolitania does not extend southward into the desert. The southwestern desert region, known as Fezzan, was administered separately during both the Italian regime and the federal period of the Libyan monarchy. The large dune seas known as ergs of the Idehan Ubari and the Idehan Murzuq cover much of the land of Fezzan. The Haruj volcanic field is in the northeast part of Fezzan.
In 1969 the revolutionary government officially changed the regional designation of Tripolitania to Western Libya, of Cyrenaica to Eastern Libya, and of Fezzan to Southern Libya; however, the old names were intimately associated with the history of the area, and during the 1970s they continued to be used frequently. Cyrenaica comprises 51%, Fezzan 33%, and Tripolitania 16% of the country\'s area.
Before Libya achieved independence, its name was seldom used other than as a somewhat imprecise geographical expression. The people preferred to be referred to as natives of one of the three constituent regions. The separateness of the regions is much more than simply geographical and political, for they have evolved largely as different socioeconomic entities -- each with a culture, social structure, and values different from the others. Cyrenaica became Arabized at a somewhat earlier date than Tripolitania, and Beduin tribes dominated it. The residual strain of the indigenous Berber inhabitants, however, still remains in Tripolitania. Fezzan has remained a kind of North African outback, its oases peopled largely by minority ethnic groups.
The border between Tripolitania and Tunisia is subject to countless crossings by legal and illegal migrants. No natural frontier marks the border, and the ethnic composition, language, value systems, and traditions of the two peoples are nearly identical. The Cyrenaica region is contiguous with Egypt, and here, too, the border is not naturally defined; illegal as well as legal crossings are frequent. In contrast, Fezzan\'s borders with Algeria, Niger, and Chad are seldom crossed because of the almost total emptiness of the desert countryside.
Other factors, too, such as the traditional forms of land tenure, have varied in the different regions. In the 1980s their degrees of separation were still sufficiently pronounced to represent a significant obstacle to efforts toward achieving a fully unified Libya.
## Area and boundaries {#area_and_boundaries}
**Area:**\
*Total:* 1 759 540 km^2^\
*Land:* 1 759 540 km^2^\
*Water:* 0 km^2^
**Area - comparative:** Libya is the fourth largest country in Africa, seven times the size of the United Kingdom, and slightly larger than Alaska.
**Land boundaries:**\
*Total:* 4 348 km\
*Border countries:* Algeria 982 km, Chad 1,055 km, Egypt 1,115 km, Niger 354 km, Sudan 383 km, Tunisia 459 km
**Coastline:** 1,770 km
**Maritime claims:**\
*Territorial sea:* 12 nmi\
*note:* Gulf of Sidra closing line -- 32 degrees, 30 minutes north.\
*Exclusive economic zone:* 351,589 km2
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# Geography of Libya
## Climate and hydrology {#climate_and_hydrology}
Within Libya as many as five different climatic zones have been recognized, but the dominant climates are the hot-summer Mediterranean climate and the hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification *Csa* and *BWh*). In most of the coastal lowland, the climate is Mediterranean, with hot or very hot summers and extremely mild winters. Rainfall is scant.
The weather is cooler in the highlands, and frosts occur at maximum elevations. In the desert interior, despite the relatively high elevation, the climate has long, extremely hot summers and high diurnal temperature ranges due to the permanence of cloudless skies and excessively dry atmosphere. The highest purported temperature ever recorded was on 13 September 1922 at ʽAziziya, Libya, but in 2012 the World Meteorological Organization discredited the dubious reading and stated that Furnace Creek in Death Valley, California had recorded the real highest temperature in the world at 56.7 C.
Less than 2% of the national territory receives enough rainfall for settled agriculture, the heaviest precipitation occurring in the Jabal al Akhdar zone of Cyrenaica, where annual rainfall of 400 to is recorded. All other areas of the country receive less than 400 mm, and in the Sahara Desert 50 mm or less occurs. Rainfall is often erratic, and a pronounced drought may extend over two seasons. For example, epic floods in 1945 left Tripoli underwater for several days, but two years later an unprecedentedly severe drought caused the loss of thousands of head of cattle.
Deficiency in rainfall is reflected in an absence of permanent rivers or streams, and the approximately twenty perennial lakes are brackish or salty. In 1987 these circumstances severely limited the country\'s agricultural potential as a basis for the sound and varied economy Gaddafi sought to establish. The allocation of limited water is considered of sufficient importance to warrant the existence of the Secretariat of Dams and Water Resources, and damaging a source of water can be punished by a heavy fine or imprisonment.
The government has constructed a network of dams in wadis, dry watercourses that become torrents after heavy rains. These dams are used both as water reservoirs and for flood and erosion control. The wadis are heavily settled because soil in their bottoms is often suitable for agriculture, and the high water table in their vicinity makes them logical locations for digging wells. In many wadis, however, the water table is declining at an alarming rate, particularly in areas of intensive agriculture and near urban centers. The government has expressed concern over this problem and because of it has diverted water development projects, particularly around Tripoli, to localities where the demand on underground water resources is less intense. It has also undertaken extensive reforestation projects.
There are also numerous springs, those best suited for future development occurring along the scarp faces of the Jabal Nafusah and the Jabal al Akhdar. The most talked-about of the water resources, however, are the great subterranean aquifers of the desert. The best known of these lies beneath Kufra Oasis in southeastern Cyrenaica. An aquifer with even greater reputed capacity is located near the oasis community of Sabha in the southwestern desert.
In the late 1970s, wells were drilled at Kufra and at Sabha as part of a major agricultural development effort. An even larger undertaking is the so-called Great Manmade River, initiated in 1984. It is intended to tap the tremendous aquifers of the Kufra, Sarir, and Sabha oases and to carry the resulting water to the Mediterranean coast for use in irrigation and industrial projects.
## Terrain and land use {#terrain_and_land_use}
**Terrain:** mostly barren, flat to undulating plains, plateaus, depressions
**Elevation extremes:**\
*lowest point:* Sabkhat Ghuzayyil -47 m\
*highest point:* Bikku Bitti 2,267 m
**Natural resources:** petroleum, natural gas, gypsum
**Land use:**\
*arable land:* 0.99%\
*permanent crops:* 0.19%\
*other:* 98.82% (2011)
**Irrigated land:** 4,700 km^2^ (2003)
**Total renewable water resources:** 0.7 0.7 km3 (2011)
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# Geography of Libya
## Environmental issues {#environmental_issues}
**Natural hazards:** hot, dry, dust-laden ghibli is a southern wind lasting one to four days in spring and fall; dust storms, sandstorms
**Environment - current issues:** desertification; very limited natural fresh water resources; the Great Manmade River Project, the largest water development scheme in the world, is being built to bring water from large aquifers under the Sahara to coastal cities
**Environment - international agreements:**\
*party to:* Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands\
*signed, but not ratified:* Law of the Sea
## Extreme points {#extreme_points}
This is a list of the extreme points of Libya, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location
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# Politics of Libya
## Muammar Gaddafi bequeths a \"Shallow State\" {#muammar_gaddafi_bequeths_a_shallow_state}
The **politics of Libya** has been shaped by the \"shallow state\" ceded by former authoritarian leader Muammar Gaddafi, who was overthrown in 2011 in the midst of the Arab revolutions; apart from being an oil economy, Gaddafi\'s shallow state constructed weak governance capacity within security structures, institutions, and bureaucracy. Ruling from 1969 to 2011, Gaddafi\'s repressive rule allowed for him to deconstruct state structures and security, forcing the state to be rebuilt after his downfall. As an oil-rich state with an abundance of petro-dollars, Gaddafi\'s rule did not require political appeasement from citizens, since the government derived means of power through oil wealth.The first human rights report against the Gaddafi Foundation was submitted in 1999 in hopes of immediate reform. Unfortunately, reports were periodically submitted over the following 10 years, with a notable Human Rights Watch report in December 2009, and ultimately intensified repression from Gaddafi\'s regime. Namely, in response to the 2009 report, Gaddafi banned all civil society organizations, closed newspapers, and arrested journalists speaking out against the regime\'s corruption and abuse of its citizens. Overall, his four-decade rule, Gaddafi exemplified the strategy of systemically overpowering opposition and obstructing civil society formation. The political divide and pressure from groups with differing religious, regional, or ethnic affiliations and goals for the country contributed to the overthrow of Muammar Gaddafi, as well as the collapse of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya in 2011, an economic model which rejects capitalism and favors a stateless and socialist society. Despite its anti-western position, this economic model relied on foreign trade, weaponry, and technology to sustain totalitarian control; this model facilitated wealth disparities and the centralization of power, while deconstructing state and social institutions.
These uprisings temporarily unified the disparate groups within Libya. Although, the flaws in institutions left by Gaddafi brought back the divide within various religious, regional, and ethnic groups. Ultimately, the unrest following Gaddafi\'s ousting led to Libya\'s recent civil war and various jihadists and tribal elements controlling parts of the country.
On 10 March 2021, the interim Government of National Unity (GNU), unifying the Second Al-Thani Cabinet and the Government of National Accord was formed, only to face new opposition in Government of National Stability, until Libyan Political Dialogue Forum assured the ongoing ceasefire.
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# Politics of Libya
## Changes after the 2011 Civil War {#changes_after_the_2011_civil_war}
Political parties were banned in Libya from 1972 until the removal of Gaddafi\'s government, and all elections were nonpartisan under law. However, during the revolution, the National Transitional Council (NTC), a body formed on 27 February 2011 by anti-Gaddafi forces to act as the \"political face of the revolution\", made the introduction of multiparty democracy a cornerstone of its agenda. In June 2011, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi said his father would agree to internationally monitored general elections, and would step down if he lost them, but his offer was refused in face of the Resolution 1970, which referred Gaddafi, his family, and his security entourage to the International Criminal Court as a result of war crimes and crimes against humanity.
On 8 March, the NTC issued a statement in which it declared itself to be the \"sole representative all over Libya\". The council formed an interim governing body on 23 March. As of 20 October 2011, with the support and protection of NATO, the NTC captured Muammar Gaddafi, where he was subsequently killed in a cross-fire. As an immediate result, 100 countries declared full support to the council by severing all relations with Gaddafi\'s rule and recognizing the National Transitional Council as the \"rightful representative of Libya\".
On 3 August 2011, the NTC issued a Constitutional Declaration which declared the statehood of Libya as a democracy with Islam as its state religion, in which the state guarantees the rule of law and an independent judiciary as well as civic and human basic rights (including freedom of religion and women\'s rights), and which contains provisions for a phase of transition to a presidential republic with an elected national assembly and a democratically legitimized constitution by 2013. The drafting of the constitution is particularly difficult considering the different interests of the shareholders involved. Vice Chairman Abdul Hafiz Ghoga declared Libya to be \"liberated\" on 23 October 2011, announcing an official end to the war. Chairman Mustafa Abdul Jalil said Libya would become an Islamic democracy in the wake of Gaddafi\'s death, though the extent of Islamic law\'s influence would be determined by elected lawmakers. Ghoga later confirmed that Libya will continue to adhere to all international agreements to which it was signatory prior to the uprising.
The National Transitional Council only possessed moral, legal, and ethical authority, while Libya\'s opposing militias had access to a large supply of arms and local networks. This deepened the loyalties of many localities with the militias, ultimately granting these militias as de facto political authority.
On 7 July 2012 an election was held for the General National Congress (GNC) to replace the NTC. There were 2,501 candidates for the 200 seats -- 136 for political parties and 64 for independent candidates. About 300 candidates\' views were considered unacceptable and removed from candidates list, suspected of sympathizing with the defeated forces of the Jamahiriya. Accreditation centers have also been organized in European cities with larger Libyan communities like Berlin and Paris, in order to allow Libyan nationals, there to cast their vote.
On 8 August 2012 the NTC officially dissolved and transferred power to the General National Congress.
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# Politics of Libya
## House of Representatives {#house_of_representatives}
The House of Representatives was formed following June 2014 elections, when the General National Congress formed as a transitional body after the Libyan Revolution dissolved. The House of Representatives controls the Libyan National Army, known to be the country\'s most effective and coordinated armed organization, as well as controls oil ports. The control that the House of Representatives has on the country\'s oil reserves has played a role in changing the dynamic of Libya\'s politics, especially since the General National Assembly has the right to sell the oil in states which legitimize it as Libya\'s sole government.
However, Islamists fared poorly in the low-turnout elections, and members of the Islamist-led GNC reconvened in August 2014, refusing to recognize the new parliament dominated by secularist and federalist lawmakers. Libya Dawn, the militia coalition of the New General National Congress swiftly seized control of Tripoli, Libya\'s constitutional capital, forcing the newly elected parliament of the House of Representatives into virtual exile in Tobruk, near the Egyptian border. However, The House of Representatives enjoys widespread international recognition as Libya\'s official government, and controls the Libyan National Army. However, the Tripoli-based Supreme Court declared it illegal and voided the results of the election in November 2014. The court ruling was hailed by the GNC and its backers, but it was rejected as invalid by the House of Representatives and its loyalists.
Against this backdrop of division, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and Ansar al-Sharia, as well as other militant groups both religious and tribal in nature, have seized control of several cities and districts across Libya, especially in Cyrenaica, which is theoretically under the control of the Tobruk-based government.
A number of commentators have described Libya as a failed state or suggested it is on the verge of failure.
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# Politics of Libya
## General National Congress {#general_national_congress}
The General National Congress (also translated as *General National Council*) was the legislative authority of Libya. It was elected by popular vote on 7 July 2012, and from 8 August replaced the National Transitional Council that had governed the country since the end of the Libyan Civil War. The General National Congress was composed of 200 members of which 80 were elected through a party list system of proportional representation, and 120 were elected as independents in multiple-member districts.
Although it claimed a provisional sort of sovereign authority over Libya, the General National Congress was not permitted to take actions like those of a true sovereign and legitimate state; General National Congress did not have Weberian monopoly of force and could not enforce many of its said plans of action. Although, at the time, no other political body had clearly claimed to possess authority to govern Libya.
The executive branch was appointed by the GNC and led by the prime minister, Fayez-al-Sarraj, while the president of the GNC was the *de facto* head of state, though not explicitly described as such in the Declaration.
The main responsibility of the GNC was to form a constituent assembly which would write Libya\'s permanent constitution, for approval by a referendum. The GNC was unable to choose how this assembly would be elected until they brought the amendment to the Temporary Constitutional Declaration, a document serving as a temporary constitution during the transitional period post-Gadhafi. Accordingly, the GNC decided the method of direct elections to be more efficient in creating this assembly, as they believed it would also please federalist rivals like the House of Representatives, and create progress in the political process.
On 30 March 2014, the General National Congress voted to replace itself with a new House of Representatives. The new legislature would allocate 30 seats for women, would have 200 seats overall (with individuals able to run as members of political parties) and allow Libyans of foreign nationalities to run for office. While elections were held and lawmakers took office, the former General National Congress rejected the results and reconvened in opposition to the new parliament, which now meets in the eastern Libyan city of Tobruk.
In early December 2015 both parliaments, the GNC and the House of Representatives, agreed a declaration of principles calling for the formation of a joint ten-person committee to name an interim prime minister and two deputies, leading to new elections within two years.
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# Politics of Libya
## Libyan Political Agreement (2015) & Political Atmosphere post-2015 {#libyan_political_agreement_2015_political_atmosphere_post_2015}
Libya is divided into two rival governmental authorities in the years following Gaddafi\'s overthrow. The governmental authorities include the Islamist-led General National Congress (GNC) and its militia coalition the Libya Dawn, which is based in Tripoli, and the House of Representatives in Tobruk, with its military coalition named Operation Dignity. Although, it is vital to note that these militias held military power independently of the authorities to which they claimed loyalty. As a result, outbreaks of violence continued across the region, as governments could not convince their militias to allow a state-imposed monopoly on violence. Due to the civil unrest between the two parliaments, the GNC and House of Representatives rejected around seven proposals of a power-sharing transitional constitution. As a result, the Libyan Political Agreement (LPA) was adopted on December 13, 2015. Under the terms of the agreement, a nine-member Presidential Council and a seventeen-member interim Government of National Accord (GNA) was formed to replace the GNC, with a view to holding new elections within two years. The House of Representatives would continue to exist as a legislative power, including the authority to approve ministerial cabinet proposed by the GNA, and importantly, the authority to activate the LPA.
This attempt at unification was unsuccessful, since Libya dawn would only accept under the condition of gaining control over Tripoli and the central bank, which was refused by the House of Representatives as they believed it would grant too large a share of power than it would through elections. As a result, the General National Assembly and House of Representatives are in a state of constitutional limbo, as the latter has not officially approved the LPA, and thus it is unclear to both parties, and the rest of society, whether the LPA is active. Three competing governments still remained by the end of 2016, disputes between which continuing until the formation of the GNU in 2015. Still, even with the establishment of this governmental structure, widespread human rights abuses exist throughout the country to this day; this is due to the lack of a central government to regulate the ten years of conflict that ensued after Gaddafi\'s reign. However, the country has made some \"democratic\" progress: Libya\'s score was trending upwards from 2011 to 2013 on the PolityIV authority trends scale, increasing from a -7 to a 1, shifting its categorization from "autocracy" to "anocracy."
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# Politics of Libya
## Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
On 7 July 2012, the Legislative body -- the General National Congress -- was elected.
### List of parties with seats in the General National Congress {#list_of_parties_with_seats_in_the_general_national_congress}
- National Forces Alliance
- Justice & Construction
- National Front
- Wadi al-Hiya Alliance
- Union for Homeland
- National Centrist Party
- Libyan National Democratic Party
- The Message
- The Foundation
- National Party for Development and Welfare
- Nation & Prosperity
- Authenticity & Renewal
- Authenticity & Progress
- Moderate Umma Assembly
- Libik Watani
- National Gathering of Wadi al-Shati
- Moderate Youth Party
- Libyan List for Freedom & Development
- National Coalition of Parties
- Libya the Hope
- Wisdom Party.
### List of parties without seats in the General National Congress {#list_of_parties_without_seats_in_the_general_national_congress}
- Libyan Popular National Movement
- Democratic Party
- Homeland Party
- Party of Reform and Development
- Libyan Constitutional Union
- Libyan Amazigh Congress
- Alhaq and Democracy Party of Benghazi
- Libyan National Congress Party
- New Libya Party
- National Unity of Libya Party
- Freedom and Development Party of Libya
- The Patriotic Reform Party
- National Solidarity Party
- The Libyan National Party
- Umma Party
- Justice and Democracy Party of Libya
- Libya Future Party
- Libyan Center Party
- National Democratic Assembly for Justice and Progress
- Libya Development Party
- Libyan Universal Party
- National Democratic Alliance
- New National Congress Party
- Tawasul Party
- Libyan National Democratic Party for Justice and Development
- Libya Our Home and Tribe Party
- Libyan Liberation Party
- Libya for All Party
- Popular Front for the Liberation of Libya
- Unity Movement
- Democratic Youth Party
- National Democratic Assembly
- Wefaq Party
- Libyan National Democratic Assemblage
- Ansar Al Horria
- Libyan Unionist Party.
## International organization participation {#international_organization_participation}
The National Transitional Council has pledged to honor Libya\'s international commitments until the 2012 elections.
Libya is a member of ABEDA, AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, AMU, AU, CAEU, ECA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, NAM, OAPEC, OIC, OPEC, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHRC (suspended), UNIDO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, UNWTO and UNHABITAT.
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# Politics of Libya
## Libyan politics under Muammar Gaddafi {#libyan_politics_under_muammar_gaddafi}
After originally rising to power through a military *coup d\'état* in 1969, Colonel Muammar Gaddafi\'s governance of Libya became increasingly centric on the teachings of his *Green Book*, which he published in the mid-1970s chapter by chapter as a foundation for a new form of government. This *jamahiriya*, as he called it, was supposedly a form of direct democracy in which power was balanced between a General People\'s Congress, consisting of 2,700 representatives of Basic People\'s Congresses, and an executive General People\'s Committee, headed by a General Secretary, who reported to the prime minister and the president. However, Gaddafi retained virtually all power, continuing to operate and control vestiges of the military junta put in place in 1969.
Gaddafi\'s authoritarian rule, a transition from the former monarchical structure, aligns with Samuels\' finding that most military coups spark change from one form of non-democratic government to another. Gaddafi acted as a military/personalist leader during his 42-year reign, nearly tripling the average ruling length of 15.1 years for this regime type, as found by political scientist Barbara Geddes in her 1999 publication. Still, Gaddafi\'s regime did follow many of the military/personalist tropes that Geddes outlined: failing after its leader\'s death, relying on unstable personal networks to rule, and facing military opposition during the reign.
The Libyan revolt of 2011 that ultimately ended Gaddafi\'s reign was partially inspired by both Tunisia and Egypt\'s attempted democratization, demonstrating the neighborhood effect: a theory that postulates countries will be influenced by their neighbors when adopting regime types.
### Wanted figures {#wanted_figures}
Interpol on 4 March 2011 issued a security alert concerning the \"possible movement of dangerous individuals and assets\" based on United Nations Security Council Resolution 1970, which imposed a travel ban and asset freeze. The warning lists Gaddafi himself and 15 key members of his government:
1. Muammar Gaddafi: Responsibility for ordering repression of demonstrations, human rights abuses. \*Killed 20 October 2011 in Sirte\*
2. Dr. Baghdadi Mahmudi: Head of the Liaison Office of the Revolutionary Committees. Revolutionary Committees involved in violence against demonstrators.
3. Abuzed Omar Dorda: Director, External Security Organization. Government loyalist. Head of external intelligence agency.
4. Major-General Abu-Bakr Yunis Jabr: Defense Minister. Overall responsibility for actions of armed forces. \*Killed 20 October 2011 in Sirte\*
5. Ayesha Gaddafi: Daughter of Muammar Gaddafi. Closeness of association with government.
6. Hannibal Muammar Gaddafi: Son of Muammar Gaddafi. Closeness of association with government.
7. Mutassim Gaddafi: National Security Adviser. Son of Muammar Gaddafi. Closeness of association with government. \*Killed 20 October 2011 in Sirte\*
8. Al-Saadi Gaddafi: Commander Special Forces. Son of Muammar Gaddafi. Closeness of association with government. Command of military units involved in repression of demonstrations.
9. Saif al-Islam Gaddafi: Director, Gaddafi Foundation. Son of Muammar Gaddafi. Closeness of association with government. Inflammatory public statements encouraging violence against demonstrators.
10. Abdulqader Yusef Dibri: Head of Muammar Gaddafi\'s personal security. Responsibility for government security. History of directing violence against dissidents.
11. Matuq Mohammed Matuq: Secretary for Utilities. Senior member of government. Involvement with Revolutionary Committees. Past history of involvement in suppression of dissent and violence.
12. Sayyid Mohammed Qadhaf Al-dam: Cousin of Muammar Gaddafi. In the 1980s, Sayyid was involved in the dissident assassination campaign and allegedly responsible for several deaths in Europe. He is also thought to have been involved in arms procurement.
