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# Kerameikos
## Museum
The area is enclosed and visitable through an entrance on the last block of Ermou Street, close to the intersection with Peiraios Street. The Kerameikos Museum is housed there, in a small neoclassical building that houses the most extensive collection of burial-related artifacts in Greece, varying from large-scale marble sculpture to funerary urns, stelae, jewelry, toys etc. The original burial monument sculptures are displayed within the museum, having been replaced by plaster replicas *in situ*.
The museum incorporates inner and outer courtyards, where the larger sculptures are kept. Down the hill from the museum, visitors can wander among the Outer Kerameikos ruins, the Demosion Sema, the banks of the Eridanos where some water still flows, the remains of the Pompeion and the Dipylon Gate, and walk the first blocks of the Sacred Way towards Eleusis and of the Panathenaic Way towards the Acropolis. The bulk of the area lies about 7--10 meters below modern street level, having in the past been inundated by centuries\' worth of sediment accumulation from the floods of the Eridanos.
## Metro station {#metro_station}
As of spring 2007, Kerameikos is the name given to the metro station which belongs to Line 3 of the Athens Metro, adjacent to the Technopolis of Gazi
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# Kabir Bedi
**Kabir Bedi** (born 16 January 1946) is an Indian actor. His career has spanned three continents covering India, the United States and especially Italy among other Western countries in three media: film, television and theatre. He is noted for his role as Emperor Shah Jahan in *Taj Mahal: An Eternal Love Story* and the villainous Sanjay Verma in the 1980s blockbuster *Khoon Bhari Maang*. He is best known in Italy and Europe for playing the pirate *Sandokan* in the popular Italian TV miniseries and for his role as the villainous Gobinda in the 1983 James Bond film *Octopussy*. Bedi is based in India and lives in Mumbai.
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Kabir Bedi was born in Lahore in the Punjab Province of British India (now in Punjab, Pakistan) on 16 January 1946. His father, Baba Pyare Lal Singh Bedi, was a Punjabi Sikh author, philosopher and a direct descendent of Guru Nanak. His mother, Freda Bedi, was an English woman born in Derby, who became famous as the first Western woman to take ordination in Tibetan Buddhism. He was educated at Sherwood College in Nainital, Uttarakhand, and St. Stephen\'s College in Delhi.
## Career
Bedi began his career in Indian theatre and then moved on to Hindi films. He remains one of the first international actors from India who started out in Hindi films, worked in Hollywood films and became a star in Europe.
### Stage acting {#stage_acting}
As a stage actor, Bedi has performed Shakespeare\'s *Othello* as well as portrayed a historical Indian king in *Tughlaq*, and a self-destructive alcoholic in *The Vultures*. In London he starred in *The Far Pavilions*, the West End musical adaptation of M. M. Kaye\'s novel, at the Shaftesbury Theatre. In 2011 Bedi played Emperor Shah Jahan in *Taj*, a play written by John Murrell, a Canadian playwright for the Luminato Festival in Toronto. In 2013, this play was recommissioned and went on an eight-week multi-city tour of Canada.
### Film career {#film_career}
In the James Bond film *Octopussy*, Bedi played the villain\'s aide Gobinda.
He has acted in over 60 Indian films. In the historical epic *Taj Mahal: An Eternal Love Story*, he starred as the Emperor Shah Jahan. Other starring Hindi film roles include Raj Khosla\'s *Kacche Dhaage*, Rakesh Roshan\'s *Khoon Bhari Maang* and Farah Khan\'s *Main Hoon Na*.
Bedi shot a movie with Hrithik Roshan (*Kites*), Govinda (*Showman*), and Akshay Kumar (*Blue*). He acted in the Tamil film *Aravaan*, directed by Vasanthabalan.
Bedi played roles in Columbia Pictures\' *The Beast of War*, a film on the Russian war in Afghanistan, directed by Kevin Reynolds, as well as the acclaimed Italian film *Andata Ritorno*, by Marco Ponti, winner of the David di Donatello Award. In 2017, he acted in the Telugu historical movie *Gautamiputra Satakarni*, as Nahapana, an important ruler of the Western Kshatrapas.
### Television career {#television_career}
Bedi has appeared on American television, in Hallmark\'s African epic *Forbidden Territory*, and Ken Follett\'s *On Wings of Eagles* and *Red Eagle*. He played Friar Sands in *The Lost Empire*, for NBC. He also acted in *Dynasty*, *Murder, She Wrote*, *Magnum, P.I.*, *Hunter*, *Knight Rider* and *Highlander: The Series*.
In Europe, his greatest success was *Sandokan*, the saga of a romantic Southeast Asian pirate during British colonial times, an Italian-German-French TV series which broke viewership records across Europe. He recently starred in a prime-time Italian television series, *Un Medico in Famiglia*, on RAI TV.
For over a year, Bedi starred in *The Bold and the Beautiful*, the second most-watched television show in the world, seen by over a billion people in 149 countries.
He had his own cinematic talk show on Indian TV, *Director\'s Cut*, a 13-part special series interviewing the country\'s leading directors. His success on television continued in 2013 with award-winning prime-time shows *Guns and Glory: The Indian Soldier* and *Vandemataram*, for India\'s news channels Headlines Today and Aaj Tak.
In the Indian Biblical television series *Bible Ki Kahaniya*, Bedi played both the young and aged Abraham.
### Radio career {#radio_career}
In 2007, he starred in *Chat*, a radio show aired by RAI Radio2, in the role of Sandokan. In 2012, he did a series of Radio One programmes titled *Women of Gold* and *Men of Steel* in honour of industry champions in India. In 2017 he did another series in English for Radio One, *Ten on Ten*, celebrating the top ten innovations out of India. He also did the year-end special series, *Best of 2017*.
### Writing
Bedi is a regular contributor to Indian publications including the *Times of India* and *Tehelka* on political and social issues affecting the country. He is also seen debating such topics on Indian national television.
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# Kabir Bedi
## Career
### Charity
In February 2017, Bedi was announced as the new \'brand ambassador\' for international development organisation, Sightsavers, saying on his appointment, \"Today there is immense awareness and attempt towards eye health and care in India and Sightsavers have shown way to people at large in the country with their achievements in the area of eye care.\" Bedi is the honorary brand ambassador for Italian Charity Care and Share Italia, which educates and looks after street children, from school to university, in Andhra Pradesh and Telegana.
### Awards and achievements {#awards_and_achievements}
Since 1982, Bedi has been a voting member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (who are responsible for presenting the Oscar awards). He is also a voting member of the Screen Actors Guild.
He has won numerous film, advertising and popularity awards across Europe and India.
By decree of the President of the Italian Republic of 2 June 2010, Bedi was officially knighted. He received the highest ranking civilian honour of the Italian Republic and was bestowed the title of \"Cavaliere\" (Knight) of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic. He has recently received Honorary Degree from Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT) University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Bedi married four times and had three children, Pooja, Siddharth (deceased) and Adam. He was married to Protima Bedi, an Odissi dancer. Their daughter Pooja Bedi is a magazine / newspaper columnist and former actress. Siddharth, who attended Carnegie Mellon University, was diagnosed with schizophrenia and died by suicide in 1997 at the age of 26.
As his marriage to Protima began to break down, he started a relationship with Parveen Babi. They never married. He later married British-born fashion designer Susan Humphreys. Their son, Adam Bedi, is an international model who made his Hindi film debut with the thriller *Hello? Kaun Hai!*. This marriage ended in divorce.
In the early 1990s, Bedi married TV and radio presenter Nikki Bedi. They had no children and divorced in 2005. After that, Bedi started a relationship with British-born Parveen Dusanj, whom he married a day before his 70th birthday.
Bedi supports the anti-government struggle in Myanmar, and he is an official ambassador of the Burma Campaign UK. He is the brand ambassador for Rotary International South Asia for its Teach Programme and the Total Literacy Mission in India and South Asia.
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# Kabir Bedi
## Filmography
### Films
Year Film title Character
------ --------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------
1971 *Hulchul* Mahesh Jetley #3
*Seema*
1972 *Rakhi Aur Hathkadi* Suraj
*Sazaa* Brijmohan
*Anokha Daan*
1973 *Kuchhe Dhaage* Pandit Tulsiram / Daku Roopa
*Yauwan* Jhumru
1974 *Manzilein Aur Bhi Hain*
*Maa Bahen Aur Biwi*
*Ishk Ishk Ishk* Diwana/Ravikant Vyas
1975 *Anari* Vikram
*Daaku* Daku Raju
1976 *Nagin* Uday
*Harfan Maula* Faulad Singh
*Bullet* Durga Prasad
*The Black Corsair* The Black Corsair (Italy)
1977 *Daku Aur Mahatma* Sangram Singh
*Vishwasghaat* Uday
*La tigre è ancora viva: Sandokan alla riscossa!* Sandokan
1978 *The Thief of Baghdad* Prince Taj
1979 *Ashanti* Malik
*Aakhri Kasam* Kishan / Badal
*Yuvraaj* Samrat Surya Dev Singh
1981 *The Archer: Fugitive from the Empire* Gar
1982 *40 Days of Musa Dagh* Gabriel Bagradian
*Satan\'s Mistress* The Spirit
*Girl from India* Artist
1983 *Octopussy* Gobinda
1988 *Escuadrón* Koura
*Khoon Bhari Maang* Sanjay Verma
*Mera Shikar* Ravi
*The Beast* Akbar
1990 *Police Public* Senior Inspector Shah Nawaz Khan
*Haar Jeet*
*Shera Shamshera* Shankar
1991 *Kurbaan* Inspector Suraj Singh
*Yeh Aag Kab Bujhegi* Ranveer Singh
*Vishkanya* Forest Officer Vikram Singh
1992 *Dil Aashna Hai* Rai Bahadur Digvijay Singh
*Yalgaar* Raj Pratap Singhal
*Beyond Justice* Moulet
*Lambu Dada* Lambu Dada
1993 *Kshatriya* Police Officer Thakur Ganga Singh
*Yugandhar* Colonel Kanir
1994 *Salaami* Captain Rehmat Khan
*Lie Down with Lions* Kabir
*The Maharaja\'s Daughter* Chandragupta
1995 *OP Centre* Abdul Fazawi
*Kismat* Rajan
*Aatank Hi Aatank* Police Inspector
1996 *The Return of Sandokan* Sandokan
1998 *Mashamal -- Ritorno al Deserto* Tahar Id Bran
1999 *Kohram* Brigadier Bedi
2001 *The Lost Empire* Friar Sand
2002 *Kranti* Mahendra Pratap Rana
*Maine Dil Tujhko Diya* Mr. Verma (Ayesha\'s Father)
2003 *Talaash* Chhote Pathan
*The Hero: Love Story of a Spy* Mr. Zakaria
2004 *Father* Karl (Father & Violinist)
*Rudraksh* Pandit Ved Bhushan
*Asambhav*
*Kismat* Raj Maliya
*Roundtrip* Tolstoj (Italian film)
*Main Hoon Na* General Amarjeet Bakshi
2005 *Bewafaa* Ambarkant Verma
*Taj Mahal: An Eternal Love Story* Emperor Shah Jahan
2006 *Do Raha*
*Jaanleva* Rakesh Khullar
*A All About Her*
*Take 3 Girls* Mo
2008 *Showman*
2009 *Blue* Captain Jagat Malhotra
2010 *Kites* Bob Grover
2011 *Yaara O Dildaara* Karam Singh Sandhu
2012 *Aravaan* Tamil film
*Chakravyuh* Mahanta, an industrialist and negotiator for the government
2015 *Dilwale* Dev Malik
*Anarkali* Jaffer Imam
2016 *Teraa Surroor* Afzal A. Khan
*Mohenjo Daro* Maham
2017 *Gautamiputra Satakarni* Nahapana
*Edict of Expulsion 1492* Sultan Bayezid
*Paisa Vasool* RAW Chief
2018 *Jaane Kyun De Yaaron* Shera
*Saheb, Biwi Aur Gangster 3* Maharaja Hari Singh
2023 *Shaakuntalam* Kashyapa Maharshi
2024 * Berlin* Buraue Chief
2025 *Aachari Baa* Brijesh Malhotra
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# Kabir Bedi
## Filmography
### Television
TV show title Release year Status Character
---------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------ ------------------------ ------------------------
*Sandokan* 1976 European TV miniseries Sandokan
*La tigre è ancora viva: Sandokan alla riscossa!* 1977 European TV miniseries Sandokan
*Dynasty* 1982 TV series Farouk Ahmed
*General Hospital* 1983 TV series Rama
*Knight Rider* November 1985 TV series Vascone
*Dynasty* 1986 TV series Farouk Ahmed
*On Wings of Eagles* 1986 TV series Mohammed
*One Life to Live* 1986 TV series Colonel Carlos Demitri
*The Days and Nights of Molly Dod* May 1987 TV series Bill
*Misteri della Giungla Nera, I -- a.k.a. The Mysteries of the Dark Jungle* 1991 TV miniseries Kammamuri
*Il Principe del Deserto -- a.k.a. Desert Law* 1991 TV series Moulet Beni-Zair
*The Bold and the Beautiful* September 1994 TV series Prince Omar
*Maharaja\'s Daughter* 1994 TV series Chandragupta
*Highlander: The Series* 20 November 1995 TV series Kamir
*Bible Ki Kahaniya* 1995 TV series Abraham, the Patriarch
*Il Ritorno di Sandokan* 6 October 1996 TV miniseries Sandokan
*Noi siamo angeli -- a.k.a. We are Angels* 16 February 1997 TV miniseries Gen. Napoleon Durate
*Forbidden Territory: Stanley\'s Search for Livingstone* 7 December 1997 TV series Khamis Bin Abdullah
*Team Knight Rider* 9 February 1998 TV series Aristotle Drago
*Murder, She Wrote* February 1988 TV series Vikram Singh
*Magnum, P.I.* 10 February 1988 TV series Malcolm
*L\'isola dei famosi* 2004 Italian reality show Himself
*The Bold and the Beautiful* 4 May 2005 TV series Prince Omar
*Vivere* May 2006 Italian TV series Emir Ibrahim
*Director\'s Cut* 2007 TV special series Himself
*Un medico in famiglia 5* 2007 Italian TV series Kabir
*Ganga Kii Dheej* 2010--2011 Hindi TV series Dada Bhai
*Buddha* 2013 Hindi TV series Asita Muni (Cameo)
*VandeMataram* 2013 TV special news series Himself
*Guns & Glory: The Indian Soldier* 2013 TV special news series Himself
*Jai Ho* 2014 TV special news series Himself
*Thinkistan* 2019 Web series Danish Azeem
*Tanaav* 2024 Web series
*Life Hill Gayi* 2024 web series
## Reality shows {#reality_shows}
Year Show title Role Status Sr.
----------- ---------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------- -------- -----
2021-2022 *Grande Fratello VIP* (season 6) Contestant (entered day 113, evicted day 162) 15
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# Kabir Bedi
## Radio
Radio title Release year Status Character
------------------------------------------------------------ -------------- ------------ -----------
Ch@t (Italian fiction) 2007 RAI Radio2 Sandokan
\'Women of Gold\' 2012 RadioOne Himself
\'Men of Steel\' 2012 Radio One Himself
\'Ten on Ten\' -- \'Ten Biggest Impacts This Last Decade\' 2017 Radio One Himself
\'Best of 2017\' 2017 Radio One Himself
## Dubbing roles {#dubbing_roles}
### Live action films {#live_action_films}
Film title Actor Character Dub language Original language Original year release Dub year release Notes
--------------------------------------- --------------- -------------------- -------------- ------------------- ----------------------- ------------------ ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
*Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time* Ben Kingsley Nizam Hindi English 2010 2010 Performed alongside Yudhvir Dahiya who voiced Jake Gyllenhaal as Dastan and Joy Sengupta who voiced Toby Kebbell as Prince Garsiv in Hindi.
*Fantastic Four* Reg E. Cathey Dr. Franklin Storm Hindi English 2015 2015 Performed alongside Karan Trivedi who voiced Miles Teller as Reed Richards / Mister Fantastic in Hindi
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# Kamov Ka-25
The **Kamov Ka-25** (NATO reporting name \"**Hormone**\") is a naval helicopter, developed for the Soviet Navy in the USSR from 1958.
## Design and development {#design_and_development}
In the late 1950s there was an urgent demand for anti-submarine helicopters for deployment on new ships equipped with helicopter platforms entering service with the Soviet Navy. Kamov\'s compact design was chosen for production in 1958. To speed the development of the new anti-submarine helicopter Kamov designed and built a prototype to prove the cabin and dynamic components layout; designated Ka-20, this demonstrator was not equipped with mission equipment, corrosion protection or shipboard operational equipment. The Ka-20 was displayed at the 1961 Tushino Aviation Day display.
Definitive prototypes of the Ka-25 incorporated mission equipment and corrosion protection for the structure. The rotor system introduced aluminium alloy blades pressurised with nitrogen for crack detection, lubricated hinges, hydraulic powered controls, alcohol de-icing and automatic blade folding. Power was supplied by two free-turbine engines sat atop the cabin, with electrically de-iced inlets, plain lateral exhausts with no infrared countermeasures, driving the main gearbox directly and a cooling fan for the gearbox and hydraulic oil coolers aft of the main gearbox. Construction was of stressed skin duralumin throughout with flush-riveting, as well as some bonding and honeycomb sandwich panels. The 1.5m × 1.25m × 3.94m cabin had a sliding door to port flight deck forward of the cabin and fuel tanks underfloor filled using a pressure refueling nozzle on the port side. A short boom at the rear of the cabin had a central fin and twin toed-in fins at the ends of the tailplane mainly for use during auto-rotation. The undercarriage consisted of two noncastoring mainwheels with sprag brakes attached to the fuselage by parallel \'V\' struts with a single angled shock absorber to dissipate landing loads, and two castoring nosewheels on straight shock absorbing legs attached directly to the fuselage either side of the cockpit which folded rearwards to reduce interference with the RADAR, all wheels were fitted with emergency rapid inflation flotation collars. Flying controls all act on the co-axial rotors with pitch, roll and collective similar to a conventional single rotor helicopter. Yaw was through differential collective which has a secondary effect of torque, an automatic mixer box ensured that total lift on the rotors remained constant during yaw maneuvers, to improve handling during deck landings. Optional extras included fold up seats for 12 passengers, rescue hoist, external auxiliary fuel tanks or containers for cameras, flares, smoke floats or beacons.
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# Kamov Ka-25
## Variants
Ka-25BSh: (NATO reporting name \'Hormone-A\') Variants are used in the anti-submarine warfare role, equipped with radar, dipping sonar and a towed MAD and armed with torpedoes and nuclear or conventional depth-charges.\
Ka-25BShZ: Mine-sweeping version, eight built.\
Ka-25C: Little-known upgrade.\
Ka-25F: Proposed assault version in competition with the Mi-22 and the larger Mi-24. Modified with a glazed nose, cargo compartment with four doors, an under-fuselage turret with a GSh-23L and provision for up to six 9M17 Phalanga Anti-tank missiles or six UB-16 rocket launchers, each with 16 S-5 rockets or bombs.\
Ka-25Ts: (NATO reporting name \'Hormone-B\') Over The Horizon targeting version for relaying data to cruise missiles launched from surface warships and submarines. Anti-submarine equipment, Electronic Surveillance Measures and weapons bay removed and larger radar scanner/reflector in a bulged radome under the nose. Also recognisable by the semi-retractable landing gear and a small cylindrical data-link antenna under the rear fuselage.
```{=html}
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```
Ka-25K: Civilian flying crane helicopter with a gondola under the lengthened nose for controlling slung loads up to 2000 kg. Fitted with electrically de-iced rotor blades and optional seats for 12 passengers. A single prototype (SSSR-21110) flown in 1966.\
Ka-25PS: (NATO reporting name \'Hormone-C\') Search and rescue and transport version with no weapons bay, radome as Ka-25BSh. Normal equipment included seats for 12, rescue winch, provision for stretchers and auxiliary tanks. Optional equipment included a homing receiver, Electronic Surveillance Measures, searchlight and loudspeaker. Ka-25PS helicopters were usually painted red and white.\
Ka-25T: (NATO reporting name \'Hormone-B\') Possibly misidentified or incorrect designation for Ka-25Ts OTH targeting relay aircraft.\
Ka-25TL: Missile tracking version. Also known as the **Ka-25TI** and **Ka-25IV**
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# Kainite
**Kainite** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|aɪ|n|aɪ|t}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|eɪ|n|aɪ|t}}`{=mediawiki}) (KMg(SO~4~)Cl·3H~2~O) is an evaporite mineral in the class of \"Sulfates (selenates, etc.) with additional anions, with H~2~O\" according to the Nickel--Strunz classification. It is a hydrated potassium-magnesium sulfate-chloride, naturally occurring in irregular granular masses or as crystalline coatings in cavities or fissures. This mineral is dull and soft, and is colored white, yellowish, grey, reddish, or blue to violet. Its name is derived from Greek *καινος* \[kainos\] (\"(hitherto) unknown\"), as it was the first mineral discovered that contained both sulfate and chloride as anions. Kainite forms monoclinic crystals.
## Properties
Kainite is of bitter taste and soluble in water. On recrystallization picromerite is deposited from the solution.
## Genesis and occurrence {#genesis_and_occurrence}
Kainite was discovered in the Stassfurt salt mines in today\'s Saxony-Anhalt, Germany in 1865 by the mine official Schöne and was first described by Carl Friedrich Jacob Zincken.
Kainite is a typical secondary mineral that forms through metamorphosis in marine deposits of potassium carbonate, and is also occasionally formed through resublimation from volcanic vapours. It is often accompanied by anhydrite, carnallite, halite, and kieserite.
Kainite is only found in comparatively few places, among them in salt mines in central and northern Germany, Bad Ischl (Austria), on Pasquasia in Sicily, in Whitby (UK), and in the Carlsbad Potash District in New Mexico, in volcanic deposits in Kamchatka and in Iceland, and in salt lakes in western China. It has also been identified in Gusev Crater on Mars.
It can also be produced from bittern remaining after removal of table salt from seawater.
## Uses
Kainite is used as a source of potassium and magnesium compounds, as a fertilizer, and as gritting salt
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# Kawasaki Ki-56
The **Kawasaki Ki-56** (*一式貨物輸送機*, Type 1 Freight Transport) was a Japanese, two-engine light transport aircraft used during World War II. It was known to the Allies by the reporting name **Thalia**. One-hundred twenty-one were built between 1940-43.
## Design and development {#design_and_development}
The Kawasaki Ki-56 was derived from the Lockheed Model 14 Super Electra aircraft that the *Kawasaki Kokuki Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha* (The Kawasaki Aircraft Engineering Company Limited) had built under licence. In September 1939, Kawasaki was asked by the Koku Hombu to design an improved version as Ki-56. A number was also built by Tachikawa Hikoki K.K.
## Operational history {#operational_history}
The Japanese invasion of Sumatra in the Dutch East Indies campaign began with a paratroop drop from Ki-56 transports on Airfield P1 and the oil refineries near Palembang. Royal Air Force Hawker Hurricane fighters flying from P1 to locate the Japanese invasion fleet passed the incoming Ki-56s but thought them to be friendly Lockheed Hudsons (also developed from the Lockheed Model 14) returning from a raid. The defending anti-aircraft gunners at P1 were equally fooled, until parachutes began to open. Once the AA guns opened fire, one transport was shot down, another force-landed, and others veered off course. The paratroop drop was effective, and the airfield and oil installations were overrun.
## Accidents and incidents {#accidents_and_incidents}
- On March 28, 1946, a Dalstroi Aviation Ki-56 (*514*) crashed on takeoff from Zyrianka, Russia due to crew error, killing the pilot.
- On December 7, 1946, a Dalstroi Aviation Ki-56 (*6*) crashed on climbout from Berelakh, Magadan, Russia (then part of the Khabarovsk Territory) due to double engine failure, killing all seven on board
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# Kerberos (protocol)
**Kerberos** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɜːr|b|ər|ɒ|s}}`{=mediawiki}) is a computer-network authentication protocol that works on the basis of *tickets* to allow nodes communicating over a non-secure network to prove their identity to one another in a secure manner. Its designers aimed it primarily at a client--server model, and it provides mutual authentication---both the user and the server verify each other\'s identity. Kerberos protocol messages are protected against eavesdropping and replay attacks.
Kerberos builds on symmetric-key cryptography and requires a trusted third party, and optionally may use public-key cryptography during certain phases of authentication. Kerberos uses UDP port 88 by default.
The protocol was named after the character *Kerberos* (or *Cerberus*) from Greek mythology, the ferocious three-headed guard dog of Hades.
## History and development {#history_and_development}
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) developed Kerberos in 1988 to protect network services provided by Project Athena. Its first version was primarily designed by Steve Miller and Clifford Neuman based on the earlier Needham--Schroeder symmetric-key protocol. Kerberos versions 1 through 3 were experimental and not released outside of MIT.
Kerberos version 4, the first public version, was released on January 24, 1989. Since Kerberos 4 was developed in the United States, and since it used the Data Encryption Standard (DES) encryption algorithm, U.S. export control restrictions prevented it from being exported to other countries. MIT created an exportable version of Kerberos 4 with all encryption code removed, called \"Bones\". Eric Young of Australia\'s Bond University reimplemented DES into Bones, in a version called \"eBones\", which could be freely used in any country. Sweden\'s Royal Institute of Technology released another reimplementation called KTH-KRB.
Neuman and John Kohl published version 5 in 1993 with the intention of overcoming existing limitations and security problems. Version 5 appeared as [RFC 1510](http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc1510), which was then made obsolete by [RFC 4120](http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4120) in 2005.
In 2005, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Kerberos working group updated specifications. Updates included:
- Encryption and Checksum Specifications ([RFC 3961](http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc3961)).
- Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) Encryption for Kerberos 5 ([RFC 3962](http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc3962)).
- A new edition of the Kerberos V5 specification \"The Kerberos Network Authentication Service (V5)\" ([RFC 4120](http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4120)). This version obsoletes RFC 1510, clarifies aspects of the protocol and intended use in a more detailed and clearer explanation.
- A new edition of the Generic Security Services Application Program Interface (GSS-API) specification \"The Kerberos Version 5 Generic Security Service Application Program Interface (GSS-API) Mechanism: Version 2\" ([RFC 4121](http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4121)).
MIT makes an implementation of Kerberos freely available, under copyright permissions similar to those used for BSD. In 2007, MIT formed the Kerberos Consortium to foster continued development. Founding sponsors include vendors such as Oracle, Apple Inc., Google, Microsoft, Centrify Corporation and TeamF1 Inc., and academic institutions such as the Royal Institute of Technology in Sweden, Stanford University, MIT, and vendors such as CyberSafe offering commercially supported versions.
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# Kerberos (protocol)
## Protocol
### Description
The client authenticates itself to the **Authentication Server (AS)** which is part of the **key distribution center** **(KDC)**. The KDC issues a **ticket-granting ticket (TGT)**, which is time stamped and encrypts it using the **ticket-granting service\'s (TGS)** secret key and returns the encrypted result to the user\'s workstation. This is done infrequently, typically at user logon; the TGT expires at some point although it may be transparently renewed by the user\'s session manager while they are logged in.
When the client needs to communicate with a service on another node (a \"principal\", in Kerberos parlance), the client sends the TGT to the TGS, which is another component of the KDC and usually shares the same host as the authentication server. The service must have already been registered with the TGS with a **Service Principal Name (SPN)**. The client uses the SPN to request access to this service. After verifying that the TGT is valid and that the user is permitted to access the requested service, the TGS issues a **service ticket (ST)** and session keys to the client. The client then sends the ticket to the **service server (SS)** along with its service request. thumb\|upright=1.5\|Kerberos negotiations The protocol is described in detail below.
#### User Client-based Login without Kerberos {#user_client_based_login_without_kerberos}
1. A user enters a username and password on the client machine(s). Other credential mechanisms like pkinit (RFC 4556) allow for the use of public keys in place of a password. The client transforms the password into the key of a symmetric cipher. This either uses the built-in key scheduling, or a one-way hash, depending on the cipher-suite used.
2. The server receives the username and symmetric cipher and compares it with the data from the database. Login was a success if the cipher matches the cipher that is stored for the user.
#### Client Authentication {#client_authentication}
1. The client sends a plaintext message of the user ID to the AS (Authentication Server) requesting services on behalf of the user. (Note: Neither the secret key nor the password is sent to the AS.)
2. The AS checks to see whether the client is in its database. If it is, the AS generates the secret key by hashing the password of the user found at the database (e.g., Active Directory in Windows Server) and sends back the following two messages to the client:
- Message A: *Client/TGS Session Key* encrypted using the secret key of the client/user.
- Message B: *Ticket-Granting-Ticket* (TGT, which includes the client ID, client network address, ticket validity period, and the *Client/TGS Session Key*) encrypted using the secret key of the TGS.