13. Khamis Gaddafi: Son of Muammar Gaddafi. Closeness of association with government. Command of military units involved in repression of demonstrations.
14. Muhammad Gaddafi: Son of Muammar Gaddafi. Closeness of association with government.
15. Saif al-Arab Gaddafi: Son of Muammar Gaddafi. Closeness of association with government.
16. Colonel Abdullah Senussi: Director Military Intelligence. Military Intelligence involvement in suppression of demonstrations. Past history includes suspicion of involvement in Abu Selim prison massacre. Convicted in absentia for bombing of UTA flight. Brother-in-law of Muammar Gaddafi.
The NTC has been in negotiations with Algeria and Niger, neighboring countries to which members of the government and defecting military commanders have fled, attempting to secure the arrest and extradition of Al-Saadi Gaddafi and others.
Of these officials, Baghdadi Mahmudi and Abuzed Omar Dorda were arrested, while Saif al-Arab Gaddafi was killed by a NATO airstrike during the war, Khamis Gaddafi was killed in action after the fall of Tripoli, and Muammar and Mutassim Gaddafi, as well as Abu-Bakr Yunis Jabr, were killed during the fall of Sirte
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# Mass media in Libya
**Mass media in Libya** describes the overall environment for the radio, television, telephone, Internet, and newspaper markets in Libya.
The control of the media by Colonel Gaddafi\'s regime came to an end after the fall of Tripoli in August 2011, resulting in a mushrooming of new media outlets. Journalists are still experiencing extortion and blackmail, and are subject to assassinations since the beginning of the second civil war circa 2012 - 2016. Libya has adopted a few media laws outlawing the slander of the 17th February revolution, and active political parties that used to have affiliation with Gaddafi.
\[Update 2016\]: On 2013, Sharia law was adopted by Islamic Supreme court of Tripoli. Internet censorship has been invoked. Since the second civil war, journalists have been persecuted through kidnapping, assassination, and blackmail. Media outlets have been bombed and some strafed with small arms fire, over the course of 2013 - 2016. Freedom of speech has suffered a few blows since the killing of activists and bloggers making the country unsafe to freely report news or protest. These events appear to have happened during the period when Islamic brotherhood - or \"more inclined to Islamic values\" GNC political parties led by Nouri Abusahmein, who have issued a number of reforms or decrees that would formulate a more Islamic nation in Tripoli, that led to the creation of more fundamentalist laws (such as Internet censorship and adaptation of vague rules in reporting news banning critique of the February 17th revolution).
However, due to the breakup of country politically and the infighting between militia and authorities, and the rivalry to the Muslim brotherhood or, simply known as \'more salafi or fundamentalist Islamists\' parties or groups, the country has fragmented in a plethora of different political beliefs. Including, the laws recently adopted by the Libyan Supreme court that affect the running of the country, which do not represent the rights and interests of all Libyan people, but seemingly, only the Islamic majority.
As of 2016, the new Unity government of national accord led by Faiez Seraj agreed to and organised with the help of the UN, is attempting to bring about political unity between the HoR of Tobruk and other governments to assess unity in the country, by removing the illegitimate and expired governments set up during the second civil war (such as Nouri Abusahmein\'s GNC), to in good faith re-balance the Libyan crisis.
## Radio
First radio service began in 1939 in Libya.
- Libya Radio and Television (LRT) is the successor to the Gaddafi-era state broadcaster. Dozens of radio outlets, many privately owned, broadcast from Libyan cities and from Middle East media hubs. The BBC World Service Arabic broadcasts on 91.5 FM in Tripoli, Benghazi, and Misrata.
Radio stations:
- Al Aan FM: Broadcasts on 105.3 MHz, covering Al Bayda, Al Marj, Benghazi, Misrata, Labraq, Nalut, Sabha, Susah, Tobruk and Tripoli.
- Allibya FM
- Libya FM - Egypt-based
- Libya Radio and Television (LRT) - state-run, operates Radio Libya, Al-Shababiyah, Al-Itha\'ah al-Wataniya
- LJBC Radio
- Tribute FM: an English-language internet station broadcasting from Benghazi
- Voice of Africa
- Voice of Free Libya - Benghazi-based, Al-Bayda, Misurata
Radio:
: 1.35 million (1997)`{{Update after|2012|7|6}}`{=mediawiki}
## Television
Libyan Radio and Television (LRT) is the successor to the Gaddafi-era state broadcaster. More than 20 TV stations, many privately owned, broadcast from Libyan cities and from Middle East media hubs.
Television receivers:
: 889,232 receivers, 149 per 1000 inhabitants (2005)`{{Update after|2012|7|6}}`{=mediawiki}
```{=html}
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Television broadcast stations:
-
- Libya TV - a.k.a. Libya al-Ahrar; Qatar-based satellite station, launched in April 2011. `{{usurped|1=[https://archive.today/20130113214318/http://www.libya.tv/ Homepage]}}`{=mediawiki}
- [Libya al-hurra TV](http://www.libyaalhura.ly/) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506072208/http://www.libyaalhura.ly/ |date=6 May 2021 }}`{=mediawiki}
- \- state-run
- Libya Radio and Television (LRT) - state-run
- [Al-Asimah TV](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/www.alassema.net/en/tv)`{{Dead link|date=July 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}`{=mediawiki} - private
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# Mass media in Libya
## Telephones
In the course of the 2011 Libyan civil war, the government severed the physical communications links between the rebel-held east and the rest of Libya. However, the newer and less centralised Libyana network held copies of the HLR and engineers were able to restore some local services. With some assistance from the international community, and funded by an expatriate Libyan, a limited international service became available in mid-April. NTC officials were reported to be negotiating with Qtel, the Qatari-owned service provider, to restore full service to the rebel-held areas.
Telephones:
- 814,000 fixed subscriptions, 12.58 per 100 inhabitants (2012)
- 1,228,300 fixed subscriptions, 19.33 per 100 inhabitants (2010)
- 9.6 million mobile cellular subscriptions, 148.19 per 100 inhabitants (2012)
- 10.9 million mobile cellular subscriptions, 171.52 per 100 inhabitants (2010)
Mobile telephone operators:
- [Al Madar](http://www.almadar.ly/) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002223046/http://almadar.ly/ |date=2 October 2016 }}`{=mediawiki}
- Libyana
**International dialing code**: +218
## Internet
Internet censorship in Libya}}
Facebook, X, and YouTube played important roles in bringing news to the world audience during the revolt. Facebook remains a favorite platform to view and comment on the news.
Internet censorship: was applied in 2013 blocking \'pornographic material\' however was found to block other non pornographic related websites, including proxy sites and some political websites that belonged to rival groups / governments.
\[references outdated\] Please update
Social Media users:
- 1,115,025 users, 19.9% of the population (2012)
: 904,604 users, 14.0% (2010)
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Fixed broadband Internet subscriptions:
- 67,300 subscriptions, 111th in the world, 1.0 subscriptions per 100 inhabitants (2012)
- 72,800 subscriptions, 98th in the world, 1.2 subscriptions per 100 inhabitants (2010)
Internet hosts:
- 17,926 hosts, 121st in the world (2012)
- 17,787 hosts, 122nd in the world (2011)
IPv4 addresses allocated:
- 299,008 addresses, 105th in the world, 44.4 per 1000 inhabitants (2012)
Top-level domain:
: .ly
```{=html}
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```
Internet Service Providers (ISPs):
The Internet and telecommunications are mainly run by the government through a semi-private telecommunication company Libya Telecom & Technology. The company moderates and controls the use of the Internet in Libya.
- 23 ISPs `{{as of|2013}}`{=mediawiki}
- Libya Telecom & Technology (LTT) - a state-owned telecommunications company
- [Aljeel Aljadeed for Technology](http://www.aljeel.ly/) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410190007/https://aljeel.ly/ |date=10 April 2021 }}`{=mediawiki} a state-owned telecommunications company
- \- leading Libyan online community
- [All Libyan Blogs](http://alllibyanblogs.blogspot.com/) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120627153612/http://alllibyanblogs.blogspot.com/ |date=27 June 2012 }}`{=mediawiki} - blog aggregator
- Bayt Al Shams (BsISP)
- (MWC)
- [Vizocom](http://www.vizocomsat.com/) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180221222420/http://vizocomsat.com/ |date=21 February 2018 }}`{=mediawiki}
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# Mass media in Libya
## Internet
### The Internet and the Libyan revolution {#the_internet_and_the_libyan_revolution}
In 2006 Reporters Without Borders (RWB) removed Libya from their list of Internet enemies after a fact-finding visit found no evidence of Internet censorship. The OpenNet Initiative's 2007--2008 technical test results contradicted that conclusion, however. In 2009 ONI classified Internet filtering in Libya as selective in the political area and as no evidence in social, conflict/security, and Internet tools.
Prior to the Libyan revolution, Internet filtering under the Gaddafi regime had become more selective, focusing on a few political opposition Web sites. This relatively lenient filtering policy coincided with what was arguably a trend toward greater openness and increasing freedom of the press. However, the legal and political climate continued to encourage self-censorship in online media.
On 18 February 2011, the day after the first protests that were to lead to the 2011 Libyan revolution, Libya appeared to have withdrawn all of its BGP prefix announcements from the Internet for a short period, cutting it off from the rest of the global Internet. The prefix were re-advertised six hours later.
There was no traffic for several hours on 19 and 20 February. Service picked up over the next few days to almost normal levels until, at 6:00am on 3 March, traffic effectively ceased (except for very limited satellite links). The government had severed the underwater backbone fibre-optic cable that runs along the coast, linking networks in the east and servers in the west of the country. Engineers reckon the break is between the cities of Misrata and Khoms, and may be a physical or electronic rupture.
From 10 July traffic began increasing again, and after a brief shutdown on 15 July, it was reaching about 15% of its pre-17 February levels up to 22 August, the day Tripoli fell to the rebels. Traffic began increasing again at that point, and as of 2 September was reaching daily levels in excess of 50% and often as high as 75% of pre-war levels.
The overthrow of the Gaddafi regime in the fall of 2011 did not end an era of censorship. In 2012, RWB removed Libya from its list of countries under surveillance.
## Newspapers
Following the fall of the Gaddafi regime in August 2011 former state-affiliated dailies have closed and new titles have appeared, many short-lived. Benghazi has emerged as a publishing hub. There are as yet few daily newspapers and print runs are small.
Daily newspapers
- *Al-Bilad* - private daily
- [*Brnieq*](http://www.brnieq.com/) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180807092234/http://brnieq.com/ |date=7 August 2018 }}`{=mediawiki}
- \- state-owned daily
- *Libya Herald* - private online English-language daily
- \- Benghazi-based private daily
Weekly newspapers
- *Tripoli Post* - private English-language weekly [Homepage](http://www.tripolipost.com/) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110331153854/http://www.tripolipost.com/ |date=31 March 2011 }}`{=mediawiki}
News agencies and websites:
- \- originally started in Switzerland in February 2011, later moved to Benghazi, Libya
- [Libyan News Agency](http://www.lana-news.ly/) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210525100515/https://lana-news.ly/ |date=25 May 2021 }}`{=mediawiki} *وكالة الانباء الليبية* (\"Lana\") - state-run, formerly Jamahiriya News Agency (\"Jana\")
- \- independent pro-Gaddafi news site still in operation
- [Tawasul News Agency](http://www.facebook.com/tawasul.na) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506231439/http://www.facebook.com/tawasul.na |date=6 May 2021 }}`{=mediawiki} (TNA) - private news agency, via social media
- [Akhbar Libya 24](http://www.akhbarlibya24.net/) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210702211435/https://akhbarlibya24
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# Transport in Libya
## Railways
Libya has had no railway in operation since 1965, all previous narrow gauge lines having been dismantled. Plans for a new network have been under development for some time (earthworks were begun between Sirte and Ras Ajdir, Tunisia border, in 2001--5), and in 2008 and 2009 various contracts were placed and construction work started on a `{{RailGauge|1435mm}}`{=mediawiki} standard gauge railway parallel to the coast from the Tunisian border at Ras Ajdir to Tripoli, and on to Misrata, Sirte, Benghazi and Bayda. Another railway line will run inland from Misrata to Sabha at the centre of a mineral-rich area.
## Highways
*Total:* 83,200 km\
*Paved:* 47,590 km\
*Unpaved:* 35,610 km (1996 est.)
There are about 83,200 km of roads in Libya, 47,590 km of which are surfaced. It 2020, there were an estimated 490 vehicles in use per 1000 residents, the highest rate in Africa. The best roads run along the coast between Tripoli and Tunis in Tunisia; also between Benghazi and Tobruk, connecting with Alexandria in Egypt. A fairly efficient bus service operates along these routes, with two main bus transport companies. One covers long-distance, international routes, while the other is chiefly engaged in shorter trips between towns. Bus fares are low and the standard of comfort, particularly on international routes is good, with air-conditioned vehicles and good service.
Taxis are available in the larger towns and are usually hired on a shared basis, although individual hire can be negotiated. The driving skills of taxi drivers are extremely variable. Taxis may have meters, but these are rarely in use. Car hire for self-drive is not recommended in Libya, although it is possible to hire a vehicle from agents in larger hotels. Vehicles are often old and poorly maintained, however, and are unequal to long-distance driving. Driving itself can be hazardous and there is a high rate of road accidents.
### Regional highways {#regional_highways}
Libya has two routes in the Trans-African Highway network, but only one currently functions as such, the Cairo--Dakar Highway.
## Ports and harbours {#ports_and_harbours}
### Mediterranean Sea {#mediterranean_sea}
(west to east)
- Zuwara
- Tripoli
- Khoms
- Misrata
- Ra\'s Lanuf
- Brega
- Benghazi
- Derna
- Tobruk
## Merchant marine {#merchant_marine}
**Total:**
- 17 ships (1000 GT or over) 96,062 GT/`{{DWT|88,760|metric|disp=long}}`{=mediawiki}
**By type:**
- Cargo 9, liquified gas 3, passenger/cargo 2, petroleum tanker 1, roll on/roll off 2
- Foreign-owned: 4 (Kuwait 1, Turkey 2, UAE 1) (2005)
## Airports
139 (2005) Most international flights arrive in and through Tripoli International Airport
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# Geography of Liechtenstein
The principality of Liechtenstein encompasses most of the eastern half of the Rhine Valley, wedged between Austria and Switzerland. The majority of the country\'s population is found in the western half along the Rhine River. Along with Uzbekistan, Liechtenstein is one of only two doubly landlocked countries in the world.
## Statistics
**Geographic coordinates**: 47 10 N 9 32 E region:LI_type:country name=Liechtenstein
**Area**: 160 km^2^ (land, 0 km^2^ water)
**Land boundaries**
: *total:* 76 km
: *border countries:* Austria 35 km, Switzerland 41 km
**Lake**
: The only lake in Liechtenstein is the Gampriner Seele.
**Land use**
: *arable land:* 21.88%
: *permanent crops:* 0%
: *other:* 78.12% (2011)
**Terrain**
: Mostly mountainous (Alps) with Rhine Valley in western third
**Natural resources**:
: Hydroelectric potential, arable land
**Extreme points:**
- North - river Rhine, Ruggell 47 16 15 N 9 31 51 E type:landmark_region:LI name=Rhine (North)
- South - summit of Mazorakopf/Falknishorn (2,452 m), Triesen 47 2 55 N 9 33 26 E type:mountain_region:LI name=Mazerakopf (South)
- East - border post 28, above Nenzinger Himmel
- West - river Rhine, Balzers 47 3 46 N 9 28 18 E region:LI_type:landmark name=Rhine (West)
- highest - Vorder Grauspitz (2,599 m), Triesen 47 3 10 N 9 34 54 E region:LI_type:mountain name=Vorder Grauspitz (highest)
- lowest - Bangserfeld (429 m), Ruggell 47 15 57 N 9 32 14 E region:LI_type:landmark name=Bangserfeld (lowest)
## Climate
Continental; cold, cloudy winters with frequent snow or rain; cool to moderately warm, cloudy, humid summers, great variety of microclimates based on elevation
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# Telecommunications in Liechtenstein
This article concerns the systems of **communications in Liechtenstein**. Liechtenstein possesses a number of modern communications systems, some of which are shared with the neighbouring country of Switzerland. The country code and top-level domain for Liechtenstein is .li.
## Telephone and internet {#telephone_and_internet}
Liechtenstein\'s automatic telephone system is connected to the Swiss telephone networks via cable and microwave radio relay systems. There are 20,072 main line telephones in the country served by the network. In April 1999, Liechtenstein ceased to be a part of the Swiss telephone numbering plan, in which the country used the Swiss area code \"075\", opting instead to have a unique country calling code, \"+423\". There are 44 internet service providers in Liechtenstein and Switzerland combined.
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
There are four FM radio broadcast stations in Liechtenstein serving 21,000 radios. The television broadcast system is linked to the Swiss networks, with the Swiss services serving 12,000 televisions in Liechtenstein
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# Politics of Lithuania
**Politics of Lithuania** takes place in a framework of a unitary semi-presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the president of Lithuania is the head of state and the prime minister of Lithuania is the head of government, and of a multi-party system.
Executive power is exercised by the president and the Government, which is headed by the prime minister. Legislative power is vested in both the Government and the unicameral Seimas (Lithuanian Parliament). Judicial power is vested in judges appointed by the president of Lithuania and is independent of executive and legislature power. The judiciary consists of the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court, and the Court of Appeal as well as the separate administrative courts. The Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania established these powers upon its approval on 25 October 1992. Being a multi-party system, the government of Lithuania is not dominated by any single political party, rather it consists of numerous parties that must work with each other to form coalition governments. `{{Democracy Index rating|Lithuania|flawed democracy|2022}}`{=mediawiki}
## History
Since Lithuania restored independence on 11 March 1990, it has kept democratic traditions. Drawing from the interwar experiences, politicians made many different proposals that ranged from strong parliamentarism to a presidential republic with checks and balances similar to the United States. Through compromise, a semi-presidential system was settled. In a referendum on 25 October 1992, the first general vote of the people since their declared independence, 56.75% of the total number of voters supported the new constitution.
All major political parties declared their support for Lithuania\'s membership in NATO and the European Union (EU). Lithuania joined NATO on 29 March 2004. Lithuania joined the EU on 1 May 2004 and Schengen Area on 21 December 2007 and Eurozone on 1 January 2015.
Since 1991, Lithuanian voters have shifted from right to left and back again, swinging between the Conservatives, led by Vytautas Landsbergis, and the (formerly Communist) Democratic Labour Party of Lithuania, led by president Algirdas Brazauskas. During this period, the prime minister was Gediminas Vagnorius.
Valdas Adamkus was the president since 1998. His proposed prime minister was Rolandas Paksas, whose government got off to a rocky start and collapsed within seven months. The alternation between left and right was broken in the October 2000 elections when the Liberal Union and New Union parties won the most votes and were able to form a centrist ruling coalition with minor partners. President Adamkus played a key role in bringing the new centrist parties together. Artūras Paulauskas, the leader of the centre-left New Union (also known as the social-liberal party), became the Chairman of the Seimas. In July 2001, the centre-left New Union party forged an alliance with the Social Democratic Party of Lithuania and formed a new cabinet under former president Algirdas Brazauskas. On 11 April 2006, Artūras Paulauskas was removed from his position and Viktoras Muntianas was elected Chairman of the Seimas.
The cabinet of Algirdas Brazauskas resigned on 31 May 2006, as President Valdas Adamkus expressed no confidence in two of the Ministers, formerly party colleagues of Brazauskas, over ethical principles. Brazauskas decided not to remain in office as acting prime minister, and announced that he was finally retiring from politics. Even so, he led the ruling Social Democratic Party of Lithuania for one more year, until 19 May 2007, when he passed the reins to Gediminas Kirkilas. On 27 November 2008, Andrius Kubilius of conservative Homeland Union was appointed as a prime minister. In December 2012 Andrius Kubilius was succeeded by Algirdas Butkevičius after his Social Democratic Party became the biggest party in parliamentary elections.
In 2016, The Peasant and Green\'s Union (LGPU) won parliamentary elections. It secured 54 seats in the 141-member parliament (Seimas), making a previously small centrist agrarian party the biggest in parliament. The conservative Homeland Union won 30 seats. The ruling Social Democrats, led by Lithuania\'s Prime Minister Algirdas Butkevciu, lost heavily and secured just 17 seats. On 22 November 2016, Saulius Skvernelis of the Lithuanian Peasants and Greens Union, became new prime minister.
In October 2020, conservative opposition Homeland Union-Lithuanian Christian Democrats (TS-LKD) won parliamentary elections with 50 seats. Prime Minister Saulius Skvernelis\' Union of Farmers and Greens came a distant second with just 32 seats. In November 2020, Ingrida Šimonytė became new prime minister, after forming a centre-right coalition government of her TS-LKD and two liberal parties.
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# Politics of Lithuania
## Government
Government in Lithuania is made up of three branches originally envisioned by enlightenment philosopher Baron de Montesquieu: executive, legislative, and judicial. Each branch is separate and is set up to do checks and balances on each other branch.
### Executive branch {#executive_branch}
The executive branch of the Lithuanian government consists of a president, a prime minister, and the president\'s Council of Ministers. It is in charge of running the government.
#### President
The president of Lithuania is the head of state of the country, elected directly for a five-year term and can serve maximum of two terms consecutively. Presidential elections take place in a modified version of the two-round system. If half of voters participate, a candidate must win a majority of the total valid vote in order to win election in the first round. If fewer than half of voters participate, a candidate can win outright with a plurality and at least one third of the total vote. If the first round does not produce a president, a runoff is held between the top two finishers in the first round, with a plurality sufficient to win.
The president, with the approval of the Seimas, is first responsible of appointing the prime minister. Upon the prime minister\'s nomination, the president also appoints, under the recommendation of the prime minister, the Council of Ministers (13 ministries), as well as a number of other top civil servants and the judges for all courts. The president also serves as the commander-in-chief, oversees foreign and security policy, addresses political problems of foreign and domestic affairs, proclaims states of emergency, considers the laws adopted by the Seimas, and performs other duties specified in the Constitution. Lithuanian presidents have somewhat greater power than their counterparts in Estonia and Latvia, but have more influence in foreign policy than domestic policy.
Former president Rolandas Paksas, who had defeated Adamkus in 2003, was impeached in April 2004 for leaking classified information.
Dalia Grybauskaitė, the first female president, served as the president of Lithuania since July 2009 until 2019, winning a reelection bid in 2014. Grybauskaitė succeeded Valdas Adamkus who had served a total of two non-consecutive terms.
In 2019, Gitanas Nauseda won Lithuania\'s presidential runoff election after his opponent Ingrida Šimonytė conceded.
#### Prime minister {#prime_minister}
The prime minister of Lithuania is the head of government of the country, appointed by the president and approved by the Seimas. The prime minister, within 15 days of being appointed, is responsible for choosing ministers for the president to approve to each of the 13 ministries. In general, the prime minister is in charge of the affairs of the country, maintains homeland security, carries out laws and resolutions of the Seimas and decrees of the president, maintains diplomatic relations with foreign countries and international organizations, and performs other duties specified in the Constitution. In practice, the prime minister is mostly responsible for domestic policy, while the president mostly handles foreign policy.