3. Once the client receives messages A and B, it attempts to decrypt message A with the secret key generated from the password entered by the user. If the user entered password does not match the password in the AS database, the client\'s secret key will be different and thus unable to decrypt message A. With a valid password and secret key the client decrypts message A to obtain the *Client/TGS Session Key*. This session key is used for further communications with the TGS. (Note: The client cannot decrypt Message B, as it is encrypted using TGS\'s secret key.) At this point, the client has enough information to authenticate itself to the TGS.
#### Client Service Authorization {#client_service_authorization}
1. When requesting services, the client sends the following messages to the TGS:
- Message C: Composed of the message B (the encrypted TGT using the TGS secret key) and the ID of the requested service.
- Message D: Authenticator (which is composed of the client ID and the timestamp), encrypted using the *Client/TGS Session Key* (found by the client in Message A).
2. Upon receiving messages C and D, the TGS retrieves message B out of message C. It decrypts message B using the TGS secret key. This gives it the *Client/TGS Session Key* and the client ID (both are in the TGT). Using this *Client/TGS Session Key*, the TGS decrypts message D (Authenticator) and compares the client IDs from messages B and D; if they match, the server sends the following two messages to the client:
- Message E: *Client-to-server ticket* (which includes the client ID, client network address, validity period, and *Client/Server Session Key*) encrypted using the service\'s secret key.
- Message F: *Client/Server Session Key* encrypted with the *Client/TGS Session Key*.
#### Client Service Request {#client_service_request}
1. Upon receiving messages E and F from TGS, the client has enough information to authenticate itself to the Service Server (SS). The client connects to the SS and sends the following two messages:
- Message E: From the previous step (the *Client-to-server ticket*, encrypted using service\'s Secret key by the TGS).
- Message G: A new Authenticator, which includes the client ID, timestamp and is encrypted using *Client/Server Session Key*.
2. The SS decrypts the ticket (message E) using its own secret key to retrieve the *Client/Server Session Key*. Using the sessions key, SS decrypts the Authenticator and compares client ID from messages E and G, if they match server sends the following message to the client to confirm its true identity and willingness to serve the client:
- Message H: The timestamp found in client\'s Authenticator (plus 1 in version 4, but not necessary in version 5), encrypted using the *Client/Server Session Key*.
3. The client decrypts the confirmation (message H) using the *Client/Server Session Key* and checks whether the timestamp is correct. If so, then the client can trust the server and can start issuing service requests to the server.
4. The server provides the requested services to the client.
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# Kerberos (protocol)
## Support by operating systems {#support_by_operating_systems}
### Microsoft Windows {#microsoft_windows}
Windows 2000 and later versions use Kerberos as their default authentication method. Some Microsoft additions to the Kerberos suite of protocols are documented in RFC 3244 \"Microsoft Windows 2000 Kerberos Change Password and Set Password Protocols\". RFC 4757 documents Microsoft\'s use of the RC4 cipher. While Microsoft uses and extends the Kerberos protocol, it does not use the MIT software.
Kerberos is used as the preferred authentication method: in general, joining a client to a Windows domain means enabling Kerberos as the default protocol for authentications from that client to services in the Windows domain and all domains with trust relationships to that domain.
In contrast, when either client or server or both are not joined to a domain (or not part of the same trusted domain environment), Windows will instead use NTLM for authentication between client and server.
Internet web applications can enforce Kerberos as an authentication method for domain-joined clients by using APIs provided under SSPI.
Microsoft Windows and Windows Server include `{{Mono|setspn}}`{=mediawiki}, a command-line utility that can be used to read, modify, or delete the Service Principal Names (SPN) for an Active Directory service account.
### Unix and other operating systems {#unix_and_other_operating_systems}
Many Unix-like operating systems, including FreeBSD, Apple\'s macOS, Red Hat Enterprise Linux, Oracle\'s Solaris, IBM\'s AIX, HP-UX and others, include software for Kerberos authentication of users or services. A variety of non-Unix like operating systems such as z/OS, IBM i and OpenVMS also feature Kerberos support. Embedded implementation of the Kerberos V authentication protocol for client agents and network services running on embedded platforms is also available from companies `{{which|date=November 2023}}`{=mediawiki}.
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# Kerberos (protocol)
## Drawbacks and limitations {#drawbacks_and_limitations}
- Kerberos has strict time requirements, which means that the clocks of the involved hosts must be synchronized within configured limits. The tickets have a time availability period, and if the host clock is not synchronized with the Kerberos server clock, the authentication will fail. The default configuration [per MIT](http://web.mit.edu/Kerberos/krb5-1.5/krb5-1.5.4/doc/krb5-admin/Clock-Skew.html) requires that clock times be no more than five minutes apart. In practice, Network Time Protocol daemons are usually used to keep the host clocks synchronized. Note that some servers (Microsoft\'s implementation being one of them) may return a KRB_AP_ERR_SKEW result containing the encrypted server time if both clocks have an offset greater than the configured maximum value. In that case, the client could retry by calculating the time using the provided server time to find the offset. This behavior is documented in [RFC 4430](http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4430).
- The administration protocol is not standardized and differs between server implementations. Password changes are described in [RFC 3244](https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc3244.html).
- In case of symmetric cryptography adoption (Kerberos can work using symmetric or asymmetric (public-key) cryptography), since all authentications are controlled by a centralized key distribution center (KDC), compromise of this authentication infrastructure will allow an attacker to impersonate any user.
- Each network service that requires a different host name will need its own set of Kerberos keys. This complicates virtual hosting and clusters.
- Kerberos requires user accounts and services to have a trusted relationship to the Kerberos token server.
- The required client trust makes creating staged environments (e.g., separate domains for test environment, pre-production environment and production environment) difficult: Either domain trust relationships need to be created that prevent a strict separation of environment domains, or additional user clients need to be provided for each environment.
## Security
The Data Encryption Standard (DES) cipher can be used in combination with Kerberos, but is no longer an Internet standard because it is weak. Security vulnerabilities exist in products that implement legacy versions of Kerberos which lack support for newer encryption ciphers like AES
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# Katyusha rocket launcher
Katyusha}} `{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Infobox weapon
| name = Katyusha
| image = Katyusha Rocket Launcher - Artillery Museum - St. Petersburg - Russia.jpg
| image_size = 300
| caption = BM-13 Katyusha multiple rocket launcher, based on a [[ZIS-6]] truck.
| origin = [[Soviet Union]]
| type = [[Multiple rocket launcher]]
<!-- Service history -->| service = 1941–1970s
| used_by = Soviet Union, and others
| wars = {{Plain list|
* [[World War II]]
* [[First Indochina War]]
* [[Korean War]]
* [[Vietnam War]]
* [[Cambodian Civil War]]
* [[Cambodian–Vietnamese War]]
}}<!-- Production history -->
| designer = [[Georgy Langemak]]
| design_date =
| manufacturer = Voronezh Plant Comintern
| production_date = 1941
| number = ~100,000
}}`{=mediawiki}
The **Katyusha** (`{{lang-rus|Катю́ша|p=kɐˈtʲuʂə|a=Ru-Катюша.ogg}}`{=mediawiki}) is a type of rocket artillery first built and fielded by the Soviet Union in World War II. Multiple rocket launchers such as these deliver explosives to a target area more intensively than conventional artillery, but with lower accuracy and requiring a longer time to reload. They are fragile compared to artillery guns, but are cheap, easy to produce, and usable on almost any chassis. The Katyushas of World War II, the first self-propelled artillery mass-produced by the Soviet Union, were usually mounted on ordinary trucks. This mobility gave the Katyusha, and other self-propelled artillery, another advantage: being able to deliver a large blow all at once, and then move before being located and attacked with counter-battery fire.
Katyusha weapons of World War II included the **BM-13** launcher, light **BM-8**, and heavy **BM-31**. Today, the nickname *Katyusha* is also applied to newer truck-mounted post-Soviet -- in addition to non-Soviet -- multiple-rocket launchers, notably the common BM-21 Grad and its derivatives.
## Nickname
Initially, concerns for secrecy kept the military designation of the Katyushas from being known by the soldiers who operated them. They were called by code names such as *Kostikov guns*, after A. Kostikov, the head of the RNII, the Reactive Scientific Research Institute, and finally classed as *Guards Mortars*. The name *BM-13* was only allowed into secret documents in 1942, and remained classified until after the war.
Because they were marked with the letter *K* (for Voronezh Komintern Factory), Red Army troops adopted a nickname from Mikhail Isakovsky\'s popular wartime song, \"Katyusha\", about a girl longing for her absent beloved, who has gone away on military service. Katyusha is the Russian equivalent of *Katie*, an endearing diminutive form of the name Katherine. *Yekaterina* is given the diminutive *Katya,* which itself is then given the affectionate diminutive *Katyusha*.
German troops coined the nickname \"Stalin\'s organ\" (`{{wikt-lang|de|Stalinorgel}}`{=mediawiki}), after Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, comparing the visual resemblance of the launch array to a pipe organ, and the sound of the weapon\'s rocket motors, a distinctive howling sound which terrified the German troops, adding a psychological warfare aspect to their use. Weapons of this type are known by the same name in Denmark (*Stalinorgel*), Finland (*Stalinin urut*), France (*orgue de Staline*), Norway (*Stalinorgel*), the Netherlands and Belgium (*Stalinorgel*), Hungary (*Sztálinorgona*), Spain and other Spanish-speaking countries (*Órganos de Stalin*) as well as in Sweden (*Stalinorgel*).
The heavy BM-31 launcher was also referred to as *Andryusha* (*Андрюша*, an affectionate diminutive of \"Andrew\").
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# Katyusha rocket launcher
## World War II {#world_war_ii}
Katyusha rocket launchers, which were built in Voronezh, were mounted on many platforms during World War II, including on trucks, artillery tractors, tanks, and armoured trains, as well as on naval and riverine vessels as assault support weapons. Soviet engineers also mounted single Katyusha rockets on lengths of railway track to serve in urban combat.
The design was relatively simple, consisting of racks of parallel rails on which rockets were mounted, with a folding frame to raise the rails to launch position. Each truck had 14 to 48 launchers. The M-13 rocket of the BM-13 system was 80 cm long, 13.2 cm in diameter and weighed 42 kg.
The weapon is less accurate than conventional artillery guns, but is extremely effective in saturation bombardment. A battery of four BM-13 launchers could fire a salvo in 7--10 seconds that delivered 4.35 tons of high explosives over a 400000 m2 impact zone, making its power roughly equivalent to that of 72 conventional artillery guns. With an efficient crew, the launchers could redeploy to a new location immediately after firing, denying the enemy the opportunity for counterbattery fire. Katyusha batteries were often massed in very large numbers to create a shock effect on enemy forces. The weapon\'s disadvantage was the long time it took to reload a launcher, in contrast to conventional artillery guns which could sustain a continuous, albeit low, rate of fire.
### Development
thumb\|upright=.5\|An M13 rocket for the Katyusha launcher on display in Musée de l\'Armée.
Initial development of solid propellant rockets was carried out by Nikolai Tikhomirov at the Soviet Gas Dynamics Laboratory (GDL), with the first test-firing of a solid fuel rocket carried out in March 1928, which flew for about 1,300 meters The rockets were used to assist take-off of aircraft and were later developed into the RS-82 and RS-132 (RS for *Reaktivnyy Snaryad*, \'rocket-powered shell\') in the early 1930s led by Georgy Langemak, including firing rockets from aircraft and the ground. In June 1938, GDL\'s successor Reactive Scientific Research Institute (RNII) began building several prototype launchers for the modified 132 mm M-132 rockets. Firing over the sides of ZIS-5 trucks proved unstable, and V.N. Galkovskiy proposed mounting the launch rails longitudinally. In August 1939, the result was the BM-13 (BM stands for *боевая машина* (translit. *boyevaya mashina*), \'combat vehicle\' for M-13 rockets).
The first large-scale testing of the rocket launchers took place at the end of 1938, when 233 rounds of various types were used. A salvo of rockets could completely straddle a target at a range of 5,500 m. But the artillery branch was not fond of the Katyusha, because it took up to 50 minutes to load and fire 24 rounds, while a conventional howitzer could fire 95 to 150 rounds in the same time. Testing with various rockets was conducted through 1940, and the BM-13-16 with launch rails for sixteen rockets was authorized for production. Only forty launchers were built before Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941.
After their success in the first month of the war, mass production was ordered and the development of other models proceeded. The Katyusha was inexpensive and could be manufactured in light industrial installations which did not have the heavy equipment to build conventional artillery gun barrels. By the end of 1942, 3,237 Katyusha launchers of all types had been built, and by the end of the war total production reached about 10,000.
The truck-mounted Katyushas were installed on ZIS-6 6×4 trucks, as well as the two-axle ZIS-5 and ZIS-5V. In 1941, a small number of BM-13 launchers were mounted on STZ-5 artillery tractors. A few were also tried on KV tank chassis as the KV-1K, but this was a needless waste of heavy armour. Starting in 1942, they were also mounted on various British, Canadian and U.S. Lend-Lease trucks, in which case they were sometimes referred to as BM-13S. The cross-country performance of the Studebaker US6 2½-ton 6×6 truck was so good that it became the GAU\'s standard mounting in 1943, designated BM-13N (*normalizovanniy*, \'standardized\'), and more than 1,800 of this model were manufactured by the end of World War II. After World War II, BM-13s were based on Soviet-built ZIS-151 trucks.
The 82 mm BM-8 was approved in August 1941, and deployed as the BM-8-36 on truck beds and BM-8-24 on T-40 and T-60 light tank chassis. Later these were also installed on GAZ-67 jeeps as the BM-8-8, and on the larger Studebaker trucks as the BM-8-48. In 1942, the team of scientists Leonid Shvarts, Moisei Komissarchik and engineer Yakov Shor received the Stalin Prize for the development of the BM-8-48.
Based on the M-13, the M-30 rocket was developed in 1942. Its bulbous warhead required it to be fired from a grounded frame, called the M-30 (single frame, four round; later double frame, 8 round), instead of a launch rail mounted on a truck. In 1944 it became the basis for the BM-31-12 truck-mounted launcher.
A battery of BM-13-16 launchers included four firing vehicles, two reload trucks and two technical support trucks, with each firing vehicle having a crew of six. Reloading was executed in 3--4 minutes, although the standard procedure was to switch to a new position some 10 km away due to the ease with which the battery could be identified by the enemy. Three batteries were combined into a division (company), and three divisions into a separate mine-firing regiment of rocket artillery.
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# Katyusha rocket launcher
## World War II {#world_war_ii}
### Variants
Soviet World War II rocket systems were named according to set patterns:
- Ground vehicles were designated BM-*x*-*y*, where *x* referred to the rocket model and *y* the number of launch rails or tubes.
- towed trailers and sledges used the format M-*x*-*y*
- In navy use, the order of the elements was different, taking the form *y*-M-*x*
For example, the BM-8-16 was a vehicle with 16 rails for M-8 rockets while the BM-31-12 fired the M-31 rockets from 12 launch tubes. Short names such as BM-8 or BM-13 were used as well. The chassis carrying the launcher was not defined in the name e.g. BM-8-24 referred to a truck mounted launcher (ZIS-5) as well as on the T-40 tank and on the STZ-3 artillery tractor.
Chassis for the launchers included:
- Soviet-built ZIS-5, ZIS-6, GAZ-AA trucks, and post war the ZIS-151
- STZ-5 tracked artillery tractor
- T-40 tank
- Lend-lease provided Studebaker US6 truck,
- Armored train car,
- River boat,
- Towed sledge,
- Towed trailer,
- Backpack (portable variant, so called \"mountain Katyusha\"),
+----------+--------------+---------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Weapon | Caliber (mm) | Tubes/\ | Chassis |
| | | rails | |
+==========+==============+=========+====================================================================================================================================================================================================================+
| BM-8 | 82 | 1 | Improvised vehicle mount, towed trailer or sled |
+----------+--------------+---------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| M-8-6 | 82 | 6 | Towed trailer or sled |
+----------+--------------+---------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| BM-8-8 | 82 | 8 | Willys MB jeep |
+----------+--------------+---------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| M-8-12 | 82 | 12 | Towed trailer or sled |
+----------+--------------+---------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 16-M-8 | 82 | 16 | Project 1125 armored river boat |
+----------+--------------+---------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| BM-8-24 | 82 | 24 | T-40 light tank, T-60 light tank |
+----------+--------------+---------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 24-M-8 | 82 | 24 | Project 1125 armored river boat |
+----------+--------------+---------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| BM-8-36 | 82 | 36 | ZIS-5 truck, ZIS-6 truck |
+----------+--------------+---------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| BM-8-40 | 82 | 40 | Towed trailer, GAZ-AA truck |
+----------+--------------+---------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| BM-8-48 | 82 | 48 | ZIS-6 truck, Studebaker US6 U3 truck, rail carriage |
+----------+--------------+---------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| BM-8-72 | 82 | 72 | Rail carriage |
+----------+--------------+---------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| BM-13 | 132 | 24 | ZIS-6 truck, improvised vehicle mount, towed trailer or sled |
+----------+--------------+---------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 6-M-13 | 132 | 6 | Project 1125 armored river boat |
+----------+--------------+---------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| BM-13-16 | 132 | 16 | International K7 \"Inter\" truck, International M-5-5-318 truck, Fordson WOT8 truck, Ford/Marmon-Herrington HH6-COE4 truck, Chevrolet G-7117 truck, Studebaker US6 U3 truck, GMC CCKW-352M-13 truck, rail carriage |
+----------+--------------+---------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| M-20-6 | 132 | 6 | static launching rail |
+----------+--------------+---------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| M-30-4 | 300 | 4 | static launching rail, in 1944 also available with 2x4 launching rails (M-30-8) |
+----------+--------------+---------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| M-31-4 | 300 | 4 | static launching rail, in 1944 also available with 2x4 launching rails (M-31-8) |
+----------+--------------+---------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| BM-31-12 | 300 | 12 | Studebaker US6 U3 truck |
+----------+--------------+---------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
: Katyusha mountings
+-------------+----------+----------+----------------+
| Weapon name | Caliber\ | Warhead\ | Maximum range\ |
| | (mm) | kg (lb) | m (yd) |
+=============+==========+==========+================+
| M-8 | 82 | | |
+-------------+----------+----------+----------------+
| M-13 | 132 | | |
+-------------+----------+----------+----------------+
| M-13DD | 132 | | |
+-------------+----------+----------+----------------+
| M-13UK | 132 | | |
+-------------+----------+----------+----------------+
| M-20 | 132 | | |
+-------------+----------+----------+----------------+
| M-30 | 300 | | |
+-------------+----------+----------+----------------+
| M-31 | 300 | | |
+-------------+----------+----------+----------------+
| M-31UK | 300 | | |
+-------------+----------+----------+----------------+
: Katyusha rockets:
The M-8 and M-13 rocket could also be fitted with smoke warheads, although this was not common.
#### Foreign variants {#foreign_variants}
The Axis powers had captured Katyushas during the war. Germany considered producing a local copy, but instead created the *8 cm Raketen-Vielfachwerfer*, which was based on the Katyusha.
Romania had started developing its Mareșal tank destroyer in late 1942. One of the first experimental models was equipped with a Katyusha rocket launcher and tested in the summer of 1943. The project was not continued.
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# Katyusha rocket launcher
## World War II {#world_war_ii}
### Combat history {#combat_history}
The multiple rocket launchers were top secret at the beginning of World War II and a special unit of NKVD troops was raised to operate them. On July 14, 1941, an experimental artillery battery of seven launchers was first used in battle at Rudnya, Smolensk Oblast under the command of Captain Ivan Flyorov, destroying a concentration of German troops with tanks, armored vehicles and trucks in the marketplace, causing massive German Army casualties and panicked retreat from the town. This was the first time the Katyusha was ever used in combat. Following the success, the Red Army organized new Guards mortar batteries for the support of infantry divisions. A battery\'s complement was standardized at four launchers. They remained under NKVD control until German *Nebelwerfer* rocket launchers became common later in the war.
On August 8, 1941, Stalin ordered the formation of eight special Guards mortar regiments under the direct control of the Reserve of the Supreme High Command (RVGK). Each regiment comprised three battalions of three batteries, totalling 36 BM-13 or BM-8 launchers. Independent Guards mortar battalions were also formed of 12 launchers in three batteries of four. By the end of 1941, there were eight regiments, 35 independent battalions, and two independent batteries in service, a total of 554 launchers.
In June 1942 heavy Guards mortar battalions were formed around the new M-30 static rocket launch frames, consisting of 96 launchers in three batteries. In July, a battalion of BM-13s was added to the establishment of a tank corps. In 1944, the BM-31 was used in motorized heavy Guards mortar battalions of 48 launchers. In 1943, Guards mortar brigades, and later divisions, were formed equipped with static launchers.
At dawn on September 5, the preparatory artillery and air bombardment began all along the front of the 24th, 1st Guards and 66th armies. But even on the main lines of advance the density of the artillery fire was not great and did not yield the necessary results. The attack began after Katyusha volleys.
By the end of 1942, 57 regiments were in service---together with the smaller independent battalions, this was the equivalent of 216 batteries: 21% BM-8 light launchers, 56% BM-13, and 23% M-30 heavy launchers. By the end of the war, the equivalent of 518 batteries were in service.
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# Katyusha rocket launcher
## Post-war development {#post_war_development}
The success and economy of multiple rocket launchers (MRL) have led them to continue to be developed. In the years following WWII, the BM-13 was replaced by the 140 mm BM-14 and the BM-31 was replaced by the 240 mm BM-24. During the Cold War, the Soviet Union fielded several models of Katyusha-like MRL, notably the BM-21 Grad launchers somewhat inspired by the earlier weapon, and the larger BM-27 Uragan. Advances in artillery munitions have been applied to some Katyusha-type multiple launch rocket systems, including bomblet submunitions, remotely deployed land mines, and chemical warheads.
BM-13s were used in the Korean War by the Chinese People\'s Volunteer Army and Korean People\'s Army against the South Korean and United Nations forces. Soviet BM-13s were known to have been imported to China before the Sino-Soviet split and were operational in the People\'s Liberation Army. The Viet Minh deployed them against the French Far East Expeditionary Corps during the Battle of Dien Bien Phu at the end of the First Indochina War.
## Recognition and honours {#recognition_and_honours}
Participants in the creation of the Katyusha rocket launcher received official recognition only in 1991. By decree of the President of the Soviet Union Mikhail Gorbachev dated June 21, 1991, I. T. Kleymenov, G. E. Langemak, V. N. Luzhin, B. S. Petropavlovsky, B. M. Slonimer and N. I. Tikhomirov were posthumously awarded title of the Hero of Socialist Labour for their work on the creation of the Katyusha
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# Kolmogorov–Arnold–Moser theorem
The **Kolmogorov--Arnold--Moser** (**KAM**) **theorem** is a result in dynamical systems about the persistence of quasiperiodic motions under small perturbations. The theorem partly resolves the small-divisor problem that arises in the perturbation theory of classical mechanics.
The problem is whether or not a small perturbation of a conservative dynamical system results in a lasting quasiperiodic orbit. The original breakthrough to this problem was given by Andrey Kolmogorov in 1954. This was rigorously proved and extended by Jürgen Moser in 1962 (for smooth twist maps) and Vladimir Arnold in 1963 (for analytic Hamiltonian systems), and the general result is known as the KAM theorem.
Arnold originally thought that this theorem could apply to the motions of the Solar System or other instances of the `{{mvar|n}}`{=mediawiki}-body problem, but it turned out to work only for the three-body problem because of a degeneracy in his formulation of the problem for larger numbers of bodies. Later, Gabriella Pinzari showed how to eliminate this degeneracy by developing a rotation-invariant version of the theorem.
## Statement
### Integrable Hamiltonian systems {#integrable_hamiltonian_systems}
The KAM theorem is usually stated in terms of trajectories in phase space of an integrable Hamiltonian system. The motion of an integrable system is confined to an invariant torus (a doughnut-shaped surface). Different initial conditions of the integrable Hamiltonian system will trace different invariant tori in phase space. Plotting the coordinates of an integrable system would show that they are quasiperiodic.
### Perturbations
The KAM theorem states that if the system is subjected to a weak nonlinear perturbation, some of the invariant tori are deformed and survive, i.e. there is a map from the original manifold to the deformed one that is continuous in the perturbation. Conversely, other invariant tori are destroyed: even arbitrarily small perturbations cause the manifold to no longer be invariant and there exists no such map to nearby manifolds. Surviving tori meet the non-resonance condition, i.e., they have "sufficiently irrational" frequencies. This implies that the motion on the deformed torus continues to be quasiperiodic, with the independent periods changed (as a consequence of the non-degeneracy condition). The KAM theorem quantifies the level of perturbation that can be applied for this to be true.
Those KAM tori that are destroyed by perturbation become invariant Cantor sets, named *Cantori* by Ian C. Percival in 1979.
The non-resonance and non-degeneracy conditions of the KAM theorem become increasingly difficult to satisfy for systems with more degrees of freedom. As the number of dimensions of the system increases, the volume occupied by the tori decreases.
As the perturbation increases and the smooth curves disintegrate we move from KAM theory to Aubry--Mather theory which requires less stringent hypotheses and works with the Cantor-like sets.
The existence of a KAM theorem for perturbations of quantum many-body integrable systems is still an open question, although it is believed that arbitrarily small perturbations will destroy integrability in the infinite size limit.
### Consequences
An important consequence of the KAM theorem is that for a large set of initial conditions the motion remains perpetually quasiperiodic.`{{which|date=January 2016}}`{=mediawiki}
## KAM theory {#kam_theory}
The methods introduced by Kolmogorov, Arnold, and Moser have developed into a large body of results related to quasiperiodic motions, now known as **KAM theory**. Notably, it has been extended to non-Hamiltonian systems (starting with Moser), to non-perturbative situations (as in the work of Michael Herman) and to systems with fast and slow frequencies (as in the work of Mikhail B. Sevryuk).
## KAM torus {#kam_torus}
A manifold $\mathcal{T}^{d}$ invariant under the action of a flow $\phi^{t}$ is called an invariant $d$-torus, if there exists a diffeomorphism $\boldsymbol{\varphi}:\mathcal{T}^{d}\rightarrow \mathbb{T}^{d}$ into the standard $d$-torus $\mathbb{T}^{d}:=\underbrace{ \mathbb{S}^{1}\times\mathbb{S}^{1}\times\cdots\times\mathbb{S}^{1}}
_{d}$ such that the resulting motion on $\mathbb{T}^{d}$ is uniform linear but not static, *i.e.* $\mathrm{d}\boldsymbol{\varphi} / \mathrm{d}t = \boldsymbol{\omega}$，where $\boldsymbol{\omega}\in\mathbb{R}^{d}$ is a non-zero constant vector, called the *frequency vector*.
If the frequency vector $\boldsymbol{\omega}$ is:
- rationally independent (*a.k.a.* incommensurable, that is $\boldsymbol{k}\cdot\boldsymbol{\omega} \neq 0$ for all $\boldsymbol{k}\in\mathbb{Z}^{d}\backslash\left\{ \boldsymbol{0} \right\}$)
- and \"badly\" approximated by rationals, typically in a *Diophantine* sense: \\exist\~ \\gamma, \\tau \> 0 \\text{ such that }
\|\\boldsymbol{\\omega}\\cdot\\boldsymbol{k}\|\\geq \\frac{\\gamma}{\\\|\\boldsymbol{k}\\\|\^{\\tau}}, \\forall \~\\boldsymbol{k}\\in\\mathbb{Z}\^{d}\\backslash \\left\\{\\boldsymbol{0} \\right\\} ,
then the invariant $d$-torus $\mathcal{T}^{d}$ ($d\geq 2$) is called a *KAM torus*. The $d=1$ case is normally excluded in classical KAM theory because it does not involve small divisors
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# Kernite
**Kernite**, also known as **rasorite**, is a hydrated sodium borate hydroxide mineral with formula `{{chem|Na|2|B|4|O|6|(OH)|2|·3H|2|O}}`{=mediawiki}. It is a colorless to white mineral crystallizing in the monoclinic crystal system typically occurring as prismatic to acicular crystals or granular masses. It is relatively soft with Mohs hardness of 2.5 to 3 and light with a specific gravity of 1.91. It exhibits perfect cleavage and a brittle fracture.
Kernite is soluble in cold water and alters to tincalconite when it dehydrates. It undergoes a non-reversible alteration to metakernite (`{{chem|Na|2|B|4|O|7|·5H|2|O}}`{=mediawiki}) when heated to above 100 °C.
## Occurrence and history {#occurrence_and_history}
The mineral occurs in sedimentary evaporite deposits in arid regions.
Kernite was discovered in 1926 in eastern Kern County, in Southern California, and later renamed after the county. The location was the US Borax Mine at Boron in the western Mojave Desert. This type material is stored at Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and the National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C.
The Kern County mine was the only known source of the mineral for a period of time. More recently, kernite is mined in Argentina and Turkey.
The largest documented, single crystal of kernite measured 2.44 x 0.9 x 0.9 m^3^ and weighed \~3.8 tons.