#### Council of Ministers {#council_of_ministers}
Similar to the cabinet of other nations, the Council of Ministers consists of 13 ministers chosen by the prime minister and appointed by the president. Each minister is responsible for his or her own ministry of the Lithuanian government and must give reports on his or her ministry when directed to. When the prime minister resigns or dies, the position is to be filled as soon as possible and the new leader will appoint a new government.
#### Current office holders {#current_office_holders}
\|President \|Gitanas Nausėda \|Independent \|12 July 2019 \|- \|Prime Minister \|Gintautas Paluckas \|Social Democratic Party of Lithuania \|12 December 2024 \|}
### Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
The parliament (Seimas) has 141 members that are elected for a 4-year term. About half of the members are elected in single-member districts (71), and the other half (70) are elected in the nationwide vote using proportional representation by party lists. A party must receive at least 5% of the national vote to be represented in the Seimas.
### Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
#### 2019 presidential election {#presidential_election}
Candidate Party First round
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------- -----------
Votes \% Votes \%
Ingrida Šimonytė Independent **442,353** **31.43**
Gitanas Nausėda Independent 438,469 31.16
Saulius Skvernelis Independent 278,680 19.80
Vytenis Andriukaitis Social Democratic Party of Lithuania 67,802 4.82
Arvydas Juozaitis Independent 66,535 4.73
Valdemar Tomaševski Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania 56,411 4.01
Mindaugas Puidokas Independent 36,645 2.60
Naglis Puteikis Lithuanian Centre Party 11,214 0.80
Valentinas Mazuronis Independent 9,169 0.65
Invalid/blank votes 9,905 --
**Total** **1,417,183** **100**
Registered voters/turnout 2,486,915 56.99
Source: [VRK](https://www.vrk.lt/en/2019-prezidento/rezultatai?srcUrl=/rinkimai/904/1/1546/rezultatai/lt/rezultataiPreRezultatai.html), [VRK](https://www.vrk.lt/en/2019-prezidento/rezultatai?srcUrl=/rinkimai/904/2/1544/rezultatai/en/rezultataiPreLietuvoje.html)
#### 2020 parliamentary election {#parliamentary_election}
{{#section-h:2020 Lithuanian parliamentary election\|Results}}
#### 2019 European election {#european_election}
Party Votes \%
----------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------- ------------
Homeland Union 245,918 18.60
Social Democratic Party of Lithuania 199,217 17.26
Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union 157,604 11.92
Labour Party 112,964 8.54
Liberal Movement 81,916 6.20
Public election committee \"Aušra Maldeikienė\'s Train\" 80,703 6.10
\"Waldemar Tomaszewski Block\" - Coalition of Christian Families Alliance and Lithuanian Russian Union 69,263 5.24
Lithuanian Centre Party 64,091 4.85
Public election committee \"President Rolandas Paksas\' Movement\" 50,130 3.79
Public election committee \"Vytautas Radžvilas: Recover the State!\" 41,860 3.17
Order and Justice 34,298 2.59
Social Democratic Labour Party of Lithuania 29,592 2.24
Lithuanian Green Party 28,126 2.13
Lithuanian Freedom Union (Liberals) 23,829 1.80
Public election committee \"Strong Lithuania in United Europe\" 16,671 1.26
Public election committee \"Decisive Leap\" 16,671 1.07
**Total** **1,250,377** **100.00**
### Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
The judges of the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Lithuania (*Lietuvos Respublikos Konstitucinis Teismas*) for a single nine-year term are appointed by the Seimas from the candidates presented by the President (three judges), Chairman of Seimas (three judges) and the chairman of the Supreme Court (three judges).
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# Politics of Lithuania
## Administrative divisions {#administrative_divisions}
Lithuania has a three-tier administrative division: the country is divided into 10 counties (Lithuanian: singular -- *apskritis*, plural -- *apskritys*) that are further subdivided into 60 municipalities (Lithuanian: singular -- *savivaldybė*, plural -- *savivaldybės*) which consist of over 500 elderships (Lithuanian: singular -- *seniūnija*, plural -- *seniūnijos*).
The county governors (Lithuanian: *apskrities viršininkas*) institution and county administrations have been dissolved in 2010.
Municipalities are the most important administrative unit. Some municipalities are historically called \"district municipalities\", and thus are often shortened to \"district\"; others are called \"city municipalities\", sometimes shortened to \"city\". Each municipality has its own elected government. In the past, the election of municipality councils occurred once every three years, but it now takes place every four years. The council appoints elders to govern the elderships. Mayors are elected directly since 2015, being appointed by the council before that.
## International organization participation {#international_organization_participation}
Organization Acronym Date joined Notes
------------------------------------------------------------------ ---------- ------------------- ------------------------------
Bank for International Settlements BIS 31 March 1931
Council of the Baltic Sea States CBSS 5 March 1992
Council of Europe COE 14 May 1993
Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council EAPC
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development EBRD 30 January 1992
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe ECE
European Space Agency ESA 21 May 2021 Associate state.
European Union EU 1 May 2004
Food and Agriculture Organization FAO 9 November 1991
International Atomic Energy Agency IAEA 18 November 1993
World Bank IBRD 6 July 1992
International Civil Aviation Organization ICAO 27 September 1991
International Chamber of Commerce ICC
International Criminal Court ICC
International Trade Union Confederation ITUC
International Finance Corporation IFC 21 March 1992
International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement IFRCS 17 November 1991
International Labour Organization ILO 4 October 1991
International Monetary Fund IMF 29 March 1992
International Maritime Organization IMO 7 December 1995
International Criminal Police Organization -- Interpol Interpol 4 November 1991
International Olympic Committee IOC First participation in 1924
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# Telecommunications in Lithuania
**Telecommunications in Lithuania** include internet, radio, television, and telephony.
The Communications Regulatory Authority of the Republic of Lithuania (RRT) functions as the independent regulator for the country\'s electronic communications industry. Established under the Law on Telecommunications and the provisions with European Union Directives, its role is to facilitate a competitive environment within the industry.
The European Commission's 2022 Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI) report evaluates Lithuania\'s digital progress among 27 EU nations. Ranking 23rd in overall connectivity, Lithuania stands out with Fixed Very High Capacity Network (VHCN) and Fiber-to-the-Premises (FTTP) coverage. In human capital, Lithuania ranks 20th, with a strength in digital skills. Notably, in the integration of digital technologies, Lithuania performs 13th, with advancements in Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) and e-commerce. Digital public services earn the 10th rank, with aspirations for 100% online key public services by 2026. Additionally, the country has focused on enhancing broadband infrastructure, particularly in less urban areas. Efforts in cybersecurity and the development of smart city solutions are also highlighted.
## Internet and digital progress {#internet_and_digital_progress}
### Users and skills {#users_and_skills}
In 2022, internet usage among individuals in Lithuania reached 87%, just below the EU average of 89%. The country has made progress in enhancing digital skills but still encounters hurdles in achieving the Digital Decade targets set for 2030. As of 2022, 49% of the population had attained at least basic digital skills, slightly under the EU average of 54%, and the proportion of individuals with above-basic digital skills was 23%, marginally lower than the EU benchmark of 26%.
### Fixed broadband {#fixed_broadband}
In Lithuania, the uptake of broadband services with speeds of at least 100 Mbps was 52% in 2022, marginally below the European Union (EU) average of 55%. Coverage of Fixed Very High Capacity Network (VHCN) and Fiber to the Premises (FTTP) was at 78%, surpassing the EU averages of 73% and 56%, respectively. The \"Development of Next Generation Access Infrastructure\" project, funded by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) for the period 2018--2023, facilitated the installation of 1,235 kilometers of fiber-optic lines and initiated the construction of telecommunication towers. Additionally, as part of the revised National Broadband Plan, the \"Development of gigabit broadband infrastructure for digitally sensitive users\" project, supported by EUR 49 million from the Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF), is designed to extend connectivity to 5,000 users across private companies, non-governmental and governmental organizations, municipalities, and municipal companies.
### Mobile broadband {#mobile_broadband}
Lithuania\'s adoption of mobile broadband demonstrated growth, increasing from 74% in 2018 to 85% in 2021, marginally below the EU average of 87%. The expansion of 5G coverage in the country was notably rapid, commencing from 0% in 2020 to 33% in 2021, and subsequently increasing to 90% in 2022, thereby surpassing the EU average of 81%. Moreover, Lithuania\'s advancement in the allocation of 5G spectrum experienced a marked rise, advancing from 5% in 2021 to 47% in 2023, catching up to the EU average of 68%.
### Ultra-fast broadband goals {#ultra_fast_broadband_goals}
The European Commission\'s \"Broadband in Lithuania\" report from September 2022 outlines Lithuania\'s plan, initiated in October 2021, to implement ultra-fast broadband. This plan aims to provide internet speeds of at least 100 Mbit/s (megabits per second) to households and public institutions in both urban and rural areas by 2027. Such speeds are suitable for various online activities. Aligned with the Lithuanian Information Society Development Programme and the Digital Agenda of the Republic of Lithuania, the initiative is designed for nationwide broadband infrastructure expansion.
In terms of infrastructure, Lithuania has committed €75 million to construct communication towers and install fiber optic lines, striving for 95% of households to have access to these high-speed Internet services by 2025. Additionally, the Ministry of Transport and Communications is guiding the country\'s 5G advancements. Guidelines established in 2020 focus on rolling out next-generation mobile networks, including uninterrupted 5G services along major transport routes by 2025.
### Digital public services {#digital_public_services}
In 2022, Lithuania\'s usage of e-government services by internet users reached 83%, exceeding the EU average of 74%. The nation\'s digital public services for citizens and businesses scored 84 and 94 out of 100, respectively, surpassing the EU averages of 77 and 84. Mobile friendliness in Lithuania was rated at 97 out of 100. Additionally, Lithuania\'s access to e-health records scored 92 out of 100, exceeding the EU average of 72. The country is implementing a digital public and administrative services reform with a budget of EUR 115 million, aiming for completion by 2026. This includes modernizing the State Information Resources Interoperability Platform (Electronic Government Gateway).
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
### Radio
- Three radio networks operated by the public broadcaster (2007).
- Many privately owned commercial broadcasters, many with repeater stations in various regions throughout the country (2007).
- Radios: 1.9 million (1997).`{{Update after|2013|12|26}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Telecommunications in Lithuania
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
### Television
- Three channels operated by the public broadcaster, with the third, a satellite channel, introduced in 2014.
- Various privately owned commercial TV broadcasters operate national and multiple regional channels (2007).
- Many privately owned local TV stations (2007).
- Multi-channel cable and satellite TV services are available (2007).
- Televisions: 1.7 million (1997).`{{Update after|2013|12|26}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Telecommunications in Lithuania
## Telephony
- Main lines: 667,300 lines in use (2012), 89th in the world; 819,147 lines (2004).
- Mobile cellular: 5 million lines, 110th in the world (2012).
- Telephone system: adequate, but is being modernised to provide an improved international capability and better residential access (2010).
- Domestic: national fibre-optic cable interurban trunk system; rapid expansion of mobile-cellular services has resulted in a steady decline in the number of fixed-line connections; mobile-cellular teledensity stands at about 140 per 100 persons (2010).
- International: major international connections to Denmark, Sweden, and Norway by submarine cable for further transmission by satellite; landline connections to Latvia and Poland (2010).
- Country calling code: 370.
## Internet censorship {#internet_censorship}
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without appropriate legal authority. Individuals and groups generally engage in the free expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail, but authorities prosecute people for openly posting material on the Internet that authorities considered to be inciting hatred.
The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combine to promote these freedoms. However, the constitutional definition of freedom of expression does not protect certain acts, such as incitement to national, racial, religious, or social hatred, violence and discrimination, or slander, and disinformation. It is a crime to deny or \"grossly trivialise\" Soviet or Nazi German crimes against Lithuania or its citizens, or to deny genocide, crimes against humanity, or war crimes. In the first 11 months of 2012 authorities initiated investigations into 259 allegations of incitement of hatred and six of incitement of discrimination, most of them over the Internet. Authorities forwarded 69 of those allegations to the courts for trial, closed 68, and suspended 113 for lack of evidence; the others remained under investigation. Most allegations of incitement of hatred involved racist or anti-Semitic expression, or hostility based on sexual orientation, gender identity, or nationality.
It is a crime to disseminate information that is both untrue and damaging to an individual\'s honour and dignity. Libel is punishable by a fine or imprisonment of up to one year, or up to two years for libellous material disseminated through the mass media. While it is illegal to publish material \"detrimental to minors' bodies\" or thought processes, information promoting the sexual abuse and harassment of minors, promoting sexual relations among minors, or \"sexual relations\", the law is not often invoked and there are no indications that it adversely affects freedom of the media.
The constitution prohibits arbitrary interference in an individual\'s personal correspondence or private and family life, but there were reports that the government did not respect these prohibitions in practice. The law requires authorities to obtain judicial authorisation before searching an individual\'s premises and prohibits the indiscriminate monitoring by government or other parties of citizens' correspondence or communications. However, domestic human rights groups allege that the government does not properly enforce the law
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# Transport in Lithuania
**Transport in Lithuania** relies mainly on road and rail networks.
## Lithuanian road system {#lithuanian_road_system}
*total:* 21,238 km\
*paved:* 14,879 km\
*unpaved:* 6,359 km
### Highways
### Controlled-access highways sections {#controlled_access_highways_sections}
There are two categories of controlled-access highways in Lithuania: expressways (Lithuanian: *greitkeliai*) with maximum speed 120 km/h and motorways (Lithuanian: *automagistralės*) with maximum speed 130 km/h.
#### Motorway sections {#motorway_sections}
- A1 Kaunas -- Klaipėda. Total length of the stretch: 195 km. The motorway ends for a short section near Sujainiai (Raseiniai district municipality) as the junction here is one-level and it is used by non-motorway vehicles.
- A2 Vilnius -- Panevėžys. Total length of the stretch: 114 km.
- A5 Kaunas -- Marijampolė. Total length of the stretch: 57 km.
- A1 Kaunas -- Vilnius. There length of the stretch: 55 km (Kaunas -- Vievis) and 16 km (Vievis -- Grigiškės).
#### Expressway sections {#expressway_sections}
- A9 Radviliškis -- Šiauliai. Total length of the stretch: 10 km.
### A road system {#a_road_system}
The A roads (Lithuanian: *magistraliniai keliai*) total 1748.84 km.
- A1 Vilnius -- Kaunas -- Klaipėda, 311.40 km. Most important east to west corridor in Lithuania. Connects three largest Lithuanian cities: Vilnius, Kaunas and Klaipėda. Most of the road has motorway status.
- A2 Vilnius -- Panevėžys, 135.92 km. The stretch between Vilnius and Šilagalis has motorway status.
- A3 Vilnius -- Medininkai Border Checkpoint, 33.99 km. Continues to Belarus and connects Vilnius with the Belarusian capital of Minsk.
- A4 Vilnius -- Raigardas Border Checkpoint, 134.46 km. Continues to Grodno, Belarus.
- A5 Kaunas -- border with Poland, 97.06 km. The stretch from Kaunas to Marijampolė has motorway status. Continues towards Suwałki in Poland.
- A6 Kaunas -- Daugavpils, 185.40 km. Continues towards Daugavpils in Latvia.
- A7 Marijampolė -- Kybartai Border Checkpoint, 42.21 km. An important transit route to Kaliningrad Oblast.
- A8 Sitkūnai -- Panevėžys, 87.86 km.
- A9 Panevėžys -- Šiauliai, 78.94 km. Short 10 km expressway section.
- A10 Panevėžys -- Bauska 66.10 km. Continues to Bauska in Latvia. Important transit route to Riga.
- A11 Šiauliai -- Palanga, 146.85 km
- A12 border with Latvia -- Panemunė Border Checkpoint, 186.09 km
- A13 Klaipėda -- Liepaja, 45.15 km
- A14 Vilnius -- Utena, 95.60 km
- A15 Vilnius -- Lida, 49.28 km
- A16 Vilnius -- Marijampolė, 137.51 km
- A17 Panevėžys Bypass, 22.28 km.
- A18 Šiauliai Bypass, 17.08 km
- A19 Vilnius Southern Bypass, 7.9 km
- A20 Ukmergė Northern Bypass, 7.7 km
- A21 Panemunė Eastern Bypass, 4 km (2.5 mi)
### Major highway projects in Interwar Lithuania {#major_highway_projects_in_interwar_lithuania}
Before World War I, there were few isolated routes suitable for transit traffic e.g. present day A12 highway, connecting Riga with Kaliningrad, or present day A6 highway which was part of highway Warsaw--Saint Petersburg that ran through Kaunas. After Lithuania became an independent country in 1918, there was increased demand for new highways for inner needs. First long-distance highways built exclusively by the Lithuanian government were opened in the late 1930s. These are following:
- Samogitian highway -- old highway built in the 1930s, connecting Kaunas and Klaipėda. Road section between Kaunas and Ariogala is now completely refurbished to motorway, and the road section from Ariogala to Klaipėda is serving as alternative road for a parallelly-built A1 motorway and connects local towns such as Ariogala, Raseiniai and Rietavas.
- Aukštaitian highway -- old highway built in the 1930s. It connects Kaunas, Kėdainiai, Panevėžys and Biržai to Riga. After building an original route, new routes were built through the course of Soviet Union and after its dissolution. The road was gradually rerouted to avoid larger urban areas, and now runs from Sitkūnai, bypasses Kėdainiai, Panevėžys, Pasvalys, Biržai, and reaches Latvian border to Riga. Rerouted highway is now part of Via Baltica.
### Museum
- Lithuanian Road Museum
## Railways
*Main article: Rail transport in Lithuania* There is a total of 1,998 route km of railways, of which:
- 1,807 km are *broad gauge* of `{{RailGauge|1520mm}}`{=mediawiki} -- 122 km of which are electrified
- 169 km are *narrow gauge* of `{{RailGauge|750mm}}`{=mediawiki} -- as of 2001
- 22 km are *standard gauge* of `{{RailGauge|1435mm}}`{=mediawiki}
### Rail links with adjacent countries {#rail_links_with_adjacent_countries}
- Latvia -- yes
- Belarus -- yes
- Russia (Kaliningrad) -- yes
- Poland -- yes -- break-of-gauge `{{RailGauge|1520mm}}`{=mediawiki} / `{{RailGauge|1435mm}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Transport in Lithuania
## Waterways
There are 600 km that are perennially navigable.
## Pipelines
In 1992, there were 105 km of crude oil pipelines, and 760 km of natural gas pipelines.
## Ports and harbours {#ports_and_harbours}
### Sea ports {#sea_ports}
- Port of Klaipėda
- Būtingė oil terminal
### River ports {#river_ports}
- Kaunas
- Rumšiškės
- Nida
- Juodkrantė
## Merchant marine {#merchant_marine}
The merchant marine consists of 47 ships of 1,000 GT or over, together totaling 279,743 GT/`{{DWT|304,156|metric|disp=long}}`{=mediawiki}.
**Ships by type:** Cargo 25, Combination bulk 8, Petroleum tanker 2, Railcar carrier 1, Refrigerated cargo 6, Roll on/roll off 2, Short-sea passenger 3.
*Note:* These totals include some foreign-owned ships registered here as a flag of convenience: Denmark 13 (2002 est
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# Geography of Luxembourg
Luxembourg is a small country located in the Low Countries, part of North-West Europe. It borders Belgium for 148 km to the west and north, France (73 km) to the south, and Germany (138 km) to the east. Luxembourg is landlocked, separated from the North Sea by Belgium.
The topography of the country is divided very clearly between the hilly Éislek of the northern third of the Grand Duchy and the flat Gutland, which occupies the southern two-thirds. The country\'s longest river is the Sauer, which is a tributary of the Moselle, the basin of which includes almost all of Luxembourg\'s area. Other major rivers include the Alzette in the south and the Wiltz in the north.
The capital, and by far the largest city, is Luxembourg City, which is located in the Gutland, as are most of the country\'s main population centres, including Esch-sur-Alzette, Dudelange, and Differdange. Besides Luxembourg City, the other main towns are primarily located in the southern Red Lands region, which lines the border between Luxembourg and France to the south.
## Physical geography {#physical_geography}
### Topography
Despite its small size, Luxembourg has a varied topography, with two main features to its landscape. The northern section of the country is formed by part of the plateau of the Ardennes, where the mountain heights range from 450 to. The rest of the country is made up of undulating countryside with broad valleys. The capital, Luxembourg City, is located in the southern part of the country.
### Green heart of Europe {#green_heart_of_europe}
Because the soil is so difficult to cultivate, most of the land is used for cattle pasture. The Ardennes region also includes the Upper Sûre National Park, an important conservation area and a hiker\'s retreat.
South of the Sûre River, the country is known as the Gutland. The region covers slightly over two-thirds of the country.
The terrain gently rises and falls with an average height of 200 m. Agriculture is the main activity as term Gutland arises from the fertile soil and warm, dry summers experienced is this part of the Duchy compared to the Éislek region.
As a result, vegetables and fruit, such as strawberries, apples, plums, and cherries, are grown in large quantities. River erosion in this area has created deep gorges and caves, resulting in some spectacular scenery.
In the extreme south of the country lies \"the land of the red rocks\" -- a reference to the deposits of minerals found here. Rich in iron ore, the district has been a mining and heavy industrial region since Roman if not earlier times and stretches for over 12 mi. The tall chimneys of the iron and steel works are typical landmarks of the industrial south. To the east lies the grape-growing valley of the Moselle. Numerous villages nestle in the deep valleys and behind the vineyards along the river banks. Most villages have at least one winery. Also in the east is the \"Little Switzerland\" area, characterized by wooded glens and ravines in unusual rock formations.
### Rivers and lakes {#rivers_and_lakes}
Luxembourg has a number of minor rivers, such as the Eisch, the Alzette, and the Pétrusse, but the main river is the Moselle with its tributaries-the Sûre and the Our. Together, their courses serve as a natural boundary between Luxembourg and Germany. Along their banks, many of the country\'s medieval castles can be found.
The Moselle actually rises in northeast France and flows north through Luxembourg for 19 mi to join the mighty Rhine at Koblenz, Germany. The Moselle is 544 km long, and is navigable, due to canalization for 40 mi. Green slopes, covered with vines, flank the meandering course of the river.
Rising in Belgium, the Sûre River flows for 107 mi in an easterly direction through Luxembourg and into the Moselle. Its sinuous course essentially cuts Luxembourg from east to west. The Our River, flowing along the northeastern border, is a tributary of the Sûre. Its valley is surrounded by unspoiled countryside. The Upper Sûre lake is the largest stretch of water in the Grand Duchy. Surrounded by luxuriant vegetation and peaceful creeks, the lake is a centre for water sports, such as sailing, canoeing, and kayaking. Such outdoor activities, which has made it an attractive spot for tourists, have led to the growth of a local crafts industry.