## Uses
Kernite is used to produce borax which can be used in a variety of soaps
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# Korea Institute for Advanced Study
The **Korea Institute for Advanced Study** (KIAS) is an advanced research institute in South Korea. It is located on a 30 acre campus in Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul.
KIAS was founded in 1996, aiming to become a world leading research institute where international elite scholars gather and dedicate to fundamental research in basic sciences. Currently, there are three schools in the institute: mathematics, physics, and computational sciences. As of 2016, the institute has 3 distinguished professors, 26 professors, and 133 research fellows.
As its name suggests, the institute was modeled after the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, USA. KIAS is funded by the government and is a subordinate institute of KAIST
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# Knock-knock joke
The **knock-knock joke** is an audience-participation joke cycle; a knock-knock joke is primarily a child\'s joke, though there are exceptions.
The scenario is of a person knocking on the front door to a house. The teller of the joke says, \"Knock, knock!\"; the recipient responds, \"Who\'s there?\" The teller gives a name (such as \"Noah\"), a description (such as \"Police\"), or something that purports to be a name (such as \"Needle\"). The other person then responds by asking the caller\'s surname (\"Noah who?\" / \"Police who?\" / \"Needle who?\"), to which the joke-teller delivers a pun involving the name (\"`{{define|Noah|Know a}}`{=mediawiki} place I can spend the night?\" / \"`{{define|Police|Please}}`{=mediawiki} let me in---it\'s cold out here!\" / \"`{{define|Needle little|Need a little}}`{=mediawiki} help with the groceries!\").
The formula of the joke is usually followed strictly, though there are cases where it is subverted.
## History
A possible source of the joke is William Shakespeare\'s *Macbeth*; first performed in 1606. In Act 2, Scene 3, the porter is very hungover from the previous night. During his monologue, he uses \"Knock, knock! Who\'s there\" as a refrain while he is speaking:
Writing in the *Oakland Tribune*, Merely McEvoy recalled a style of joke from around 1900 where a person would ask a question such as \"Do you know Arthur?\", the unsuspecting listener responding with \"Arthur who?\" and the joke teller answering \"`{{define|Arthurmometer|A thermometer}}`{=mediawiki}!\"
A variation of the format in the form of a children\'s game was described in 1929. In the game of Buff, a child with a stick thumps it on the ground, and the dialogue ensues:
In 1936, Bob Dunn authored the book *Knock Knock: Featuring Enoch Knox*, and he is regarded by some as having invented the modern knock-knock joke.
In 1936, the standard knock-knock joke format was used in a newspaper advertisement. That joke was:
A 1936 Associated Press newspaper article said that \"What\'s This?\" had given way to \"Knock Knock!\" as a favorite parlor game. The article also said that \"knock knock\" seemed to be an outgrowth of making up sentences with difficult words, an old parlor favorite. A popular joke of 1936 (the year of Edward VIII\'s brief reign) was \"Knock knock. Who\'s there? Edward Rex. Edward Rex who? `{{define|Edward Rex|Edward wrecks}}`{=mediawiki} the Coronation.\" Fred Allen\'s 30 December 1936 radio broadcast included a humorous wrapup of the year\'s least important events, including a supposed interview with the man who \"invented a negative craze\" on 1 April: \"Ramrod Dank\... the first man to coin a Knock Knock.\"
## Popular culture {#popular_culture}
\"Knock knock\" was the catchphrase of music hall performer Wee Georgie Wood, who was recorded in 1936 saying it in a radio play, but he simply used the words as a reference to his surname and did not use it as part of the well-known joke formula. The format was well known in the UK and US in the 1950s and 1960s before falling out of favor. It then enjoyed a renaissance after the jokes became a regular part of the badinage on *Rowan & Martin\'s Laugh-In*.
An example of a non-standard knock-knock joke is: Knock knock. Who\'s there? Death. Death wh-gkh (gagging sound of sudden fatal choking).
Being familiar with the back-and-forth pattern of the joke is crucial. In an episode of the TV detective series *Monk*, Adrian Monk is feeling sad. His assistant, Natalie, tries to cheer him up. She says she has thought of something funny, and asks if he wants to hear it. \"Yes,\" he answers. She begins, using the standard formula, \"Knock knock.\" Adrian pauses, obviously thinking about this, but puzzled. Then he dismisses it, saying, \"That\'s not funny.\" The joke, this time, is that he is not familiar with knock-knock jokes
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# Kaj Munk
**Kaj Harald Leininger Munk** (commonly called **Kaj Munk**; 13 January 1898 -- 4 January 1944) was a Danish playwright and Lutheran pastor, known for his cultural engagement and his martyrdom during the Occupation of Denmark of World War II. He is commemorated as a martyr in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church on 14 August, alongside Maximilian Kolbe.
## Biography
He was born Kaj Harald Leininger Petersen on the island of Lolland, Denmark, and raised by a family named Munk after the death of his parents. From 1924 until his death, Munk was the vicar of Vedersø in Western Jutland. Munk\'s plays were mostly performed and made public during the 1930s, although many were written in the 1920s. Much of his other work concerns the \"philosophy-on-life debate\" (religion---Marxism---Darwinism) which marked much of Danish cultural life during this period.
On one occasion, in the early 1930s, in a comment that came back to haunt him in later years, Munk expressed admiration for Hitler (for uniting Germans) and wished a similar unifying figure for Danes. However, Munk\'s attitude towards Hitler (and Mussolini) turned to outspoken criticism as he witnessed Hitler\'s persecution of the German Jewish community, and Mussolini\'s conduct of the war in Ethiopia. In 1938, the Danish newspaper *Jyllands-Posten* published on its front page an open letter to Benito Mussolini written by Kaj Munk criticising the persecutions against Jews.
Early on, Munk was a strong opponent of the German Occupation of Denmark (1940--1945), although he continually opposed the idea of democracy as such, preferring the idea of a \"Nordic dictator\" who should unite the Nordic countries and keep them neutral during periods of international crisis. His plays *Han sidder ved Smeltediglen* (\"He sits by the melting pot\") and *Niels Ebbesen* were direct attacks on Nazism. The latter, centering on the figure of Niels Ebbesen, a medieval Danish squire considered a national hero for having assassinated an earlier German occupier of Denmark, Count Gerhard III, was a contemporary analogue to World War II-era Denmark. Despite his friends urging Munk to go underground, he continued to preach against Danes who collaborated with the Nazis.
The Gestapo arrested Munk on the night of 4 January 1944, a month after he had defied a Nazi ban and preached the first Advent sermon at the national cathedral in Copenhagen. Munk\'s body was found in a roadside ditch in rural Hørbylunde near Silkeborg the next morning with a note stating, \"Swine, you worked for Germany just the same.\"
Munk\'s body was returned to his parish church, Vedersø, where it is buried outside the choir. A simple stone cross was also erected on a small hill overlooking the site where Munk\'s body was dumped.
Half of the January 1944 issue of the resistance newspaper *De frie Danske* was dedicated to Munk with his portrait filling the front page. The obituary *Danmarks store Søn---Kaj Munk* (The great son of Denmark---Kaj Munk) filled the next page, followed by excerpts from a new year\'s sermon he had given. Next came a description of his murder and a photo reportage from his funeral. Lastly the paper featured condemning reactions from influential Scandinavians, namely Prince Wilhelm, Duke of Södermanland, Jarl Hemmer, Johannes Jørgensen, Sigrid Undset, Erling Eidem and Harald Bohr.
The Danish government allowed his widow, Lise, to live at the parish house until she died in 1998. The church and parish house were restored as a memorial and opened to the public in 2010.
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# Kaj Munk
## Playwright
Munk often used a historical background for his plays---among his influences were William Shakespeare, Adam Oehlenschläger, Henrik Ibsen, and George Bernard Shaw. As a playwright, Munk became known for \"strong characters\"---integrated people who fight wholeheartedly for their ideals (whether good or bad). In his play *En Idealist*, for example, the \"hero\" is King Herod whose fight to maintain power is the motive behind all of his acts until he is at last defeated by a show of kindness to the Christ child in a weak moment.
His 1925 play *Ordet* (*The Word*) is generally considered to be his best work; it is an investigation of miracles from the unique (at least, to theatre) viewpoint of one who was not prepared to dismiss them. A family of farmers---of differing degrees of faith---find themselves reconciled to their neighbours through a miracle. A 1943 film adaptation titled *The Word* was directed by Gustaf Molander. A 1955 film version of *Ordet* was directed by Carl Theodor Dreyer, and won numerous awards, including the Golden Lion at the 16th Venice International Film Festival and the 1956 Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film.
Munk\'s plays, many of which have been performed at the Royal Theatre, Copenhagen, and elsewhere, include:
- *Pilatus* (1917; published 1937)
- *Ordet* (tr. *The Word*) (1925)
- *Kærlighed* (1926)
- *En Idealist* (1928)
- *I Brændingen* (1929)
- *Kardinalen og Kongen* (1929)
- *Cant* (1931)
- *De Udvalgte* (1933)
- *Sejren* (1936)
- *Han sidder ved Smeltediglen* (1938)
- *Egelykke* (1940)
- *Niels Ebbesen* (1942)
- *Før Cannae* (1943)
His play *Niels Ebbesen* has been translated into English (2006) by his granddaughter Arense Lund and Canadian playwright Dave Carley
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# Knot
thumb\|upright=2\|*\[\[Nordisk familjebok\]\]* knots: `{{Ordered list|
|Yarn knot ([[The Ashley Book of Knots|ABoK]] #2688)
|[[Manrope knot]] ([[The Ashley Book of Knots|ABoK]] #847)
|[[Granny knot]] ([[The Ashley Book of Knots|ABoK]] #1206)
|[[Wall and crown knot]] ([[The Ashley Book of Knots|ABoK]] #670, #671)<!--formerly Rosebud stopper knot followed by (?)-->
|[[Matthew Walker knot|Matthew Walker's knot]] ([[The Ashley Book of Knots|ABoK]] #681)
|[[Shroud knot]] ([[The Ashley Book of Knots|ABoK]] #1580)
|[[Turk's head knot]] ([[The Ashley Book of Knots|ABoK]] #1278-#1397)
|[[Overhand knot]], [[Figure-eight knot|Figure-of-eight knot]] ([[The Ashley Book of Knots|ABoK]] #514, #520)
|[[Reef knot]], [[Reef knot|Square knot]] ([[The Ashley Book of Knots|ABoK]] #1402)
|[[Two half-hitches]] ([[The Ashley Book of Knots|ABoK]] #54)
}}`{=mediawiki}
A **knot** is an intentional complication in cordage which may be practical or decorative, or both. Practical knots are classified by function, including hitches, bends, loop knots, and splices: a *hitch* fastens a rope to another object; a *bend* fastens two ends of a rope to each another; a *loop knot* is any knot creating a loop; and *splice* denotes any multi-strand knot, including bends and loops. A knot may also refer, in the strictest sense, to a stopper or knob at the end of a rope to keep that end from slipping through a grommet or eye. Knots have excited interest since ancient times for their practical uses, as well as their topological intricacy, studied in the area of mathematics known as knot theory.
## History
Knots and **knotting** have been used and studied throughout history. For example, Chinese knotting is a decorative handicraft art that began as a form of Chinese folk art in the Tang and Song Dynasty (960--1279 AD) in China, later popularized in the Ming. Knot theory is the recent mathematical study of knots.
Knots of ancient origin include the bottle sling, bowline, cat\'s paw, clove hitch, cow hitch, double fisherman\'s knot, eskimo bowline, figure-eight knot, fisherman\'s knot, half hitch, kalmyk loop, one-sided overhand bend, overhand knot, overhand loop, reef knot, running bowline, single hitch, thief knot, Turk\'s head knot, and two half-hitches.
The eleven main knots of Chinese knotting are the four-flower knot, six-flower knot, Chinese button knot, double connection knot, double coin knot, agemaki, cross knot, square knot, Plafond knot, Pan Chang knot, and the good luck knot.
Knots of more recent origin include the friendship knot of Chinese knotting. The sheepshank knot originates from 1627 while the Western Union splice originates from the beginning of telegraphy.
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# Knot
## Use
There is a large variety of knots, each with properties that make it suitable for a range of tasks. Some knots are used to attach the rope (or other knotting material) to other objects such as another rope, cleat, ring, or stake. Some knots are used to bind or constrict objects. Decorative knots usually bind to themselves to produce attractive patterns.
### Teaching
While some people can look at diagrams or photos and tie the illustrated knots, others learn best by watching how a knot is tied. Knot tying skills are often transmitted by sailors, scouts, climbers, canyoners, cavers, arborists, rescue professionals, stagehands, fishermen, linemen and surgeons. The International Guild of Knot Tyers is an organization dedicated to the promotion of knot tying.
### Applications
Truckers in need of securing a load may use a trucker\'s hitch, gaining mechanical advantage. Knots can save spelunkers from being buried under rock. Many knots can also be used as makeshift tools, for example, the bowline can be used as a rescue loop, and the munter hitch can be used for belaying. The diamond hitch was widely used to tie packages on to donkeys and mules.
In hazardous environments such as mountains, knots are very important. In the event of someone falling into a ravine or a similar terrain feature, with the correct equipment and knowledge of knots a rappel system can be set up to lower a rescuer down to a casualty and set up a hauling system to allow a third individual to pull both the rescuer and the casualty out of the ravine. Further application of knots includes developing a high line, which is similar to a zip line, and which can be used to move supplies, injured people, or the untrained across rivers, crevices, or ravines. Note the systems mentioned typically require carabiners and the use of multiple appropriate knots. These knots include the bowline, double figure eight, munter hitch, munter mule, prusik, autoblock, and clove hitch. Thus any individual who goes into a mountainous environment should have basic knowledge of knots and knot systems to increase safety and the ability to undertake activities such as rappelling.
Knots can be applied in combination to produce complex objects such as lanyards and netting. In ropework, the frayed end of a rope is held together by a type of knot called a whipping knot. Many types of textiles use knots to repair damage. Macramé, one kind of textile, is generated exclusively through the use of knotting, instead of knits, crochets, weaves or felting. Macramé can produce self-supporting three-dimensional textile structures, as well as flat work, and is often used ornamentally or decoratively.
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# Knot
## Properties
### Strength
Knots weaken the rope in which they are made. When knotted rope is strained to its breaking point, it almost always fails at the knot or close to it, unless it is defective or damaged elsewhere. The bending, crushing, and chafing forces that hold a knot in place also unevenly stress rope fibers and ultimately lead to a reduction in strength. The exact mechanisms that cause the weakening and failure are complex and are the subject of continued study. Special fibers that show differences in color in response to strain are being developed and used to study stress as it relates to types of knots.
Relative **knot strength**, also called **knot efficiency**, is the breaking strength of a knotted rope in proportion to the breaking strength of the rope without the knot. Determining a precise value for a particular knot is difficult because many factors can affect a knot efficiency test: the type of fiber, the style of rope, the size of rope, whether it is wet or dry, how the knot is dressed before loading, how rapidly it is loaded, whether the knot is repeatedly loaded, and so on. The efficiency of common knots ranges between 40 and 80% of the rope\'s original strength.
In most situations forming loops and bends with conventional knots is far more practical than using rope splices, even though the latter can maintain nearly the rope\'s full strength. Prudent users allow for a large safety margin in the strength of rope chosen for a task due to the weakening effects of knots, aging, damage, shock loading, etc. The working load limit of a rope is generally specified with a significant safety factor, up to 15:1 for critical applications. For life-threatening applications, other factors come into play.
### Security
Even if the rope does not break, a knot may still fail to hold. Knots that hold firm under a variety of adverse conditions are said to be more secure than those that do not.
The following sections describe the main ways that knots fail to hold.
#### Slipping
The load creates tension that pulls the rope back through the knot in the direction of the load. If this continues far enough, the working end passes into the knot and the knot unravels and fails. This behavior can worsen when the knot is repeatedly strained and let slack, dragged over rough terrain, or repeatedly struck against hard objects such as masts and flagpoles.
Even with secure knots, slippage may occur when the knot is first put under real tension. This can be mitigated by leaving plenty of rope at the working end outside of the knot, and by dressing the knot cleanly and tightening it as much as possible before loading. Sometimes, the use of a stopper knot or, even better, a backup knot can prevent the working end from passing through the knot; but if a knot is observed to slip, it is generally preferable to use a more secure knot. Life-critical applications often require backup knots to maximize safety.
#### Capsizing
To capsize (or spill) a knot is to change its form and rearrange its parts, usually by pulling on specific ends in certain ways. When used inappropriately, some knots tend to capsize easily or even spontaneously. Often the capsized form of the knot offers little resistance to slipping or unraveling. A reef knot, when misused as a bend, can capsize dangerously.
Sometimes a knot is intentionally capsized as a method of tying another knot, as with the \"lightning method\" of tying a bowline. Some knots, such as the carrick bend, are generally tied in one form then capsized to obtain a stronger or more stable form.
#### Sliding
In knots that are meant to grip other objects, failure can be defined as the knot moving relative to the gripped object. While the knot itself is not untied, it ceases to perform the desired function. For instance, a simple rolling hitch tied around a railing and pulled parallel to the railing might hold up to a certain tension, then start sliding. Sometimes this problem can be corrected by working-up the knot tighter before subjecting it to load, but usually the problem requires either a knot with more wraps or a rope of different diameter or material.
### Releasability
Knots differ in the effort required to untie them after loading. Knots that are very difficult to untie, such as the water knot, are said to \"jam\" or be **jamming knots**. Knots that come untied with less difficulty, such as the Zeppelin bend, are referred to as \"**non-jamming**\".
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# Knot
## Components
:
### Bight
: A bight is any curved section, slack part, or loop between the ends of a rope, string, or yarn.
### Bitter end {#bitter_end}
: As a ropeworker\'s term, \"bitter end\" refers to the end of a rope that is tied off. In British nautical usage, the bitter end is the ship end of the anchor cable, secured by the anchor bitts and the bitter pin in the cable locker under the forecastle. At anchor, the more anchor line that is payed out, the better the anchor\'s hold. In a storm, if the anchor drags, ships will pay out more and more anchor line until they reach the \"bitter end.\" At this point, they can only hope the anchor holds, hence the expression \"hanging on to the bitter end\". (A *bitt* is a metal block with a crosspin for tying lines to, also found on piers.) Also, the working end.
### Loop
: A curve narrower than a bight but with separate ends.
### Elbow
: Two crossing points created by an extra twist in a loop or a circle.
### Standing end {#standing_end}
: The standing end is the longer end of the rope not involved in the knot, often shown as unfinished. It is often (but not always) the end of the rope under load after the knot is complete. For example, when a clove hitch ties a boat to a pier, the end going to the boat is the *standing end*.
### Standing part {#standing_part}
: Section of line between knot and the standing end (seen above).
### Turn
: A **turn** or **single turn** is a curve with crossed legs.
: A **round turn** is the complete encirclement of an object; requires two passes.
: **Two round turns** circles the object twice; requires three passes.
### Working end {#working_end}
: The active end of a line used in making the knot. May also be called the \"running end\", \"live end\", or \"tag end\".
### Working part {#working_part}
: Section of line between knot and the working end.
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# Knot
## Knot categories {#knot_categories}
The list of knots is extensive, but common properties allow for a useful system of categorization. For example, *loop* knots share the attribute of having some kind of an anchor point constructed on the standing end (such as a loop or overhand knot) into which the working end is easily hitched, using a round turn. An example of this is the bowline. *Constricting* knots often rely on friction to cinch down tight on loose bundles; an example is the Miller\'s knot. Knots may belong to more than one category.
Bend :A knot uniting two lines (for knots joining two ends of the same line, see binding knots or loops).\
Binding :A knot that restricts object(s) by making multiple winds.\
Coil knot :Knots used to tie up lines for storage.\
Decorative knot :A complex knot exhibiting repeating patterns often constructed around and enhancing an object.\
Hitch :A knot tied to a post, cable, ring, or spar.\
Lashing :A knot used to hold (usually) poles together.\
Loop :A knot used to create a closed circle in a line.\
Plait (or braid):A number of lines interwoven in a simple regular pattern.\
Slip (or running) :A knot tied with a hitch around one of its parts. In contrast, a loop is closed with a bend. While a slip knot can be closed, a loop remains the same size.\
Slipped :Some knots may be finished by passing a bight rather than the end, for ease of untying. The common shoelace knot is an example, being a reef knot with both ends slipped.\
Seizing :A knot used to hold two lines or two parts of the same line together.\
Sennit :A number of lines interwoven in a complex pattern. See also Chain sinnet.\
Splice :A knot formed by interweaving strands of rope rather than whole lines. More time-consuming but usually stronger than simple knots.\
Stopper :A knot tied to hold a line through a hole.\
Whipping :A binding knot used to prevent another line from fraying.
### Basic useful knots {#basic_useful_knots}
- Alpine butterfly knot for a secure loop in the middle of a rope when the ends are not free
- Bowline for tying a loop in the end of a rope, as around one\'s waist or to secure a ring or grommet. The knot is also used as an anchor knot and is used in many knot systems that are used in mountainous terrain such as a highline or hauling system.
- Constrictor knot for making bundles or cinching the neck of a sack, though this knot jams and may need to be cut
- Figure-eight knot as a stopper
- Grass bend for tying belts together, though insecure with ropes
- Monkey\'s fist used to weight the end of a rope
- Prusik for ascending a rope
- Reef knot (square knot), a common but insecure binding knot for joining the ends of a piece of cordage wrapped around an object or objects
- Sheet bend for joining the ends of two ropes, which need not be the same diameter
- Double sheet bend for tying the ends of two dissimilarly sized ropes together
- Spanish bowline used to hoist crewmen aloft or suspend them over the side
- Versatackle for hoisting heavy loads and tightening rigging
- Water knot for tying a knot in flat material such as nylon webbing
#### Hitches
- Anchor bend (or anchor hitch) for tying a rope to a boat anchor
- Clove hitch for tying a rope to a pole -- simple and will not jam, but not particularly secure and will not work on rectangular shapes
- Buntline hitch for tying a rope to a pole or other shape, but can jam
- Diamond hitch for packing trail animals
- Rolling hitch for securing a rope to a pole when the pull is lengthwise rather than outward, or to tie one rope to the middle of another
- Taut-line hitch (or Midshipman\'s hitch) for forming an adjustable (ratcheting) loop that does not slip smaller under tension
- Timber hitch for securing or hauling long narrow loads, with the pull in one direction
- Trucker\'s hitch for clinching down a load
### Trick knots {#trick_knots}
Trick knots are knots that are used as part of a magic trick, a joke, or a puzzle. They are useful for these purposes because they have a deceptive appearance, being easier or more difficult to tie or untie than their appearance would suggest. The easiest trick knot is the slip knot. Other noted trick knots include:
- Grief knot. The starkly differing behavior of the knot, depending on how it is arranged, has been exploited as the basis of a parlor trick. When pulling on the standing ends the knot starts slipping and the working ends become crossed. By twisting the working ends so that they uncross and then recross in reverse, the knot\'s structure capsizes so that it will no longer slip. The twisting motion resembles the turning of a key, \"locking\" and \"unlocking\" the knot.
- Tom fool\'s knot, used as a trick knot due to the speed with which it can be made.
## Coxcombing
**Coxcombing** is a decorative knotwork performed by sailors during the Age of Sail.
The general purpose was to dress-up, protect, or help identify specific items and parts of ships and boats.
It is still found today in some whippings and wrappings of small diameter line on boat tillers and ships\' wheels to enhance the grip, or to identify rudder amidships.
Knots used in coxcombing include Turk\'s head knot, Flemish, French whipping, and others.
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# Knot
## Knot theory {#knot_theory}
Knot theory is a branch of topology. It deals with the mathematical analysis of knots, their structure and properties, and with the relationships between different knots. In topology, a knot is a figure consisting of a single loop with any number of crossing or knotted elements: a closed curve in space which may be moved around so long as its strands never pass through each other. As a closed loop, a mathematical knot has no proper ends, and cannot be undone or untied; however, any physical knot in a piece of string can be thought of as a mathematical knot by fusing the two ends. A configuration of several knots winding around each other is called a *link*. Various mathematical techniques are used to classify and distinguish knots and links. For instance, the Alexander polynomial associates certain numbers with any given knot; these numbers are different for the trefoil knot, the figure-eight knot, and the unknot (a simple loop), showing that one cannot be moved into the other (without strands passing through each other).
## Physical theory of friction knots {#physical_theory_of_friction_knots}
A simple mathematical theory of hitches has been proposed by Bayman and extended by Maddocks and Keller. It makes predictions that are approximately correct when tested empirically. No similarly successful theory has been developed for knots in general.
## Knot tying {#knot_tying}
thumb\|right\|The Ashley Book of Knots is considered the definitive work on the topic
Knot tying consists of the techniques and skills employed in tying a knot in rope, nylon webbing, or other articles. The proper tying of a knot can be the difference between an attractive knot and a messy one, and occasionally life and death. It is important to understand the often subtle differences between what works, and what does not. For example, many knots \"spill\" or pull through, particularly if they are not \"backed up,\" usually with a single or double overhand knot to make sure the end of the rope does not make its way through the main knot, causing all strength to be lost.
### Difficulty
The tying of a knot may be very straightforward (such as with an overhand knot), or it may be more complicated, such as a monkey\'s fist knot. Tying knots correctly requires an understanding of the type of material being tied (string, cord, monofilament line, kernmantle rope, or nylon webbing). For example, cotton string may be very small and easy to tie with much internal friction to keep it from falling apart once tied, while stiff 5/8\" thick kernmantle rope will be very difficult to tie, and may be so slick as to tend to come apart once tied.
### Material
The form of the material will influence the tying of a knot as well. Rope is round in cross-section, and has little dependence upon the manner in which the material is tied. Nylon webbing, on the other hand, is flat, and usually \"tubular\" in construction, meaning that it is spiral-woven, and has a hollow core. In order to retain as much of the strength as possible with webbing, the material must be tied \"flat\" such that parallel sections do not cross, and that the sections of webbing are not twisted when they cross each other within a knot.
The crossing of strands is important when dealing with round rope in other knots; for example, the figure-eight loop loses strength when strands are crossed while the knot is being \"finished\" and tightened. Moreover, the standing end or the end from which the hauling will be done must have the greater radius of curvature in the finished knot to maximize the strength of the knot.
### Tools
Tools are sometimes employed in the finishing or untying of a knot, such as a fid, a tapered piece of wood that is often used in splicing. With the advent of wire rope, many other tools are used in the tying of \"knots.\" However, for cordage and other non-metallic appliances, the tools used are generally limited to sharp edges or blades such as a sheepsfoot blade, occasionally a fine needle for proper whipping of laid rope, a hot cutter for nylon and other synthetic fibers, and (for larger ropes) a shoe for smoothing out large knots by rolling them on the ground.
## Use by animals {#use_by_animals}
The hagfish is known to strip slime from its skin by tying itself into a simple overhand knot, and moving its body to make the knot travel toward the tail. It also uses this action in reverse (tail to head) to pry out flesh after biting into a carcass
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# Kamacite
**Kamacite** is an alloy of iron and nickel, which is found on Earth only in meteorites. According to the International Mineralogical Association (IMA) it is considered a proper nickel-rich variety of the mineral native iron. The proportion iron:nickel is between 90%:10% and 95%:5%; small quantities of other elements, such as cobalt or carbon may also be present. The mineral has a metallic luster, is gray and has no clear cleavage although its crystal structure is isometric-hexoctahedral. Its density is about 8 g/cm^3^ and its hardness is 4 on the Mohs scale. It is also sometimes called balkeneisen.
The name was coined in 1861 and is derived from the Greek root *καμακ-* \"kamak\" or *κάμαξ* \"kamaks\", meaning vine-pole. It is a major constituent of iron meteorites (octahedrite and hexahedrite types). In the octahedrites it is found in bands interleaving with taenite forming Widmanstätten patterns. In hexahedrites, fine parallel lines called Neumann lines are often seen, which are evidence for structural deformation of adjacent kamacite plates due to shock from impacts.
At times kamacite can be found so closely intermixed with taenite that it is difficult to distinguish them visually, forming plessite. The largest documented kamacite crystal measured 92 \*.
## Physical properties {#physical_properties}
Kamacite has many unique physical properties including Thomson structures and extremely high density.
### Identification
Kamacite is opaque, and its surface generally displays varying shades of gray streaking, or \"quilting\" patterns. Kamacite has a metallic luster. Kamacite can vary in hardness based on the extent of shock it has undergone, but commonly ranks a four on the mohs hardness scale. Shock increases kamacite hardness, but this is not 100% reliable in determining shock histories as there are myriad other reasons that the hardness of kamacite could increase.
Kamacite has a measured density of `{{val|7.9|ul=g/cm3}}`{=mediawiki}. It has a massive crystal habit but normally individual crystals are indistinguishable in natural occurrences. There are no planes of cleavage present in kamacite which gives it a hackly fracture. Kamacite is magnetic, and isometric which makes it behave optically isometrically.
Kamacite occurs with taenite and a mixed area of kamacite and taenite referred to as plessite.
Taenite contains more nickel (12 to 45 wt. % Ni) than kamacite (which has 5 to 12 wt. % Ni). The increase in nickel content causes taenite to have a face-centered unit cell, whereas kamacite\'s higher iron content causes its unit cell to be body centered. This difference is caused by nickel and iron having a similar size but different interatomic magnetic and quantum interactions.
#### Tetragonal phase {#tetragonal_phase}
There is evidence of a tetragonal phase, observed in X-ray powder tests and later under a microscope. When tested two meteorites gave d-values that could \"be indexed on the basis of a tetragonal unit cell, but not on the basis of a cubic or hexagonal unit cell\". It has been speculated to be e-iron, a hexagonal polymorph of iron.
### Thomson structures {#thomson_structures}
Thomson structures, usually referred to as Widmanstätten patterns, are textures often seen in meteorites that contain kamacite. These are bands which are usually alternating between kamacite and taenite. In 1804, William Thomson stumbled upon these structures when he noticed unexpected geometric patterns after cleaning a specimen with nitric acid (`{{chem|HNO|3}}`{=mediawiki}). He published his observations in a French journal but due to the Napoleonic wars the English scientists, who were doing much of the meteorite research of the time, never discovered his work. It was not until 1808, four years later, that the same etching patterns were discovered by Count Alois von Beck Widmanstätten who was heating iron meteorites when he noticed geometric patterns caused by the differing oxidation rates of kamacite and taenite. Widmanstätten told many of his colleagues about these patterns in correspondence leading to them being referred to as Widmanstätten patterns in most literature.
Thomson structures or Widmanstätten patterns are created as the meteorite cools; at high temperatures both iron and nickel have face-centered lattices. When the meteorite is formed it starts out as entirely molten taenite (greater than 1500 °C) and as it cools past 723 °C the primary metastable phase of the alloy changes into taenite and kamacite begins to precipitate out. It is in this window where the meteorite is cooling below 723 °C where the Thomson structures form and they can be greatly affected by the temperature, pressure, and composition of the meteorite.
### Optical properties {#optical_properties}
Kamacite is opaque and can be observed only in reflected light microscopy. It is isometric and therefore behaves isotropically.
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# Kamacite
## Physical properties {#physical_properties}
### Magnetism
As the meteorite cools below 750 °C iron becomes magnetic as it moves into the kamacite phase. During this cooling the meteorite takes on non-conventional thermoremanent magnetization. Thermoremanent magnetization on Earth gives iron minerals formed in the Earth\'s crust, a higher magnetization than if they were formed in the same field at room temperature. This is a non-conventional thermoremanent magnetization because it appears to be due to a chemical remanent process which is induced as taenite is cooled to kamacite. What makes this especially interesting is this has been shown to account for all of the ordinary chondrites magnetic field which has been shown to be as strong as 0.4 oersted (symbol Oe).
## Crystallography
Kamacite is an isometric mineral with a body cubic centered unit cell. Kamacite is usually not found in large crystals; however the anomalously largest kamacite crystal found and documented measured 92×54×23 centimeters. Even with large crystals being so rare, crystallography is extremely important to understand plays an important role in the formation of Thomson structures.
### Symmetry
Kamacite forms isometric, hexoctahedral crystals this causes the crystals to have many symmetry elements. Kamacite falls under the 4/m`{{overline|3}}`{=mediawiki}2/m class in the Hermann--Mauguin notation meaning it has three fourfold axes, four threefold axes, and six twofold axes and nine mirror planes. Kamacite has a space group of Fm`{{overline|3}}`{=mediawiki}m.
### Unit cell {#unit_cell}
Kamacite is made up of a repeating unit of α-(Fe, Ni), `{{chem|Fe|0.9|Ni|0.1}}`{=mediawiki}, which makes up cell dimensions of a = 8.603 Å, Z = 54 Å; V = 636.72 Å^3^. The interatomic magnetic and quantum interactions of the zerovalent iron (metallic Fe^0^) atoms interacting with each other causes kamacite to have a body centered lattice.
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# Kamacite
## Chemistry
### Formula and dominant elements {#formula_and_dominant_elements}
Kamacite is made up of a repeating unit of α-(Fe, Ni), `{{chem|Fe|0.9|Ni|0.1}}`{=mediawiki}, in which both iron and nickel have the valence zero (Fe^0^ and Ni^0^) as they are metallic native elements commonly found in iron meteorites. Besides trace elements, it is normally considered to be made up of 90% iron and 10% nickel but can have a ratio of 95% iron and 5% nickel. This makes iron the dominant element in any sample of kamacite. It is grouped with the native elements in both Dana and Nickel-Strunz classification systems.
### Conditions of formation {#conditions_of_formation}
Kamacite starts to form around 723 °C, where iron splits from being face centered to body centered while nickel remains face centered. To accommodate this areas start to form of higher iron concentration displacing nickel to the areas around it which creates taenite which is the nickel end member.
### Trace elements {#trace_elements}
There has been a great deal of research into kamacite\'s trace elements. The most notable trace elements in kamacite are gallium, germanium, cobalt, copper, and chromium. Cobalt is the most notable of these where the nickel content varies from 5.26% to 6.81% and the cobalt content can be from 0.25% to 0.77%. All of these trace elements are metallic and their appearance near the kamacite taenite border can give important clues to the environment the meteorite was formed in. Mass spectrometry has revealed kamacite to contain considerable amounts of platinum to be an average of 16.31 (μg/g), iridium to be an average of 5.40 (μg/g), osmium to be an average of 3.89 (μg/g), tungsten to be an average of 1.97 (μg/g), gold to be an average of 0.75 (μg/g), and rhenium to be an average of 0.22 (μg/g). The considerable amounts of cobalt and platinum are the most notable.
### Important minor elements, substitutions, solid solutions {#important_minor_elements_substitutions_solid_solutions}
Kamacite sulfurization has been done experimentally in laboratory conditions. Sulfurization resulted in three distinct phases: a mono-sulfide solid solution (`{{chem|Fe|x|(Ni,Co)|1-x|S}}`{=mediawiki}), a pentlandite phase (`{{chem|Fe|x|(Ni,Co)|9-x|S|8}}`{=mediawiki}), as well as a P-rich phase. This was done in a lab to construct conditions concurrent with that of the solar nebula. With this information it would be possible to extract information about the thermodynamic, kinetic, and physical conditions of the early solar system. This still remains speculatory as many of the sulfides in meteorites are unstable and have been destroyed. Kamacite also alters to tochilinite (`{{chem|Fe|2+| · 5-6 (Mg, Fe|2+|)|5|S|6|(OH)|10}}`{=mediawiki}). This is useful for giving clues as to how much the meteorite as a whole has been altered. Kamacite to tochilinite alteration can be seen in petrologic microscopes, scanning electron microscope, and electron microprobe analysis. This can be used to allow researchers to easily index the amount of alteration that has taken place in the sample. This index can be later referenced when analyzing other areas of the meteorite where alteration is not as clear.
### Relationship with taenite {#relationship_with_taenite}
Taenite is the nickel rich end member of the kamacite--taenite solid solution. Taenite is naturally occurring on Earth whereas kamacite is only found on Earth when it comes from space. Kamacite forms taenite as it forms and expels nickel to the surrounding area, this area forms taenite. Due to the face centered nature of the kamacite lattice and the body centered nature of the nickel lattice the two make intricate angles when they come in contact with each other. These angles reveal themselves macroscopically in the Thomson structure. Also due to this relationship we get the terms ataxite, hexahedrites and octahedrite. Ataxite refers to meteorites that do not show a grossly hexahedral or octahedral structure. Meteorites composed of 6 wt% or less nickel are often referred to as hexahedrites due to the crystal structure of kamacite being isometric and causing the meteorite to be cubic. Likewise if the meteorite is dominated by the face centered taenite it is called an octahedrite as kamacite will exsolve from the octahedral crystal boundaries of taenite making the meteorite appear octahedral. Both hexahedrites and octahedrite only appear when the meteorite breaks along crystal planes or when prepared to accentuate the Thomson structures therefore many are mistakenly called ataxites ar first.
### Stability range {#stability_range}
Kamacite is only stable at temperatures below 723 °C or 600 °C (Stacey and Banerjee, 2012), as that is where iron becomes cool enough to arrange in a body centered crystal structure. Kamacite is also only stable at low pressures as can be assumed because it only forms in the space.
### Effect of shock {#effect_of_shock}
Metallographic and X-ray diffraction can be used on kamacite to determine the shock history of a meteorite. Using hardness to determine shock histories has been experimented with but was found to be too unreliable. Vickers hardness test was applied to a number of kamacite samples and shocked meteorites were found to have values of 160--170 kg/mm and non-shocked meteorites can have values as high as 244 kg/mm. Shock causes a unique iron transformation structure that is able to be measured using metallographic and X-ray diffraction techniques. After using metallographic and X-ray diffraction techniques to determine shock history it was found that 49% of meteorites found on Earth contain evidence of shock.
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# Kamacite
## Geologic occurrences {#geologic_occurrences}
Kamacite meteorites have been found on every continent on Earth and have also been found on Mars.
### Meteorites
Kamacite is primarily associated with meteorites because it needs high temperatures, low pressures and few other more reactive elements like oxygen. Chondrite meteorites can be split into groups based on the chondrules present. There are three major types: enstatite chondrites, carbonaceous chondrites and ordinary chondrites. Ordinary chondrites are the most abundant type of meteorite found on Earth making up 85% of all meteorites recorded. Ordinary chondrites are thought to have all originated from three different sources thus they come in three types LL, L, and H; LL stands for Low iron, Low metal, L stands for Low iron abundance, and H is High iron content. All ordinary chondrites contain kamacite in decreasing abundance as you move from H to LL chondrites. Kamacite is also found in many of the less common meteorites mesosiderites and E chondrites. E chondrites are chondrites which are made primarily of enstatite and only account for 2% of meteorites that fall onto the Earth. E chondrites have an entirely different source rock than that of the ordinary chondrites. In analysis of kamacite in E chondrites it was found that they contain generally less nickel than average.
### Abundance
Since kamacite is only formed in space and is only found on Earth in meteorites, it has very low abundance on Earth. Its abundance outside the Solar System is difficult to determine. Iron, the main component of kamacite, is the sixth most abundant element in the universe and the most abundant of those elements generally considered metallic.
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# Kamacite
## Specific examples {#specific_examples}
### Meteor crater Arizona {#meteor_crater_arizona}
Kamacite has been found and studied in Meteor Crater, Arizona. Meteor Crater was the first confirmed meteor impact site on the planet, and was not universally recognized as such until the 1950s. In the 1960s United States Geological Survey discovered kamacite in specimens gathered from around the site tying the mineral to meteorites.
### Planets
Kamacite primarily forms on meteorites but has been found on extraterrestrial bodies such as Mars. This was discovered by The Mars Exploration Rover (MER) *Opportunity*. The kamacite did not originate on Mars but was put there by a meteorite. This was particularly of interest because the meteorite fell under the lesser known class of mesosiderites. Mesosiderites are very rare on Earth and its occurrence on Mars gives clues to the origin of its larger source rock.
## Uses
### Museums, university and photo specimen preparation {#museums_university_and_photo_specimen_preparation}
Due to the rareness and the generally dull appearance of kamacite it is not popular among private collectors. However many museums and universities have samples of kamacite in their collection. Normally kamacite samples are prepared using polish and acid to show off the Thomson structures. Preparing specimens involves washing them in a solvent, such as Thomson did with nitric acid to bring out the Thomson structures. Then they are heavily polished so they look shiny. Generally the kamacite can be told apart from taenite easily as after this process the kamacite looks slightly darker than the taenite.
### Looking to the future {#looking_to_the_future}
Kamacite and taenite both have the potential to be economically valuable. An option that would make asteroid mining more profitable would be to gather the trace elements. One difficulty would be refining elements such as platinum and gold. Platinum is worth around 12,000 US\$/kg and (kamacite contains 16.11 μg/g platinum) and gold is worth around 12,000 US\$/kg (kamacite contains 0.52 μg/g gold); however the likeliness of a profitable return is fairly slim. Asteroid mining for space uses could be more practical, as transporting materials from Earth is costly. Similar to current plans of reusing the modules of the International Space Station in other missions, an iron meteorite could be used to build space craft in space. NASA has put forward preliminary plans to build a space ship in space
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# Kuleshov
**Kuleshov** (*Кулешо́в*) and **Kuleshova** (*Кулешова*; feminine) is a common Russian surname that traces its origins to Ukraine
People with this surname include:
- Aleksey Kuleshov (b. 1979), Russian volleyball player
- Alla Kuleshova (b. 1945), Russian rower
- Arkadi Kuleshov (1914--1978), Belarusian poet and translator
- Dmitry Kuleshov (born 1978), Russian serial killer
- Lev Kuleshov (1899--1970), Soviet filmmaker and film theorist, who demonstrated the Kuleshov effect
- Mikhail Kuleshov (b. 1981), Russian ice hockey player
- Oleg Kuleshov (b. 1974), Russian handball player
- Vladimir Kuleshov (b. 1986), Russian footballer
- Yuri Kuleshov (b
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# Kellogg–Briand Pact
The **Kellogg--Briand Pact** or **Pact of Paris** -- officially the **General Treaty for Renunciation of War as an Instrument of National Policy** -- is a 1928 international agreement on peace in which signatory states promised not to use war to resolve \"disputes or conflicts of whatever nature or of whatever origin they may be, which may arise among them\". The pact was signed by Germany, France, and the United States on 27 August 1928, and by most other states soon after. Sponsored by France and the U.S., the Pact is named after its authors, United States Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg and French foreign minister Aristide Briand. The pact was concluded outside the League of Nations and remains in effect.
A common criticism is that the Kellogg--Briand Pact did not live up to all of its aims but has arguably had some success. It was unable to prevent the Second World War but was the basis for trial and execution of wartime German leaders in 1946. Furthermore, declared wars became very rare after 1945. It has been ridiculed for its moralism, legalism, and lack of influence on foreign policy. The pact had no mechanism for enforcement, and many historians and political scientists see it as mostly irrelevant and ineffective. Nevertheless, the pact served as the legal basis for the concept of a crime against peace, for which the Nuremberg Tribunal and Tokyo Tribunal tried and executed the top leaders responsible for starting World War II.
Similar provisions to those in the Kellogg--Briand Pact were later incorporated into the Charter of the United Nations and other treaties, which gave rise to a more activist American foreign policy which began with the signing of the pact.
## Text
The main text is very short:\
`{{quote|'''''<u>Article I</u>'''''{{pb}}
The High Contracting Parties solemnly declare in the names of their respective peoples that they condemn recourse to war for the solution of international controversies and renounce it as an instrument of national policy in their relations with one another.
'''''<u>Article II</u>'''''{{pb}}
The High Contracting Parties agree that the settlement or solution of all disputes or conflicts of whatever nature or of whatever origin they may be, which may arise among them, shall never be sought except by pacific means.
}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Kellogg–Briand Pact
## Parties
thumb\|upright=2.0\| `{{legend|#007F09|Original signatories}}`{=mediawiki} `{{legend|#00FE1E|Subsequent adherents}}`{=mediawiki} `{{legend|#00FFFF|Territories of parties}}`{=mediawiki} `{{legend|#007F7F|[[League of Nations mandate]]s administered by parties}}`{=mediawiki} The plan was devised by American lawyers Salmon Levinson and James T. Shotwell, and promoted by Senator William E. Borah.
Borah and U.S. diplomat William Richards Castle Jr., Assistant Secretary of State, played key roles after Kellogg and Briand agreed on a two party treaty between the U.S. and France. It was originally intended as a bilateral treaty, but Castle worked to expand it to a multinational agreement that included practically the entire world. Castle managed to overcome French objections through his discussions with the French ambassador, replacing the narrow Franco-American agreement with a treaty that attracted almost all major and minor nations.
The pact was first signed on 27 August 1928 in Paris at the French Foreign Ministry by the representatives from Australia, Belgium, Canada, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, India, the Irish Free State, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Poland, South Africa, and the United States. It took effect on 24 July 1929.
By that date, the following nations had deposited instruments of ratification of the pact: `{{columns-list|colwidth=20em|
*[[Kingdom of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]]
*[[Albanian Republic|Albania]]
*[[Austria]]
*[[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]]
*[[Republic of China|China]]
*[[Cuba]]
*[[Denmark]]
*[[Kingdom of Egypt|Egypt]]
*[[Estonia]]
*[[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]]
*[[Finland]]
*[[Guatemala]]
*[[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]]
*[[Kingdom of Iceland|Iceland]]
*[[Latvia]]
*[[Liberia]]
*[[Lithuania]]
*[[Netherlands]]
*[[Nicaragua]]
*[[Norway]]
*[[Panama]]
*[[Peru]]
*[[Ditadura Nacional|Portugal]]
*[[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]]
*[[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes]] (later [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]])
*[[Thailand|Siam]]
*[[Soviet Union]]
*[[Spain under the Restoration|Spain]]
*[[Sweden]]
*[[Turkey]]
}}`{=mediawiki}
12 additional parties joined after that date: Persia, Greece, Honduras, Chile, Luxembourg, Danzig, Costa Rica, Mexico, Venezuela, Paraguay, Switzerland and the Dominican Republic for a total of 57 state parties by 1929. Six states joined between 1930 and 1934: Haiti, Colombia, Saudi Arabia, Ecuador, Iraq and Brazil. After the Second World War, Barbados declared its accession to the treaty in 1971, followed by Fiji (1973), Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica (both 1988), the Czech Republic and Slovakia (after Czechoslovakia dissolved in 1993), and, as a result of the dissolution of Yugoslavia, Slovenia (1992), Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia (both in 1994). The Free City of Danzig, which had joined the Pact in 1929, ceased to exist in 1939 and became a regular part of Poland after World War II.
In the United States, the Senate approved the treaty 85--1, with only Wisconsin Republican John J. Blaine voting against over concerns with British imperialism. While the U.S. Senate did not add any reservations to the treaty, it did pass a measure which interpreted the treaty as not infringing upon the United States\' right of self-defense and not obliging the nation to enforce it by taking action against those who violated it.
BriandKellogg1928a.jpg\|French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand speaking BriandKellogg1928b.jpg\|German Foreign Minister Gustav Stresemann signing KingAntiWar.jpg\|Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs Mackenzie King signing
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# Kellogg–Briand Pact
## Effect and legacy {#effect_and_legacy}
The 1928 Kellogg--Briand Pact was concluded outside the League of Nations and remains in effect. One month following its conclusion, a similar agreement, the General Act for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, was concluded in Geneva, which obliged its signatory parties to establish conciliation commissions in any case of dispute. With the signing of the Litvinov Protocol in Moscow on February 9, 1929, the Soviet Union and its western neighbors, including Romania, agreed to put the Kellogg--Briand Pact in effect without waiting for other western signatories to ratify. The Bessarabian question had made agreement between Romania and the Soviet Union challenging and dispute between the nations over Bessarabia continued. The pact\'s central provisions renouncing the use of war, and promoting peaceful settlement of disputes and the use of collective force to prevent aggression, were incorporated into the United Nations Charter and other treaties. Although civil wars continued, wars between established states have been rare since 1945, with a few major exceptions such as the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 and various conflicts in the Middle East.
As a practical matter, the Kellogg--Briand Pact did not live up to its primary aims, but has arguably had some success. It did not end war or stop the rise of militarism, and was unable to keep the international peace in succeeding years. Its legacy remains as a statement of the idealism expressed by advocates for peace in the interwar period. However, it also helped to erase the legal distinction between war and peace, because the signatories, having renounced the use of war, began to wage wars without declaring them, as in the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Italian invasion of Abyssinia in 1935, the Soviet invasion of Finland in 1939, and the German and Soviet invasions of Poland.
thumb\|upright=1.5\|Mockery of the Pact during the Paris Carnival in 1929
The popular perception of the Kellogg--Briand Pact was best summarized by Eric Sevareid who, in a nationally televised series on American diplomacy between the two world wars, referred to the pact as a \"worthless piece of paper\". In his history of Europe from 1914 to 1948, historian Ian Kershaw referred to the Pact as \"vacuous\" and said that it was \"a dead letter from the moment it was signed.\"
While the Pact has been ridiculed for its moralism and legalism and lack of influence on foreign policy, it did lead to a more activist American foreign policy. Legal scholars Scott J. Shapiro and Oona A. Hathaway have argued that the Pact inaugurated \"a new era of human history\" characterized by the decline of inter-state war as a structuring dynamic of the international system. According to Shapiro and Hathaway one reason for the historical insignificance of the pact was the absence of an enforcement mechanism to compel compliance from signatories, since the pact only calls for violators to \"be denied of the benefits furnished by \[the\] treaty\". They also said that the Pact appealed to the West because it promised to secure and protect previous conquests, thus securing their place at the head of the international legal order indefinitely. They wrote in 2017:
> As its effects reverberated across the globe, it reshaped the world map, catalyzed the human rights revolution, enabled the use of economic sanctions as a tool of law enforcement, and ignited the explosion in the number of international organizations that regulate so many aspects of our daily lives.
Hathaway and Shapiro show that between 1816 and 1928 there was on average one military conquest every ten months. After 1945, in very sharp contrast, the number of such conflicts declined to one in every four years.
The pact, in addition to binding the particular nations that signed it, has also served as one of the legal bases establishing the international norms that the threat or use of military force in contravention of international law, as well as the territorial acquisitions resulting from it, are unlawful. The interdiction of aggressive war was confirmed and broadened by the United Nations Charter, which provides in article 2, paragraph 4, that \"All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations.\" One legal consequence is that it is unlawful to annex territory by force, although other forms of annexation have not been prevented. More broadly, there is now a strong presumption against the legality of using, or threatening, military force against another country. Nations that have resorted to the use of force since the Charter came into effect have typically invoked self-defense or the right of collective defense.
Notably, the pact also served as the legal basis for the concept of a crime against peace. It was for committing this crime that the Nuremberg Tribunal and Tokyo Tribunal tried and executed the top leaders responsible for starting World War II.
Political scientists Julie Bunck and Michael Fowler in 2018 argued that the Pact was:
> an important early venture in multilateralism. \... \[I\]nternational law evolved to circumscribe the use of armed force with legal restrictions. The forcible acquisition of territory by conquest became illegitimate and individual criminal liability might attach to those who pursued it. In criminalizing war Kellogg--Briand played a role in the development of a new norm of behavior in international relations, a norm that continues to play a role in our current international order
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# Protea cynaroides
***Protea cynaroides***, also called the **king protea** (from *koningsprotea*, *isiQwane sobukumkani*), is a flowering plant. It is a distinctive member of *Protea*, having the largest flower head in the genus. The species is also known as **giant protea**, **honeypot**, or **king sugar bush**. It is widely distributed in the fynbos region of South Africa, that is, in the southwestern and southern parts of Western Cape. The king protea is the national flower of South Africa.
*Protea cynaroides* is adapted to survive wildfires by its thick underground stem, which contains many dormant buds; these will produce the new growth after the fire.
The flower has a long vase life in flower arrangements, and makes for an excellent dried flower.
## Taxonomy
*Protea cynaroides* is a species of Protea in the huge family Proteaceae. The family comprises about 80 genera with about 1,600 species. It has Gondwanan distribution, which means that it is mainly spread across the Southern Hemisphere, from Southern Africa, across to Australia, to South America, although certain species are also found in equatorial Africa, India, southern Asia, and Oceania as well.
*Protea cynaroides* is further placed within the subfamily Proteoideae, which is found mainly in Southern Africa. This subfamily is defined as those species having cluster roots, solitary ovules and indehiscent fruits. Proteoideae is further divided into four tribes: Conospermeae, Petrophileae, Proteae, and Leucadendreae. The genus *Protea*, and hence *P. cynaroides*, is placed under the tribe Proteae.
### Etymology and other names {#etymology_and_other_names}
The name of the plant family Proteaceae as well as the genus *Protea*, both to which *P. cynaroides* belongs to, derive from the name of the Greek god Proteus, a deity that was able to change between many forms. This is an appropriate image, seeing as both the family and the genus are known for their astonishing variety and diversity of flowers and leaves.
The specific epithet *cynaroides* refers to the artichoke-like appearance of the flower-heads: the artichoke belongs to the genus *Cynara*.
It is also known as the king protea, giant protea, honeypot, or king sugar bush.
## Distribution
The king protea is widely distributed in the southwestern and southern parts of Western Cape.
## Description
*P. cynaroides* is a woody shrub with thick stems and large dark green, glossy leaves. Most plants are one metre in height when mature, but may vary according to locality and habitat from 0.35 to in height. The \"flowers\" of *P. cynaroides* are actually composite flower heads (termed an inflorescence) with a collection of flowers in the centre, surrounded by large colourful bracts, from about 120 to in diameter. Large, vigorous plants produce six to ten flower heads in one season, although some exceptional plants can produce up to forty flower heads on one plant. The colour of the bracts varies from a creamy white to a deep crimson, but the soft pale pink bracts with a silvery sheen are the most prized.
## Research
The diploid chromosome count is 2n = 24. The genome of king protea has been sequenced and published in 2022, corresponding to the first genome sequenced in the Proteales order.
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# Protea cynaroides
## Ecology
*Protea cynaroides* grows in a harsh environment with dry, hot summers and wet, cold winters. Several adaptions include tough, leathery leaves, which helps to prevent excessive loss of moisture, and a large taproot which penetrates deep into the soil to reach underground moisture. Like most other Proteaceae, *P. cynaroides* has proteoid roots, roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter. These enhance solubilisation of nutrients, thus allowing nutrient uptake in the low-nutrient, phosphorus-deficient soils of its native fynbos habitat.
The flowers are fed at by a range of nectarivorous birds, mainly sunbirds and sugarbirds, including the orange-breasted sunbird (*Anthobaphes violacea*), southern double-collared sunbird (*Cinnyris chalybeus*), malachite sunbird (*Nectarinia famosa*), and the Cape sugarbird (*Promerops cafer*). In order to reach the nectar, the bird must push its bill into the inflorescence. As it does so, its bill and face gets brushed with pollen, thereby allowing for possible pollination.
Along with birds, a host of insects are attracted to the flowerhead, such as bees, for example the Cape honeybee, and various beetle species such as rove beetles and the beetles of the huge family Scarabaeidae such as the protea beetle *Trichostetha fascicularis* and monkey beetles.
Like many other *Protea* species, *P. cynaroides* is adapted to an environment in which bushfires are essential for reproduction and regeneration. Most *Protea* species can be placed in one of two broad groups according to their response to fire: *reseeders* are killed by fire, but fire also triggers the release of their canopy seed bank, thus promoting recruitment of the next generation; *resprouters* survive fire, resprouting from a lignotuber or, more rarely, epicormic buds protected by thick bark. *P. cynaroides* is a resprouter as it shoots up new stems from buds in its thick underground stem after a fire.
## Significance and uses {#significance_and_uses}
The king protea is the national flower of South Africa and as such lends its name to the national cricket team, whose nickname is the Proteas. In the early 1990s, there was a political debate as to if and how the flower should be incorporated onto the national rugby team\'s shirts, replacing the springbok.
The king protea is also the flagship of the Protea Atlas Project, run by the South African National Botanical Institute.
The king protea has a long vase life in flower arrangements, and makes for an excellent dried flower. It has several colour forms, and horticulturists have recognised 81 garden varieties, some of which have injudiciously been planted in its natural range. In some varieties the pink of the flower and red borders of leaves are replaced by a creamy yellow.
## Gallery
<File:Protea> cynaroides \'Arctic Ice\' kz3.jpg\|Protea cynaroides \'Arctic Ice\' a white cultivar <File:Protea> flower02.jpg <File:Protea> flower.jpg <File:Protea> cynaroides 1.jpg <File:Protea> cynaroides 2.jpg <File:Protea> cynaroides 4.jpg <File:Protea> cynaroides 5.jpg <File:Protea> cynaroides 6.jpg <File:Protea_cynaroides_flower.jpg> <File:King> Protea 01.jpg <File:Protea_P1010883.JPG%7CWestern> Cape, South Africa <File:Protea_P1010885.JPG%7CWestern> Cape, South Africa <File:King> Protea bush.jpg <File:King> Protea flower towards end of flowering
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# Kantele
`{{listen
| filename=DIY_kantele_sample_raw.ogg
| title=5-string kantele
| description=Sounds samples from a home-made 5-string kantele
| format=[[Ogg]]
}}`{=mediawiki}
A **kantele** (`{{IPA|fi|ˈkɑntele|lang}}`{=mediawiki}) or **kannel** (`{{IPA|fi|ˈkɑnːel|lang}}`{=mediawiki}) is a traditional Finnish and Karelian plucked string instrument (chordophone) belonging to the southeast Baltic box zither family known as the Baltic psaltery along with the Estonian kannel, the Latvian kokles, the Lithuanian kanklės, and the Russian gusli.
## Construction
### Small kantele {#small_kantele}
Modern instruments with 15 or fewer strings are generally more closely modeled on traditional shapes, and form a category of instrument known as **small kantele**, in contrast to the concert kantele.