The town of Esch-sur-Sûre nestles at one end of the lake. Immediately above it, the river has been dammed to form a hydroelectric reservoir extending some 6 mi up the valley. The Upper Sûre dam was built in the 1960s to meet the country\'s drinking water requirements
### Extreme points {#extreme_points}
**Elevation extremes:**\
*lowest point:* Moselle at Wasserbillig - 133 m\
*highest point:* Kneiff near Wilwerdange - 560 m
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# Geography of Luxembourg
## Environment
### Climate
Luxembourg is part of the West European Continental climatic region, and enjoys a temperate climate without extremes. Winters are mild, summers fairly cool, and rainfall is high.
Seasonal weather is somewhat different between the northern and southern regions. In the north there is considerable influence from the Atlantic systems, in which the passage of frequent pressure depressions gives rise to unstable weather conditions. This results in overcast skies and considerable drizzle in the winter.
Rainfall reaches 1200 mm a year in some areas. In the summer, excessive heat is rare and temperatures drop noticeably at night. Low temperatures and humidity make for what those living in this part of the country call, optimistically, an \"invigorating climate\".
In the south, although the rainfall is not significantly low, at around 800 mm, and the winters no milder, the principal difference is in the higher summer temperatures, especially in the Moselle Valley. Crops, especially wine grapes, thrive here. With a mean annual temperature of 10 °C, the sunniest months are May to August. In the spring, the countryside is a riot of wildflowers and blossoms.
### Flora
Luxembourg\'s flora is characterized by the country\'s location at the border between the Atlantic-European and Central-European climate zones. In the north, beech and oak trees are plentiful. The oak trees can grow up to 30 --, with a diameter of 1.2 --. They supply large quantities of excellent hardwood timber because of their strength.
Along the riverbanks, species like the black alder and willows can be found. Alder wood is pale yellow to reddish brown, fine-textured and durable even under water. It is also an important timber tree mainly because of its disease-resistant properties. Willow trees can reach a height of 20 m, and are valued for ornamental purposes.
The narrow, deeply incised valleys of the north also provide a habitat for rare plants and animals, especially the European otter, a protected species. In the industrial south, among the abandoned quarries and deserted open pit mines, nature has reclaimed her own, and there are flowers everywhere.
### International agreements {#international_agreements}
*Party to:* Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
*Signed, but not ratified:* Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea
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# Geography of Luxembourg
## Geographical statistics {#geographical_statistics}
**Geographic coordinates:** 49 45 N 6 10 E type:country
**Area:**\
*total:* 2 586 km^2^\
*land:* 2 586 km^2^\
*water:* 0 km^2^
**Natural resources:** iron ore (no longer exploited), arable land
**Land use:**\
*arable land:* 23.9%\
*permanent crops:* 0.56%\
*other:* 75.52% (2011)
**Irrigated land:** 10 km^2^ (including Belgium) (1993 est.)
**Total renewable water resources:** 3
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# Telecommunications in Luxembourg
Luxembourg is recognized for establishing local television and radio stations abroad. The RTL Group, originating from Luxembourg, operates in numerous countries. Additionally, Luxembourg is the base for SES, a leading global satellite operator.
In the 2022 Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI), among the 27 European Union (EU) members, Luxembourg is placed 6th in Human Capital, with 64% of its population possessing basic digital skills, exceeding the EU average of 54%. Additionally, in Information and Communication Technology (ICT), the country mirrors the EU average with 20% female ICT specialists. For Connectivity, it ranks 11th, with 91% uptake in fixed broadband and 96% in mobile broadband, both figures exceeding the EU averages of 78% and 87%, respectively. The country is 18th in Integration of Digital Technology, as Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) show a 54% digital intensity level, slightly below the EU average of 55%. In Digital Public Services, Luxembourg ranks 7th with an e-government user rate of 79%, exceeding the EU\'s 65%.
## User statistics {#user_statistics}
- Telephones - main lines in use: 314,700 (1999)
- Telephones - mobile cellular: 215,741 (2000)
- Telephone system: highly developed, completely automated and efficient system, mainly buried cables
- *domestic:* nationwide cellular telephone system; buried cable
- *international:* 3 channels leased on TAT-6 coaxial submarine cable (Europe to North America)
- Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 9, shortwave 2 (1999)
- Radios: 285,000 (1997)
- Television broadcast stations: 5 (1999)
- Televisions: 285,000 (1998 est.)
- Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 8 (2000) Note: Work has started in 2006 on a citywide WiFi project called Hotcity.
- Internet users: 636,000 (2022)
- Country code (Top-level domain): .lu
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# Telecommunications in Luxembourg
## Internet
### Fixed broadband {#fixed_broadband}
Luxembourg\'s fixed broadband sector exhibits a 91% uptake rate, exceeding the EU\'s 78% average. Additionally, 63% of Luxembourg households have access to broadband speeds of at least 100 Mbps, above the EU\'s 41%. The country\'s digital infrastructure includes 96% coverage in very high capacity networks (VHCN) and 75% in fibre to the premises (FTTP), both higher than the EU averages of 70% and 50%, respectively.
### Mobile broadband {#mobile_broadband}
The country demonstrates solid performance in mobile broadband with an uptake rate of 96%, higher than the EU average of 87%. The country is advancing its 5G capabilities, achieving an assigned 5G spectrum of 61%, slightly above the EU average of 56%. However, 5G coverage lags behind, with a notably lower coverage rate of 13% compared to the EU average of 66%
### Digital public services {#digital_public_services}
In the domain of digital public services, Luxembourg ranks 7th within the EU. Notably, 79% of the country\'s internet users actively utilize e-government solutions, representing a significant increase compared to the prior year and to the EU average of 65%. This accomplishment is attributed to the \"Electronic Governance 2021-2025\" strategy, jointly developed by the Ministry for Digitalisation and the Government IT Centre (CTIE), with the goal of facilitating the transition to a digital government model. Luxembourg actively promotes innovation and modernization through initiatives such as the Guichet.lu portal, electronic authentication certificates, and the introduction of numerous online administrative procedures. The country continues its efforts to enhance open data availability, currently standing at 66%, which is below the EU average of 81%.
## Television and radio {#television_and_radio}
Luxembourg maintains a pan-European broadcasting presence through the RTL Group, offering a wide array of radio and television services, especially in France, Germany, and the UK. The nation hosts SES, Europe\'s leading satellite operator, managing the Astra satellite fleet. Locally, outlets such as RTL Tele Letzebuerg and Nordliicht TV provide content for Luxembourg\'s audiences, while radio platforms like RTL Radio Letzebuerg and EldoRadio present diverse programming. Luxembourg\'s media landscape benefits from constitutional protections for freedom of speech and the press
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# Transport in Luxembourg
**Transport in Luxembourg** is ensured principally by road, rail and air. There are also services along the river Moselle which forms the border with Germany. The road network has been significantly modernised in recent years with motorways to adjacent countries. The advent of the high-speed TGV link to Paris has led to renovation of the capital\'s main railway station while a new Schengen-only passenger terminal at Luxembourg Airport opened in 2017. Trams in the capital were reintroduced in December 2017 and there are plans for light-rail and/or tram-train lines in adjacent areas.
All public transport in Luxembourg (buses, trams, and trains) has been free to use since 29 February 2020, as part of a larger mobility experiment with goals to increase walking for short trips, increase bicycling, and increase the transit ridership sharply as the network is enlarged and service frequency is increased.
## Railways
Operated by Chemins de Fer Luxembourgeois (CFL), Luxembourg\'s railways form the backbone of the country\'s public transport network, linking the most important towns. The total length of operational (standard gauge) track is 274 km, though it was some 550 km at the end of the Second World War. There are regular services from Luxembourg City to Ettelbruck, Esch-sur-Alzette, Wasserbillig and Kleinbettingen while international routes extend to Trier, Koblenz, Brussels, Liège, Metz and Nancy.
The railway network links into Belgium, Germany and France. Some of the cross-border services are run by CFL, others by SNCF, NMBS/SNCB and DB.
There is now a frequent high-speed connection to Paris via the LGV Est line. EuroCap-Rail is a proposed high-speed axis connecting Brussels, Luxembourg (city), and Strasbourg.
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# Transport in Luxembourg
## Roads
### Road network {#road_network}
The six Luxembourg motorways cover a total distance of 165 km, linking the capital with Trier (Germany), Thionville (France) and Arlon (Belgium) as well as with Esch-sur-Alzette and Ettelbruck in Luxembourg. Luxembourg\'s motorways are toll free. The speed limit is normally 130 km/h, 110 km/h in rainy weather. With 56.8 km of motorway per 1000 km2, Luxembourg probably now has the highest density of motorways in Europe.
Luxembourg City is a major business and financial center. Many workers prefer to live in the three neighboring countries and drive to work each day. This creates huge traffic jams during peak commuting hours. Tailbacks on the E411 motorway can extend five or more kilometers into Belgium and can take an hour or more to navigate.
The remaining road network in Luxembourg accounts for a total length of 2730 km, consisting of 839 km of trunk roads (RN or *routes nationales*) and 1891 km of secondary roads (CR or *chemins repris*).
Year (as of 01.01) 1990 1995 2000 2008 2012 2016 2017 2019
-------------------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
\[km\] \[km\] \[km\] \[km\] \[km\] \[km\] \[km\] \[km\]
Roads (total) 2775 2820 2863 2875 2899 2908 2912 2914
Trunk roads 869 869 837 837 837 837 837 839
Motorways 78 123 115 147 152 161 165 165
Secondary roads 1828 1828 1911 1891 1891 1891 1891 1891
: Evaluation of road km
### Bus services {#bus_services}
Comprehensive bus services linking the towns and villages of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg are contracted out to private operators by the RGTR (Régime général des transports routiers) under the Ministry of Transport.
Luxembourg City is served by 250 of its own AVL (Autobus de la Ville de Luxembourg) buses transporting some 40 million passengers per year (2018). 170 of these are, as with the RGTR, contracted out to private operators. Most of these buses are in AVL colors but the owner\'s name is often mentioned on them in small print. Also, the letters on the license plate can give ownership away to those that know how that system works. There are 31 regular bus routes plus special bus services through the night.
The TICE or Syndicat des Tramways Intercommunaux dans le Canton d'Esch/Alzette operates several bus routes. They are centered on the city of Esch-sur-Alzette in the southeast of the country. Most are urban and suburban routes but some extend into the surrounding countryside.
CFL, the Luxembourg railway company, operates some 17 bus routes, mainly serving towns and villages that are no longer served by rail.
A number of smaller cities like Ettelbruck and Wiltz have started their own local services, some of which reach out to nearby villages. These services are not part of the RGTR and national tickets are not always honored.
All transport companies work together under the *Verkéiersverbond*, which covers all bus, tram, and train routes. Starting from 29 Feb 2020, all public transport was made free throughout the territory of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, funded through general taxation. However first class tickets can still be purchased for use on the trains: a ticket valid for 2 hours is €3, whilst a one-day ticket is €6.
### Cycling
In the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, the EV5 Via Romea Francigena runs 107 km and follows a network of dedicated cycle paths from the Belgian border, through to its cliff-top capital city, and towards the French and German borders at Schengen. The EV5 follows the following national routes in Luxembourg: PC18, PC17, PC12, PC13, the Luxembourg-City route no. 10, PC1, PC11, PC7 and PC3.
In Luxembourg, the EV5 goes through Strassen, Luxembourg, Hesperange and Schengen. It then passes through back to France.
## Trams
Luxembourg City\'s historic tramway network closed in 1964 as part of a general decline of trams across Europe, but the city reintroduced trams at the end of 2017 with the construction of a new tram line (T1) opening in a phased approach. The final leg opened in March 2025. The line connects Luxembourg Airport to the EU institutions on the Kirchberg plateau, the city centre, Luxembourg Station, the new Cloche d\'Or business district and national stadium. Additional lines are foreseen, both in Luxembourg City, and extending to Esch-sur-Alzette as part of Luxembourg\'s National Mobility Plan 2035.
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# Transport in Luxembourg
## Water
The river Moselle forms a 42 km natural border between Luxembourg and Germany in the southeast of the country. In the summer months, the Princess Marie-Astrid and a few other tourist boats operate regular services along the river.
Mertert near Grevenmacher on the Moselle is Luxembourg\'s only commercial port. With two quays covering a total length of 1.6 km, it offers facilities connecting river, road and rail transport. It is used principally for coal, steel, oil, agricultural goods and building materials. In 2016, the port handled 1.2 million tonnes of cargo.
## Air
Luxembourg Airport at Findel, some 6 km to the north of the city, is Luxembourg\'s only commercial airport. Thanks to its long runway (4,000 m), even large types of aircraft are able to use its facilities.
Luxair, Luxembourg\'s international airline, and Cargolux, a cargo-only airline, operates out of the airport. In 2008, the airport ranked as Europe\'s 5th largest and the world\'s 23rd by cargo tonnage.
Luxair has regular passenger services to 20 European destinations and operates tourist flights to 17 more. Other airlines operating flights to and from Luxembourg include British Airways, KLM, Scandinavian Airlines, Swiss Global Air Lines, and TAP Portugal.
A large new airport terminal building was opened in 2008 with more modern facilities, including an underground carpark. In order to accommodate anticipated growth in travel within the Schengen Area, in 2016 an abandoned terminal was renovated to handle low-capacity and regional flights.
## Pipelines
The trunk natural gas pipelines in Luxembourg have a total length of 155 km (2007).
Russia and Norway are the main producers. The Luxembourg network is connected to Germany, France and Belgium.
## Merchant navy {#merchant_navy}
Luxembourg has 150 vessels in its merchant navy. These include 4 bulk carriers, 1 container ship, 21 general cargo ships, 3 oil tankers, and 121 others
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# Large technical system
A **large technical system** (**LTS**) is a system or network of enormous proportions or complexity. The study of LTSs is a subdiscipline of history of science and technology.
The book *Rescuing Prometheus* by Thomas P. Hughes documents the development of four such systems, including the Boston central artery tunnel and the Internet
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# Wide shot
In photography, filmmaking and video production, a **wide shot** (sometimes referred to as a **full shot** or **long shot**) is a shot that typically shows the entire object or human figure and is usually intended to place it in some relation to its surroundings. These are typically shot now using wide-angle lenses (an approximately 25 mm lens in 35 mm photography and 10 mm lens in 16 mm photography). However, due to sheer distance, establishing shots and extremely wide shots can use almost any camera type.
## History
This type of filmmaking was a result of filmmakers trying to retain the sense of the viewer watching a play in front of them, as opposed to just a series of pictures.
The wide shot has been used since films have been made as it is a very basic type of cinematography. In 1878, one of the first true motion pictures, *Sallie Gardner at a Gallop*, was released. Even though this wouldn\'t be considered a film in the current motion picture industry, it was a huge step towards complete motion pictures.`{{According to whom|date=October 2017}}`{=mediawiki} It is arguable that it is very basic but it still remains that it was displayed as a wide angle as both the rider and horse are fully visible in the frame.
In the 1880s, celluloid photographic film and motion picture cameras became available so more motion pictures could be created in the form of Kinetoscope or through projectors. These early films also maintained a wide angle layout as it was the best way to keep everything visible for the viewer. Once motion pictures became more available in the 1890s, there were public screenings of many different films only being around a minute long, or even less. These films again adhered to the wide shot style. One of the first competitive filming techniques came in the form of the close-up, as George Albert Smith incorporated them into his film *Hove*. Though unconfirmed as the first usage of this method, it is one of the earliest recorded examples. Once the introduction of new framing techniques were introduced, more and more styles were developed and used for the benefits they could provide that wide shots couldn\'t.
In the early 1900s, motion pictures evolved from short, minute long, screenings to becoming full-length motion pictures. More and more cinematic techniques appeared, resulting in the wide shot being less commonly used. However, it still remained as it is almost irreplaceable in what it can achieve. When television entered the home in the 1960s, it was seen as a massive hit to the cinema industry and many saw it as the decline in cinema popularity. This in turn resulted in films having to stay ahead of television by incorporating superior quality than that of a television. This was done by adding color, but importantly it implemented the use of widescreen. This would allow a massive increase in space usable by the director, thus allowing an even wider shot for the viewer to witness more of any given shot.
Modern films will now frequently use the different types of wide shots as they are a staple in filmmaking and are almost impossible to avoid unless deliberately chosen to. In the current climate of films, the technical quality of any given shot will appear with much better clarity which has given life to some incredible shots from modern cinema. Also, given the quality of modern home entertainment mediums such as Blu-ray, 3D and Ultra HD Blu Rays, this has allowed the scope and size of any given frame to encompass more of the scene and environment in greater detail.
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# Wide shot
## Types
There are a variety of ways of framing that are considered as being wide shots; these include:
Wide shot (WS): The subject comfortably takes up the whole frame. In the case of a person, head to toe. This usually achieves a clear physical representation of a character and can describe the surroundings as it is usually visible within the frame. This results in the audience having a desired (by the director) view/opinion of the character or location.\
Very wide shot (VWS): The subject is only just visible in the location. This can find a balance between a \"wide shot\" and an \"extreme wide shot\" by keeping an emphasis on both the characters and the environment, almost finding a harmony between the two of them. This enables the ability to use the benefits of both types, by allowing the scale of the environment but also maintaining an element of focus on the character(s) or object(s) in frame.\
Extreme wide shot (EWS): The shot is so far away from the subject that they are no longer visible. This is used to create a sense of a character being lost or almost engulfed by the sheer size of their surroundings. This can result in a character being made small or insignificant due to their situation and/or surroundings.\
Establishing shot (ES): A shot typically used to display a location and is usually the first shot in a new scene. These establish the setting of a film, whether that is the physical location or the time period. Mainly it gives a sense of place to the film and brings the viewer to wherever the story requires them to be.\
Master shot (MS): This shot can be commonly mistaken for an establishing shot as it displays key characters and locations. However, it is actually a shot in which all relevant characters are in frame (usually for the whole duration of the scene), with inter-cut shots of other characters to shift focus. This is a very useful method for retaining audience focus as most shots in this style refrain from using cuts and therefore will keep the performances and the dialogue in the forefront of what is going on for the duration of the scene.
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# Wide shot
## Notable examples {#notable_examples}
Many directors are known for their use of the variety of wide shots. A key example of them is the frequent use of establishing shots and very wide shots in Peter Jackson\'s *The Lord of the Rings* trilogy, showing the vast New Zealand landscape to instil awe in the audience.
In the 1993 film *Schindler\'s List*, there is a running image of a small girl trapped within a concentration camp wearing a red coat (the only colour in the film). She is frequently pictured in a wide shot format as a way to display both her and the horrific surroundings to build a disturbing contrast.
In the 1939 film *The Wizard of Oz*, a very wide shot is used that keeps all the protagonists on screen with the Wizard\'s palace in clear view. *The Wizard of Oz* was also one of the first mainstream motion pictures to include colour.
The 1962 *Lawrence of Arabia* contains an enormous number`{{Clarify|reason=vague|date=October 2017}}`{=mediawiki} of extreme wide shots which successfully induced the feeling of scale of the lead in his surrounding and aesthetically dwarfed him due to his surroundings making him seem more vulnerable and weak.
The 1981 film *Raiders of the Lost Ark* contains the use of a wide shot to show the dangerous scale of a boulder that is chasing the protagonist.
The 2008 film *The Dark Knight* featured a practical stunt in which a large truck and trailer are flipped nose first. This is shot very far back to give the shot more clarity and to see the flip through its entirety as opposed to cutting midway through.
In the 2015 Ridley Scott film *The Martian*, the protagonist Mark Watney is stranded on Mars and the film contains many wide shots.`{{Clarify|reason=vague|date=October 2017}}`{=mediawiki} These are used to show the Martian landscape and give the character the sense of isolation that the film would want
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# Lagâri Hasan Çelebi
**Lagâri Hasan Çelebi** was an Ottoman scientist, engineer and aviator who, according to the account written by traveller Evliya Çelebi, made a successful crewed rocket flight.
## Account
Evliya Çelebi reported that in 1633, Lagari Hasan Çelebi blasted off from Sarayburnu, (the promontory below the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul) in a 7-winged rocket propelled by 50 okka (140 lbs) of gunpowder. The flight was said to have been undertaken at the time of the birth of Sultan Murad IV\'s daughter. As Evliya Celebi wrote, Lagari proclaimed before launching his craft \"O my sultan! Be blessed, I am going to talk to Jesus!\"; after ascending in the rocket, he landed in the sea, swimming ashore and joking \"O my sultan! Jesus sends his regards to you!\"; he was rewarded by the Sultan with silver and the rank of sipahi in the Ottoman army.
Evliya Çelebi also wrote of Lagari\'s brother, Hezârfen Ahmed Çelebi, making a flight by glider a year earlier.
## Popular culture {#popular_culture}
*Istanbul Beneath My Wings* is a 1996 film about the lives of Lagari Hasan Çelebi, his brother and fellow aviator Hezârfen Ahmed Çelebi, and Ottoman society in the early 17th century as witnessed and narrated by Evliya Çelebi.
The legend was addressed in an experiment by the television show *MythBusters*, on November 11, 2009, in the episode \"Crash and Burn\"; however, the team noted that Evliya Çelebi had not sufficiently specified the alleged design used by Lagâri Hasan and said that it would have been \"extremely difficult\" for a 17th-century figure, unequipped with modern steel alloys and welding, to land safely or even achieve thrust at all. Although the re-imagined rocket rose, it exploded midflight
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# Ligament
A **ligament** is a type of fibrous connective tissue in the body that connects bones to other bones. It also connects flight feathers to bones, in dinosaurs and birds. All 30,000 species of amniotes (land animals with internal bones) have ligaments.
It is also known as *articular ligament*, *articular larua*, *fibrous ligament*, or *true ligament*.
## Comparative anatomy {#comparative_anatomy}
Ligaments are similar to tendons and fasciae as they are all made of connective tissue. The differences among them are in the connections that they make: ligaments connect one bone to another bone, tendons connect muscle to bone, and fasciae connect muscles to other muscles. These are all found in the skeletal system of the human body. Ligaments cannot usually be regenerated naturally; however, there are periodontal ligament stem cells located near the periodontal ligament which are involved in the adult regeneration of periodontist ligament.
The study of ligaments is known as `{{wt|en|desmology}}`{=mediawiki}.
## Humans
Other ligaments in the body include the:
- Peritoneal ligament: a fold of peritoneum or other membranes.
- Fetal remnant ligament: the remnants of a fetal tubular structure.
- Periodontal ligament: a group of fibers that attach the cementum of teeth to the surrounding alveolar bone.
## Articular ligaments {#articular_ligaments}
\"Ligament\" most commonly refers to a band of dense regular connective tissue bundles made of collagenous fibers, with bundles protected by dense irregular connective tissue sheaths. Ligaments connect bones to other bones to form joints, while tendons connect bone to muscle. Some ligaments limit the mobility of articulations or prevent certain movements altogether.