The oldest forms of kantele have five or six horsehair strings and a wooden body carved from one piece; more modern instruments have metal strings and a body made from several pieces. The traditional kantele has neither bridge nor nut, the strings run directly from the tuning pegs to a metal bar (*varras*) set into wooden brackets (*ponsi*). Though not acoustically efficient, this construction is part of the distinctive sound of the instrument.
The most typical and traditional tuning of the five-string small kantele is just intonation arrived at via five-limit tuning, often in Dmajor or Dminor. This occurs if a kantele is played as a solo instrument or as a part of a folk music ensemble. The major triad is then formed by D^1^--F`{{music|sharp}}`{=mediawiki}^1^--A^1^. In modern variants of small kantele, there are often semitone levers for some strings. The most typical lever for a five-string kantele is a switch between F`{{music|sharp}}`{=mediawiki}^1^ and F^1^, which allows most folk music to be played without retuning. Larger versions of the small kantele often have additional semitone levers, allowing a more varied selection of music to be played without retuning.
### Concert kantele {#concert_kantele}
A modern **concert kantele** can have up to 40 strings. The playing positions of the concert kantele and the small kantele are reversed: for a small kantele, the longest, low-pitched strings are furthest away from the musician\'s body, while for a concert kantele, this side of the instrument is nearest, and the short, high-pitched strings are the furthest away. Concert versions have a switch mechanism (similar to semitone levers on a modern folk harp) for making sharps and flats, an innovation introduced by Paul Salminen in the 1920s.
## Playing
The kantele has a distinctive bell-like sound. The Finnish kantele generally has a diatonic tuning, though small kanteles with between 5 and 15 strings are often tuned to a gapped mode, missing a seventh and with the lowest pitched strings tuned to a fourth below the tonic, as a drone. Players hold the kantele in their laps or on a small table. There are two main playing techniques, either plucking the strings with the fingers or strumming unstopped strings (sometimes with a matchstick). Small kanteles and concert kanteles have different, though related, repertoires.
## Music
There have been strong developments for the kantele in Finland since the mid-20th century, beginning with the efforts of modern players such as Martti Pokela in the 1950s and 1960s. Education for playing the instrument starts in schools and music institutes up to conservatories and the Sibelius Academy, the only music university in Finland and the site of significant doctoral research into traditional, western classical and electronic music. A Finnish luthiery, Koistinen Kantele, has also developed an electric kantele, employing pickups similar to those on electric guitars, which has gained popularity amongst Finnish heavy metal musicians such as Amorphis. American harpist Sylvan Grey has recorded two albums of Kantele music featuring her own compositions.
## Legendary history {#legendary_history}
In Finland\'s national epic, *Kalevala*, the mage Väinämöinen makes the first kantele from the jawbone of a giant pike and a few hairs from Hiisi\'s stallion (`{{audio|Vaka vanha Vainamoinen.ogg|sung excerpt|help=no}}`{=mediawiki}, excerpt lyrics). The music it makes draws all the forest creatures near to wonder at its beauty.
Later, after grieving at the loss of his kantele, Väinämöinen makes another one from birch, strung with the hair of a willing maiden, and its magic proves equally profound. It is the gift the eternal mage leaves behind when he departs Kaleva at the advent of Christianity.
<File:Helsinki-Folk-singer-statue-1750.JPG%7CRobert> Stigell\'s 1888 sculpture at Vanha Ylioppilastalo (Old Student House) in Helsinki depicts Väinämöinen with the first kantele, made of a giant pike\'s jawbone, as told in the *Kalevala* national epic.\]\] <File:Ilomantsi.vaakuna
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# Kyanite
**Kyanite** is a typically blue aluminosilicate mineral, found in aluminium-rich metamorphic pegmatites and sedimentary rock. It is the high pressure polymorph of andalusite and sillimanite, and the presence of kyanite in metamorphic rocks generally indicates metamorphism deep in the Earth\'s crust. Kyanite is also known as **disthene** or **cyanite**.
Kyanite is strongly anisotropic, in that its hardness varies depending on its crystallographic direction. In kyanite, this anisotropism can be considered an identifying characteristic, along with its characteristic blue color. Its name comes from the same origin as that of the color cyan, being derived from the Ancient Greek word κύανος. This is typically rendered into English as *kyanos* or *kuanos* and means \"dark blue.\"
Kyanite is used as a raw material in the manufacture of ceramics and abrasives, and it is an important index mineral used by geologists to trace metamorphic zones.
## Properties
Kyanite is an aluminum silicate mineral, with the chemical formula `{{chem2|Al2SiO5}}`{=mediawiki}. It is typically patchy blue in color, though it can range from pale to deep blue and can also be gray or white or, infrequently, light green. It typically forms sprays of bladed crystals, but is less commonly found as distinct euhedral (well-shaped) crystals, which are particularly prized by collectors. It has a perfect {100} cleavage plane, parallel to the long axis of the crystal, and a second good cleavage plane {010} that is at an angle of 79 degrees to the {100} cleavage plane. Kyanite also shows a parting on {001} at an angle of about 85 degrees to the long axis of the crystal. Cleavage surfaces typically display a pearly luster. The crystals are slightly flexible.
Kyanite\'s elongated, columnar crystals are usually a good first indication of the mineral, as well as its color (when the specimen is blue). Associated minerals are useful as well, especially the presence of the polymorphs of staurolite, which occurs frequently with kyanite. However, the most useful characteristic in identifying kyanite is its anisotropism. If one suspects a specimen to be kyanite, verifying that it has two distinctly different hardness values on perpendicular axes is a key to identification; it has a hardness of 5.5 parallel to {001} and 7 parallel to {100}. Thus, a steel needle will easily scratch a kyanite crystal parallel to its long axis, but the crystal is impervious to being scratched by a steel needle perpendicular to the long axis.
### Structure
The kyanite structure can be visualized as a distorted face centered cubic lattice of oxygen ions, with aluminium ions occupying 40% of the octahedral sites and silicon occupying 10% of the tetrahedral sites. The aluminium octahedra form chains along the length of the crystal, half of which are straight and half of which are zigzag, with silica tetrahedra linking the chains together. There is no direct linkage between the silica tetrahedra, making kyanite a member of the nesosilicate class of silicate minerals.
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# Kyanite
## Occurrence
Kyanite occurs in biotite gneiss, mica schist, and hornfels, which are metamorphic rocks formed at high pressure during regional metamorphism of a protolith which is rich in aluminium (a *pelitic* protolith). Kyanite is also occasionally found in granite and pegmatites and associated quartz veins, and is infrequently found in eclogites. It occurs as detrital grains in sedimentary rocks, although it tends to weather rapidly. It is associated with staurolite, andalusite, sillimanite, talc, hornblende, gedrite, mullite and corundum.
Kyanite is one of the most common minerals, having the composition `{{chem2|Al2SiO5}}`{=mediawiki}. Minerals with identical compositions but a different, distinct crystal structure are called *polymorphs*. There are two polymorphs of kyanite: andalusite and sillimanite. Kyanite is the most stable at high pressure, andalusite is the most stable at lower temperature and pressure, and sillimanite is the most stable at higher temperature and lower pressure. They are all equally stable at the triple point near 4.2 kbar and 530 C. This makes the presence of kyanite in a metamorphic rock an indication of metamorphism at high pressure.
Kyanite is often used as an index mineral to define and trace a metamorphic zone that was subject to a particular degree of metamorphism at great depth in the crust. For example, G. M. Barrow defined kyanite zones and sillimanite zones in his pioneering work on the mineralogy of metamorphic rocks. Barrow was characterizing a region of Scotland that had experienced regional metamorphism at depth. By contrast, the metamorphic zones surrounding the Fanad pluton of Ireland, which formed by contact metamorphism at a shallower depth in the crust, include andalusite and sillimanite zones but no kyanite zone.
Kyanite is potentially stable at low temperature and pressure. However, under these conditions, the reactions that produce kyanite, such as:
:
never take place, and hydrous aluminosilicate minerals such as muscovite, pyrophyllite, or kaolinite are found instead of kyanite.
Bladed crystals of kyanite are very common, but individual euhedral crystals are prized by collectors. Kyanite occurs in Manhattan schist, formed under extreme pressure as a result of a continental collision during the assembly of the supercontinent of Pangaea. It is also found in pegmatites of the Appalachian Mountains and in Minas Gerais, Brazil. Splendid specimens are found at Pizzo Forno in Switzerland.
Kyanite can take on an orange color, which notably occurs in Loliondo, Tanzania. The orange color is due to inclusions of small amounts of manganese (Mn^3+^) in the structure.
## Uses
thumb\|upright=0.5\|18K gold earrings with drop-shaped kyanites. Kyanite is used primarily in refractory and ceramic products, including porcelain plumbing and dishware. It is also used in electronics, electrical insulators and abrasives.
At temperatures above 1100 °C, kyanite decomposes into mullite and vitreous silica via the following reaction:
:
This transformation results in an expansion. Mullitized kyanite is used to manufacture refractory materials.
Kyanite has been used as a semiprecious gemstone, which may display cat\'s eye chatoyancy, though this effect is limited by its anisotropism and perfect cleavage. Color varieties include orange kyanite from Tanzania. The orange color is due to inclusions of small amounts of manganese (Mn^3+^) in the structure
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# Kalmia latifolia
***Kalmia latifolia***, the **mountain laurel**, **calico-bush**, or **spoonwood**, is a flowering plant and one of the 10 species in the genus of Kalmia belonging to the heath(er) family Ericaceae. It is native to the eastern United States. Its range stretches from southern Maine to northern Florida, and west to Indiana and Louisiana. Mountain laurel is the state flower of Connecticut and Pennsylvania. It is the namesake of Laurel County in Kentucky, the city of Laurel, Mississippi, and the Laurel Highlands in southwestern Pennsylvania.
## Description
*Kalmia latifolia* is an evergreen shrub growing 3-9 m tall. The leaves are 3--12 cm long and 1--4 cm wide. The flowers are pentagonal, ranging from light pink to white, and occur in clusters. There are several named cultivars that have darker shades of pink, red and maroon. It blooms in May and June. All parts of the plant are poisonous. The roots are fibrous and matted.
<File:Mountain> Laurel Kalmia latifolia \'Olympic Wedding\' Leaves and Buds 2575px.jpg\|*K. latifolia* leaves and early buds <File:Buberel> unknown flower 12.jpg\|Flower buds <File:Kalmia> latifolia species.jpg\|Beginning to bloom <File:Mountain> Loral Flowers.jpg\|Full bloom <File:Mountain> Laurel Kalmia latifolia \'Olympic Wedding\' Young Old Flowers 3264px.jpg\|Blooming and wilted flowers on the same flower head <File:Bee> on a mountain laurel on Occoneechee Mountain.jpg\|Bee pollinating mountain laurel on Occoneechee Mountain 2015-06-07-17h21m33 (31791324900).jpg\|*Kalmia latifolia* in North Smithfield, Rhode Island <File:Mountain> Laurel Fruiting body.png\|Mountain Laurel fruiting body
## Taxonomy
*Kalmia latifolia* was named and described by the renowned Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in 1753.`{{r|IPNI:279164-2}}`{=mediawiki} In his description, Linnaeus referred to an earlier description and illustration of *Chamaedaphne foliis* published by the English naturalist Mark Catesby in 1743. Catesby\'s illustration was designated as the lectotype of *Kalmia latifolia* `{{small|L.}}`{=mediawiki} in 1993.
## Distribution and habitat {#distribution_and_habitat}
The plant is naturally found on rocky slopes and mountainous forest areas. It thrives in acid soil, preferring a soil pH in the 4.5 to 5.5 range. The plant often grows in large thickets, covering great areas of forest floor. In the Appalachians, it can become a tree but is a shrub farther north. The species is a frequent component of oak-heath forests. In low, wet areas it grows densely, but in dry uplands has a more sparse form. In the southern Appalachians, laurel thickets are referred to as \"laurel hells\" because it is nearly impossible to pass through one.
## Ecology
*Kalmia latifolia* has been marked as a pollinator plant, supporting and attracting butterflies and hummingbirds.
It is also notable for its unusual method of dispensing its pollen. As the flower grows, the filaments of its stamens are bent and brought into tension. When an insect lands on the flower, the tension is released, catapulting the pollen forcefully onto the insect. Experiments have shown the flower capable of flinging its pollen up to 15 cm. Physicist Lyman J. Briggs became fascinated with this phenomenon in the 1950s after his retirement from the National Bureau of Standards and conducted a series of experiments in order to explain it.
## Etymology
*Kalmia latifolia* is also known as **ivybush** or **spoonwood** (because Native Americans used to make their spoons out of it).
The plant was first recorded in America in 1624, but it was named after the Finnish explorer and botanist Pehr Kalm (1716--1779), who sent samples to Linnaeus.
The Latin specific epithet *latifolia* means \"with broad leaves\" -- as opposed to its sister species *Kalmia angustifolia*, \"with narrow leaves\".
Despite the name \"mountain laurel\", *Kalmia latifolia* is not closely related to the true laurels of the family Lauraceae.
## Cultivation
The plant was originally brought to Europe as an ornamental plant during the 18th century. It is still widely grown for its attractive flowers and year-round evergreen leaves. Elliptic, alternate, leathery, glossy evergreen leaves (to 5\" long) are dark green above and yellow green beneath and reminiscent of the leaves of rhododendrons. All parts of this plant are toxic if ingested. Numerous cultivars have been selected with varying flower color. Many of the cultivars have originated from the Connecticut Experiment Station in Hamden and from the plant breeding of Dr. Richard Jaynes. Jaynes has numerous named varieties that he has created and is considered the world\'s authority on *Kalmia latifolia*.
In the UK the following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society\'s Award of Garden Merit:
- \'Freckles\' -- pale pink flowers, heavily spotted
- \'Little Linda\' -- dwarf cultivar to 1 m
- \'Olympic Fire\' -- red buds opening pale pink
- \'Pink Charm\'
<File:Kalmia> latifolia Clementine Churchill.jpg\|\'Clementine Churchill\' in the Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid <File:Kalmia> latifolia Little Linda 0zz.jpg\|\'Little Linda\' <File:Kalmia> latifolia \'Minuet\' kz01.jpg\|\'Minuet\' in Christchurch Botanic Gardens <File:Kalmia> latifolia \'Olympic Fire\' 6471.jpg\|\'Olympic Fire\' in the Dorothy Clive Garden, England <File:Kalmia> latifolia Pinwheel 1zz.jpg\|\'Pinwheel\' in Brookside Gardens, Maryland
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# Kalmia latifolia
## Wood
The wood of the mountain laurel is heavy and strong but brittle, with a close, straight grain. It has never been a viable commercial crop as it does not grow large enough, yet it is suitable for wreaths, furniture, bowls and other household items. It was used in the early 19th century in wooden-works clocks. Root burls were used for pipe bowls in place of imported briar burls unattainable during World War II. It can be used for handrails or guard rails.
## Toxicity
Mountain laurel is poisonous to several animals, including horses, goats, cattle, deer, monkeys, and humans, due to grayanotoxin and arbutin. The green parts of the plant, flowers, twigs, and pollen are all toxic, including food products made from them, such as toxic honey that may produce neurotoxic and gastrointestinal symptoms in humans eating more than a modest amount. Symptoms of toxicity begin to appear about 6 hours following ingestion. Symptoms include irregular or difficulty breathing, anorexia, repeated swallowing, profuse salivation, watering of the eyes and nose, cardiac distress, incoordination, depression, vomiting, frequent defecation, weakness, convulsions, paralysis, coma, and eventually death. Necropsy of animals who have died from spoonwood poisoning show gastrointestinal hemorrhage.
## Use by Native Americans {#use_by_native_americans}
The Cherokee use the plant as an analgesic, placing an infusion of leaves on scratches made over location of the pain. They also rub the bristly edges of ten to twelve leaves over the skin for rheumatism, crush the leaves to rub brier scratches, use an infusion as a wash \"to get rid of pests\", use a compound as a liniment, rub leaf ooze into the scratched skin of ball players to prevent cramps, and use a leaf salve for healing. They also use the wood for carving
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# Kenji Sahara
**Kenji Sahara** (佐原 健二 *Sahara Kenji*) (born 14 May 1932) is a Japanese actor. He was born in Kawasaki City, Kanagawa. His birth name is **Masayoshi Kato** (加藤 正好 *Katō Masayoshi*). Initially he used the name **Tadashi Ishihara** before changing it when he secured the lead role in *Rodan* (1956).
## Selected filmography {#selected_filmography}
Sahara did a lot of work for the Toho Company, the studio that so far has produced 28 *Godzilla* movies. He appeared in more of the *Godzilla* series than any other actor.
Also, he is the actor who was often relied on in most of the films by Directors Ishiro Honda and Eiji Tsuburaya.
He has appeared in many supporting roles.
Sahara is famous as a mainstay of Toho special-effects movies and the *Ultraman* series.
- *Farewell Rabaul* (1954)
- *Godzilla* (1954) -- as Young Lover on the Sound
- *Yuki No Koi* (1955) -- (credited as Tadashi Ishihara)
- *Seifuku No Otome Tachi* (1955) -- as Hideya Fujiwara (credited as Tadashi Ishihara)
- *Aoi Me* (1956) -- as Jirô Hayashi (credited as Tadashi Ishihara)
- *Street of Shame* (1956)
- *Godzilla, King of the Monsters!* (1956) -- as Man on Boat
- *Norihei No Daigaku* (1956) -- (credited as Tadashi Ishihara)
- *People of Tokyo, Goodbye* (1956) -- (credited as Tadashi Ishihara)
- *Rodan* (1956) -- as Shigeru Kawamura (credited as Kenji Sawara)
- *Yoru no kamome* (1957)
- *Meshiro Sanpei monogatari* (1957) -- as Otsuka
- *Zoku Sazae-san* (1957)
- *Hikage no musume* (1957)
- *Daigaku no samurai tachi* (1957) -- as Yamada
- *The Mysterians* (1957) -- as Joji Atsumi
- *Song for a Bride* (1958)
- *The Badger Palace* (1958)
- *Kiuchi yasuto* (1958)
- *Anzukko* (1958)
- *The H-Man* (1958) -- as Dr. Masada
- *The Young Beast* (1958)
- *Zokuzoku salaryman shussetai koki* (1958)
- *Josei S.O.S.* (1958)
- *Otona niwa wakaranai: Seishun hakusho* (1958)
- *Salaryman jikkai* (1959)
- *Onna gokoro* (1959)
- *Gokigen musume* (1959)
- *Mothra* (1961) as Helicopter Pilot
- *Gorath* (1962) as Saiki, Vice Captain of Ôtori
- *King Kong vs. Godzilla* (1962) as Kazuo Fujita
- *Matango* (1963) as Senzō Koyama
- *Atragon* (1963) as Umino, Journalist/Mu Agent
- *Mothra vs. Godzilla* (1964) as Jiro Torahata, a corrupt business tycoon
- *Ghidorah, the Three-Headed Monster* (1964)
- *Frankenstein Conquers the World* (1965) as a Soldier
- *None but the Brave* (1965) as Cpl. Fujimoto
- *War of the Gargantuas* (1966) as Dr. Yuzo Majida
- *Son of Godzilla* (1967) as Morio
- *Destroy All Monsters* (1968) as Nishikawa, Moon Base Commander
- *All Monsters Attack* (1969) as Kenichi Mitsuki
- *Space Amoeba* (1970) as Makoto Obata
- *Kage Gari Hoero Taihō* (1972)
- *Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla* (1974) as Ship Captain
- *Karafuto 1945 Summer Hyosetsu no mon* (1974) as Toshikazu Okaya
- *Terror of Mechagodzilla* (1975) as General Segawa
- *Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah* (1991) as Minister Takayuki Segawa
- *Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla II* (1993) as Minister Takayuki Segawa
- *Godzilla vs. SpaceGodzilla* (1994) as Minister Takayuki Segawa
- *Hitman* (1998) as Tsukamoto, a sleazy and notorious ex-yakuza boss who is assassinated by the King of Killers at the beginning of the film
- *Godzilla: Final Wars* (2004) as Hachiro Jinguji
Sahara was also the lead in the first of the *Ultra* series, Ultra Q. He also appeared in a number of subsequent *Ultra* series, including:
- *Ultra Q* (1966)- as Jun Manjoume
- *Ultra Seven* (1967--1968) - as Takenaka Jinguji
- *Return of Ultraman* (1971--1972) - as Takenaka Jinguji
- *Ultraman 80* (1980--1981) - as Dr. Jono
- *Ultraman Nexus* (2004--2005) - as Togo
- *Ultraman Mebius* (2006--2007) - as Takenaka Jinguji
His latest Ultraman appearance was in the 2008 Ultraman movie, *Superior Ultraman 8 Brothers*. He also made a cameo in episodes 47 and 48 of *Sonic X*, being the voice of Dr. Atsumi
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# Kotoamatsukami
In Shinto, `{{Nihongo||別天津神|'''Kotoamatsukami'''|extra=literally "distinguishing heavenly ''[[kami]]''"}}`{=mediawiki} is the collective name for the first gods which came into existence at the time of the creation of the universe. They were born in Takamagahara, the world of Heaven at the time of the creation. Unlike the later gods, these deities were born without any procreation.
The three deities that first appeared were:
- \- Central Master
- \- High Creator
- \- Divine Creator
A bit later, two more deities came into existence:
- - Energy
- (天之常立神) - Heaven
The next generation of gods that followed was the Kamiyonanayo, which included Izanagi-no-Mikoto and Izanami-no-Mikoto, the patriarch and matriarch of all other Japanese gods, respectively. Afterward, the Kotoamatsukami \"hides away\" as *hitorigami*.
Though the Zōkasanshin (three deity of creation) are thought to be genderless, another theory stated Kamimusuhi was the woman and Takamimusubi the man, comparing them with water and fire or with yin and yang.
The theologian Hirata Atsutane identified Amenominakanushi as the spirit of the North Star, master of the seven stars of the Big Dipper.
Strangely, Takamimusubi later reappeared together with Amaterasu as one of the central gods in Takamagahara, and his daughter was the mother of the god Ninigi-no-Mikoto. He also played important roles in the events of the founding of Japan, such as selecting the gods who would tag along with Ninigi and sending the Yatagarasu, the three legged solar crow, to help Emperor Jimmu, who in turn, greatly worshipped him by playing the role of medium priest taking Takami Musubi\'s identity, in the ceremonies before his Imperial Enthronement. Later, Takamimusubi was worshipped by the Jingi-kan and considered the god of matchmaking. Some Japanese clans also claimed descent from this god, such as the Saeki clan, he is also an Imperial ancestor.
As for Kamimusuhi, he (or she) has strong ties with both the Amatsukami (heavenly gods) and the Kunitsukami (earthly gods) of Izumo mythology. Kamimusuhi is also said to have transformed the grains produced by the food goddess Ōgetsuhime (Ukemochi no kami) after she was slain by Amaterasu\'s angered brother
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# Karel Hynek Mácha
**Karel Hynek Mácha** (`{{IPA|cs|ˈkarɛl ˈɦɪnɛk ˈmaːxa}}`{=mediawiki}) (16 November 1810 -- 5 November 1836) was a Czech romantic poet. His poem *Máj* is among the most important poems in the history of Czech literature.
## Biography
Mácha was born on 16 November 1810 in Prague. He grew up in Prague, the son of a foreman at a mill. He learned Latin and German in school. He went on to study law at Prague University; during that time he also became involved in theatre (as an actor he first appeared in Jan Nepomuk Štěpánek\'s play *Czech and German* in July 1832 in Benešov), where he met Eleonora Šomková, with whom he had a son out of wedlock. He was fond of travel, enjoying trips into the mountains, and was an avid walker. Eventually he moved to Litoměřice, a quiet town some 60 km from Prague, to prepare for law school exams and to write poetry. Three days before he was to be married to Šomková, just a few weeks after he had begun working as a legal assistant, Mácha overexerted himself while helping to extinguish a fire and soon thereafter died. It is not certain what he died of. Some sources state that the cause of his death was pneumonia. The official record lists Mácha\'s cause of death as *Brechdurchfall*, a milder form of cholera characterized by retching and diarrhea. The day after his death had been scheduled as his wedding day in Prague.
Mácha was buried in Litoměřice in a pauper\'s grave. Recognition came after his death: in 1939, his remains were exhumed, and they were given a formal state burial at the Vyšehrad Cemetery in Prague.
## Honours and legacy {#honours_and_legacy}
A statue was erected in his honor in Petřín Park, Prague. In 1937 a biographical film, *Karel Hynek Mácha*, was made by Zet Molas. Lake Mácha (*Máchovo jezero*) was named after him in 1961.
Mácha was honored on a 50 haléř and a 1 koruna stamp on 30 April 1936, Scott Catalog #213--214. The stamp depicts a statue of Mácha that is found in Prague and was issued by the postal agency of Czechoslovakia. He was again honored on a 43 koruna postage stamp issued by the postal agency of the Czech Republic on 10 March 2010. This 43 koruna postage stamp is presented on a miniature souvenir sheet. The Scott catalog number for this postage stamp honoring Macha is Scott #3446.
Karel Mácha was appointed patron saint of the youth collective \"De Barries\" in 2019.
## Works
His lyrical epic poem *Máj* (*May*), published in 1836 shortly before his death, was judged by his contemporaries as confusing, too individualistic, and not in harmony with the national ideas. Czech playwright Josef Kajetán Tyl even wrote a parody of Mácha\'s style, \"Rozervanec\" (The Chaotic). \"Máj\" was rejected by publishers, and was published by a vanity press at Mácha\'s own expense, not long before his early death. Josef Bohuslav Foerster set May for choir and orchestra as his Op.159.
Mácha\'s genius was discovered and glorified much later by the poets and novelists of the 1850s (e.g., Jan Neruda, Vítězslav Hálek, and Karolina Světlá) and \"Máj\" is now regarded as the classic work of Czech Romanticism and is considered one of the best Czech poems ever written. It contains forebodings of many of the tendencies of 20th-century literature: existentialism, alienation, isolation, surrealism, and so on.
Mácha also authored a collection of autobiographical sketches titled *Pictures From My Life*, the 1835--36 novel *Cikáni* (Gypsies), and several individual poems, as well as a journal in which, among other things, he detailed his sexual encounters with Šomková. The *Diary of Travel to Italy* describes his journey to Venice, Trieste, and Ljubljana (where he met the Slovene national poet France Prešeren) in 1834. The *Secret Diary* describes his daily life in autumn 1835 with cipher passages concerning his relationship with Eleonora Šomková
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# Kirlian photography
**Kirlian photography** is a collection of photographic techniques used to capture the phenomenon of electrical coronal discharges. It is named after Soviet scientist Semyon Kirlian, who, in 1939, accidentally discovered that if an object on a photographic plate is connected to a high-voltage source, an image is produced on the photographic plate. The technique has been variously known as \"electrography\", \"electrophotography\", \"corona discharge photography\" (CDP), \"bioelectrography\", \"gas discharge visualization (GDV)\", \"electrophotonic imaging (EPI)\", and, in Russian literature, \"Kirlianography\".
Kirlian photography has been the subject of scientific research, parapsychology research, and art. Paranormal claims have been made about Kirlian photography, but these claims are rejected by the scientific community. To a large extent, it has been used in alternative medicine research.
## History
In 1889, Czech `{{interlanguage link|Bartoloměj Navrátil|cs}}`{=mediawiki} coined the word \"electrography\". Seven years later in 1896, a French experimenter, Hippolyte Baraduc, created electrographs of hands and leaves.
In 1898, Polish-Belarusian engineer Jakub Jodko-Narkiewicz demonstrated electrography at the fifth exhibition of the Russian Technical Society. In 1939, two Czechs, S. Pratt and J. Schlemmer, published photographs showing a glow around leaves. The same year, Russian electrical engineer Semyon Kirlian and his wife Valentina developed Kirlian photography after observing a patient in Krasnodar Hospital who was receiving medical treatment from a high-frequency electrical generator. They had noticed that when the electrodes were brought near the patient\'s skin, there was a glow similar to that of a neon discharge tube.
The Kirlians conducted experiments in which photographic film was placed on top of a conducting plate, and another conductor was attached to a hand, a leaf or other plant material. The conductors were energized by a high-frequency high-voltage power source, producing photographic images typically showing a silhouette of the object surrounded by an aura of light.
In 1958, the Kirlians reported the results of their experiments for the first time. Their work was virtually unknown until 1970, when two Americans, Lynn Schroeder and Sheila Ostrander, published a book, *Psychic Discoveries Behind the Iron Curtain*. High-voltage electrophotography soon became known to the general public as Kirlian photography. Although little interest was generated among western scientists, Russians held a conference on the subject in 1972 at Kazakh State University.
Kirlian photography was used in the former Eastern Bloc in the 1970s. The corona discharge glow at the surface of an object subjected to a high-voltage electrical field was referred to as a \"Kirlian aura\" in Russia and Eastern Europe. In 1975, soviet scientist Victor Adamenko wrote a dissertation titled *Research of the structure of High-frequency electric discharge (Kirlian effect) images*. Scientific study of what the researchers called the Kirlian effect was conducted by Victor Inyushin at Kazakh State University.