Capsular ligaments are part of the articular capsule that surrounds synovial joints. They act as mechanical reinforcements. Extra-capsular ligaments join in harmony with the other ligaments and provide joint stability. Intra-capsular ligaments, which are much less common, also provide stability but permit a far larger range of motion. Cruciate ligaments are paired ligaments in the form of a cross.
Ligaments are viscoelastic. They gradually strain when under tension and return to their original shape when the tension is removed. However, they cannot retain their original shape when extended past a certain point or for a prolonged period of time. This is one reason why dislocated joints must be set as quickly as possible: if the ligaments lengthen too much, then the joint will be weakened, becoming prone to future dislocations. Athletes, gymnasts, dancers, and martial artists perform stretching exercises to lengthen their ligaments, making their joints more supple.
The term *hypermobility* refers to the characteristic of people with more-elastic ligaments, allowing their joints to stretch and contort further; this is sometimes still called *double-jointedness*.
The consequence of a broken ligament can be instability of the joint. Not all broken ligaments need surgery, but, if surgery is needed to stabilise the joint, the broken ligament can be repaired. Scar tissue may prevent this. If it is not possible to fix the broken ligament, other procedures such as the Brunelli procedure can correct the instability. Instability of a joint can over time lead to wear of the cartilage and eventually to osteoarthritis.
### Artificial ligaments {#artificial_ligaments}
One of the most often torn ligaments in the body is the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL). The ACL is one of the ligaments crucial to knee stability and persons who tear their ACL often undergo reconstructive surgery, which can be done through a variety of techniques and materials. One of these techniques is the replacement of the ligament with an artificial material. Artificial ligaments are a synthetic material composed of a polymer, such as polyacrylonitrile fiber, polypropylene, PET (polyethylene terephthalate), or polyNaSS poly (sodium styrene sulfonate).
### Examples
There are about 900 ligaments in an average adult human body, of which about 25 are listed here.
+-----------------------------------------+---+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Head and neck | | Wrist |
| | | |
| - Cricothyroid ligament | | - Palmar radiocarpal ligament |
| - Periodontal ligament | | - Dorsal radiocarpal ligament |
| - Suspensory ligament of the lens | | - Ulnar collateral ligament |
| | | - Radial collateral ligament |
| Thorax | | - Scapholunate ligament |
| | | |
| - Phrenoesophageal ligament | | Knee |
| - Suspensory ligament of the breast | | |
| | | - Anterior cruciate ligament |
| Pelvis | | - Lateral collateral ligament |
| | | - Posterior cruciate ligament |
| - Anterior sacroiliac ligament | | - Medial collateral ligament |
| - Posterior sacroiliac ligament | | - Cranial cruciate ligament --- quadruped equivalent of anterior cruciate ligament |
| - Sacrotuberous ligament | | - Caudal cruciate ligament --- quadruped equivalent of posterior cruciate ligament |
| - Sacrospinous ligament | | - Oblique popliteal ligament |
| - Inferior pubic ligament | | - Patellar ligament |
| - Reflex inguinal ligament | | |
| - Superior pubic ligament | | |
| - Suspensory ligament of the clitoris | | |
| - Suspensory ligament of the penis | | |
+-----------------------------------------+---+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
## Peritoneal ligaments {#peritoneal_ligaments}
Certain folds of peritoneum are referred to as *ligaments*. Examples include:
- The hepatoduodenal ligament, that surrounds the hepatic portal vein and other vessels as they travel from the duodenum to the liver.
- The broad ligament of the uterus, also a fold of peritoneum.
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# Ligament
## Fetal remnant ligaments {#fetal_remnant_ligaments}
Certain tubular structures from the fetal period are referred to as *ligaments* after they close up and turn into cord-like structures:
Fetal Adult
----------------------------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------------
ductus arteriosus ligamentum arteriosum
extra-hepatic portion of the fetal left umbilical vein ligamentum teres hepatis (the \"round ligament of the liver\")
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# Laser science
**Laser science** or **laser physics** is a branch of optics that describes the theory and practice of lasers.
Laser science is principally concerned with quantum electronics, laser construction, optical cavity design, the physics of producing a population inversion in laser media, and the temporal evolution of the light field in the laser. It is also concerned with the physics of laser beam propagation, particularly the physics of Gaussian beams, with laser applications, and with associated fields such as nonlinear optics and quantum optics.
## History
Laser science predates the invention of the laser itself. Albert Einstein created the foundations for the laser and maser in 1917, via a paper in which he re-derived Max Planck's law of radiation using a formalism based on probability coefficients (Einstein coefficients) for the absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The existence of stimulated emission was confirmed in 1928 by Rudolf W. Ladenburg. In 1939, Valentin A. Fabrikant made the earliest laser proposal. He specified the conditions required for light amplification using stimulated emission. In 1947, Willis E. Lamb and R. C. Retherford found apparent stimulated emission in hydrogen spectra and effected the first demonstration of stimulated emission; in 1950, Alfred Kastler (Nobel Prize for Physics 1966) proposed the method of optical pumping, experimentally confirmed, two years later, by Brossel, Kastler, and Winter.
The theoretical principles describing the operation of a microwave laser (a maser) were first described by Nikolay Basov and Alexander Prokhorov at the *All-Union Conference on Radio Spectroscopy* in May 1952. The first maser was built by Charles H. Townes, James P. Gordon, and Herbert J. Zeiger in 1953. Townes, Basov and Prokhorov were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1964 for their research in the field of stimulated emission. Arthur Ashkin, Gérard Mourou, and Donna Strickland were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2018 for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics.
The first working laser (a pulsed ruby laser) was demonstrated on May 16, 1960, by Theodore Maiman at the Hughes Research Laboratories
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# Linear model
In statistics, the term **linear model** refers to any model which assumes linearity in the system. The most common occurrence is in connection with regression models and the term is often taken as synonymous with linear regression model. However, the term is also used in time series analysis with a different meaning. In each case, the designation \"linear\" is used to identify a subclass of models for which substantial reduction in the complexity of the related statistical theory is possible.
## Linear regression models {#linear_regression_models}
For the regression case, the statistical model is as follows. Given a (random) sample $(Y_i, X_{i1}, \ldots, X_{ip}), \, i = 1, \ldots, n$ the relation between the observations $Y_i$ and the independent variables $X_{ij}$ is formulated as
$$Y_i = \beta_0 + \beta_1 \phi_1(X_{i1}) + \cdots + \beta_p \phi_p(X_{ip}) + \varepsilon_i \qquad i = 1, \ldots, n$$
where $\phi_1, \ldots, \phi_p$ may be nonlinear functions. In the above, the quantities $\varepsilon_i$ are random variables representing errors in the relationship. The \"linear\" part of the designation relates to the appearance of the regression coefficients, $\beta_j$ in a linear way in the above relationship. Alternatively, one may say that the predicted values corresponding to the above model, namely
$$\hat{Y}_i = \beta_0 + \beta_1 \phi_1(X_{i1}) + \cdots + \beta_p \phi_p(X_{ip}) \qquad (i = 1, \ldots, n),$$ are linear functions of the $\beta_j$.
Given that estimation is undertaken on the basis of a least squares analysis, estimates of the unknown parameters $\beta_j$ are determined by minimising a sum of squares function
$$S = \sum_{i = 1}^n \varepsilon_i^2 = \sum_{i = 1}^n \left(Y_i - \beta_0 - \beta_1 \phi_1(X_{i1}) - \cdots - \beta_p \phi_p(X_{ip})\right)^2 .$$ From this, it can readily be seen that the \"linear\" aspect of the model means the following:
:\*the function to be minimised is a quadratic function of the $\beta_j$ for which minimisation is a relatively simple problem;
:\*the derivatives of the function are linear functions of the $\beta_j$ making it easy to find the minimising values;
:\*the minimising values $\beta_j$ are linear functions of the observations $Y_i$;
:\*the minimising values $\beta_j$ are linear functions of the random errors $\varepsilon_i$ which makes it relatively easy to determine the statistical properties of the estimated values of $\beta_j$.
## Time series models {#time_series_models}
An example of a linear time series model is an autoregressive moving average model. Here the model for values {$X_t$} in a time series can be written in the form
$$X_t = c + \varepsilon_t + \sum_{i=1}^p \phi_i X_{t-i} + \sum_{i=1}^q \theta_i \varepsilon_{t-i}.\,$$
where again the quantities $\varepsilon_i$ are random variables representing innovations which are new random effects that appear at a certain time but also affect values of $X$ at later times. In this instance the use of the term \"linear model\" refers to the structure of the above relationship in representing $X_t$ as a linear function of past values of the same time series and of current and past values of the innovations. This particular aspect of the structure means that it is relatively simple to derive relations for the mean and covariance properties of the time series. Note that here the \"linear\" part of the term \"linear model\" is not referring to the coefficients $\phi_i$ and $\theta_i$, as it would be in the case of a regression model, which looks structurally similar.
## Other uses in statistics {#other_uses_in_statistics}
There are some other instances where \"nonlinear model\" is used to contrast with a linearly structured model, although the term \"linear model\" is not usually applied. One example of this is nonlinear dimensionality reduction
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# Likelihood principle
In statistics, the **likelihood principle** is the proposition that, given a statistical model, all the evidence in a sample relevant to model parameters is contained in the likelihood function.
A likelihood function arises from a probability density function considered as a function of its distributional parameterization argument. For example, consider a model which gives the probability density function $\; f_X(x \mid \theta)\;$ of observable random variable $\, X \,$ as a function of a parameter $\,\theta~$. Then for a specific value $\,x\,$ of $\,X~$, the function $\,\mathcal{L}(\theta \mid x) = f_X(x \mid \theta)\;$ is a likelihood function of $\,\theta~$: it gives a measure of how \"likely\" any particular value of $\,\theta\,$ is, if we know that $\,X\,$ has the value $\,x~$. The density function may be a density with respect to counting measure, i.e. a probability mass function.
Two likelihood functions are *equivalent* if one is a scalar multiple of the other. The **likelihood principle** is this: All information from the data that is relevant to inferences about the value of the model parameters is in the equivalence class to which the likelihood function belongs. The **strong likelihood principle** applies this same criterion to cases such as sequential experiments where the sample of data that is available results from applying a stopping rule to the observations earlier in the experiment.
## Example
Suppose
- $\ X\$ is the number of successes in twelve independent Bernoulli trials with each attempt having probability $\ \theta\$ of success on each trial, and
- $\ Y\$ is the number of independent Bernoulli trials needed to get a total of three successes, again each attempt with probability $\ \theta\$ of success on each trial (if it was a fair coin each toss would have $\ \theta = \tfrac{\!\ 1\!\ }{ 2 }\$ of either outcome, heads or tails).
Then the observation that $\ X = 3\$ induces the likelihood function
$$\ \operatorname{\mathcal L}\left(\ \theta\ \mid\ X = 3\ \right) = \binom{12}{3} ~ \theta^3\ (1 - \theta)^9 = 220\ \theta^3\ (1-\theta)^9\ ,$$
while the observation that $\ Y = 12\$ induces the likelihood function
$$\ \operatorname{\mathcal L}\left(\ \theta\ \mid\ Y = 12\ \right) = \binom{11}{2} ~ \theta^3\ (1 - \theta)^9 = 55\ \theta^3\ (1 - \theta)^9 ~.$$
The likelihood principle says that, as the data are the same in both cases, the inferences drawn about the value of $\ \theta\$ should also be the same. In addition, all the inferential content in the data about the value of $\ \theta\$ is contained in the two likelihoods, and is the same if they are proportional to one another. This is the case in the above example, reflecting the fact that the difference between observing $\ X = 3\$ and observing $\ Y = 12\$ lies not in the actual data collected, nor in the conduct of the experimenter, but in the two different designs of the experiment.
Specifically, in one case, the decision in advance was to try twelve times, regardless of the outcome; in the other case, the advance decision was to keep trying until three successes were observed. *If you support the likelihood principle* then inference about $\ \theta\$ should be the same for both cases because the two likelihoods are proportional to each other: Except for a constant leading factor of `{{math|220}}`{=mediawiki} vs. `{{math|55}}`{=mediawiki}, the two likelihood functions are the same -- constant multiples of each other.
This equivalence is not always the case, however. The use of frequentist methods involving `{{nobr|[[p-values|{{mvar|p}} values]]}}`{=mediawiki} leads to different inferences for the two cases above, showing that the outcome of frequentist methods depends on the experimental procedure, and thus violates the likelihood principle.
## The law of likelihood {#the_law_of_likelihood}
A related concept is the **law of likelihood**, the notion that the extent to which the evidence supports one parameter value or hypothesis against another is indicated by the ratio of their likelihoods, their likelihood ratio. That is,
$$\Lambda = {\mathcal L(a\mid X=x) \over \mathcal L(b\mid X=x)} = {P(X=x\mid a) \over P(X=x\mid b)}$$ is the degree to which the observation `{{mvar|x}}`{=mediawiki} supports parameter value or hypothesis `{{mvar|a}}`{=mediawiki} against `{{mvar|b}}`{=mediawiki}. If this ratio is 1, the evidence is indifferent; if greater than 1, the evidence supports the value `{{mvar|a}}`{=mediawiki} against `{{mvar|b}}`{=mediawiki}; or if less, then vice versa.
In Bayesian statistics, this ratio is known as the Bayes factor, and Bayes\' rule can be seen as the application of the law of likelihood to inference.
In frequentist inference, the likelihood ratio is used in the likelihood-ratio test, but other non-likelihood tests are used as well. The Neyman--Pearson lemma states the likelihood-ratio test is equally statistically powerful as the most powerful test for comparing two simple hypotheses at a given significance level, which gives a frequentist justification for the law of likelihood.
Combining the likelihood principle with the law of likelihood yields the consequence that the parameter value which maximizes the likelihood function is the value which is most strongly supported by the evidence. This is the basis for the widely used method of maximum likelihood.
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# Likelihood principle
## History
The likelihood principle was first identified by that name in print in 1962 (Barnard *et al*., Birnbaum, and Savage *et al*.), but arguments for the same principle, unnamed, and the use of the principle in applications goes back to the works of R.A. Fisher in the 1920s. The law of likelihood was identified by that name by I. Hacking (1965). More recently the likelihood principle as a general principle of inference has been championed by A.W.F. Edwards. The likelihood principle has been applied to the philosophy of science by R. Royall.
Birnbaum (1962) initially argued that the likelihood principle follows from two more primitive and seemingly reasonable principles, the *conditionality principle* and the *sufficiency principle*:
- The conditionality principle says that if an experiment is chosen by a random process independent of the states of nature $\ \theta\ ,$ then only the experiment actually performed is relevant to inferences about $\ \theta ~.$
- The sufficiency principle says that if $\ T(X)\$ is a sufficient statistic for $\ \theta\ ,$ and if in two experiments with data $\ x_1\$ and $\ x_2\$ we have $\ T(x_1) = T(x_2)\ ,$ then the evidence about $\ \theta\$ given by the two experiments is the same.
However, upon further consideration Birnbaum rejected both his conditionality principle and the likelihood principle. The adequacy of Birnbaum\'s original argument has also been contested by others (*see below for details*).
## Arguments for and against {#arguments_for_and_against}
Some widely used methods of conventional statistics, for example many significance tests, are not consistent with the likelihood principle.
Let us briefly consider some of the arguments for and against the likelihood principle.
### The original Birnbaum argument {#the_original_birnbaum_argument}
According to Giere (1977), Birnbaum rejected both his own conditionality principle and the likelihood principle because they were both incompatible with what he called the "confidence concept of statistical evidence", which Birnbaum (1970) describes as taking "from the Neyman-Pearson approach techniques for systematically appraising and bounding the probabilities (under respective hypotheses) of seriously misleading interpretations of data" ( p. 1033). The confidence concept incorporates only limited aspects of the likelihood concept and only some applications of the conditionality concept. Birnbaum later notes that it was the unqualified equivalence formulation of his 1962 version of the conditionality principle that led "to the monster of the likelihood axiom" ( p. 263).
Birnbaum\'s original argument for the likelihood principle has also been disputed by other statisticians including Akaike, Evans and philosophers of science, including Deborah Mayo. Dawid points out fundamental differences between Mayo\'s and Birnbaum\'s definitions of the conditionality principle, arguing Birnbaum\'s argument cannot be so readily dismissed. A new proof of the likelihood principle has been provided by Gandenberger that addresses some of the counterarguments to the original proof.
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# Likelihood principle
## Arguments for and against {#arguments_for_and_against}
### Experimental design arguments on the likelihood principle {#experimental_design_arguments_on_the_likelihood_principle}
Unrealized events play a role in some common statistical methods. For example, the result of a significance test depends on the `{{mvar|p}}`{=mediawiki}-value, the probability of a result as extreme or more extreme than the observation, and that probability may depend on the design of the experiment. To the extent that the likelihood principle is accepted, such methods are therefore denied.
Some classical significance tests are not based on the likelihood. The following are a simple and more complicated example of those, using a commonly cited example called *the optional stopping problem*.
Example 1 -- simple version:
Suppose I tell you that I tossed a coin 12 times and in the process observed 3 heads. You might make some inference about the probability of heads and whether the coin was fair.
Suppose now I tell that I tossed the coin *until* I observed 3 heads, and I tossed it 12 times. Will you now make some different inference?
The likelihood function is the same in both cases: It is proportional to
$$p^3 (1-p)^9 ~$$.
So according to the *likelihood principle*, in either case the inference should be the same.
Example 2 -- a more elaborated version of the same statistics:
Suppose a number of scientists are assessing the probability of a certain outcome (which we shall call \'success\') in experimental trials. Conventional wisdom suggests that if there is no bias towards success or failure then the success probability would be one half. Adam, a scientist, conducted 12 trials and obtains 3 successes and 9 failures. **One of those successes was the 12th and last observation.** Then Adam left the lab.
Bill, a colleague in the same lab, continued Adam\'s work and published Adam\'s results, along with a significance test. He tested the null hypothesis that `{{mvar|p}}`{=mediawiki}, the success probability, is equal to a half, versus `{{math|''p'' < 0.5}}`{=mediawiki} . If we ignore the information that the third success was the 12th and last observation, the probability of the observed result that out of 12 trials 3 or something fewer (i.e. more extreme) were successes, if `{{mvar|H}}`{=mediawiki}`{{sub|0}}`{=mediawiki} is true, is
$$\left[{12 \choose 3}+{12 \choose 2}+{12 \choose 1}+{12 \choose 0}\right]\left({1 \over 2}\right)^{12} ~$$,
which is `{{math|{{sfrac|299|4096}} {{=}}`{=mediawiki} 7.3%}} . Thus the null hypothesis is not rejected at the 5% significance level if we ignore the knowledge that the third success was the 12th result.
However observe that this first calculation also includes 12 token long sequences that end in tails contrary to the problem statement!
If we redo this calculation we realize the likelihood according to the null hypothesis must be the probability of a fair coin landing 2 or fewer heads on 11 trials multiplied with the probability of the fair coin landing a head for the 12th trial:
$$\left[{11 \choose 2}+{11 \choose 1}+{11 \choose 0}\right]\left({1 \over 2}\right)^{11}{1 \over 2} ~$$,
which is `{{math|{{sfrac|67|2048}}{{sfrac|1|2}} {{=}}`{=mediawiki} `{{sfrac|67|4096}}`{=mediawiki} {{=}} 1.64%}} . Now the result *is* statistically significant at the `{{math|5%}}`{=mediawiki} level.
Charlotte, another scientist, reads Bill\'s paper and writes a letter, saying that it is possible that Adam kept trying until he obtained 3 successes, in which case the probability of needing to conduct 12 or more experiments is given by
$$\left[{11 \choose 2}+{11 \choose 1}+{11 \choose 0}\right]\left({1 \over 2}\right)^{11}{1 \over 2} ~$$,
which is `{{math|{{sfrac|134|4096}}{{sfrac|1|2}} {{=}}`{=mediawiki} 1.64%}} . Now the result *is* statistically significant at the `{{math|5%}}`{=mediawiki} level. Note that there is no contradiction between the latter two correct analyses; both computations are correct, and result in the same p-value.
To these scientists, whether a result is significant or not does not depend on the design of the experiment, but does on the likelihood (in the sense of the likelihood function) of the parameter value being `{{sfrac|1|2}}`{=mediawiki} .
Summary of the illustrated issues:
Results of this kind are considered by some as arguments against the likelihood principle. For others it exemplifies the value of the likelihood principle and is an argument against significance tests.
Similar themes appear when comparing Fisher\'s exact test with Pearson\'s chi-squared test.
### The voltmeter story {#the_voltmeter_story}
An argument in favor of the likelihood principle is given by Edwards in his book *Likelihood*. He cites the following story from J.W. Pratt, slightly condensed here. Note that the likelihood function depends only on what actually happened, and not on what *could* have happened.
: An engineer draws a random sample of electron tubes and measures their voltages. The measurements range from 75 to 99 Volts. A statistician computes the sample mean and a confidence interval for the true mean. Later the statistician discovers that the voltmeter reads only as far as 100 Volts, so technically, the population appears to be "*censored*". If the statistician is orthodox this necessitates a new analysis.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
: However, the engineer says he has another meter reading to 1000 Volts, which he would have used if any voltage had been over 100. This is a relief to the statistician, because it means the population was effectively uncensored after all. But later, the statistician discovers that the second meter had not been working when the measurements were taken. The engineer informs the statistician that he would not have held up the original measurements until the second meter was fixed, and the statistician informs him that new measurements are required. The engineer is astounded. "*Next you\'ll be asking about my oscilloscope!*"
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
Throwback to *Example 2* in the prior section:
This story can be translated to Adam\'s stopping rule above, as follows: Adam stopped immediately after 3 successes, because his boss Bill had instructed him to do so. After the publication of the statistical analysis by Bill, Adam realizes that he has missed a later instruction from Bill to instead conduct 12 trials, and that Bill\'s paper is based on this second instruction. Adam is very glad that he got his 3 successes after exactly 12 trials, and explains to his friend Charlotte that by coincidence he executed the second instruction. Later, Adam is astonished to hear about Charlotte\'s letter, explaining that *now* the result is significant
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# Loglan
**Loglan** is a logical constructed language originally designed for linguistic research, particularly for investigating the Sapir--Whorf hypothesis. The language was developed beginning in 1955 by Dr. James Cooke Brown with the goal of making a language so different from natural languages that people learning it would think in a different way if the hypothesis were true. In 1960, *Scientific American* published an article introducing the language. Loglan is the first among, and the main inspiration for, the languages known as logical languages, which also includes Lojban.
Brown founded **The Loglan Institute** (TLI) to develop the language and other applications of it. He always considered the language an incomplete research project, and although he released many publications about its design, he continued to claim legal restrictions on its use. Because of this, a group of his followers later formed the Logical Language Group to create the language Lojban along the same principles, but with the intention to make it freely available and encourage its use as a real language.