Early in the 1970s, Thelma Moss and Kendall Johnson at the Center for Health Sciences at the UCLA conducted extensive research into Kirlian photography. Moss led an independent and unsupported parapsychology laboratory that was shut down by the university in 1979.
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# Kirlian photography
## Overview
Kirlian photography is a technique for creating contact print photographs using high voltage. The process entails placing sheet photographic film on top of a metal discharge plate. The object to be photographed is then placed directly on top of the film. High voltage current is momentarily applied to the object, thus creating an exposure. The corona discharge between the object and the plate due to high-voltage is captured by the film. The developed film results in a Kirlian photograph of the object.
Color photographic film is calibrated to produce faithful colors when exposed to normal light. Corona discharges can interact with minute variations in the different layers of dye used in the film, resulting in a wide variety of colors depending on the local intensity of the discharge. Film and digital imaging techniques also record light produced by photons emitted during corona discharge (see Mechanism of corona discharge).
Photographs of inanimate objects such as a coins, keys and leaves can be made more effectively by grounding the object to the earth, a cold water pipe or to the opposite (polarity) side of the high-voltage source. Grounding the object creates a stronger corona discharge.
Kirlian photography does not require the use of a camera or a lens because it is a contact print process. It is possible to use a transparent electrode in place of the high-voltage discharge plate, for capturing the resulting corona discharge with a standard photo or video camera.
Visual artists such as Robert Buelteman, Ted Hiebert, and Dick Lane have used Kirlian photography to produce artistic images of a variety of subjects.
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# Kirlian photography
## Research
Kirlian photography has been a subject of scientific research, parapsychology research and pseudoscientific claims.
### Scientific research {#scientific_research}
Results of scientific experiments published in 1976 involving Kirlian photography of living tissue (human finger tips) showed that most of the variations in corona discharge streamer length, density, curvature, and color can be accounted for by the moisture content on the surface of and within the living tissue. Konstantin Korotkov developed a technique similar to Kirlian photography called \"gas discharge visualization\" (GDV). Korotkov\'s GDV camera system consists of hardware and software to directly record, process and interpret GDV images with a computer. Korotkov promotes the device and research in a medical context. Izabela Ciesielska at the Institute of Architecture of Textiles in Poland used Korotkov\'s GDV camera to evaluate the effects of human contact with various textiles on biological factors such as heart rate and blood pressure, as well as corona discharge images. The experiments captured corona discharge images of subjects\' fingertips while the subjects wore sleeves of various natural and synthetic materials on their forearms. The results failed to establish a relationship between human contact with the textiles and the corona discharge images and were considered inconclusive.
### Parapsychology research {#parapsychology_research}
In 1968, Thelma Moss, a psychology professor, headed University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)\'s Neuropsychiatric Institute (NPI), which was later renamed the Semel Institute. The NPI had a laboratory dedicated to parapsychology research and staffed mostly with volunteers. The lab was unfunded, unsanctioned and eventually shut down by the university. Toward the end of her tenure at UCLA, Moss became interested in Kirlian photography, a technique that supposedly measured the \"auras\" of a living being. According to Kerry Gaynor, one of her former research assistants, \"many felt Kirlian photography\'s effects were just a natural occurrence.\"
Paranormal claims of Kirlian photography have not been observed or replicated in experiments by the scientific community. The physiologist Gordon Stein has written that Kirlian photography is a hoax that has \"nothing to do with health, vitality, or mood of a subject photographed.\"
### Claims
Kirlian believed that images created by Kirlian photography might depict a conjectural energy field, or aura, thought, by some, to surround living things. Kirlian and his wife were convinced that their images showed a life force or energy field that reflected the physical and emotional states of their living subjects. They thought that these images could be used to diagnose illnesses. In 1961, they published their first article on the subject in the Russian *Journal of Scientific and Applied Photography*. Kirlian\'s claims were embraced by energy treatments practitioners.
#### Torn leaf experiment {#torn_leaf_experiment}
A typical demonstration used as evidence for the existence of these energy fields involved taking Kirlian photographs of a picked leaf at set intervals. The gradual withering of the leaf was thought to correspond with a decline in the strength of the aura. In some experiments, if a section of a leaf was torn away after the first photograph, a faint image of the missing section sometimes remains when a second photograph was taken. However, if the imaging surface is cleaned of contaminants and residual moisture before the second image is taken, then no image of the missing section will appear.
The living aura theory is at least partially repudiated by demonstrating that leaf moisture content has a pronounced effect on the electric discharge coronas; more moisture creates larger corona discharges. As the leaf dehydrates, the coronas will naturally decrease in variability and intensity. As a result, the changing water content of the leaf can affect the so-called Kirlian aura. Kirlian\'s experiments did not provide evidence for an energy field other than the electric fields produced by chemical processes and the streaming process of coronal discharges.
The coronal discharges identified as Kirlian auras are the result of stochastic electric ionization processes and are greatly affected by many factors, including the voltage and frequency of the stimulus, the pressure with which a person or object touches the imaging surface, the local humidity around the object being imaged, how well grounded the person or object is, and other local factors affecting the conductivity of the person or object being imaged. Oils, sweat, bacteria, and other ionizing contaminants found on living tissues can also affect the resulting images.
#### Qi
Scientists such as Beverly Rubik have explored the idea of a human biofield using Kirlian photography research, attempting to explain the Chinese discipline of Qigong. Qigong teaches that there is a vitalistic energy called qi (or chi) that permeates all living things.
Rubik\'s experiments relied on Konstantin Korotkov\'s GDV device to produce images, which were thought to visualize these qi biofields in chronically ill patients. Rubik acknowledges that the small sample size in her experiments \"was too small to permit a meaningful statistical analysis\". Claims that these energies can be captured by special photographic equipment are criticized by skeptics.
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# Kirlian photography
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
Kirlian photography has appeared as a fictional element in numerous books, films, television series, and media productions, including the 1975 film *The Kirlian Force*, re-released under the more sensational title *Psychic Killer*. Kirlian photographs have been used as visual components in various media, such as the sleeve of George Harrison\'s 1973 album *Living in the Material World*, which features Kirlian photographs of his hand holding a Hindu medallion on the front sleeve and American coins on the back, shot at Thelma Moss\'s UCLA parapsychology laboratory.
The artwork of David Bowie\'s 1997 album *Earthling* has reproductions of Kirlian photographs taken by Bowie. The photographs, which show a crucifix Bowie wore around his neck and the imprint of his \"forefinger\" tip, date to April 1975 when Bowie was living in Los Angeles and fascinated with the paranormal. The photographs were taken before consuming cocaine and 30 minutes afterwards. The after photograph apparently shows a substantial increase in the \"aura\" around the crucifix and forefinger.
The *Cluster* novels by science fiction author Piers Anthony uses the concept of the Kirlian Aura as a way to transfer a person\'s personality into another body, even an alien body, across light years. The book *The Anarchistic Colossus* (1977) by A. E. van Vogt involves an anarchistic society controlled by 'Kirlian computers'.
The opening credits during the first seven seasons of the television series *The X-Files* shows a Kirlian image of a left human hand. The image appears as the 11th clip in the introductory video montage and is formed by a bluish coronal discharge as the primary outline, with only the proximal phalange of the index finger shown cryptically in red. A human silhouette, in white, seemingly falls towards the hand.
The Italian electronic darkwave band Kirlian Camera was named after the device used for Kirlian photography.
British industrial band Cabaret Voltaire\'s first album Mix-Up features a track called Kirlian Photograph
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# Kalsilite
**Kalsilite** (KAlSiO~4~) is a vitreous white to grey feldspathoidal mineral that is found in some potassium-rich lavas, such as from Chamengo Crater in Uganda. It has a relative hardness of 5.5
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# K. W. Jeter
**Kevin Wayne Jeter** (born March 26, 1950) is an American science fiction and horror author known for his literary writing style, dark themes, and paranoid, unsympathetic characters. He has written novels set in the *Star Trek* and *Star Wars* universes, and has written three sequels to *Blade Runner*. Jeter coined the term \"steampunks\".
## Biography
He went to Buena Park High School. Jeter attended college at California State University, Fullerton where he became friends with James P. Blaylock and Tim Powers, and through them, Philip K. Dick. Jeter was actually the inspiration for \"Kevin\" in Dick\'s semi-autobiographical novel, *Valis*. Many of Jeter\'s books focus on the subjective nature of reality in a way reminiscent of Dick\'s.
Philip K. Dick enthusiastically recommended Jeter\'s early cyberpunk novel, *Dr. Adder*. Due to its violent and sexually provocative content, it took Jeter around ten years to find a publisher for it. Jeter would also coin the term steampunk, in reference to cyberpunk in a letter to *Locus* in April 1987, in order to describe the steam-technology, alternate-history works that he published along with his friends, Blaylock and Powers. Jeter\'s steampunk novels are *Morlock Night*, *Infernal Devices*, and its sequels *Fiendish Schemes* (2013) and *Grim Expectations* (2017).
As well as his own original novels, K. W. Jeter has written three authorized novel sequels to the critically acclaimed 1982 motion picture *Blade Runner*, which was adapted from Philip K
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# Kay Redfield Jamison
**Kay Redfield Jamison** (born June 22, 1946) is an American clinical psychologist and writer. Her work has centered on bipolar disorder, which she has had since her early adulthood. She holds the post of the Dalio Professor in Mood Disorders and Psychiatry at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine and is an Honorary Professor of English at the University of St Andrews.
## Education and career {#education_and_career}
Jamison began her study of clinical psychology at University of California, Los Angeles in the late 1960s, receiving both B.A. and M.A. degrees in 1971. She continued on at UCLA, receiving a C.Phil. in 1973 and a PhD in 1975, and became a faculty member at the university. She went on to found and direct the school\'s Affective Disorders Clinic, a large teaching and research facility for outpatient treatment. She also studied zoology and neurophysiology as an undergraduate at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland.
After several years as a tenured professor at UCLA, Jamison was offered a position as Assistant Professor and then Professor of Psychiatry at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. Jamison has given visiting lectures at a number of different institutions while maintaining her professorship at Hopkins. She was distinguished lecturer at Harvard University in 2002 and the Litchfield lecturer at the University of Oxford in 2003. She was Honorary President and board member of the Canadian Psychological Association from 2009 to 2010. In 2010, she was a panelist in the series of discussions on the latest research into the brain, hosted by Charlie Rose with series scientist Eric Kandel on PBS.
## Awards and recognition {#awards_and_recognition}
Jamison has won numerous awards and published over 100 academic articles. She has been named one of the \"Best Doctors in the United States\" and was chosen by *Time* as a \"Hero of Medicine.\" She was also chosen as one of the five individuals for the public television series *Great Minds of Medicine*. Jamison is the recipient of the National Mental Health Association\'s William Styron Award (1995), the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention Research Award (1996), the Community Mental Health Leadership Award (1999), and was a 2001 MacArthur Fellowship recipient. In 2010, Jamison was conferred with an Honorary Degree of Doctor of Letters from the University of St Andrews in recognition of all her life\'s work. In May 2011, The General Theological Seminary of the Episcopal Church, New York, made her a Doctor of Divinity *honoris causa* at its annual Commencement. In 2017 Jamison was elected a Corresponding Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (CorrFRSE).
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# Kay Redfield Jamison
## Academic contributions {#academic_contributions}
Her latest book, *Robert Lowell: Setting the River on Fire*, was a Pulitzer Prize Finalist for Biography in 2018.
Her book *Manic-Depressive Illness*, first published in 1990 and co-authored with psychiatrist Frederick K. Goodwin is considered a classic textbook on bipolar disorder. The Acknowledgements section states that Goodwin \"received unrestricted educational grants to support the production of this book from Abbott, AstraZeneca, Bristol Meyers Squibb, Forest, GlaxoSmithKline, Janssen, Eli Lilly, Pfizer, and Sanofi\", but that although Jamison has \"received occasional lecture honoraria from AstraZeneca, GlaxoSmithKline, and Eli Lilly\" she \"has received no research support from any pharmaceutical or biotechnology company\" and donates her royalties to a non-profit foundation.
Her seminal works among laypeople are her memoir *An Unquiet Mind*, which details her experience with severe mania and depression, and *Night Falls Fast: Understanding Suicide*, providing historical, religious, and cultural responses to suicide, as well as the relationship between mental illness and suicide. In *Night Falls Fast*, Jamison dedicates a chapter to American public policy and public opinion as it relates to suicide. Her second memoir, *Nothing Was the Same*, examines her relationship with her second husband, the psychiatrist Richard Jed Wyatt, who was Chief of the Neuropsychiatry Branch of the National Institute of Mental Health until his death in 2002.
In her study *Exuberance: The Passion for Life*, she cites research that suggests that 15 percent of people who could be diagnosed as bipolar may never actually become depressed; in effect, they are permanently \"high\" on life. She mentions President Theodore Roosevelt as an example.
*Touched with Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament* is Jamison\'s exploration of how bipolar disorder can run in artistic or high-achieving families. As an example, she cites Lord Byron and his relatives.
Jamison wrote *An Unquiet Mind: A Memoir of Moods and Madness* in part to help clinicians see what patients find helpful in therapy. J. Wesley Boyd, an assistant professor at the Department of Psychiatry at Tufts University\'s School of Medicine, wrote, \"Jamison\'s description \[of the debt she owed her psychiatrist\] illustrates the importance of merely being present for our patients and not trying to soothe them with platitudes or promises of a better future.\"
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# Kay Redfield Jamison
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Jamison has said she is an \"exuberant\" person who longs for peace and tranquility but in the end prefers \"tumultuousness coupled to iron discipline\" to a \"stunningly boring life.\" In *An Unquiet Mind*, she concluded:
> I long ago abandoned the notion of a life without storms, or a world without dry and killing seasons. Life is too complicated, too constantly changing, to be anything but what it is. And I am, by nature, too mercurial to be anything but deeply wary of the grave unnaturalness involved in any attempt to exert too much control over essentially uncontrollable forces. There will always be propelling, disturbing elements, and they will be there until, as Lowell put it, the watch is taken from the wrist. It is, at the end of the day, the individual moments of restlessness, of bleakness, of strong persuasions and maddened enthusiasms, that inform one\'s life, change the nature and direction of one\'s work, and give final meaning and color to one\'s loves and friendships.
Jamison was born to Dr. Marshall Verdine Jamison (1916--2012), an officer in the U.S. Air Force, and Mary Dell Temple Jamison (1916--2007). Jamison\'s father, and many others in his family, had bipolar disorder.
As a result of Jamison\'s military background, she grew up in many different places, including Florida, Puerto Rico, California, Tokyo, and Washington, D.C. She has two older siblings, a brother and a sister, who are three years and half a year older, respectively. Her niece is writer Leslie Jamison. Jamison\'s interest in science and medicine began at a young age and was fostered by her parents. She worked as a candy striper at the hospital on Andrews Air Force Base.
Jamison moved to California during adolescence, and soon thereafter began to struggle with bipolar disorder. She continued to struggle in college at UCLA. At first she wanted to become a doctor, but because of increasing occurring manic episodes, she decided she could not maintain the rigorous discipline needed for medical school. Jamison then found her calling in psychology. Here she flourished and was extremely interested in mood disorders. Despite her studies, Jamison did not realize that she was bipolar until three months into her first job as a professor in UCLA\'s Department of Psychology. After her diagnosis, she was put on lithium, a drug that has commonly been used to regulate and moderate moods. At times, she would refuse the medication because it impaired her motor skills, but after a greater depression she decided to continue to take it. Jamison once attempted suicide by overdosing on lithium during a severe depressive episode.
Jamison is an Episcopalian, and she was married to her first husband, Alain André Moreau, an artist, during her graduate school years. She later married Dr. Richard Wyatt in 1994; and they remained married until his death in 2002. Wyatt was a psychiatrist who studied schizophrenia at the National Institutes of Health. Their romance is detailed in her memoir *Nothing Was the Same*.
In 2010, Jamison married Thomas Traill, a cardiology professor at Johns Hopkins
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# Keykode
**Keykode** (also written as either **KeyKode** or **KeyCode**) is an Eastman Kodak Company advancement on edge numbers, which are letters, numbers and symbols placed at regular intervals along the edge of 35 mm and 16 mm film to allow for frame-by-frame specific identification. It was introduced in 1990.
Keykode is a variation of timecode used in the post-production process which is designed to uniquely identify film frames in a film stock.
## Edge numbers {#edge_numbers}
Edge numbers (also called key numbers or footage numbers) are a series of numbers with key lettering printed along the edge of a 35 mm negative at intervals of one foot (16 frames or 64 perforations) and on a 16 mm negative at intervals of six inches (twenty frames). The numbers are placed on the negative at the time of manufacturing by one of two methods:
: *Latent image* exposes the edge of the film while it passes through the perforation machine. This method is primarily used for color negative films.
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: *Visible ink* is sometimes used to imprint on the edge of the film -- again in manufacturing -- at the time of perforations. The ink, which is not affected by photographic chemicals, is normally printed onto the base surface of the film. The numbers are visible on both the raw stock (unexposed) and processed (exposed and developed) film. This method is primarily used for black & white negative film.
The edge numbers serve a number of purposes. Every key frame is numbered with a multi-digit identifier that may be referred to later. In addition, a date of manufacturing is imprinted, then the type of emulsion and the batch number. This information is transferred from the negative (visible once developed) to the positive prints. The print may be edited and handled while the original negative remains safely untouched. When the film editing is complete, the edge numbers on the final cut film correspond back to their identical frames on the original negative so that a conform edit can be made of the original negative to match the work print.
Laboratories can also imprint their own edge numbers on the processed film negative or print to identify the film for their own means. This is normally done in yellow ink. A common workflow for film editing involves edge-coding printed film simultaneously with the film\'s synchronized audio track, on 35mm magnetic film, so that a foot of film and its synchronized audio have identical edge numbers.
Eastman Kodak began using latent image edge numbering on their manufactured 35mm raw film stocks in 1919.
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# Keykode
## Keykode
With the popularity of telecine transfers and video edits, Kodak invented a machine readable edge number that could be recorded via computer, read by the editing computer and automatically produce a \"cut list\" from the video edit of the film.
To do this, Kodak utilized the USS-128 barcode alongside the human-readable edge numbers. They also improved the quality and readability of the human-readable information to make it easier to identify. The Keykode consists of 12 characters in human-readable form followed by the same information in barcode form. Keykode is a form of metadata identifier for film negatives.
### Keykode deciphered {#keykode_deciphered}
An example Keykode:
**KU 22 9611 1802+02.3**
- The first two letters in the Keykode are the manufacturer code (`E` and `K` both stand for Kodak, `F` stands for Fuji, etc.) and the stock identifier, respectively (in this case Kodak\'s `U` standing for 5279 emulsion); each manufacturer has different stocks\' naming convention for their emulsion codes.
- The next six numbers in the Keykode (usually split in 2+4 digits) are the identification number for that roll of film. On Kodak film stocks, it remains consistent for the entire roll. Fuji Stocks will increment this number when the frame number advances past \"9999\".
- Computers read the (optional) frame offset (marked every four perforations on actual film by a single \"-\" dash) by adding digits to the Keykode after the plus sign. In this case, a frame offset of two frames (with respect to the film foot) is specified. The number of frames within a film foot depends on both the film width and the frame pulldown itself, and can also be *uneven* within the same roll, but rather repeat periodically (like in the 35mm 3perf. pulldown).
- The last (optional), dot-separated number is the perforation offset which, if preceded by a frame offset like in the above example, is a bias *within* the just-specified frame; otherwise (as interpreted by most DI software) this considered to be an offset within the whole film foot.
**EASTMAN 5279 167 3301 122 KD**
- These numbers are consistent for a whole batch of film and may not change in many rolls. EASTMAN is the film manufacturer, 5279 is the stock type identifier. The next three numbers (167) is the emulsion batch number. The next series of four digits (3301) is the roll and part code, followed by the printer identification number that made the Keykode (122) and finally a two letter date designation (KD). In this case, KD=1997
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# Knout
A **knout** `{{IPAc-en|ˈ|n|aʊ|t}}`{=mediawiki} (*кнут*, `{{IPA|ru|knut}}`{=mediawiki}) is a Russian whip that consists of a rawhide thong or a rope attached to a long wooden handle. Commonly used for prodding horses or cattle, knouts were also used for flagellation as a corporal punishment in Russian history. The English word is a spelling-pronunciation of a French transliteration of the Russian word кнут (*knut*), which means \"whip\".
## Etymology
The word may be derived from the Swedish *knutpiska*, a kind of whip with *knots*. The stem *knut* is of generic Germanic origin; compare with the German *Knute*, Dutch *knoet* (both meaning knout) and with Old Norse *knutr*, Anglo-Saxon *cnotta* and English *knot*.
## For corporal punishment {#for_corporal_punishment}
According to *Brockhaus and Efron*, a typical knout used by Russian executioners consisted of a wooden handle about half *arshin* (35 cm) to which attached was a thick braided rawhide piece, one *arshin* (70 cm) long. The latter piece ended in a metal ring, to which was attached a wide rawhide belt made as long, also of one *arshin* length with a stiffened beak-like end.
Knouts were used in Russia for flogging as formal corporal punishment of criminals and political offenders. The victim was tied to a post or on a triangle of wood and stripped, receiving the specified number of strokes on the back. A sentence of 100 or 120 lashes was equivalent to a death sentence.`{{pn|date=February 2025}}`{=mediawiki}
Emperor Nicholas I abolished punishment by knout in 1845, after years of deliberation, and replaced it with the *pleti*, a lighter whip, commonly with three tails, which was used previously for punishment as well
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# Khornerstone
In computer performance testing, **Khornerstone** is a multipurpose benchmark from Workstation Labs used in various periodicals such as *UNIX Review*.
The benchmark consists of 22 separate tests, including public domain components (such as Sieve and Dhrystone) as well as proprietary components. Since it contains proprietary components, the source is not free. The results of the 22 tests are normalized, producing a result measured in \"Khornerstones\".
The benchmark was introduced in 1986 and was commonly used until the mid-1990s
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# Kesgrave
**Kesgrave** is a town and civil parish in the East Suffolk district of Suffolk, England. The town is close to both Ipswich and Woodbridge. Kesgrave forms part of the wider Ipswich Built-up area.
## History
The area was recorded as *Gressgrava* in the Domesday Book, by the late 15th century its name had become Kesgrave. Kesgrave remained a small agricultural settlement with just a church, inn and a few farmsteads for over 700 years. In 1921 the population was only 103 housed in 20 dwellings. Since then great changes have taken place.`{{vague|date=December 2022}}`{=mediawiki}
By 1988 Kesgrave covered an area of more than 800 acre. Kesgrave parish council officially adopted the title of a town in January 2000.
## Schools
Kesgrave High School is a large 11-18 comprehensive co-educational school with nearly 2000 pupils. A study for Sustrans noted that 61% of the pupils cycled to the school. This is largely due to the installation of a large cycle lane through the local housing development and along the main road. The school actively encourages walking or cycling and provides bicycle storage facilities.
The five primary schools in the immediate vicinity of Kesgrave are Beacon Hill Primary School, Birchwood Primary School, Cedarwood Primary School the building of which was awarded a Civic Trust Award in 2003, Gorseland Primary School and Heath Primary School.
Kesgrave was home to a number of private day and boarding schools based at Kesgrave Hall
- St. Edmund\'s School (1946--1975)
- Kesgrave Hall School (1976--1993)
- Shawe Manor (1993)
- Ryes School (2004--2007)
## Gallery
<File:Computer> Commemoration - geograph.org.uk - 1446830.jpg\| Computer commemoration monument <File:A1214> Main Road in Kesgrave - geograph.org.uk - 2544629.jpg\|Main road in Kesgrave <File:Kesgrave> All Saints - geograph.org.uk - 2102318.jpg\|Kesgrave All Saints <File:Kesgrave> Social Club - geograph.org.uk - 1141231.jpg\|Kesgrave Social Club <File:Kesgrave> guided busway.JPG\|Guided busway <File:Double> Signs - geograph.org.uk - 1155564.jpg\|Kesgrave traffic sign
## Notable residents {#notable_residents}
- Lawrence Ward, former Serjeant at Arms of the British House of Commons
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# AMD K6
The **K6** microprocessor was launched by AMD in 1997. The main advantage of this particular microprocessor is that it was designed to fit into existing desktop designs for Pentium-branded CPUs. It was marketed as a product that could perform as well as its Intel Pentium II equivalent but at a significantly lower price. The K6 had a considerable impact on the PC market and presented Intel with serious competition.
## Background
The AMD K6 is a superscalar P5 Pentium-class microprocessor, manufactured by AMD, which superseded the K5.
The AMD K6 is based on the Nx686 microprocessor that NexGen was designing when it was acquired by AMD. Despite the name implying a design evolving from the K5, it is in fact a totally different design that was created by the NexGen team, including chief processor architect Greg Favor, and adapted after the AMD purchase. The K6 processor included a feedback dynamic instruction reordering mechanism, MMX instructions, and a floating-point unit (FPU). It was also made pin-compatible with Intel\'s Pentium, enabling it to be used in the widely available \"Socket 7\"-based motherboards. Like the AMD K5, Nx586, and Nx686 before it, the K6 translated x86 instructions on the fly into dynamic buffered sequences of micro-operations. A later variation of the K6 CPU, K6-2, added floating-point-based SIMD instructions, called 3DNow!.
The K6 was originally launched in April 1997, running at speeds of 166 and 200 MHz. It was followed by a 233 MHz version later in 1997. Initially, the AMD K6 processors used a Pentium II-based performance rating (PR2) to designate their speed. The PR2 rating was dropped because the rated frequency of the processor was the same as the real frequency. The release of the 266 MHz version of this chip was not until the second quarter of 1998, when AMD was able to move to the 0.25-micrometre manufacturing process. The lower voltage and higher multiplier of the K6-266 meant that it was not fully compatible with some Socket 7 motherboards, similar to the later K6-2 processors. The final iteration of the K6 design was released in May 1998, running at 300 MHz.
<File:AMD> K6 (Model6) 200ALYD ZS-PMax - Stack-DSC05068-DSC05133 (22382082681).jpg\|A delidded AMD K6 processor <File:AMD@350nm@K6@Model6> - (cpuid562)@[email protected] CORE C9743EJFW 1997 AMD DSCx8 [email protected]\|Die shot of an AMD K6-233APR processor
## Features
- Seven execution units specialized in parallelized instructions
- x86 decoders that translate x86 assembly to RISC86 instructions `{{Failed verification|date=November 2023}}`{=mediawiki}
- IEEE 1149.1 boundary scan
- Speculative execution optimization
- Out-of-order execution
- Register renaming
## Models
*Main article: List of AMD K6 processors*
### K6 (Model 6) {#k6_model_6}
- 8.8 million transistors in 350 nm
- L1-Cache: 32 + 32 KB (data + instructions)
- MMX
- Socket 7
- Front-side bus: 66 MHz
- First release: April 2, 1997
- VCore: 2.9 V (166/200) 3.2/3.3 V (233)
- Clockrate: 166, 200, 233 MHz
### K6 \"Little Foot\" (Model 7) {#k6_little_foot_model_7}
- CPUID: family 5, model 7, stepping 0
- 8.8 million transistors in 250 nm
- L1-Cache: 32 + 32 KB (data + instructions)
- MMX
- Socket 7
- Front-side bus: 66 MHz
- First release: January 6, 1998
- VCore: 2.2 V
- Clockrate: 200, 233, 266, 300 MHz
## Successor
The K6 line was updated with SIMD instructions (Branded as AMD 3DNow!) to create the K6-2 line of microprocessors
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# KA9Q
**KA9Q**, also called **KA9Q NOS** or simply **NOS**, was a popular early implementation of TCP/IP and associated protocols for amateur packet radio systems and smaller personal computers connected via serial lines. It was named after the amateur radio callsign of Phil Karn, who first wrote the software for a CP/M system and then ported it to DOS on the IBM PC. As the KA9Q package included source code, many radio amateurs modified it, so many different versions were available at the same time.
KA9Q was later maintained by Anthony Frost (callsign G8UDV) and Adam Goodfellow. It was ported to the Acorn Archimedes by Jonathan Naylor (G4KLX). Until 1995 it was the standard access software provided by British dial-up internet service provider Demon Internet.
Most modern operating systems provide a built-in implementation of TCP/IP protocol; Linux especially includes all the necessary kernel functions and support utilities for TCP/IP over amateur radio systems, as well as basic AX.25 and NET/ROM functionality. Therefore, NOS is regarded as obsolete by its original developer. It still may have its uses for embedded systems that are too small for Linux.
**KA9Q** is also a name for the IP-over-IP Tunneling protocol
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# Key escrow
**Key escrow** (also known as a **\"fair\" cryptosystem**) is an arrangement in which the keys needed to decrypt encrypted data are held in escrow so that, under certain circumstances, an authorized third party may gain access to those keys. These third parties may include businesses, who may want access to employees\' secure business-related communications, or governments, who may wish to be able to view the contents of encrypted communications (also known as *exceptional access*).
The technical problem is a largely structural one. Access to protected information must be provided *only* to the intended recipient and at least one third party. The third party should be permitted access only under carefully controlled conditions, for instance, a court order. Thus far, no system design has been shown to meet this requirement fully on a technical basis alone. All proposed systems also require correct functioning of some social linkage, for instance the process of request for access, examination of request for \'legitimacy\' (as by a court), and granting of access by technical personnel charged with access control. All such linkages / controls have serious problems from a system design security perspective. Systems in which the key may not be changed easily are rendered especially vulnerable as the accidental release of the key will result in many devices becoming totally compromised, necessitating an immediate key change or replacement of the system.
On a national level, key escrow is controversial in many countries for at least two reasons. One involves mistrust of the security of the structural escrow arrangement. Many countries have a long history of less than adequate protection of others\' information by assorted organizations, public and private, even when the information is held only under an affirmative legal obligation to protect it from unauthorized access. Another is technical concerns for the additional vulnerabilities likely to be introduced by supporting key escrow operations. Thus far, no key escrow system has been designed which meets both objections and nearly all have failed to meet even one.
Key escrow is proactive, anticipating the need for access to keys; a retroactive alternative is key disclosure law, where users are required to surrender keys upon demand by law enforcement, or else face legal penalties. Key disclosure law avoids some of the technical issues and risks of key escrow systems, but also introduces new risks like loss of keys and legal issues such as involuntary self-incrimination. The ambiguous term *key recovery* is applied to both types of systems
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# Key frame
In animation and filmmaking, a **key frame** (or **keyframe**) is a drawing or shot that defines the starting and ending points of a smooth transition. These are called *frames* because their position in time is measured in frames on a strip of film or on a digital video editing timeline. A sequence of key frames defines which movement the viewer will see, whereas the position of the key frames on the film, video, or animation defines the timing of the movement. Because only two or three key frames over the span of a second do not create the illusion of movement, the remaining frames are filled with \"inbetweens\".
## Use of key frames as a means to change parameters {#use_of_key_frames_as_a_means_to_change_parameters}
In software packages that support animation, especially 3D graphics, there are many parameters that can be changed for any one object. One example of such an object is a light. In 3D graphics, lights function similarly to real-world lights. They cause illumination, cast shadows, and create specular highlights. Lights have many parameters, including light intensity, beam size, light color, and the texture cast by the light. Supposing that an animator wants the beam size to change smoothly from one value to another within a predefined period of time, that could be achieved by using key frames. At the start of the animation, a beam size value is set. Another value is set for the end of the animation. Thus, the software program automatically interpolates the two values, creating a smooth transition.
## Video editing {#video_editing}
In non-linear digital video editing, as well as in video compositing software, a key frame is a frame used to indicate the beginning or end of a change made to a parameter. For example, a key frame could be set to indicate the point at which audio will have faded up or down to a certain level.
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# Key frame
## Video compression {#video_compression}
In video compression, a key frame, also known as an intra-frame, is a frame in which a complete image is stored in the data stream. In video compression, only changes that occur from one frame to the next are stored in the data stream, in order to greatly reduce the amount of information that must be stored. This technique capitalizes on the fact that most video sources (such as a typical movie) have only small changes in the image from one frame to the next. Whenever a drastic change to the image occurs, such as when switching from one camera shot to another or at a scene change, a key frame must be created. The entire image for the frame must be output when the visual difference between the two frames is so great that representing the new image incrementally from the previous frame would require more data than recreating the whole image.
Because video compression only stores incremental changes between frames (except for key frames), it is not possible to fast-forward or rewind to any arbitrary spot in the video stream. That is because the data for a given frame only represents how that frame was different from the preceding one. For that reason, it is beneficial to include key frames at arbitrary intervals while encoding video. For example, a key frame may be output once for each 10 seconds of video, even though the video image does not change enough visually to warrant the automatic creation of the key frame. That would allow seeking within the video stream at a minimum of 10-second intervals. The downside is that the resulting video stream will be larger in disk size because many key frames are added when they are not necessary for the frame\'s visual representation. This drawback, however, does not produce significant compression loss when the bitrate is already set at a high value for better quality (as in the DVD MPEG-2 format)
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# Kahlúa
**Kahlúa** (`{{IPA|es|kaˈlu.a|lang}}`{=mediawiki}) is a brand of coffee liqueur owned by the Pernod Ricard company and produced in Veracruz, Mexico. The drink contains rum, sugar, and arabica coffee.
## History
Pedro Domecq began producing Kahlúa in 1936. It was named Kahlúa, meaning \'House of the Acolhua people\' in the Veracruz Nahuatl language. Jules Berman was the first importer of the liqueur to the United States, earning him the nickname \"Mr. Kahlua\".
The company merged in 1994 with Allied Lyons to become Allied Domecq. In turn, that company was partially acquired in 2005 by Pernod Ricard, the largest spirits distributor in the world since its merger with the Swedish Vin & Sprit in March 2008.
Since 2004, the alcohol content of Kahlúa is 20.0%; earlier versions had 26.5%. In 2002, a more expensive, high-end product called \"Kahlúa Especial\" became available in the United States, Canada and Australia after previously being offered only in duty-free markets. Made with arabica coffee beans grown in Veracruz, Mexico, Kahlúa Especial has an alcohol content of 36%, has a lower viscosity, and is less sweet than the regular version.
In 2021, Kahlúa introduced a new bottle design for the United Kingdom and Canada markets. It also reduced the alcohol content to 16% \"to address \'evolving\' consumer trends towards conscious drinking and lower-alcohol options\". For the United States market, Kahlúa retains the more traditional bottle design and alcohol content.
## Uses
Kahlúa is used to make cocktails or drink neat or on ice. Some people use it when baking desserts, and/or as a topping for ice cream, cakes, and cheesecakes.
It is mixed in several ways, often with different combinations of milk, cream, coffee and cocoa.
Because Kahlúa is made from coffee beans, it contains caffeine. According to the company, \"Kahlúa contains about 100`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}ppm caffeine, which means about 100`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}mg/litre of product. So, for a standard 1.5`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}oz \[45`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}ml\] drink of Kahlúa there would be about 5`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}mg of caffeine. Just to put it in perspective, an 8`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}oz \[240`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}ml\] brewed coffee can contain up to about 200`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}mg of caffeine.\"
Kahlúa is a key ingredient in several notable cocktails: `{{div col}}`{=mediawiki}
- Alfonso Xiii
- Espresso Martini
- White Russian
- Black Russian
- Mind Eraser
- B-52
- Baby Guinness
- Kahlúa Sour
- Moose Milk
- Spanish coffee
- Dirty Mother
## Awards
Kahlúa and Kahlúa Especial have received accolades from international spirit ratings organizations. The San Francisco World Spirits Competition awarded the Kahlúa Especial three silver medals between 2005 and 2007 and a bronze in 2009. The Beverage Testing Institute gave the Especial a score of 85 in 2007
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# Kemp Town
**Kemp Town Estate**, also known as **Kemp Town**, is a 19th-century Regency architecture residential estate in the east of Brighton in East Sussex, England. It consists of Arundel Terrace, Lewes Crescent, Sussex Square, Chichester Terrace, and the Kemp Town Enclosures (the gardens). The estate was conceived and financed by Thomas Read Kemp, designed by Charles Busby and Amon Henry Wilds, and constructed by Thomas Cubitt. Work began in 1823 and it was completed in 1855. It has given its name to the larger Kemptown region of Brighton.
## History
Kemp Town Estate was designed by Charles Busby and Amon Henry Wilds and constructed by Thomas Cubitt. Building work started in 1823 on Arundel Terrace, Chichester Terrace, Lewes Crescent and Sussex Square. Chichester Terrace incorporated the earlier Chichester House. In 1837 Thomas Kemp fled the country to escape his creditors. The project continued under Cubitt with the support of the Fifth Earl of Bristol. It was completed in 1855, with Sussex Square larger than London\'s Grosvenor Square and at the time the biggest housing crescent in Britain. The original estate is a good example of Regency architecture.
The gardens which form Sussex Square and Lewes Crescent, separated by Eastern Road, are known formally as the Kemp Town Enclosures. Work began on the Enclosures in 1823. Early works led by Henry Philips included the landscaping of the gardens and the addition of a tunnel to the esplanade.
At around the same time, Brighton\'s neighbour Hove was expanding on the western boundary of Brighton, with the development of the Brunswick Estate which featured similar though smaller Regency-style properties, and its own market, police station, riding school and (as in Kemp Town) small mews streets for staff housing.
## Modern times {#modern_times}
It has given its name to the larger Kemptown region of Brighton. The majority of the original estate is now demarcated by the modern Kemp Town Conservation Area as defined by the local authority, Brighton and Hove City Council.
The Enclosures are owned communally by the freeholders of the 105 houses which make up the Kemp Town Estate.
Below and to the east of Kemp Town, at beach level, is now Brighton Marina, and Black Rock the site of a former lido.
## Gallery
Image:Lewes Crescent b.jpg\|West side of Lewes Crescent Image:Sussex Square.jpg\|West side of southern half of Sussex Square <File:Thomas> Cubitt Plaque at 13 Lewes Crescent, Kemp Town, Brighton (September 2018).JPG\|Blue plaque commemorating Thomas Cubitt\'s residence at 13 Lewes Crescent Image:Lewes Crescent c.jpg\|East side of Lewes Crescent Image:Arundel Terrace.jpg\|Arundel Terrace Image:backofKempTownSussexSquareBrighton
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# FX-87
**FX-87** is a polymorphic typed functional language based on a system for static program analysis in which every expression has two static properties: a type and an effect. In a study done by MIT, FX-87 yields similar performance results as functional languages on programs that do not contain side effects (Fibonacci, Factorial). FX-87 did yield a great performance increase when matching DNA sequences.
**KFX** is the kernel language of FX-87. It was described in \'Polymorphic Effect Systems\', J.M. Lucassen et al., *Proceedings of the 15th Annual ACM Conference POPL*, ACM 1988, pp. 47--57
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# Killer micro
A **killer micro** is a microprocessor-based machine that infringes on mini, mainframe, or supercomputer performance turf. It originally referred to the replacement of vector supercomputers built with bipolar technology by Massively Parallel Processors (MPP) assembled from a larger number of lower performing microprocessors. These systems faced initial skepticism, based on the assumption that applications do not have significant parallelism, because of Amdahl\'s law, but the success of early systems such as nCUBE and the fast progress in microprocessor performance following Moore\'s law led to a fast replacement.
Taken from the title of Eugene Brooks\' (of Lawrence Livermore Lab) talk \"**Attack of the Killer Micros**\" at Supercomputing 1990. This title was probably chosen after the *Attack of the Killer Tomatoes* cult film
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# Killer poke
In computer jargon, a **killer poke** is a method of inducing physical hardware damage on a machine or its peripherals by the insertion of invalid values, via, for example, BASIC\'s POKE command, into a memory-mapped control register. The term is typically used to describe a family of fairly well known tricks that can overload the analog electronics in the CRT monitors of computers lacking hardware sanity checking (notable examples being the IBM Portable and Commodore PET.)
## Specific examples {#specific_examples}
### Zuse Z1/Z3 {#zuse_z1z3}
The Z1 (1938) and Z3 (1941) computers built by Konrad Zuse contained illegal sequences of instructions which damaged the hardware if executed by accident.
### Commodore PET {#commodore_pet}
The PET-specific killer poke is connected to the architecture of that machine\'s video rasterizer circuits. In early PETs, writing a certain value to the memory address of a certain I/O register (`POKE 59458,62`) made the machine able to display text and graphics on the screen 106% faster. This was accomplished by disabling a \"wait to print to screen\" safeguard designed to reduce static/noise by preventing the shared VRAM from being read by the display at the same time as it was being written to by the CPU. With this safeguard disabled, graphics could appear on the screen twice as fast, but small bits of static would also appear. Despite the static, some games designed for early PETs included this POKE in their source code in order to benefit from the faster graphics.
When the PET range was revamped with updated hardware, the video rasterizer circuits were redesigned to run at a faster speed and without the need for a \"wait to print\" safeguard. Thus, the old POKE trick no longer resulted in faster graphics. Instead, performing the old trick on the new hardware led to strange behavior by the new video chip, which could cause signal contention and possibly damage the PET\'s integrated CRT monitor. This is because the exact pin targeted by the POKE command used to control display timing, but in the upgraded video chip, that pin controlled the vertical sync. Thus, running the POKE on the newer hardware caused graphics to compress vertically, sometimes down to an extremely bright horizontal line. Fears that this anomaly might burn in to the display led to the nickname \"killer poke\"; however, it is not known to have ever caused any permanent damage to the monitor.
### Commodore 1541 Disk Drive {#commodore_1541_disk_drive}
The Commodore 64 had an optional external 5-1/4\" floppy drive. The Commodore 1541 contained a 6502 microprocessor which was used to run Commodore DOS and also to manage the drive mechanism. The drives stored data on 35 tracks (#0--34), and the stepper motor could be manually controlled through BASIC by PRINT#-ing \"MEMORY-WRITE\" commands to the drive (which correspond to the POKE command of BASIC, but write to the drive\'s internal memory and I/O registers, not those of the computer itself). If the drive was at either end of its range (track 0 or track 39) and it was commanded to continue moving, there was no software or firmware method to prevent drive damage. Continued \"knocking\" of the drive head against the stop would throw the mechanism out of alignment. The problem was exacerbated by copy protection techniques that used non-standard disk formats with unusual track counts. The Commodore 1571 had an optical head stop instead of a mechanical one.
### TRS-80 Model I & III {#trs_80_model_i_iii}
The original TRS-80 and TRS-80 Model III had the ability to switch between a 32-character-wide display and a 64-character display. Doing so actuated a relay in the video hardware, accomplished by writing to a specific memory-mapped control register. Programs that repeatedly switched between 32- and 64-character modes at high speed (either on purpose or accidentally) could permanently damage the video hardware. While this is not a single \"killer poke\", it demonstrates a software failure mode that could permanently damage the hardware.
The TRS-80 Model I also has a similar cassette motor relay accessible via a memory poke command and could result in damaging the relay.
### LG CD-ROM drives {#lg_cd_rom_drives}
Certain models of LG CD-ROM drives with specific firmware used an abnormal command for \"update firmware\": the \"clear buffer\" command usually used on CD-RW drives. Linux uses this command to tell the difference between CD-ROM and CD-RW drives. Most CD-ROM drives dependably return an error for the unsupported CD-RW command, but the faulty drives interpreted it as \"update firmware\", causing them to stop working (or, in casual parlance, to be \"bricked\").
### Flash memory {#flash_memory}
The resource of flash memory is large, but limited. Since writing to storage is an essential operation, most applications have enough privileges to exhaust the resource of flash chips within 24 hours by filling the storage enough to cause write amplification and continuously rewriting a small file.
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# Killer poke
## Specific examples {#specific_examples}
### MSi Laptops UEFI {#msi_laptops_uefi}
Systemd mounts variables used by Unified Extensible Firmware Interface on Linux system\'s sysfs as writable by the root user of a system. As a result, it is possible for the root user of a system to completely brick a system with a non-conforming UEFI implementation (specifically some MSi laptops) by using the `rm` command to delete the `/sys/firmware/efi/efivars/` directory, or recursively delete the root directory
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# Kill file
A **kill file** (also **killfile**, **bozo bin** or **twit list**) is a file that stores text matching patterns that are used in some Usenet reading programs to filter out (ignore) articles by subject, author, or other header information. Adding a pattern to a kill file results in matching articles being ignored by the person using the newsreader. By extension, the term may describe a decision to ignore an author or topic. A kill file feature was first implemented in Larry Wall\'s rn.
## Variations
Some newsreaders allow the user to specify a time period to keep an author in the kill file.
An **ignore list** is a similar yet simpler feature found in some web-based forums, including some web-based Usenet portals, which filters out posts by author only.
**Scoring** is a more advanced feature found in some newsreaders, including Gnus. The newsreader uses fuzzy logic to apply arbitrarily complex overlapping rules, stored in score files, to score articles. An article is ignored when its score is below a user-defined threshold. For example, articles might score as ignored (killed) if it violates too many low-weighted stylistic rules (e.g. containing too many capital letters or too little punctuation, implying an annoying reading experience), or only one or two highly-weighted rules (such as the body containing objectionable keywords or the origin being a known source of spam).
## History
Jerry Pournelle wrote in 1986 of his wish for improvements to an offline reader for the Byte Information Exchange online service: \"What I really need, though, is a program that will \... sort through the messages, assigning some to a priority file and others to the bit bucket depending on subject matter and origin\".
## Media
In William Gibson\'s novel *Idoru*, the virtual community Hak Nam is built around an \"inverted killfile\" and is modeled on Kowloon Walled City
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# Kipper
A **kipper** is a whole herring, a small, oily fish, that has been split in a butterfly fashion from tail to head along the dorsal ridge, gutted, salted or pickled, and cold-smoked over smouldering wood chips (typically oak).
In the United Kingdom, Ireland and some regions of North America, kippers are most commonly eaten for breakfast. In the United Kingdom, kippers, along with other preserved smoked or salted fish such as the bloater and buckling, were also once commonly enjoyed as a high tea or supper treat, most popularly with inland and urban working-class populations before World War II.
## Terminology
The word is thought to derive from the Old English *cypera*, or copper, based on the colour of the fish. The word has various possible parallels, such as Icelandic *kippa* which means \"to pull, snatch\" and the Germanic word *kippen* which means \"to tilt, to incline\". Similarly, the Middle English *kipe* denotes a basket used to catch fish. Another theory traces the word kipper to the *kip*, or small beak, that male salmon develop during the breeding season.
As a verb, *kippering* (\"to kipper\") means to preserve by rubbing with salt or other spices before drying in the open air or in smoke. Originally applied to the preservation of surplus fish (particularly those known as \"kips,\" harvested during spawning runs), *kippering* has come to mean the preservation of any fish, poultry, beef or other meat in like manner. The process is usually enhanced by cleaning, filleting, butterflying or slicing the food to expose maximum surface area to the drying and preservative agents.
### Kippers, bloaters, and bucklings {#kippers_bloaters_and_bucklings}
All three are types of smoked herring. Kippers are split, gutted and then cold-smoked; bloaters are cold-smoked whole; bucklings are hot-smoked whole.
## Origin
Although the exact origin of the kipper is unknown, this process of slitting, gutting, and smoke-curing fish is well documented.`{{NoteTag|The practice of smoking salmon for preservation was seen by Lewis and Clark among American Indians of the Columbia River region.}}`{=mediawiki} According to Mark Kurlansky, \"Smoked foods almost always carry with them legends about their having been created by accident---usually the peasant hung the food too close to the fire, and then, imagine his surprise the next morning when ...\". For instance Thomas Nashe wrote in 1599 about a fisherman from Lothingland in the Great Yarmouth area who discovered smoking herring by accident. Another story of the accidental invention of kipper is set in 1843, with John Woodger of Seahouses in Northumberland, when fish for processing was left overnight in a room with a smoking stove.
## Colouring
A kipper is also sometimes referred to as a *red herring*, although particularly strong curing is required to produce a truly red kipper. The term appears in a mid-13th century poem by the Anglo-Norman poet Walter of Bibbesworth, \"He eteþ no ffyssh But heryng red.\" Samuel Pepys used it in his diary entry of 28 February 1660: \"Up in the morning, and had some red herrings to our breakfast, while my boot-heel was a-mending, by the same token the boy left the hole as big as it was before.\"
The dyeing of kippers was introduced as an economy measure in the First World War by avoiding the need for the long smoking processes. This allowed the kippers to be sold quickly, easily and for a substantially greater profit. Kippers were originally dyed using a coal tar dye called brown FK (the FK is an abbreviation of \"for kippers\"), kipper brown or kipper dye. Today, kippers are usually brine-dyed using a natural annatto dye, giving the fish a deeper orange/yellow colour. European Community legislation limits the acceptable daily intake (ADI) of Brown FK to 0.15 mg/kg. Not all fish caught are suitable for the dyeing process, with mature fish more readily sought, because the density of their flesh improves the absorption of the dye. An *orange kipper* is a kipper that has been dyed orange.
Kippers from the Isle of Man and some Scottish producers are not dyed; instead, the smoking time is extended in the traditional manner.
## Preparation
\"Cold-smoked\" fish that have not been salted for preservation must be cooked before being eaten safely (they can be boiled, fried, grilled, jugged or roasted, for instance). In general, oily fish are preferred for smoking as the heat is evenly dispersed by the oil, and the flesh resists flaking apart like drier species.
In the UK, kippers are usually served at breakfast, although their popularity has declined since the Victorian and Edwardian eras.
In the United States, where kippers are much less commonly eaten than in the UK, they are almost always sold as either canned \"kipper snacks\" or in jars found in the refrigerated foods section. These are precooked and may be eaten without further preparation. `{{Better source needed|date=December 2024}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Kipper
## Industry
Kippers produced in the Isle of Man are exported around the world. Thousands are produced annually in the town of Peel, where two kipper houses, Moore\'s Kipper Yard (founded 1882) and Devereau and Son (founded 1884), smoke and export herring.
Mallaig, once the busiest herring port in Europe, is famous for its traditionally smoked kippers, as are Stornoway kippers and Loch Fyne kippers. The harbour village of Craster in Northumberland is famed for Craster kippers, which are prepared in a local smokehouse, sold in the village shop and exported around the world.
## Related terms {#related_terms}
The Manx word for kipper is *skeddan jiarg*, literally *red herring*; the Irish term is *scadán dearg* with the same meaning.
*Kipper time* is the season in which fishing for salmon in the River Thames in the United Kingdom is forbidden by an Act of Parliament; this period was originally the period 3 May to 6 January but has changed since. *Kipper season* refers (particularly among fairground workers, market workers, taxi drivers and the like) to any lean period in trade, particularly the first three or four months of the year.
Members of the Canadian military referred to English people as *kippers* because they were believed to frequently eat kippers for breakfast.
The English (UK) idiom \[to be\] \"stitched (or \"done\") up like a kipper\" is commonly used to describe a situation where a person has (depending on context) been \"fitted up\" or \"framed\"; \"used\", unfairly treated or betrayed; or cheated out of something, with no possibility of correcting the \"wrong\" done.
In the children\'s books *The Railway Series*, and in the television show *Thomas the Tank Engine and Friends*, The Flying Kipper is a nickname for a fast fish train usually pulled by Henry the Green Engine.
The United States Department of Agriculture defines \"Kippered Beef\" as a cured dry product similar to beef jerky but not as dry
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# Kalahari Desert
The **Kalahari Desert** is a large semiarid sandy savanna in Southern Africa covering 900000 km2 including much of Botswana as well as parts of Namibia and South Africa.
It is not to be confused with the Angolan, Namibian, and South African Namib coastal desert, whose name is of Khoekhoegowab origin and means \"vast place\".
## Etymology
*Kalahari* is derived from the Tswana word *Kgala*, meaning \"the great thirst\", or *Kgalagadi*, meaning \"a waterless place\"; the Kalahari has vast areas covered by red sand without any permanent surface water.
## History
The Kalahari Desert was not always a dry desert. The fossil flora and fauna from Gcwihaba Cave in Botswana indicates that the region was much wetter and cooler at least from 30 to 11 thousand Before Present, especially after 17,500 BP.
## Geography
Drainage of the desert is by dry black valleys, seasonally inundated pans, and the large salt pans of the Makgadikgadi Pan in Botswana and Etosha Pan in Namibia. The only permanent river, the Okavango, flows into a delta in the northwest, forming marshes that are rich in wildlife. Ancient dry riverbeds---called *Ouramba*---traverse the central northern reaches of the Kalahari and provide standing pools of water during the rainy season.
A semi-desert, with huge tracts of excellent grazing after good rains, the Kalahari supports more animals and plants than a true desert, such as the Namib Desert to the west. There is little rainfall, and the summer temperature is very high. The driest areas usually receive 110 - of rain per year, and the wettest just a little over 500 mm. The surrounding Kalahari Basin covers over 2500000 km2 extending farther into Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa, encroaching into parts of Angola, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
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# Kalahari Desert
## Climate
The climate is sub-humid rather than semi-arid in the north and east, where the dry forests, savannahs, and salt lakes prevail. South and west, where the vegetation is predominantly xeric savanna or even a semi-desert, the climate is \"Kalaharian\" semi-arid. The Kalaharian climate is subtropical: average annual temperature greater than or equal to 18 °C, at peaks reaching 40 °C and above, with mean monthly temperature of the coldest month strictly below 18 °C, and is semi-arid with the dry season from April to September, the coldest six months of the year. It is the southern tropical equivalent of the Sahelian climate with the wet season during summer. The altitude has been adduced as the explanation why the Kalaharian climate is not tropical; its altitude ranges from 600 to 1600 meters (and generally from 800 to 1200 meters), resulting in a cooler climate than that of the Sahel or Sahara. For example, winter frost is common from June to August, rarely seen in the warmer Sahelian regions. For the same reason, summer temperatures certainly can be very hot, but not in comparison to regions of low altitude in the Sahel or Sahara, where some stations record average temperatures of the warmest month around 38 °C, whereas the average temperature of the warmest month in any region in the Kalahari never exceeds 29 °C, though daily temperatures occasionally reach up to close to 45 °C (44.8 °C at Twee Rivieren Rest Camp in 2012).
The dry season lasts eight months or more, and the wet season typically from less than one month to four months, depending on location. The southwestern Kalahari is the driest area, particularly a small region toward the west-southwest of Tsaraxaibis (Southeast of Namibia). The average annual rainfall ranges from around 110 mm (close to aridity) to more than 500 mm in some north and east areas. During summertime in all regions, rainfall may go with heavy thunderstorms. In the driest and sunniest parts of the Kalahari, over 4,000 hours of sunshine are recorded annually on average.
In the Kalahari, there are three main mechanisms of atmospheric circulation, dominated by the Kalahari High anticyclone in winter, and by the Kalahari Heat Low in summer:
- The North and Northwest of the Kalahari are subject to the alternation \"Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)/\"Continental Trade winds\". The ITCZ is the meeting area of the boreal trade winds with their austral counterparts what meteorologists call \"Meteorological equator\" and the sailors \"Doldrum\" or \"Pot-au-noir\" : the ITCZ generates rains in the wet season, whereas the continental trade winds cause the dry season;
- The rest of the Kalahari is subject to the maritime trade winds that largely shed their moisture as they cross up and over the Southern African Great Escarpment before arriving over the Kalahari.
- In the southern hemisphere summer (from December to February), a low-pressure system develops over the Kalahari, which is driven by strong surface heating (known as a Thermal Low). The low-pressure system helps to control the moisture-bearing easterly wind emanating from the Indian Ocean, thus influencing rainfall across southern Africa.
There are huge subterranean water reserves beneath parts of the Kalahari; the Dragon\'s Breath Cave, for example, is the largest documented non-subglacial underground lake. Such reserves may partly be the residues of ancient lakes; the Kalahari Desert was once a much wetter place. The ancient Lake Makgadikgadi dominated the area, covering the Makgadikgadi Pan and surrounding areas, but it drained or dried out some 10,000 years ago. It may have once covered as much as 120000 km2. In ancient times, there was sufficient moisture for farming, with dikes and dams collecting the water. These are now filled with sediment, breached, or no longer in use, though they can be readily seen via Google Earth.
The Kalahari has had a complex climatic history over the past million or so years, in line with major global changes. Changes in the last 250,000 years have been reconstructed from various data sources, providing evidence of former extensive lakes and drier periods. During the latter, the area of the Kalahari has expanded to include parts of western Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Angola.
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# Kalahari Desert
## Vegetation and flora {#vegetation_and_flora}
Due to its low aridity, the Kalahari supports a variety of flora. The native flora includes acacia trees and many other herbs and grasses. The kiwano fruit, also known as the horned melon, melano, African horned cucumber, jelly melon, or hedged gourd, is endemic to a region in the Kalahari Desert (specific region unknown).
Even where the Kalahari \"desert\" is dry enough to qualify as a desert in the sense of having low precipitation, it is not strictly speaking a desert because it has too dense a ground cover. The main region that lacks ground cover is in the southwest Kalahari (southeast of Namibia, northwest of South Africa, and southwest of Botswana) in the south of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. For instance, in the ZF Mgcawu District Municipality of South Africa, total vegetation cover may be as low as 30.72% on non-protected (from cattle grazing) farmlands south of Twee Rivieren Rest Camp and 37.74% in the protected (from cattle grazing) South African side of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park: these southernmost Kalahari xeric savanna areas are truly semi-deserts. However, in all the remaining Kalahari, except on salt pans during the dry season, the vegetation cover can be denser, up to almost 100%, in some limited areas.