Supporters of Lojban use the term *Loglan* as a generic term to refer to both their own language and Brown\'s *Loglan*, referred to as \"*TLI Loglan*\" when in need of disambiguation. Although the non-trademarkability of the term *Loglan* was eventually upheld by the United States Patent and Trademark Office, many supporters and members of The Loglan Institute find this usage offensive and reserve *Loglan* for the TLI version of the language.
## Goals
Loglan (an abbreviation for \"logical language\") was created to investigate whether people speaking a \"logical language\" would in some way think more logically, as the Sapir--Whorf hypothesis might predict. The language\'s grammar is based on predicate logic. The grammar was intended to be small enough to be teachable and manageable, yet complex enough to allow people to think and converse in the language.
Brown intended Loglan to be as culturally neutral as possible and metaphysically parsimonious, which means that obligatory categories are kept to a minimum. An example of an obligatory category in English is the time-tense of verbs, as it is impossible to express a finite verb without also expressing a tense.
Brown also intended the language to be completely regular and unambiguous. Each sentence can be parsed in only one way. Furthermore, the syllabic structure of words was designed so that a sequence of syllables can be separated into words in only one way, even if the word separation is not clear from pauses in speech. It has a small number of phonemes, so that regional \"accents\" are less likely to produce unintelligible speech. To make the vocabulary easier to learn, words were constructed to have elements in common with related words in the world\'s eight most widely spoken languages.
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# Loglan
## Alphabet and pronunciation {#alphabet_and_pronunciation}
The alphabet of Loglan has two historical versions. In that of 1975 there were only 21 letters with their corresponding phonemes. In the final version of 1989 five more phonemes had been incorporated: letter H (/h/) was added to the alphabet in 1977 by popular demand; letter Y (/ə/) was added in 1982 to work as a kind of hyphen between the terms of a complex word; letters Q (/θ/), W (/y/) and X (/x/) were added in 1986 in order to allow the incorporation of the Linnaean vocabulary of biology, and they were useful to give more exact pronunciations to many borrowed names.
Uppercase letters A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
------------------- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ------- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ------- --- --- --- --- ---
Lowercase letters a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
IPA phonemes a b ʃ d ɛ f g h i / j ʒ k l m n o p θ ɹ s t u / w v y x ə z
: Loglan alphabet
Labial Dental Alveolar Palato-alveolar Palatal Velar
------------- ----------- -------------------------------- -------------------------------- -------------------------------- -------------------------------- -------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Nasal M `{{IPAslink|m}}`{=mediawiki} N `{{IPAslink|n}}`{=mediawiki}
Plosive voiceless P `{{IPAslink|p}}`{=mediawiki} T `{{IPAslink|t}}`{=mediawiki} K `{{IPAslink|k}}`{=mediawiki}
voiced B `{{IPAslink|b}}`{=mediawiki} D `{{IPAslink|d}}`{=mediawiki} G `{{IPAslink|ɡ}}`{=mediawiki}
Fricative voiceless F `{{IPAslink|f}}`{=mediawiki} Q `{{IPAslink|θ}}`{=mediawiki} S `{{IPAslink|s}}`{=mediawiki} C `{{IPAslink|ʃ}}`{=mediawiki} X `{{IPAslink|x}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{IPAslink|χ}}`{=mediawiki} by some speakers
voiced V `{{IPAslink|v}}`{=mediawiki} Z `{{IPAslink|z}}`{=mediawiki} J `{{IPAslink|ʒ}}`{=mediawiki}
Approximant U `{{IPAslink|w}}`{=mediawiki} L `{{IPAslink|l}}`{=mediawiki} I `{{IPAslink|j}}`{=mediawiki}
Rhotic R `{{IPAslink|ɹ}}`{=mediawiki}
: Loglan consonant phonemes
Front Central
------- ----------- -------------------------------- --------------------------------
Close unrounded I `{{IPAslink|i}}`{=mediawiki}
rounded W `{{IPAslink|y}}`{=mediawiki}
Mid E `{{IPAslink|ɛ}}`{=mediawiki} Y `{{IPAslink|ə}}`{=mediawiki}
Open A `{{IPAslink|a}}`{=mediawiki}
: Loglan vowel phonemes
- The letters I and U when placed before vowels represent the IPA sounds /j/ and /w/ respectively. For example: **ie** /je/ (*\"what?\"*), **ue** /we/ (*\"what!\"* as an expression of surprise or interest).
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# Loglan
## Grammar
Loglan has three types of words: *predicates* (also called *content words*), *structure words* (also called *little words*), and *names*. The majority of words are predicates; these are words that carry meaning. Structure words are words that modify predicates or show how they are related to each other, like English conjunctions and prepositions.
The class of a word can be determined from its form. A predicate has always two or more syllables, the last syllable being of the form CV, and the other syllables being of the form CVC or CCV. Thus, possible predicates are \"kanto\", \"stari\", \"simgroma\", \"nirpatretka\", and so on. A structure word has always one or more syllables, each syllable being one of the four forms V, VV, CV, or CVV. Thus possible structure words are \"e\", \"ai\", \"ga\", \"kia\", \"lemio\", \"inorau\" and so on. A name may have any form but always ends with a consonant, which distinguishes names from other words, since predicates and structure words always end in a vowel. Names in Loglan are spelled in accordance with Loglan phonetics, so if the name comes from another language, the Loglan spelling may differ from the spelling in that language. If a name in its native language ends in a vowel, it is conventional to add an \"s\" to form the Loglan name; for example, the English name \"Mary\" is rendered in Loglan as \"Meris\" (pronounced /ˈmɛriːs/).
### Predicates
Loglan makes no distinction between nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. A predicate may act as any of these, depending on its position in a sentence. Each predicate has its own argument structure with fixed positions for arguments. For example: *vedma* is the word for \"sell\". It takes four arguments: the seller, the item sold, the buyer and the price, in that order. When a predicate is used as a verb, the first argument appears before the predicate, and any subsequent arguments appear after it. So \"S pa vedma T B P\" means \"S sold T to B for price P\". (The structure word \"pa\" is the past-tense marker, discussed in more detail below.) Not all arguments need to be present; for example, \"S pa vedma T B\" means \"S sold T to B\", \"S pa vedma T\" means \"S sold T\", and \"S pa vedma\" simply means \"S sold (something)\".
Certain structure words can be used to reorder the arguments of a predicate, to emphasize one of the arguments by putting it first. For example, \"nu\" swaps the first and second arguments of any predicate. So \"T pa nu vedma S\" means the same thing as \"S pa vedma T\" and might be translated \"T was sold by S\". Similarly, \"fu\" swaps the first and third argument, and \"ju\" swaps the first and fourth argument. Thus \"B pa fu vedma T S\" = \"B bought T from S\", and \"P pa ju vedma T B\" = \"P was paid to buy T by B\".
### Arguments
The structure word \"le\" makes a predicate behave as a noun, so that it can be used as an argument of another predicate. The three-place predicate \"matma\" means \"M is the mother of C by father F\", so \"le matma\" means \"the mother\". Thus \"Le matma pa vedma\" means \"the mother sold (something)\", while \"Le vedma pa matma\" means \"the seller was a mother (of someone)\".
A name can be used as an argument by preceding it with the structure word \"la\". Thus \"La Adam vedma\" means \"Adam sells\". Unlike in English and many other languages, this structure word is required; an unadorned name cannot be used as an argument. (The sentence \"Adam vedma\" is an imperative meaning \"Adam, sell (something).\" In this case, the name is used as a vocative, not as an argument.)
A name, or any other word or phrase, can be explicitly quoted with the structure words \"li\" and \"lu\" to use the word itself, rather than the thing that word refers to, as an argument. Thus \"Li Adam lu corta purda\" means \"*Adam* is a short word.\" Without the li/lu quotes, the sentence \"La Adam corta purda\" (\"Adam is a short word\") would claim that Adam, the person himself, is a short word.
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# Loglan
## Grammar
### Predicate modifiers {#predicate_modifiers}
Any predicate can be used as an adjective or adverb by placing the predicate before the expression that it modifies. The predicate \"sadji\" means \"X is wiser than Y about Z\". So \"Le sadji matma pa vedma\" means \"The wise mother sold\", and \"Le matma vedma pa sadji\" means \"The motherly seller was wise\". Predicates can be used adverbially to modify the main predicate in the sentence in the same way. So \"Le matma pa sadji vedma\" means \"The mother wisely sold\". The structure word \"go\" can be used to invert the normal word order, so that the modifier follows the expression being modified. Thus \"le matma go sadji\" (the mother who is wise) means the same as \"le sadji matma\" (the wise mother).
A string of more than two predicates is left-associative. This grouping can be changed by using the structure word \"ge\", which groups what follows into a single unit. Thus Loglan can distinguish between the many possible meanings of the ambiguous English phrase \"the pretty little girls\' school\", as in these examples:
- \"le bilti cmalo nirli ckela\" = the ((pretty little) girls\') school\
the school for girls who are beautifully small;
- \"le bilti cmalo ge nirli ckela\" = the (pretty little) (girls\' school)\
the school that is beautifully small for a girls\' school;
- \"le bilti ge cmalo nirli ckela\" = the pretty ((little girls\') school)\
the school that is beautiful for a small-girls\' school;
- \"le bilti ge cmalo ge nirli ckela\" = the pretty (little (girls\' school))\
the school that is beautiful for a small type of girls\'-school.
Predicates can be modified to indicate the time at which something occurred (English tense) with the optional structure words \"na\" (present), \"pa\" (past) and \"fa\" (future). Thus \"Le matma na vedma\" means \"The mother is (now) selling\", while \"Le matma fa vedma\" means \"The mother will sell\". Marking the verb for tense is optional, so the word \"ga\" can be used when the time is not being specified. So \"Le matma ga vedma\" means \"The mother sells (at some unspecified time in the past, present or future)\".
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# Loglan
## Grammar
### Free variables {#free_variables}
A set of structure words called *free variables* are used like English pronouns, but are designed to avoid the ambiguity of pronouns in such sentences as \"Adam told Greg that he needed to leave.\" The free variable \"da\" refers to the most recently mentioned noun, \"de\" refers to the one mentioned prior to that, \"di\" to the one prior to that, and so on. Compare the sentences
- \"La Adam pa vedma le negda la Greg i **da** gacpi\" = Adam sold the egg to Greg; **he** (Greg) was happy.
- \"La Adam pa vedma le negda la Greg i **di** gacpi\" = Adam sold the egg to Greg; **he** (Adam) was happy.
Free variables apply equally to people of any gender and inanimate objects; there is no distinction similar to that between English \"he\", \"she\" and \"it\". This explains why \"di\" rather than \"de\" was used in the second example. \"La Adam pa vedma le negda la Greg i **de** gacpi\" would mean \"Adam sold the egg to Greg; **it** (the egg) was happy.\"
### Conjunctions
Loglan has several sets of conjunctions to express the fourteen possible logical connectives. One set is used to combine predicate expressions (\"e\" = and, \"a\" = inclusive or, \"o\" = if and only if), and another set is used to combine predicates to make more complex predicates (\"ce\", \"ca\", \"co\"). The sentence \"La Kim matma e sadji\" means \"Kim is a mother and is wise\", while \"La Kim matma ce sadji vedma\" means \"Kim is a motherly and wise seller\", or \"Kim sells in a motherly and wise manner\". In the latter sentence, \"ce\" is used to combine matma and sadji into one predicate which modifies vedma. The sentence \"La Kim matma e sadji vedma\", using \"e\" rather than \"ce\", would mean \"Kim is a mother and wisely sells.\"
Other logical connectives are based on the elementary connectives \"e\", \"a\" and \"o\", along with the negation word \"no\". For example, logical implication is indicated by the word \"noa\". The word is chosen to make it easy for a Loglan speaker to see that \"A noa B\" is logically equivalent to \"no A a B\". Brown argues that it is thus easier in Loglan than in English to see that two sentences like these are different ways of saying the same thing:
- \"La Kim ga sadji noa fa vedma da.\" = If Kim is wise, she will sell it.
- \"La Kim ga no sadji a fa vedma da.\" = Kim is not wise, and/or she will sell it.
The conjunction \"a\" expresses the inclusive-or relation; that is, one of the two alternatives is true, or possibly both. The exclusive-or relation, in which only one of the alternatives is true, but not both, is expressed by a different word, \"onoi\". Again, the word is chosen to make clear the logical equivalence of \"A o no B\" and \"A onoi B\":
- \"Tu fa titci o no tu fa morce.\" = You will eat if and only if you do not die.
- \"Tu fa titci onoi tu fa morce.\" = You will eat, or you will die.
A special conjunction \"ze\" is used to create a \"mixed\" predicate which may be true even if it is not necessarily true for either of the component predicates. For example, \"Le negda ga nigro ze blabi\" means \"The egg is black-and-white\". This would be true if the egg were striped or speckled; in that case it would not be true that the egg is black nor that it is white. On the other hand, \"Le negda ga nigro e blabi\" would make the claim that \"The egg is black and (it is also) white\".
### Attitude indicators {#attitude_indicators}
There is a set of words used for expressing attitudes about what one is saying, which convey conviction, intention, obligation and emotion. These words follow what they modify, but when used at the start of a sentence, they modify the entire sentence. For example:
- \"Ae le matma pa sadji\" = Hopefully, the mother was wise.
- \"Ui le matma pa sadji\" = Happily, the mother was wise.
- \"Ou le matma pa sadji\" = It doesn\'t matter whether the mother was wise.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
Loglan was mentioned in a couple of science fiction works: Robert A. Heinlein\'s well-known books, including *The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress* and *The Number of the Beast*, Robert Rimmer\'s utopian book *Love Me Tomorrow* (1978) and Stanisław Lem novel *His Master\'s Voice*.
Loglan\'s inventor, James Cooke Brown, also wrote a utopian science fiction novel called *The Troika Incident* (1970) that uses Loglan phrases but calls the language a different name, \"Panlan\".
Loglan is used as the official interspecies language in the roleplaying game *FTL:2448*.
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# Loglan
## Archival collection {#archival_collection}
Archival material related to the creation and teaching of Loglan, including flashcards and grammar explanations, can be found in the Faith Rich Papers, located at Chicago Public Library Special Collections, Chicago, Illinois
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# Leucippus
**Leucippus** (`{{IPAc-en|l|uː|ˈ|s|ɪ|p|ə|s}}`{=mediawiki}; *Λεύκιππος*, *Leúkippos*; `{{floruit|5th century BCE}}`{=mediawiki}) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. He is traditionally credited as the founder of atomism, which he developed with his student Democritus. Leucippus divided the world into two entities: atoms, indivisible particles that make up all things, and the void, the nothingness that exists between the atoms. He developed his philosophy as a response to the Eleatics, who believed that all things are one and the void does not exist. Leucippus\'s ideas were influential in ancient and Renaissance philosophy. Leucippus was the first Western philosopher to develop the concept of atoms, but his ideas only bear a superficial resemblance to modern atomic theory.
Leucippus\'s atoms come in infinitely many forms and exist in constant motion, creating a deterministic world in which everything is caused by the collisions of atoms. Leucippus described the beginning of the cosmos as a vortex of atoms that formed the Earth, the Sun, the stars, and other celestial bodies. As Leucippus considered both atoms and the void to be infinite, he presumed that other worlds must exist as cosmoses are formed elsewhere. Leucippus and Democritus described the soul as an arrangement of spherical atoms, which are cycled through the body through respiration and create thought and sensory input.
The only records of Leucippus come from Aristotle and Theophrastus, ancient philosophers who lived after him, and little is known of his life. Most scholars agree that Leucippus existed, but some have questioned this, instead attributing his ideas purely to Democritus. Contemporary philosophers rarely distinguish their respective ideas. Two works are attributed to Leucippus (*The Great World System* and *On Mind*), but all of his writing has been lost with the exception of one sentence.
## Life
Almost nothing is known about the life of Leucippus. He was born in the first half of the 5th century BCE, and he presumably developed the philosophy of atomism during the 430s BCE, but the exact dates are unknown. Though he was a contemporary of the philosopher Socrates, Leucippus is categorized as a pre-Socratic philosopher because he continued the pre-Socratic tradition of physical inquiry that began with the Milesian philosophers. Leucippus is traditionally understood to have been a student of Zeno of Elea, though various ancient records have suggested Melissus of Samos, Parmenides, and Pythagoras as possible instructors of Leucippus. No students of Leucippus have been confirmed other than Democritus. Epicurus has been described as a student of Leucippus, but Epicurus has also been said to have denied the existence of Leucippus.
Miletus, Elea, and Abdera have all been suggested as places where Leucippus lived, but these are most likely described as his home city because of their associations with other philosophers: Miletus was associated with the Ionian School that influenced Leucippus, Elea was associated with the Eleatic philosophers whom Leucippus challenged, and Abdera was the home of his student Democritus. Some 20th-century classicists such as Walther Kranz and John Burnet have suggested that he lived in all three cities---that he was born in Miletus before studying under Zeno in Elea and then settling in Abdera.
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# Leucippus
## Philosophy
### Atoms
Leucippus is credited with developing the philosophical school of atomism. He proposed that all things are made up of microscopic, indivisible particles that interact and combine to produce all the things of the world. The atoms postulated by Leucippus come in infinitely many shapes and sizes, although the size and shape of each atom is fixed and unchanging. They are in a state of constant motion and continuously change arrangements with one another. He reasoned that there must be infinite types of atoms because there is no reason why there should not be.
According to the 4th-century BCE philosopher Aristotle, Leucippus argued that logically there must be indivisible points in everything. His reasoning was that if an object was made entirely of divisible points, then it would not have any structure and it would be intangible. Leucippus developed atomism along with his student, Democritus; while Leucippus is credited with the philosophy\'s creation, Democritus is understood to have elaborated upon it and applied it to natural phenomena.
Two works are attributed to Leucippus: *The Great World System* and *On Mind*. The former may have originally been titled *The World System* and then later renamed to avoid confusion with Democritus\'s *The Little World System*. Leucippus\'s *The Great World System* has sometimes been attributed to Democritus. Only one extant fragment is attributed to Leucippus, taken from *On Mind*: \"Nothing happens at random, but everything for a reason and by necessity\". Leucippus believed that all things must happen deterministically, as the positions and motions of the atoms guarantee that they will collide in a certain way, invoking the principle of causality. This was reminiscent of the 6th-century BCE philosopher Anaximander\'s argument that movement is created by differences, and it was later codified by the 17th-century philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz with the principle of sufficient reason. Leucippus rejected the idea that there was an intelligent force governing the universe.
### Eleatics and the void {#eleatics_and_the_void}
Leucippus\'s atomism was a direct response to Eleatic philosophy. The Eleatics believed that nothingness, or the void, cannot exist in its own right. They concluded that if there is no void, then there is no motion and all things must be one. Leucippus agreed with their logic, but he said that the void did exist, and he was therefore able to accept the existence of motion and plurality. Like the Eleatics, Leucippus believed that everything exists in an eternal state and nothing can come into or out of existence, applying this to both atoms and the void. Aristotle described Leucippus as saying that atoms are not an addition to the void, but that atoms and the void are two opposites that exist beside one another. The 6th-century CE philosopher Simplicius of Cilicia also wrote about this idea, but he attributed it to Democritus. According to the Christian author Lactantius, Leucippus compared atoms to the particles of floating dust that are visible in sunlight.
Leucippus\'s atomism kept the concepts of reality developed by the Eleatics, but it applied them to a physical explanation of the world. By moving away from the abstract points and units of geometry, he formed a possible solution to the paradoxes of motion created by Zeno of Elea, which held that indivisibility made motion impossible. Leucippus also contested the Eleatic argument against divisibility: that any divider between two objects can also be divided. He argued that the void is a divider that does not have being and therefore cannot be divided. Though Leucippus described atoms as being able to touch one another, Aristotle understood this to mean atoms being near one another, as Leucippus maintained that the void must exist between all atoms.
### Soul and perception {#soul_and_perception}
Leucippus and Democritus proposed that heat, fire, and the soul are made of spherical atoms, as this shape would let them move past one another and cause the others to move more efficiently. They believed in a physical soul that drives motion in living things, and they described respiration as the process of expelling soul atoms and absorbing new ones. Death then coincides with the last breath, as soul atoms are no longer being replenished. Sleep is a similar state in which a reduced number of soul atoms are in the body.
Leucippus was the first philosopher to describe a theory of thought and perception. He described sensory input as a transfer between atoms, created when external atoms come into contact with the atoms of the soul. Leucippus said that sight is caused by a film of atoms emitted from an object, maintaining the shapes of its atoms and creating a reflection of the object in the viewer\'s eye. His description of vision was inspired by Empedocles, who formed a similar concept of objects emitting films of themselves. Leucippus posited that concepts such as color and texture are created by different arrangements of atoms, and that abstract concepts such as justice and wisdom are produced through the arrangement of soul atoms.
According to Epiphanius, Leucippus said that reasoned knowledge is impossible to obtain and only unreasoned belief exists. The 20th-century writer Constantine Vamvacas said that Leucippus rejected this belief, and that it was the Eleatic philosopher Parmenides who held it. According to Vamvacas, Leucippus and Democritus \"believe that sense experience, however limited, constitutes objective knowledge of the physical world\". The 20th-century scholar C. C. W. Taylor said that \"we have no evidence to suggest that Leucippus was concerned with epistemological questions\".
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# Leucippus
## Philosophy
### Cosmology
Leucippus said that the void extends infinitely, expanding across the entire universe. He also said that there is an infinite number of atoms, spread across the void. The Earth and the cosmos---including the Sun, the Moon, the stars, and anything else visible in the night sky---exist together in the void.
Leucippus said that the cosmos was created when a large group of atoms came together and swirled as a vortex. They shifted around each other until they were sorted \"like to like\". The larger atoms gathered in the center while the smaller ones were pushed to the edge. The smaller atoms became the celestial bodies of the cosmos. The larger atoms in the center came together as a membrane from which the Earth was formed. Ancient writers disagreed about what Leucippus meant when he described the membrane: Aetius said that the smaller atoms were part of the membrane, encasing the larger atoms, but Diogenes Laertius said that the larger atoms formed a membrane themselves and the smaller ones were excluded. Leucippus also believed that there were distant cosmoses in other parts of the void; this makes him the first known philosopher to propose the existence of other worlds besides Earth, though some ancient doxographers have attributed these ideas to the earlier Ionian philosophers.
Like other pre-Socratic philosophers, Leucippus believed that the Earth was in the center of the cosmos. He said that the other celestial bodies orbited around the Earth, with the Moon being the closest to the Earth and the Sun being the farthest. He described the stars as orbiting the fastest. While initially \"moist and muddy\", the stars dried and then ignited.
Leucippus adopted the idea of the Ionian philosophers that the Earth is flat. According to Aetius, Leucippus thought of the Earth as \"drum-shaped\", with a flat surface and some degree of depth. He said that the flat Earth is tilted on its horizontal axis so that the south is lower than the north, explaining that the northern region is colder than the southern region, and the cold compacted air of the north can better support the Earth\'s weight than the warm rarefied air of the south. Aetius also tells of Leucippus\'s explanation for thunder: that it is caused by fire being compressed in clouds and then bursting out.
Many early philosophers were confused by the fact that earthly objects fell downward while celestial objects moved in a curved trajectory. This prompted many of them to believe in a non-earthly substance that composes the celestial bodies. With his model of the cosmos, Leucippus was able to justify why these entities move differently even though they are made of the same substance. Leucippus gave no explanation for how motion began, for which he was criticized by Aristotle. It is unclear whether Leucippus considered vorticies to arise by chance or as a deterministic outcome.
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# Leucippus
## Legacy
### Ancient Greece {#ancient_greece}
Modern understanding of Leucippus\'s role in the development of atomism comes from the writings of the ancient Greek philosophers Aristotle and Theophrastus. Aristotle\'s 4th-century BCE record of Leucippus and Democritus\'s philosophy is the oldest surviving source on the subject, though he did not distinguish who developed which atomist ideas. Aetius also wrote about Leucippus, but it was well after Leucippus\'s own time and derivative of previous writings on the subject. Some later histories of philosophy omitted Leucippus entirely. Since ancient times, Leucippus has languished in obscurity compared to Democritus, and since the earliest records of atomist thought, it has been common practice to consider the ideas of Leucippus and Democritus collectively rather than attempting to distinguish them.
The atomist philosophy of Leucippus and Democritus influenced Greek philosophy for centuries, particularly in the work of Aristotle and Epicurus. Aristotle was critical of atomism. He questioned why stone should fall but fire should rise if they are both made of the same material. According to Diogenes Laertius, Diogenes of Apollonia\'s interpretation of the void may have been inspired by Leucippus. Plato explored cosmological ideas similar to those of Leucippus in the dialogue *Timaeus*.
### Modern era {#modern_era}
Ancient atomism was revived in the 16th and 17th centuries, especially by proponents of the mechanical philosophy such as Pierre Gassendi (1592--1655) and Robert Boyle (1627--1691). Nevertheless, in practice experimental chemists such as Boyle rather relied on the tradition of corpuscularianism which had developed in medieval alchemy and ultimately goes back to works such as Aristotle\'s *Meteorology IV*. Throughout the 18th century chemists worked independently from philosophical atomism, which only changed when John Dalton (1766--1844) proposed a form of atomism that was rooted in chemical experiment.
Although Leucippus\' ideas form an important historical precedent for the concept of atoms in general, they only bear a superficial resemblance to modern atomic theory. Leucippus\'s philosophy was conjecture based on *a priori* evidence, while modern atomic theory is supported by empirical evidence found through the scientific method. The main practical difference between Leucippus\'s atomism and modern atomic theory is the introduction of non-tangible phenomena such as mass--energy equivalence and fundamental forces. Instead of the purely material atoms of Leucippus, modern atomic theory shows that fundamental forces combine subatomic particles into atoms and link atoms together into molecules. The 20th-century physicist Werner Heisenberg argued that Plato\'s theory of forms was closer to the 20th-century understanding of physics than Leucippus\'s conception of atoms, saying that modern atoms are more like the intangible Platonic forms than the discrete material units of Leucippus.
#### Scholarship on Leucippus {#scholarship_on_leucippus}
Modern philosophy generally takes more interest in Leucippus\'s concept of atoms than his cosmology. Two major systems have been created to distinguish Leucippus and Democritus. The 20th-century philosopher Adolf Dyroff developed a set of distinctions between Leucippus and Democritus: he proposed that Leucippus was responsible for the atomist response to the Eleatics while Democritus responded to the Sophists and that Leucippus was a cosmologist while Democritus was a polymath. The 20th-century classicist Cyril Bailey proposed another system to differentiate the two philosophers, attributing atomism and belief in the void to Leucippus while attributing *The Great Cosmology* to Democritus as an application of Leucippus\'s philosophy. Unlike Democritus, Leucippus is only known to have studied cosmology and physics.
### Historicity
According to Diogenes Laertius, Epicurus alleged that Leucippus never existed---an allegation that triggered extensive philosophical debate. Most modern philosophers agree that Leucippus existed, but there is disagreement on whether his work can be meaningfully distinguished from that of Democritus. In 2008, the philosopher Daniel Graham wrote that no significant work on the historicity of Leucippus has been produced since the early 20th century, arguing that \"recent scholarship tends to avoid the question as much as possible\".
Scholars who maintain that Leucippus existed argue that he only taught orally or that any written works he produced were never meant for publication. The 20th-century classicist John Burnet proposed an alternate reading of Epicurus\'s claims, according to which Epicurus may have been saying that Leucippus was not worth discussing as a philosopher, not that he literally did not exist. Supporting this argument is that Epicurus considered ethics to be foundational to philosophy, and Leucippus had no teachings on that subject. Among scholars who argue against Leucippus\'s existence, alternate ideas have been proposed: Leucippus may have been a pseudonym of Democritus, or he may have been a character in a dialogue. Modern scholars who have rejected the existence of Leucippus include Erwin Rohde, Paul Natorp, Paul Tannery, P. Bokownew, Ernst Howald, Herman De Ley, Adolf Brieger, and Wilhelm Nestle.
The existence of Leucippus was an issue in 19th-century German philosophy, where it spawned a debate between Rohde, Natorp, and Hermann Alexander Diels. Rhode believed that even in the time of Epicurus there was no evidence of Leucippus\'s existence, and there was therefore no purpose in attributing the atomism of Democritus to an unknown figure such as Leucippus, rejecting Theophrastus\'s account. Natorp likewise rejected that Diogenes of Apollonia was preceded by Leucippus. Diels affirmed the account of Theophrastus and produced writings criticizing Rhode and Natorp. The problem was significant enough that it was given its own name in German: *die Leukipp-frage* (`{{Translation|''the Leucippus problem''}}`{=mediawiki}).
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# Leucippus
## Works
Two works are attributed to Leucippus.
- (`{{Transliteration|grc|Megas Diakosmos}}`{=mediawiki}; translated as *The Great World System*, *The Great Cosmology*, or *The Great World Order*)
- (`{{Transliteration|grc|Peri Nou}}`{=mediawiki}; translated as *On Mind*) -- This work includes the only surviving fragment written by Leucippus: *\"οὐδὲν χρῆμα μάτην γίνεται, ἀλλὰ πάντα ἐκ λόγου τε καὶ ὑπ' ἀνάγκης\"* (`{{Translation|"Nothing happens at random, but everything for a reason and by necessity
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# Lola Graham
**Lola Glenn Graham** (23 September 1918`{{spaced ndash}}`{=mediawiki}2 January 1992) was an Australian pianist. She first came to public attention after winning a musical competition at age six by playing the piano. She attended Shelford Church of England Girls\' Grammar School and passed her music examinations in December 1933. In October 1936 her piano teacher, Sheila MacFie, organised a recital for Graham and fellow student, Eda Ashton, at the British Music Society\'s rooms, Melbourne. In April 1942 Graham and Ashton were pianists for a radio broadcast on 3LO on the Australian Broadcasting Commission\'s network. In May of the following year her chamber music piano work was described by *The Argus*{{\'}} reporter, \"Graham showed virtuosity in her playing of Albanesi\'s Sonata in C Major.\"
She worked in radio for most of her career. In October 1946 she performed a duo piano recital with Mamie Reid on national radio. She worked in live musical theatre both as a band member and accompanist. Graham married Fred Menhennitt on 23 February 1957 and the couple had two sons. She was a backing musician for Barry Humphries, and in 1962, she provided piano on his album, *A Nice Night\'s Entertainment*. She died, aged 73, after being diagnosed with cancer
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# Latency (engineering)
**Latency**, from a general point of view, is a time delay between the cause and the effect of some physical change in the system being observed. Lag, as it is known in gaming circles, refers to the latency between the input to a simulation and the visual or auditory response, often occurring because of network delay in online games. The original meaning of "latency", as used widely in psychology, medicine and most other disciplines, derives from "latent", a word of Latin origin meaning "hidden". Its different and relatively recent meaning (this topic) of "lateness" or "delay" appears to derive from its superficial similarity to the word "late", from the old English "laet".
Latency is physically a consequence of the limited velocity at which any physical interaction can propagate. The magnitude of this velocity is always less than or equal to the speed of light. Therefore, every physical system with any physical separation (distance) between cause and effect will experience some sort of latency, regardless of the nature of the stimulation to which it has been exposed.
The precise definition of latency depends on the system being observed or the nature of the simulation. In communications, the lower limit of latency is determined by the medium being used to transfer information. In reliable two-way communication systems, latency limits the maximum rate at which information can be transmitted, as there is often a limit on the amount of information that is in-flight at any given moment. Perceptible latency has a strong effect on user satisfaction and usability in the field of human--machine interaction.
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# Latency (engineering)
## Communications
Online games are sensitive to latency (lag), since fast response times to new events occurring during a game session are rewarded while slow response times may carry penalties. Due to a delay in transmission of game events, a player with a high latency internet connection may show slow responses in spite of appropriate reaction time. This gives players with low-latency connections a technical advantage.
### Capital markets {#capital_markets}
Joel Hasbrouck and Gideon Saar (2011) measure latency to execute financial transactions based on three components: the time it takes for information to reach the trader, execution of the trader\'s algorithms to analyze the information and decide a course of action, and the generated action to reach the exchange and get implemented. Hasbrouck and Saar contrast this with the way in which latencies are measured by many trading venues that use much more narrow definitions, such as the processing delay measured from the entry of the order (at the vendor\'s computer) to the transmission of an acknowledgment (from the vendor\'s computer). Trading using computers has developed to the point where millisecond improvements in network speeds offer a competitive advantage for financial institutions.
### `{{Anchor|PACKET-SWITCHED}}`{=mediawiki}Packet-switched networks {#packet_switched_networks}
**Network latency** in a packet-switched network is measured as either one-way (the time from the source sending a packet to the destination receiving it), or round-trip delay time (the one-way latency from the source to the destination plus the one-way latency from the destination back to the source). Round-trip latency is more often quoted, because it can be measured from a single point. Many software platforms provide a service called ping that can be used to measure round-trip latency. Ping uses the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) *echo request* which causes the recipient to send the received packet as an immediate response, thus it provides a rough way of measuring round-trip delay time. Ping cannot perform accurate measurements, principally because ICMP is intended only for diagnostic or control purposes, and differs from real communication protocols such as TCP. Furthermore, routers and internet service providers might apply different traffic shaping policies to different protocols. For more accurate measurements it is better to use specific software, for example: hping, Netperf or Iperf.
However, in a non-trivial network, a typical packet will be forwarded over multiple links and gateways, each of which will not begin to forward the packet until it has been completely received. In such a network, the minimal latency is the sum of the transmission delay of each link, plus the forwarding latency of each gateway. In practice, minimal latency also includes queuing and processing delays. Queuing delay occurs when a gateway receives multiple packets from different sources heading toward the same destination. Since typically only one packet can be transmitted at a time, some of the packets must queue for transmission, incurring additional delay. Processing delays are incurred while a gateway determines what to do with a newly received packet. Bufferbloat can also cause increased latency that is an order of magnitude or more. The combination of propagation, serialization, queuing, and processing delays often produces a complex and variable network latency profile.
Latency limits total throughput in reliable two-way communication systems as described by the bandwidth-delay product.
### Fiber optics {#fiber_optics}
Latency in optical fiber is largely a function of the speed of light. This would equate to a latency of 3.33 μs for every kilometer of path length. The index of refraction of most fiber optic cables is about 1.5, meaning that light travels about 1.5 times as fast in a vacuum as it does in the cable. This works out to about 5.0 μs of latency for every kilometer. In shorter metro networks, higher latency can be experienced due to extra distance in building risers and cross-connects. To calculate the latency of a connection, one has to know the distance traveled by the fiber, which is rarely a straight line, since it has to traverse geographic contours and obstacles, such as roads and railway tracks, as well as other rights-of-way.
Due to imperfections in the fiber, light degrades as it is transmitted through it. For distances of greater than 100 kilometers, amplifiers or regenerators are deployed. Latency introduced by these components needs to be taken into account.
### Satellite transmission {#satellite_transmission}
Satellites in geostationary orbits are far enough away from Earth that communication latency becomes significant -- about a quarter of a second for a trip from one ground-based transmitter to the satellite and back to another ground-based transmitter; close to half a second for two-way communication from one Earth station to another and then back to the first. Low Earth orbit is sometimes used to cut this delay, at the expense of more complicated satellite tracking on the ground and requiring more satellites in the satellite constellation to ensure continuous coverage.
## Audio
Audio latency is the delay between when an audio signal enters and when it emerges from a system. Potential contributors to latency in an audio system include analog-to-digital conversion, buffering, digital signal processing, transmission time, digital-to-analog conversion and the speed of sound in air.
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# Latency (engineering)
## Video
Video latency refers to the degree of delay between the time a transfer of a video stream is requested and the actual time that transfer begins. Networks that exhibit relatively small delays are known as low-latency networks, while their counterparts are known as high-latency networks.
## Workflow
Any individual workflow within a system of workflows can be subject to some type of operational latency. It may even be the case that an individual system may have more than one type of latency, depending on the type of participant or goal-seeking behavior. This is best illustrated by the following two examples involving air travel.
From the point of view of a passenger, latency can be described as follows. Suppose John Doe flies from London to New York. The latency of his trip is the time it takes him to go from his house in England to the hotel he is staying at in New York. This is independent of the throughput of the London-New York air link -- whether there were 100 passengers a day making the trip or 10000, the latency of the trip would remain the same.
From the point of view of flight operations personnel, latency can be entirely different. Consider the staff at the London and New York airports. Only a limited number of planes are able to make the transatlantic journey, so when one lands they must prepare it for the return trip as quickly as possible. It might take, for example:
- 35 minutes to clean a plane
- 15 minutes to refuel a plane
- 10 minutes to load the passengers
- 30 minutes to load the cargo
Assuming the above are done consecutively, minimum plane turnaround time is:
: 35 + 15 + 10 + 30 = **90**
However, cleaning, refueling and loading the cargo can be done at the same time. Passengers can only be loaded after cleaning is complete. The reduced latency, then, is:
: 35 + 10 = 45
: 15
: 30
: Minimum latency = **45**
The people involved in the turnaround are interested only in the time it takes for their individual tasks. When all of the tasks are done at the same time, however, it is possible to reduce the latency to the length of the longest task. If some steps have prerequisites, it becomes more difficult to perform all steps in parallel. In the example above, the requirement to clean the plane before loading passengers results in a minimum latency longer than any single task.
## Mechanics`{{anchor|Mechanical}}`{=mediawiki}
Any mechanical process encounters limitations modeled by Newtonian physics. The behavior of disk drives provides an example of mechanical latency. Here, it is the time seek time for the actuator arm to be positioned above the appropriate track and then rotational latency for the data encoded on a platter to rotate from its current position to a position under the disk read-and-write head.
## Computer hardware and software systems {#computer_hardware_and_software_systems}
Computers run instructions in the context of a process. In the context of computer multitasking, the execution of the process can be postponed if other processes are also executing. In addition, the operating system can schedule when to perform the action that the process is commanding. For example, suppose a process commands that a computer card\'s voltage output be set high-low-high-low and so on at a rate of 1000 Hz. The operating system schedules the process for each transition (high-low or low-high) based on a hardware clock such as the High Precision Event Timer. The latency is the delay between the events generated by the hardware clock and the actual transitions of voltage from high to low or low to high.
Many desktop operating systems have performance limitations that create additional latency. The problem may be mitigated with real-time extensions and patches such as PREEMPT RT.
On embedded systems, the real-time execution of instructions is often supported by a real-time operating system.
Note that in software systems, benchmarking against \"average\" and \"median\" latency can be misleading because few outlier numbers can distort them. Instead, software architects and software developers should use \"99th percentile\".
## Simulations
In simulation applications, latency refers to the time delay, often measured in milliseconds, between initial input and output clearly discernible to the simulator trainee or simulator subject. Latency is sometimes also called *transport delay*. Some authorities`{{who|date=February 2020}}`{=mediawiki} distinguish between latency and transport delay by using the term *latency* in the sense of the extra time delay of a system over and above the reaction time of the vehicle being simulated, but this requires detailed knowledge of the vehicle dynamics and can be controversial.
In simulators with both visual and motion systems, it is particularly important that the latency of the motion system not be greater than of the visual system, or symptoms of simulator sickness may result. This is because, in the real world, motion cues are those of acceleration and are quickly transmitted to the brain, typically in less than 50 milliseconds; this is followed some milliseconds later by a perception of change in the visual scene. The visual scene change is essentially one of change of perspective or displacement of objects such as the horizon, which takes some time to build up to discernible amounts after the initial acceleration which caused the displacement. A simulator should, therefore, reflect the real-world situation by ensuring that the motion latency is equal to or less than that of the visual system and not the other way round
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# History of public transport authorities in London
The **history of public transport authorities in London** details the various organisations that have been responsible for the public transport network in and around London, England - including buses, coaches, trams, trolleybuses, Docklands Light Railway, and the London Underground.
From 1933 until 2000, these bodies used the London Transport brand. The period began with the creation of the London Passenger Transport Board, which covered the County of London and adjacent counties within a 30-mile (48-km) radius. This area later came under the control of the London Transport Executive and then the London Transport Board. The area of responsibility was reduced to that of the Greater London administrative area in 1970 when the Greater London Council, and then London Regional Transport took over responsibility.
Since 2000, the Greater London Authority has been the transport authority and the executive agency has been called Transport for London; ending the 67-year use of the *London Transport* name.
## Background
Prior to 1933, the ownership and management of the transport system in London was distributed among a large number of independent and separate organisations. The Underground railway system had been developed and was owned by the Underground Electric Railways Company of London (UERL) and the Metropolitan Railway. Tram and Trolleybus networks were owned by various local authorities and public companies and buses were owned by numerous companies. Many of these services were in competition with one another leading to wasteful duplication. The London County Council managed tram operations within the County of London, but its responsibility did not extend to the bus or tram routes that ran outside its area; or to the railways, which also extended into neighbouring counties. A Royal Commission on London Government in the 1920s did not permit the London County Council to extend its area of responsibility and an ad hoc London Traffic Area was created to regulate motor traffic in the wider London region. In the 1930s another ad hoc solution was sought to improve the control and coordination of public transport.
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# History of public transport authorities in London
## London\'s transport authorities {#londons_transport_authorities}
### 1933-1948: London Passenger Transport Board {#london_passenger_transport_board}
*Main article: London Passenger Transport Board* The London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB) was the transport authority from 1 July 1933 to 31 December 1947. It unified services in the London area for the first time. The London Passenger Transport Act 1933 removed responsibility for 167.17 mi of tram route from the London County Council, three county boroughs and a number of other local authorities in the Greater London area. It brought the UERL lines under the same control, and took over supervision of buses from the Metropolitan Police. The area of responsibility of the LPTB was far greater than the current Greater London boundaries and was known as the London Passenger Transport Area. The period saw massive expansion of the tube network and was directly responsible for the expansion of the suburbs. The extensive New Works Programme was halted by World War II, with some projects abandoned and others completed after the end of hostilities. The \'roundel symbol\' designed in 1918 was adopted by London Passenger Transport Board and the London Transport brand and architectural style was perfected during this period. The iconic tube map designed in 1931, was published in 1933.
### 1948-1963: London Transport Executive {#london_transport_executive}
The London Transport Executive (LTE) was the transport authority from 1 January 1948 to 31 December 1962. London Transport was taken into public ownership and became part of the British Transport Commission, which brought London Transport and British Railways under the same control for the first and last time. The period saw the start of direct recruitment from the Caribbean and the repair and replacement of stock and stations damaged during the war as well as completion of delayed projects such as the Central line eastern extension. The AEC Routemaster bus was introduced in 1956. Trams were withdrawn in 1952 and trolleybuses in 1962.
### 1963-1970: London Transport Board {#london_transport_board}
The London Transport Board was the transport authority from 1 January 1963 to 31 December 1969 It reported directly to the Minister of Transport, ending its direct association with the management of British Railways. During this period many of Britain\'s unprofitable railways were closed down, as most routes in the capital were widely used the Beeching Axe had little effect. However, during this period there was little investment in public transport and the motor car increased in popularity. During this period, the Victoria line was opened - although work had started in the early 1960s - and the AEC Merlin single-deck bus was introduced.
### 1970-1984: London Transport Executive {#london_transport_executive_1}
*Main article: London Transport Executive (GLC)* The Greater London Council was the transport authority from 1 January 1970 to 28 June 1984 and the executive agency was called the London Transport Executive. The legislation creating the Greater London Council (GLC) was already passed in 1963 when the London Transport Board was created. However, control did not pass to the new authority until 1 January 1970. The GLC broadly controlled only those services within the boundaries of Greater London. The (green painted) country buses and Green Line Coaches had been passed in 1969 to a new company, London Country Bus Services, which in 1970 became part of the National Bus Company. The period is perhaps the most controversial in London\'s transport history and there was a severe lack of funding from central government and staff shortages.
The inter-modal zonal ticketing system currently used by Transport for London originated in this period. Following the Greater London Council election in 1981, the incoming Labour administration simplified fares in Greater London by introducing four new bus fare zones and two central London Underground zones, named *City* and *West End*, where flat fares applied for the first time. This was accompanied by a cut in prices of about a third and was marketed as the *Fares Fair* campaign. Following successful legal action against it, on 21 March 1982 London Buses fares were subsequently doubled and London Underground fares increased by 91%. The two central area zones were retained and the fares to all other stations were restructured to be graduated at three-mile intervals. In 1983, a third revision of fares was undertaken, and a new inter-modal Travelcard season ticket was launched covering five new numbered zones; representing an overall cut in prices of around 25%. The *One Day Travelcard* was launched in 1984 and on weekdays was only sold for travel after 09.30.
### 1984-2000: London Regional Transport {#london_regional_transport}
London Regional Transport was the transport authority from 29 June 1984 to 2 July 2000. The GLC was abolished in 1986 with responsibility for public transport removed two years earlier in 1984. The new authority, London Regional Transport (LRT), again came under direct state control, reporting to the Secretary of State for Transport. The London Regional Transport Act contained provision for setting up subsidiary companies to run the Underground and bus services and in 1985 London Underground Limited (LUL), a wholly owned subsidiary of London Regional Transport, was set up to manage the tube network. In 1988 ten individual line business units were created to manage the network. London Buses Limited was constituted to progress the privatisation of London bus services. London Transport was converted to a route operating contract tendering authority, and the former bus operating interests and assets of London Transport were split into 12 business units under the banner *London Buses*. The 12 units competed for contracts with private operators from 1984, and were all sold off by 1994/5 becoming private operators themselves.
Further amendments to the fare system were made during this period, including inclusion of the separately managed British Rail services. In January 1985 the *Capitalcard* season ticket was launched, offering validity on British Rail as well as London Underground and London Buses. It was priced around 10-15% higher than the Travelcard. In June 1986 the *One Day Capitalcard* was launched. The Capitalcard brand ended in January 1989 when the Travelcard gained validity on British Rail. In January 1991 Zone 5 was split to create a new Zone 6. The Docklands Light Railway was opened on 31 August 1987 and was included in the zonal Travelcard ticketing scheme.
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# History of public transport authorities in London
## London\'s transport authorities {#londons_transport_authorities}
### 2000 onwards: Transport for London {#onwards_transport_for_london}
The Greater London Authority, a replacement authority for the GLC, was set up in 2000 with a transport executive called Transport for London (TfL) that took control from 3 July 2000. It is the first London transport authority since 1933 not to be commonly called *London Transport*. Unlike previous transport bodies, TfL gained responsibility for a wide variety of other transportation functions - including management of major roads in London, walking & cycling as well as taxi and private hire licensing. The London Underground did not pass to TfL until after a Private Finance Initiative (PFI) agreement for maintenance was completed in 2003. In 2017, TfL became the longest running transportation body in London - following London Regional Transport
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# Lipid
**Lipids** are a broad group of organic compounds which include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, phospholipids, and others. The functions of lipids include storing energy, signaling, and acting as structural components of cell membranes. Lipids have applications in the cosmetic and food industries, and in nanotechnology.
Lipids are broadly defined as hydrophobic or amphiphilic small molecules; the amphiphilic nature of some lipids allows them to form structures such as vesicles, multilamellar/unilamellar liposomes, or membranes in an aqueous environment. Biological lipids originate entirely or in part from two distinct types of biochemical subunits or \"building-blocks\": ketoacyl and isoprene groups. Using this approach, lipids may be divided into eight categories: fatty acyls, glycerolipids, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, saccharolipids, and polyketides (derived from condensation of ketoacyl subunits); and sterol lipids and prenol lipids (derived from condensation of isoprene subunits).
Although the term *lipid* is sometimes used as a synonym for fats, fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides. Lipids also encompass molecules such as fatty acids and their derivatives (including tri-, di-, monoglycerides, and phospholipids), as well as other sterol-containing metabolites such as cholesterol. Although humans and other mammals use various biosynthetic pathways both to break down and to synthesize lipids, some essential lipids cannot be made this way and must be obtained from the diet.
## History
In 1815, Henri Braconnot classified lipids (*graisses*) in two categories, *suifs* (solid greases or tallow) and *huiles* (fluid oils). In 1823, Michel Eugène Chevreul developed a more detailed classification, including oils, greases, tallow, waxes, resins, balsams and volatile oils (or essential oils).
The first synthetic triglyceride was reported by Théophile-Jules Pelouze in 1844, when he produced tributyrin by treating butyric acid with glycerin in the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid. Several years later, Marcellin Berthelot, one of Pelouze\'s students, synthesized tristearin and tripalmitin by reaction of the analogous fatty acids with glycerin in the presence of gaseous hydrogen chloride at high temperature.
In 1827, William Prout recognized fat (\"oily\" alimentary matters), along with protein (\"albuminous\") and carbohydrate (\"saccharine\"), as an important nutrient for humans and animals.
For a century, chemists regarded \"fats\" as only simple lipids made of fatty acids and glycerol (glycerides), but new forms were described later. Theodore Gobley (1847) discovered phospholipids in mammalian brain and hen egg, called by him as \"lecithins\". Thudichum discovered in human brain some phospholipids (cephalin), glycolipids (cerebroside) and sphingolipids (sphingomyelin).
The terms lipoid, lipin, lipide and lipid have been used with varied meanings from author to author. In 1912, Rosenbloom and Gies proposed the substitution of \"lipoid\" by \"lipin\". In 1920, Bloor introduced a new classification for \"lipoids\": simple lipoids (greases and waxes), compound lipoids (phospholipoids and glycolipoids), and the derived lipoids (fatty acids, alcohols, sterols).
The word *lipide*, which stems etymologically from Greek λίπος, *lipos* \'fat\', was introduced in 1923 by the French pharmacologist Gabriel Bertrand. Bertrand included in the concept not only the traditional fats (glycerides), but also the \"lipoids\", with a complex constitution. The word *lipide* was unanimously approved by the international commission of the *Société de Chimie Biologique* during the plenary session on July 3, 1923. The word *lipide* was later anglicized as *lipid* because of its pronunciation (\'lɪpɪd). In French, the suffix *-ide*, from Ancient Greek -ίδης (meaning \'son of\' or \'descendant of\'), is always pronounced (ɪd).
In 1947, T. P. Hilditch defined \"simple lipids\" as greases and waxes (true waxes, sterols, alcohols).`{{Page needed|date=April 2024}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Lipid
## Categories
Lipids have been classified into eight categories by the Lipid MAPS consortium as follows:
### Fatty acyls {#fatty_acyls}
Fatty acyls, a generic term for describing fatty acids, their conjugates and derivatives, are a diverse group of molecules synthesized by chain-elongation of an acetyl-CoA primer with malonyl-CoA or methylmalonyl-CoA groups in a process called fatty acid synthesis. They are made of a hydrocarbon chain that terminates with a carboxylic acid group; this arrangement confers the molecule with a polar, hydrophilic end, and a nonpolar, hydrophobic end that is insoluble in water. The fatty acid structure is one of the most fundamental categories of biological lipids and is commonly used as a building-block of more structurally complex lipids. The carbon chain, typically between four and 24 carbons long, may be saturated or unsaturated, and may be attached to functional groups containing oxygen, halogens, nitrogen, and sulfur. If a fatty acid contains a double bond, there is the possibility of either a *cis* or *trans* geometric isomerism, which significantly affects the molecule\'s configuration. *Cis*-double bonds cause the fatty acid chain to bend, an effect that is compounded with more double bonds in the chain. Three double bonds in 18-carbon *linolenic acid*, the most abundant fatty-acyl chains of plant *thylakoid membranes*, render these membranes highly *fluid* despite environmental low-temperatures, and also makes linolenic acid give dominating sharp peaks in high resolution 13-C NMR spectra of chloroplasts. This in turn plays an important role in the structure and function of cell membranes. Most naturally occurring fatty acids are of the *cis* configuration, although the *trans* form does exist in some natural and partially hydrogenated fats and oils.
Examples of biologically important fatty acids include the eicosanoids, derived primarily from arachidonic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid, that include prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes. Docosahexaenoic acid is also important in biological systems, particularly with respect to sight. Other major lipid classes in the fatty acid category are the fatty esters and fatty amides. Fatty esters include important biochemical intermediates such as wax esters, fatty acid thioester coenzyme A derivatives, fatty acid thioester ACP derivatives and fatty acid carnitines. The fatty amides include N-acyl ethanolamines, such as the cannabinoid neurotransmitter anandamide.
### Glycerolipids
thumb\|upright=1.3\|Example of an unsaturated fat triglyceride (C~55~H~98~O~6~). Left part: glycerol; right part, from top to bottom: palmitic acid, oleic acid, alpha-linolenic acid.
Glycerolipids are composed of mono-, di-, and tri-substituted glycerols, the best-known being the fatty acid triesters of glycerol, called triglycerides. The word \"triacylglycerol\" is sometimes used synonymously with \"triglyceride\". In these compounds, the three hydroxyl groups of glycerol are each esterified, typically by different fatty acids. Because they function as an energy store, these lipids comprise the bulk of storage fat in animal tissues. The hydrolysis of the ester bonds of triglycerides and the release of glycerol and fatty acids from adipose tissue are the initial steps in metabolizing fat.
Additional subclasses of glycerolipids are represented by glycosylglycerols, which are characterized by the presence of one or more sugar residues attached to glycerol via a glycosidic linkage. Examples of structures in this category are the digalactosyldiacylglycerols found in plant membranes and seminolipid from mammalian sperm cells.
### Glycerophospholipids
Glycerophospholipids, usually referred to as phospholipids (though sphingomyelins are also classified as phospholipids), are ubiquitous in nature and are key components of the lipid bilayer of cells, as well as being involved in metabolism and cell signaling. Neural tissue (including the brain) contains relatively high amounts of glycerophospholipids, and alterations in their composition has been implicated in various neurological disorders. Glycerophospholipids may be subdivided into distinct classes, based on the nature of the polar headgroup at the *sn*-3 position of the glycerol backbone in eukaryotes and eubacteria, or the *sn*-1 position in the case of archaebacteria.
Examples of glycerophospholipids found in biological membranes are phosphatidylcholine (also known as PC, GPCho or lecithin), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE or GPEtn) and phosphatidylserine (PS or GPSer). In addition to serving as a primary component of cellular membranes and binding sites for intra- and intercellular proteins, some glycerophospholipids in eukaryotic cells, such as phosphatidylinositols and phosphatidic acids are either precursors of or, themselves, membrane-derived second messengers. Typically, one or both of these hydroxyl groups are acylated with long-chain fatty acids, but there are also alkyl-linked and 1Z-alkenyl-linked (plasmalogen) glycerophospholipids, as well as dialkylether variants in archaebacteria.
### Sphingolipids
Sphingolipids are a complicated family of compounds that share a common structural feature, a sphingoid base backbone that is synthesized *de novo* from the amino acid serine and a long-chain fatty acyl CoA, then converted into ceramides, phosphosphingolipids, glycosphingolipids and other compounds. The major sphingoid base of mammals is commonly referred to as sphingosine. Ceramides (N-acyl-sphingoid bases) are a major subclass of sphingoid base derivatives with an amide-linked fatty acid. The fatty acids are typically saturated or mono-unsaturated with chain lengths from 16 to 26 carbon atoms.
The major phosphosphingolipids of mammals are sphingomyelins (ceramide phosphocholines), whereas insects contain mainly ceramide phosphoethanolamines and fungi have phytoceramide phosphoinositols and mannose-containing headgroups. The glycosphingolipids are a diverse family of molecules composed of one or more sugar residues linked via a glycosidic bond to the sphingoid base. Examples of these are the simple and complex glycosphingolipids such as cerebrosides and gangliosides.
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# Lipid
## Categories
### Sterols
*Main article: Sterol* Sterols, such as cholesterol and its derivatives, are an important component of membrane lipids, along with the glycerophospholipids and sphingomyelins. Other examples of sterols are the bile acids and their conjugates, which in mammals are oxidized derivatives of cholesterol and are synthesized in the liver. The plant equivalents are the phytosterols, such as β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, and brassicasterol; the latter compound is also used as a biomarker for algal growth. The predominant sterol in fungal cell membranes is ergosterol.
Sterols are steroids in which one of the hydrogen atoms is substituted with a hydroxyl group, at position 3 in the carbon chain. They have in common with steroids the same fused four-ring core structure. Steroids have different biological roles as hormones and signaling molecules. The eighteen-carbon (C18) steroids include the estrogen family whereas the C19 steroids comprise the androgens such as testosterone and androsterone. The C21 subclass includes the progestogens as well as the glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids. The secosteroids, comprising various forms of vitamin D, are characterized by cleavage of the B ring of the core structure.
### Prenols
Prenol lipids are synthesized from the five-carbon-unit precursors isopentenyl diphosphate and dimethylallyl diphosphate, which are produced mainly via the mevalonic acid (MVA) pathway. The simple isoprenoids (linear alcohols, diphosphates, etc.) are formed by the successive addition of C5 units, and are classified according to number of these terpene units. Structures containing greater than 40 carbons are known as polyterpenes. Carotenoids are important simple isoprenoids that function as antioxidants and as precursors of vitamin A. Another biologically important class of molecules is exemplified by the quinones and hydroquinones, which contain an isoprenoid tail attached to a quinonoid core of non-isoprenoid origin. Vitamin E and vitamin K, as well as the ubiquinones, are examples of this class. Prokaryotes synthesize polyprenols (called bactoprenols) in which the terminal isoprenoid unit attached to oxygen remains unsaturated, whereas in animal polyprenols (dolichols) the terminal isoprenoid is reduced.
### Saccharolipids
Saccharolipids describe compounds in which fatty acids are linked to a sugar backbone, forming structures that are compatible with membrane bilayers. In the saccharolipids, a monosaccharide substitutes for the glycerol backbone present in glycerolipids and glycerophospholipids. The most familiar saccharolipids are the acylated glucosamine precursors of the Lipid A component of the lipopolysaccharides in Gram-negative bacteria. Typical lipid A molecules are disaccharides of glucosamine, which are derivatized with as many as seven fatty-acyl chains. The minimal lipopolysaccharide required for growth in *E. coli* is Kdo~2~-Lipid A, a hexa-acylated disaccharide of glucosamine that is glycosylated with two 3-deoxy-D-manno-octulosonic acid (Kdo) residues.
### Polyketides
Polyketides are synthesized by polymerization of acetyl and propionyl subunits by classic enzymes as well as iterative and multimodular enzymes that share mechanistic features with the fatty acid synthases. They comprise many secondary metabolites and natural products from animal, plant, bacterial, fungal and marine sources, and have great structural diversity. Many polyketides are cyclic molecules whose backbones are often further modified by glycosylation, methylation, hydroxylation, oxidation, or other processes. Many commonly used antimicrobial, antiparasitic, and anticancer agents are polyketides or polyketide derivatives, such as erythromycins, tetracyclines, avermectins, and antitumor epothilones.
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# Lipid
## Biological functions {#biological_functions}
### Component of biological membranes {#component_of_biological_membranes}
Eukaryotic cells feature the compartmentalized membrane-bound organelles that carry out different biological functions. The glycerophospholipids are the main structural component of biological membranes, as the cellular plasma membrane and the intracellular membranes of organelles; in animal cells, the plasma membrane physically separates the intracellular components from the extracellular environment. The glycerophospholipids are amphipathic molecules (containing both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions) that contain a glycerol core linked to two fatty acid-derived \"tails\" by ester linkages and to one \"head\" group by a phosphate ester linkage. While glycerophospholipids are the major component of biological membranes, other non-glyceride lipid components such as sphingomyelin and sterols (mainly cholesterol in animal cell membranes) are also found in biological membranes. In plants and algae, the galactosyldiacylglycerols, and sulfoquinovosyldiacylglycerol, which lack a phosphate group, are important components of membranes of chloroplasts and related organelles and are among the most abundant lipids in photosynthetic tissues, including those of higher plants, algae and certain bacteria.
Plant thylakoid membranes have the largest lipid component of a non-bilayer forming monogalactosyl diglyceride (MGDG), and little phospholipids; despite this unique lipid composition, chloroplast thylakoid membranes have been shown to contain a dynamic lipid-bilayer matrix as revealed by magnetic resonance and electron microscope studies.
A biological membrane is a form of lamellar phase lipid bilayer. The formation of lipid bilayers is an energetically preferred process when the glycerophospholipids described above are in an aqueous environment. This is known as the hydrophobic effect. In an aqueous system, the polar heads of lipids align towards the polar, aqueous environment, while the hydrophobic tails minimize their contact with water and tend to cluster together, forming a vesicle; depending on the concentration of the lipid, this biophysical interaction may result in the formation of micelles, liposomes, or lipid bilayers. Other aggregations are also observed and form part of the polymorphism of amphiphile (lipid) behavior. Phase behavior is an area of study within biophysics. Micelles and bilayers form in the polar medium by a process known as the hydrophobic effect. When dissolving a lipophilic or amphiphilic substance in a polar environment, the polar molecules (i.e., water in an aqueous solution) become more ordered around the dissolved lipophilic substance, since the polar molecules cannot form hydrogen bonds to the lipophilic areas of the amphiphile. So in an aqueous environment, the water molecules form an ordered \"clathrate\" cage around the dissolved lipophilic molecule.
The formation of lipids into protocell membranes represents a key step in models of abiogenesis, the origin of life.
### Energy storage {#energy_storage}
Triglycerides, stored in adipose tissue, are a major form of energy storage both in animals and plants. They are a major source of energy in aerobic respiration. The complete oxidation of fatty acids releases about 38 kJ/g (9 kcal/g), compared with only 17 kJ/g (4 kcal/g) for the oxidative breakdown of carbohydrates and proteins. The adipocyte, or fat cell, is designed for continuous synthesis and breakdown of triglycerides in animals, with breakdown controlled mainly by the activation of hormone-sensitive enzyme lipase. Migratory birds that must fly long distances without eating use triglycerides to fuel their flights.
### Signaling
Evidence has emerged showing that lipid signaling is a vital part of the cell signaling. Lipid signaling may occur via activation of G protein-coupled or nuclear receptors, and members of several different lipid categories have been identified as signaling molecules and cellular messengers. These include sphingosine-1-phosphate, a sphingolipid derived from ceramide that is a potent messenger molecule involved in regulating calcium mobilization, cell growth, and apoptosis; diacylglycerol and the phosphatidylinositol phosphates (PIPs), involved in calcium-mediated activation of protein kinase C; the prostaglandins, which are one type of fatty-acid derived eicosanoid involved in inflammation and immunity; the steroid hormones such as estrogen, testosterone and cortisol, which modulate a host of functions such as reproduction, metabolism and blood pressure; and the oxysterols such as 25-hydroxy-cholesterol that are liver X receptor agonists. Phosphatidylserine lipids are known to be involved in signaling for the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells or pieces of cells. They accomplish this by being exposed to the extracellular face of the cell membrane after the inactivation of flippases which place them exclusively on the cytosolic side and the activation of scramblases, which scramble the orientation of the phospholipids. After this occurs, other cells recognize the phosphatidylserines and phagocytosize the cells or cell fragments exposing them.
### Other functions {#other_functions}
The \"fat-soluble\" vitamins (A, D, E and K) -- which are isoprene-based lipids -- are essential nutrients stored in the liver and fatty tissues, with a diverse range of functions. Acyl-carnitines are involved in the transport and metabolism of fatty acids in and out of mitochondria, where they undergo beta oxidation. Polyprenols and their phosphorylated derivatives also play important transport roles, in this case the transport of oligosaccharides across membranes. Polyprenol phosphate sugars and polyprenol diphosphate sugars function in extra-cytoplasmic glycosylation reactions, in extracellular polysaccharide biosynthesis (for instance, peptidoglycan polymerization in bacteria), and in eukaryotic protein N-glycosylation. Cardiolipins are a subclass of glycerophospholipids containing four acyl chains and three glycerol groups that are particularly abundant in the inner mitochondrial membrane. They are believed to activate enzymes involved with oxidative phosphorylation. Lipids also form the basis of steroid hormones.
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# Lipid
## Metabolism
The major dietary lipids for humans and other animals are animal and plant triglycerides, sterols, and membrane phospholipids. The process of lipid metabolism synthesizes and degrades the lipid stores and produces the structural and functional lipids characteristic of individual tissues.
### Biosynthesis
In animals, when there is an oversupply of dietary carbohydrate, the excess carbohydrate is converted to triglycerides. This involves the synthesis of fatty acids from acetyl-CoA and the esterification of fatty acids in the production of triglycerides, a process called lipogenesis. Fatty acids are made by fatty acid synthases that polymerize and then reduce acetyl-CoA units. The acyl chains in the fatty acids are extended by a cycle of reactions that add the acetyl group, reduce it to an alcohol, dehydrate it to an alkene group and then reduce it again to an alkane group. The enzymes of fatty acid biosynthesis are divided into two groups, in animals and fungi all these fatty acid synthase reactions are carried out by a single multifunctional protein, while in plant plastids and bacteria separate enzymes perform each step in the pathway. The fatty acids may be subsequently converted to triglycerides that are packaged in lipoproteins and secreted from the liver.
The synthesis of unsaturated fatty acids involves a desaturation reaction, whereby a double bond is introduced into the fatty acyl chain. For example, in humans, the desaturation of stearic acid by stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 produces oleic acid. The doubly unsaturated fatty acid linoleic acid as well as the triply unsaturated α-linolenic acid cannot be synthesized in mammalian tissues, and are therefore essential fatty acids and must be obtained from the diet.
Triglyceride synthesis takes place in the endoplasmic reticulum by metabolic pathways in which acyl groups in fatty acyl-CoAs are transferred to the hydroxyl groups of glycerol-3-phosphate and diacylglycerol.
Terpenes and isoprenoids, including the carotenoids, are made by the assembly and modification of isoprene units donated from the reactive precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate. These precursors can be made in different ways. In animals and archaea, the mevalonate pathway produces these compounds from acetyl-CoA, while in plants and bacteria the non-mevalonate pathway uses pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate as substrates. One important reaction that uses these activated isoprene donors is steroid biosynthesis. Here, the isoprene units are joined together to make squalene and then folded up and formed into a set of rings to make lanosterol. Lanosterol can then be converted into other steroids such as cholesterol and ergosterol.
### Degradation
Beta oxidation is the metabolic process by which fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria or in peroxisomes to generate acetyl-CoA. For the most part, fatty acids are oxidized by a mechanism that is similar to, but not identical with, a reversal of the process of fatty acid synthesis. That is, two-carbon fragments are removed sequentially from the carboxyl end of the acid after steps of dehydrogenation, hydration, and oxidation to form a beta-keto acid, which is split by thiolysis. The acetyl-CoA is then ultimately converted into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), CO~2~, and H~2~O using the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain. Hence the citric acid cycle can start at acetyl-CoA when fat is being broken down for energy if there is little or no glucose available. The energy yield of the complete oxidation of the fatty acid palmitate is 106 ATP. Unsaturated and odd-chain fatty acids require additional enzymatic steps for degradation.
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# Lipid
## Nutrition and health {#nutrition_and_health}
Most of the fat found in food is in the form of triglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipids. Some dietary fat is necessary to facilitate absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and carotenoids. Humans and other mammals have a dietary requirement for certain essential fatty acids, such as linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid) and alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) because they cannot be synthesized from simple precursors in the diet. Both of these fatty acids are 18-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids differing in the number and position of the double bonds. Most vegetable oils are rich in linoleic acid (safflower, sunflower, and corn oils). Alpha-linolenic acid is found in the green leaves of plants and in some seeds, nuts, and legumes (in particular flax, rapeseed, walnut, and soy). Fish oils are particularly rich in the longer-chain omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. Many studies have shown positive health benefits associated with consumption of omega-3 fatty acids on infant development, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and various mental illnesses (such as depression, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and dementia).
In contrast, it is now well-established that consumption of trans fats, such as those present in partially hydrogenated vegetable oils, are a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Fats that are good for one may be turned into trans fats by improper cooking methods that result in overcooking the lipids.
A few studies have suggested that total dietary fat intake is linked to an increased risk of obesity. and diabetes; Others, including the Women\'s Health Initiative Dietary Modification Trial, an eight-year study of 49,000 women, the Nurses\' Health Study, and the Health Professionals Follow-up Study, revealed no such links. None of these studies suggested any connection between percentage of calories from fat and risk of cancer, heart disease, or weight gain. The Nutrition Source, a website maintained by the department of nutrition at the T. H. Chan School of Public Health at Harvard University, summarizes the current evidence on the effect of dietary fat: \"Detailed research---much of it done at Harvard---shows that the total amount of fat in the diet isn\'t really linked with weight or disease
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