In an area of about 600,000 km^2^ in the south and west of the Kalahari, the vegetation is mainly xeric savanna. This area is the ecoregion identified by World Wide Fund for Nature as Kalahari xeric savanna AT1309. Typical savanna grasses include *Schmidtia*, *Stipagrostis*, *Aristida*, and *Eragrostis*; these are interspersed with trees such as Camelthorn (*Vachellia erioloba*), Grey Camelthorn (Vachellia *haematoxylon*), shepherd\'s tree (*Boscia albitrunca*), Blackthorn (*Senegalia mellifera*), and Silver Cluster-Leaf (*Terminalia sericea*).
In certain areas where the climate is drier, it becomes a true semi-desert with ground not entirely covered by vegetation: \"open\" as opposed to \"closed\" vegetation. Examples include the north of the ZF Mgcawu District Municipality, itself in the north of South Africa, and the Keetmanshoop Rural in the southeast of Namibia. In the north and east, dry forests cover an area of over 300,000 km^2^ in which Rhodesian teak and several species of acacia are prominent. These regions are termed Kalahari Acacia-Baikiaea woodlands AT0709.
Outside the Kalahari \"desert\", but in the Kalahari basin, halophytic vegetation to the north is adapted to pans, lakes that are completely dry during the dry season, and maybe for years during droughts, such as in Etosha (Etosha Pan halophytics AT0902) and Makgadikgadi (Zambezian halophytics AT0908).
A totally different vegetation is adapted to the perennial fresh water of the Okavango Delta, an ecoregion termed Zambezian flooded grasslands AT0907.
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# Kalahari Desert
## Fauna
The Kalahari is home to the lion (*Panthera leo*), cheetah (*Acinonyx jubatus*), African leopard (*Panthera pardus*), spotted hyena (*Crocuta crocuta*), brown hyena (*Parahyaena brunnea*), and African wild dog (*Lycaon pictus pictus*). Birds of prey include the secretarybird (*Sagittarius serpentarius*), martial eagle (*Polemaetus bellicosus*) and other eagles, the giant eagle owl (*Bubo lacteus*) and other owls, falcons, goshawks, kestrels, and kites. Other animals include wildebeest, springbok, gemsbok and other antelopes, Cape porcupines (*Hystrix africaeaustralis*), and ostriches (*Struthio camelus*).
Some of the areas within the Kalahari are seasonal wetlands, such as the Makgadikgadi Pans of Botswana. This area, for example, supports numerous halophilic species, and in the rainy season, tens of thousands of flamingos visit these pans.
## Protected areas {#protected_areas}
The following protected areas were established in the Kalahari:
- Central Kalahari Game Reserve
- Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park
- Khutse Game Reserve
- Tswalu Kalahari
## Population
The San people have lived in the Kalahari for 20,000 years as hunter-gatherers. They hunt wild game with bows and poisoned arrows and gather edible plants, such as berries, melons and nuts, as well as insects. The San get most of their water requirements from plant roots and desert melons found on or under the desert floor. They often store water in the blown-out shells of ostrich eggs. The San live in huts built from local materials---the frame is made of branches, and the roof is thatched with long grass. Most of their hunting and gathering techniques replicate pre-historic tribes. Bantu-speaking Tswana, Kgalagadi, and Herero and a small number of European settlers also live in the Kalahari desert. The city of Windhoek is situated in the Kalahari Basin.
## Kalahari, San and diamonds {#kalahari_san_and_diamonds}
In 1996, De Beers evaluated the potential of diamond mining at Gope. In 1997, the eviction of the San and Bakgalagadi tribes in the Central Kalahari Game Reserve from their land began. In 2006, the High Court of Botswana ruled in favor of the San and Bakgalagadi tribes in the reserve, finding their eviction unlawful. The Government of Botswana granted a permit to De Beers\' Gem Diamonds/Gope Exploration Company (Pty) Ltd. to conduct mining activities within the reserve
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# Kington Magna
**Kington Magna** is a village and civil parish in the Blackmore Vale area of Dorset, England, about 3+1/2 mi southwest of Gillingham.
## History
The name Kington Magna means \'great King\'s Town\'; it derives from *cyne-* (later *cyning*) and *tūn*, Old English for \'royal estate or manor\'. The affix *magna*, Latin for great, was added to distinguish it from Little Kington, a smaller settlement nearby. In 1086 in the Domesday Book these were recorded together in three entries as *Chintone*, which had 27 households and a total taxable value of 13 geld units, and was in the hundred of Gillingham. In 1243 it was recorded as Magna Kington. Most of the current buildings in the village are no older than the seventeenth century. In 1851 a Primitive Methodist chapel was built in the village; it was on Chapel Hill, which runs parallel to Church Hill. In 1860 a pottery was established at Bye Farm, north of the main village; it manufactured tiles, drainpipes, bricks, and chimney and flower pots. The parish church of All Saints was restored and enlarged in 1862; most of the building, except for the late 15th-century west tower, was rebuilt. Near the church is a pond which was a medieval fishpond.
## Geography
The parish covers about 2000 acre and, as well as the main village, includes the small settlement of Nyland in the west. The main village is sited on the slopes of a Corallian limestone hill, overlooking the flat Oxford Clay valley of the small River Cale, which drains into the Stour. In 1906 Sir Frederick Treves wrote in his *Highways & Byways in Dorset* that the village \"straggles down hill like a small mountain stream.\"
## Demography
In the 2011 census the parish had 180 dwellings, 169 households and a population of 389.
## Transport
The nearest railway station is in Gillingham. Trains run on the Exeter to Waterloo line
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# Knowbot Information Service
The **Knowbot Information Service** (**KIS**), also known as **netaddress**, is an Internet user search engine that debuted in December 1989. Although it searched users, not content, it could be argued to be the first search engine on the Internet as it queried more than a single network for information. It provided a uniform user interface to a variety of remote directory services such as whois, finger, X.500, and MCI Mail. By submitting a single query to KIS, a user can search a set of remote white pages services and see the results of the search in a uniform format. There are several interfaces to the KIS service including e-mail and telnet. Another KIS interface imitates the Berkeley whois command.
KIS consists of two distinct types of modules that interact with each other (typically across a network) to provide the service. One module is a user agent module that runs on the KIS mail host machine. The second module is a remote server module (possibly on a different machine) that interrogates various database services across the network and provides the results to the user agent module in a uniform fashion. Interactions between the two modules can be via messages between knowbots or by actual movement of knowbots
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# KISS principle
**KISS**, an acronym for \"**Keep it simple, stupid!**\", is a design principle first noted by the U.S. Navy in 1960. First seen partly in American English by at least 1938, KISS implies that simplicity should be a design goal. The phrase has been associated with aircraft engineer Kelly Johnson. The term \"KISS principle\" was in popular use by 1970. Variations on the phrase (usually as some euphemism for the more churlish \"stupid\") include \"keep it super simple\", \"keep it simple, silly\", \"keep it short and simple\", \"keep it short and sweet\", \"keep it simple and straightforward\", \"keep it small and simple\", \"keep it simple, soldier\", \"keep it simple, sailor\", \"keep it simple, sweetie\", \"keep it stupidly simple\", or \"keep it sweet and simple\".
## Origin
The acronym was reportedly coined by Kelly Johnson, lead engineer at the Lockheed Skunk Works (creators of the Lockheed U-2 and SR-71 Blackbird spy planes, among many others). However, the variant \"Keep it Short and Simple\" is attested from a 1938 issue of the *Minneapolis Star*.
While popular usage has transcribed it for decades as \"Keep it simple, stupid\", Johnson transcribed it simply as \"Keep it simple stupid\" (no comma), and this reading is still used by many authors.
The principle is best exemplified by the story of Johnson handing a team of design engineers a handful of tools, with the challenge that the jet aircraft they were designing must be repairable by an average mechanic in the field under combat conditions with only these tools. Hence, the \"stupid\" refers to the relationship between the way things break and the sophistication available to repair them.
The acronym has been used by many in the U.S. military, especially the U.S. Navy and United States Air Force, and in the field of software development.
## Variants
The principle most probably finds its origins in similar minimalist concepts, such as:
- Occam\'s razor;
- \"Simplicity is the ultimate sophistication\";
- Shakespeare\'s \"Brevity is the soul of wit\";
- Mies van der Rohe\'s \"Less is more\";
- Bjarne Stroustrup\'s \"Make Simple Tasks Simple!\";
- Dr. Seuss\'s ode to brevity: \"So the writer who breeds more words than he needs, is making a chore for the reader who reads\";
- Johan Cruyff\'s \"Playing football is very simple but playing simple football is the hardest thing there is\";
- Antoine de Saint-Exupéry\'s \"It seems that perfection is reached not when there is nothing left to add, but when there is nothing left to take away\";
- Colin Chapman, the founder of Lotus Cars, urged his designers to \"Simplify, then add lightness\";
- Attributed to Albert Einstein, although this may be an editor\'s paraphrase of a lecture he gave, \"Make everything as simple as possible, but not simpler\";
- Steve Jobs\'s \"Simplify, Simplify, Simplify\", which simplified Henry David Thoreau\'s quote \"Simplify, simplify, simplify\" for emphasis;
- Northcote Parkinson, British academic and sometimes military officer and military critic, expressed this idea as \"Parkinson\'s Third Law\" (c. 1957): \"Expansion means complexity and complexity, decay; or to put it even more plainly---the more complex, the sooner dead\";
Heath Robinson contraptions and Rube Goldberg\'s machines, intentionally overly-complex solutions to simple tasks or problems, are humorous examples of \"non-KISS\" solutions.
## Usage
### In film animation {#in_film_animation}
Master animator Richard Williams explains the KISS principle in his book *The Animator\'s Survival Kit*, and Disney\'s Nine Old Men write about it in *Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life*, a considerable work of the genre. The problem faced is that inexperienced animators may \"over-animate\" in their works, that is, a character may move too much and do too much. Williams urges animators to \"KISS\".
### In software development {#in_software_development}
- Don\'t repeat yourself (DRY)
- Minimalism
- Unix philosophy
- Arch Linux
- Slackware Linux
- Chartjunk
- List of software development philosophies
- Reduced instruction set computing
- Rule of least power
- There\'s more than one way to do it
- Worse is better (Less is more)
- You aren\'t gonna need it (YAGNI)
### In politics {#in_politics}
- Keep It Simple Solutions, New Brunswick, a minor political party in New Brunswick, Canada
- Keep It Straight and Simple Party, a minor political party in South Africa
### In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
In the Filipino neo-noir film *Segurista*, KISS is invoked by Mrs Librada (played by Liza Lorena) as an approach to selling insurance.
In the American version of *The Office*, Michael Scott\'s advice to Dwight Schrute before making any decision is KISS (Keep it Simple, Stupid)
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# KL0
**Kernel Language 0** (**KL0**) is a sequential logic programming language based on Prolog, used in the ICOT Fifth generation computer project
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# KL1
**KL1**, or **Kernel Language 1** is an experimental and-parallel version of KL0 developed for the ICOT Fifth Generation Computer project. KL1 is an implementation of Flat GHC (a subset of the Guarded Horn Clauses language by Kazunori Ueda), making it a parallelised Prolog variant
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# Klamath people
The **Klamath people** are a Native American tribe of the Plateau culture area in Southern Oregon and Northern California. Today Klamath people are enrolled in the federally recognized tribes:
- Klamath Tribes (Klamath, Modoc, and Yahooskin (Yahuskin) Band of Northern Paiute Indians), Oregon
- Quartz Valley Indian Community (Klamath, Karuk (Karok), and Shasta (Chasta) people), California.
## History
### Pre-contact {#pre_contact}
The Klamath people lived in the area around the Upper Klamath Lake (E-ukshi - "Lake") and the Klamath, Williamson (Kóke - "River"), Wood River (E-ukalksini Kóke), and Sprague (Plaikni Kóke - "River Uphill") rivers. They subsisted primarily on fish and gathered roots and seeds. While there was knowledge of their immediate neighbors, apparently the Klamath were unaware of the existence of the Pacific Ocean. Gatschet has described this position as leaving the Klamath living in a \"protracted isolation\" from outside cultures.
North of their tribal territory lived the Molala (*Kuikni maklaks*), in the northeast and east in the desert-like plains were various Northern Paiute bands (*Shá\'ttumi*, collective term for Northern Paiute, Bannock and Northern Shoshone) - among them the *Goyatöka Band* (\"Crayfish Eaters\"), direct south their Modoc kin (*Mo\'dokni maklaks* - \"Southern People, i.e. Tule Lake People\") with whom they shared the Modoc Plateau, in the southwest were living Shasta peoples (*S\[h\]asti maklaks*) and the Klamath River further downstream the Karuk and Yurok (both: *Skatchpalikni* - \"People along the Scott River\"), in the west and northwest were the Latgawa (\"Upland Takelma\") (according to Spier: *Walumskni* - \"Enemy\") and Takelma/Dagelma (\"Lowland/River Takelma\") (more likely both were called: *Wálamsknitumi, Wálamskni maklaks* - "Rogue River People"). Beyond the Cascade Range (*Yámakisham Yaina* - "mountains of the Northerners") in the Rogue River Valley (*Wálamsh*) lived the \"Rogue \"River\" Athabascan (*Wálamsknitumi, Wálamskni maklaks* - "Rogue River People") and further south along the Pit River (*Moatuashamkshini/Móatni Kóke* - \"River of the Southern Dwellers\") lived the Achomawi and Atsugewi (both called: *Móatuash maklaks* - \"Southern Dweller\", or \"Southern People\").
The Klamath were known to raid neighboring tribes, such as the Achomawi on the Pit River, and occasionally to take prisoners as slaves. They traded with the Wasco-Wishram at The Dalles. However, scholars such as Alfred L. Kroeber and Leslie Spier consider these slaving raids by the Klamath to begin only with the acquisition of the horse.
These natives made southern Oregon their home for long enough to witness the eruption of Mount Mazama. It was a legendary volcanic mountain who is the creator of Crater Lake (*giˑw*), now considered to be a beautiful natural formation.
### Contact
In 1826, Peter Skene Ogden, an explorer for the Hudson\'s Bay Company, first encountered the Klamath people, and he was trading with them by 1829. The United States frontiersman Kit Carson admired their arrows, which were reported to be able to shoot through a house.
### Treaty with the United States {#treaty_with_the_united_states}
The Klamaths, Modocs, and the Yahooskin (Yahuskin) Band of Northern Paiute (in Paiute known as: Goyatöka - \"Crayfish eaters\"), which was erroneously called *Upper Sprague River Snakes* believed to be a Band of *Snake Indians*, the collective name given to the Northern Paiute, Bannock, and Shoshone Native American tribes, signed a treaty with the United States in 1864, establishing the Klamath Reservation to the northeast of Upper Klamath Lake. This area was largely part of the traditional territory controlled by the ă′ukuckni Klamath band. The treaty required the tribes to cede the land in the Klamath Basin, bounded on the north by the 44th parallel, to the United States. In return, the United States was to make a lump sum payment of \$35,000, and annual payments totalling \$80,000 over 15 years, as well as providing infrastructure and staff for the reservation. The treaty provided that, if the Indians drank or stored intoxicating liquor on the reservation, the payments could be withheld; the United States could also locate additional tribes on the reservation in the future. The tribes requested Lindsay Applegate as the agent to represent the United States to them. The Indian agent estimated the total population of the three tribes at about 2,000 when the treaty was signed.
### Post-treaty history {#post_treaty_history}
Since termination of recognition of their tribal sovereignty in 1954 (with federal payments not disbursed until 1961), the Klamath and neighboring tribes have reorganized their government and revived tribal identity. The Klamath, along with the Modoc and Yahooskin, have formed the federally recognized Klamath Tribes confederation. Their tribal government is based in Chiloquin, Oregon.
Some Klamath live on the Quartz Valley Indian Community in Siskiyou County, California.
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# Klamath people
## Culture
### Subdivisions
Traditionally there were several cultural subdivisions among the Klamath, based on the location of their residency within the Klamath Basin. Despite this, the five recognized \"tribelets\" (the Klamath Tribes count six) mutually considered each other the same ethnic group, about 1,200 people in total. Like many Indigenous cultures of the Pacific Northwest, the Klamath lived a semi-sedentary life. Winter settlements were in permanent locations that were reoccupied annually. Construction of the earth-lodges would begin in Autumn, with materials salvaged from abandoned, dilapidated buildings made in previous years. Leslie Spier has detailed some of the winter settlement patterns for Klamath as follows:
> The towns are not isolated, compact groups of houses, but stretch along the banks for half a mile or more. In fact, the settlements on Williamson river below the Sprague river junction form a practically continuous string of houses for five or six miles, the house pits being, in many spots, crowded close together. Informants insisted that many of these were occupied at the same time. When we consider that these earth-lodges may have housed several families, there is strong suggestion of a considerable population.
- **Ǎ'ukckni** („Klamath Marsh People" or „Klamath Marsh-Williamson River People")
- **P\'laikni** ("Sprague River Valley People" or "Upland Klamath", lit. "highland dwellers")
- **Kowa'cdikni** („Agency Lake/Marsh Lake People")
- **Du'kwakni** („\[Lower\] Williamson River People")
- **Gu'mbǒtkni** („Pelican Bay People")
- **Iu'laloηkni** („Klamath Falls (Link River) People")
### Marriage
Marriage was a unique practice for the Klamath, compared to neighboring cultures found in the borderlands of modern Oregon, California, Nevada and Idaho. For example, unlike the Hupa, Karok, and Yurok, the Klamath didn\'t hold formal talks between families for a bride price. Especially notable was the cultural norm that allowed wives to leave husbands, as they were \"in no sense chattel \... and certainly cannot be disposed of as a possession.\"
### Ethnobotany
The Klamath use Apocynum cannabinum as a fiber and eat the roots of Lomatium canbyi. They use the rootstocks of Sagittaria cuneata as food. They use Carex, weaving the leaves into mats, using the juice of the pith as a beverage, eating the fresh stems for food and using the tuberous base of the stem for food.
### Dentalium
Dentalium shells were common among the Klamath prior to colonization. Compared to other native cultures, dentalium didn\'t hold as much financial use among the Klamath. However, longer shells were generally held to be more valuable. Nonetheless, these shells were esteemed primarily for as jewelry and personal adornment. Septum piercings were commonly given to younger members of Klamath families to allow inserting dentalium. Some individuals wouldn\'t however use any shells in their septum. Spier gives the following account for their usage:
> The septum of the nose is pierced and the ear lobes, the latter twice or even more frequently. Both sexes insert dentalium shells horizontally through the septum \... Ear pendants are a group of four dentalia hung in a bunch by their tips.
The use of dentalium in septum piercings, in addition to other means of ornamentation, was common among the Wasco-Wishram as well.
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# Klamath people
## Classifications
The Klamath people are grouped with the Plateau Indians---the peoples who originally lived on the Columbia River Plateau. They were most closely linked with the Modoc people.
## Language
The Klamath spoke one dialect of the Klamath--Modoc language - the northern or \"fi-ukshikni\" dialect, the other - the \"southern\" dialect being spoken by the Modoc people, who lived south of the Klamath. Once thought to be a language isolate, Klamath--Modoc is now considered a member of the Plateau Penutian language family.
Both the Klamath and the Modoc called themselves *maqlaqs*, *maqlags* or *Maklaks* meaning \"people\". When they wanted to distinguish between themselves they added *knii* (\"people from/of\"), the Klamath were called *?ewksiknii*, \"people of the \[Klamath\] Lake\", and the Modoc were called *moowatdal\'knii*, \"people of the south\".
## Notable Klamath people {#notable_klamath_people}
- Natalie Ball (b
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# Klerer–May System
The **Klerer--May System** is a programming language developed in the mid-1960s, oriented to numerical scientific programming, whose most notable feature is its two-dimensional syntax based on traditional mathematical notation.
For input and output, the Klerer--May system used a Friden Flexowriter modified to allow half-line motions for subscripts and superscripts. The character set included digits, upper-case letters, subsets of 14 lower-case Latin letters and 18 Greek letters, arithmetic operators (`+` `−` `×` `/` `|`) and punctuation (`.` `,` `(` `)`), and eight special line-drawing characters (resembling `╲` `╱` `⎜` `_` `⎨` `⎬` `˘` `⁔`) used to construct multi-line brackets and symbols for summation, products, roots, and for multi-line division or fractions. The system was intended to be forgiving of input mistakes, and easy to learn; its reference manual was only two pages.
The system was developed by Melvin Klerer and Jack May at Columbia University\'s Hudson Laboratories in Dobbs Ferry, New York, for the Office of Naval Research, and ran on GE-200 series computers
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# KL-ONE
**KL-ONE** (pronounced \"kay ell won\") is a knowledge representation system in the tradition of semantic networks and frames; that is, it is a frame language. The system is an attempt to overcome semantic indistinctness in semantic network representations and to explicitly represent conceptual information as a structured inheritance network.
## Overview
There is a whole family of KL-ONE-like systems. One of the innovations that KL-ONE initiated was the use of a deductive classifier, an automated reasoning engine that can validate a frame ontology and deduce new information about the ontology based on the initial information provided by a domain expert.
Frames in KL-ONE are called concepts. These form hierarchies using subsume-relations; in the KL-ONE terminology a super class is said to subsume its subclasses. Multiple inheritance is allowed. Actually a concept is said to be well-formed only if it inherits from more than one other concept. All concepts, except the top concept (usually THING), must have at least one super class.
In KL-ONE descriptions are separated into two basic classes of concepts: primitive and defined. Primitives are domain concepts that are not fully defined. This means that given all the properties of a concept, this is not sufficient to classify it. They may also be viewed as incomplete definitions. Using the same view, defined concepts are complete definitions. Given the properties of a concept, these are necessary and sufficient conditions to classify the concept.
The slot-concept is called roles and the values of the roles are role-fillers. There are several different types of roles to be used in different situations. The most common and important role type is the generic RoleSet that captures the fact that the role may be filled with more than one filler
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# Keilhauite
**Keilhauite** (also known as *yttrotitanite*) is a variety of the mineral titanite of a brownish black color, related to titanite in form. It consists chiefly of silicon dioxide, titanium dioxide, calcium oxide, and yttrium oxide. The variety was described in 1841 and named for Baltazar Mathias Keilhau (1797--1858) a Norwegian geologist.
Keilhauite has a chemical formula of `{{chem2|(CaTi,Al2,Fe2(3+),Y2(3+))SiO5}}`{=mediawiki}. It differs from titanite only in that calcium is substituted by up to 10 percent `{{chem2|(Y,Ce)2O3}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Kana
are syllabaries used to write Japanese phonological units, morae. In current usage, *kana* most commonly refers to *hiragana* and *katakana*. It can also refer to their ancestor `{{nihongo|'''''magana'''''|真仮名|extra={{lit}} 'true kana'}}`{=mediawiki}, which were Chinese characters used phonetically to transcribe Japanese (e.g. *man\'yōgana*); and *hentaigana*, which are historical variants of the now-standard hiragana.
Katakana, with a few additions, are also used to write Ainu. A number of systems exist to write the Ryūkyūan languages, in particular Okinawan, in hiragana. Taiwanese kana were used in Taiwanese Hokkien as ruby text for Chinese characters in Taiwan when it was under Japanese rule.
Each kana character corresponds to one phoneme or syllable, unlike kanji, which generally each corresponds to a morpheme. Apart from the five vowels, it is always CV (consonant onset with vowel nucleus), such as *ka*, *ki*, *sa*, *shi*, etc., with the sole exception of the C grapheme for nasal codas usually romanised as *n*. The structure has led some scholars to label the system *moraic*, instead of *syllabic*, because it requires the combination of two syllabograms to represent a CVC syllable with coda (e.g. CV*n*, CV*m*, CV*ng*), a CVV syllable with complex nucleus (i.e. multiple or expressively long vowels), or a CCV syllable with complex onset (i.e. including a glide, C*y*V, C*w*V).
The limited number of phonemes in Japanese, as well as the relatively rigid syllable structure, makes the kana system a very accurate representation of spoken Japanese.
## Etymology
*Kana* is a compound of `{{nihongo|''kari''|仮||{{lit|borrowed|assumed|false}}}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{nihongo|''na''|名||{{lit|name}}}}`{=mediawiki}, which eventually collapsed into *kanna* and ultimately *kana*. *Kana* were so called in contrast with `{{nihongo|''mana''|真名||{{lit|true name}}}}`{=mediawiki} which were kanji used \"regularly\" (kanji used for their meanings as they are now), or more specifically the `{{nihongo|[[regular script]]|楷書|kaisho}}`{=mediawiki} writing of such kanji.
It was not until the 18th century that the early-nationalist *\[\[kokugaku\]\]* movement, which promoted a move away from Sinocentric academia, began to reanalyze the script from a phonological point of view. In the following centuries, contrary to the traditional Sinocentric view, *kana* began to be considered a national Japanese writing system that was distinct from Chinese characters, which is the dominant view today.
## Terms
Although the term \'kana\' is now commonly understood as hiragana and katakana, it actually has broader application as listed below:
- or `{{nihongo||仮字|kana| {{lit|false character}}}}`{=mediawiki}: a syllabary.
- or `{{nihongo||男仮名|otokogana|{{IPA|ja|o.to.koꜜ.ɡa.na, -ŋa.na|}}, {{lit|men's kana}}}}`{=mediawiki}: phonetic kanji used as syllabary characters, historically used by men (who were more educated).
- : the most prominent system of magana.
- : cursive man\'yōgana.
- , `{{nihongo||女仮名|onnagana|{{IPA|ja|on.naꜜ.ɡa.na, -ŋa.na|}}, {{lit|women's kana}}}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{nihongo||女文字|onnamoji|{{IPA|ja|on.na.moꜜ.(d)ʑi|}}, {{lit|women's script}}}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{nihongo||女手|onnade|{{IPA|ja|on.na.de|}}, {{lit|women's hands}}}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{nihongo||伊呂波仮名|irohagana|{{IPA|ja|i.ɾo.haꜜ.ɡa.na, -ŋa.na|}}}}`{=mediawiki}: a syllabary derived from simplified sōgana, historically used by women (who were less educated), historically sorted in *Iroha* order.
- or `{{nihongo||異体仮名|itaigana|{{IPA|ja|i.taꜜi.ɡa.na, -ŋa.na|}}}}`{=mediawiki}: obsolete variants of hiragana.
- or `{{nihongo||五十音仮名|gojūongana|{{IPA|ja|ɡo.(d)ʑɯː.oŋ.ɡa.na, -ŋa.na|}}, {{lit|fifty-sound kana}}}}`{=mediawiki}: a syllabary derived by using bits of characters in man\'yōgana, historically sorted in *gojūon* order.
- : hiragana and katakana, as opposed to kanji.
- : magana for transcribing Japanese words, using, strict or loose, Chinese-derived readings (*on\'yomi*). For example, `{{nihongo||山|yama|{{lit|mountain}}}}`{=mediawiki} would be spelt as *也末*, with two magana with on\'yomi for *ya* and *ma*; likewise, `{{nihongo||人|hito|{{lit|human}}}}`{=mediawiki} spelt as *比登* for *hi* and *to*.
- : magana for transcribing Japanese words, using native words ascribed to kanji (native \"readings\" or *kun\'yomi*). For example, `{{nihongo||大和|Yamato}}`{=mediawiki} would be spelt as *八間跡*, with three magana with kun\'yomi for *ya*, *ma* and *to*; likewise, `{{nihongo||懐かし|natsukashi|{{lit|evoking nostalgia}}}}`{=mediawiki} spelt as *夏樫* for *natsu* and *kashi*.
- , `{{nihongo||真字|mana| {{lit|true character}}}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{nihongo||男文字|otokomoji|{{IPA|ja|o.to.ko.moꜜ.(d)ʑi|}}, {{lit|men's script}}}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{nihongo||男手|otokode|{{IPA|ja|o.to.ko.de|}}, {{lit|men's hands}}}}`{=mediawiki}: kanji used for meanings, historically used by men (who were more educated).
- : mixed script including only kanji and katakana.
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# Kana
## Hiragana and katakana {#hiragana_and_katakana}
The following table reads, in gojūon order, as *a*, *i*, *u*, *e*, *o* (down first column), then *ka*, *ki*, *ku*, *ke*, *ko* (down second column), and so on. *n* appears on its own at the end. Asterisks mark unused combinations.
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| -- *k* *s* *t* *n* *h* *m* *y* *r* *w* | ------------------------------- |
| ----- ------------------------------- ------------------------------- ------------------------------- ------------------------------- ------------------------------- ------------------------------- ------------------------------- --------------------------------- ------------------------------- --------------------------------- | `{{nowrap|んン}}`{=mediawiki} |
| *a* `{{nowrap|あア}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|かカ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|さサ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|たタ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|なナ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|はハ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|まマ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|やヤ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|らラ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|わワ}}`{=mediawiki} | **(*n*)** |
| *i* `{{nowrap|いイ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|きキ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|しシ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ちチ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|にニ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ひヒ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|みミ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|𛀆𛄠}}`{=mediawiki}\* `{{nowrap|りリ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ゐヰ}}`{=mediawiki} | ------------------------------- |
| *u* `{{nowrap|うウ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|くク}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|すス}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|つツ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ぬヌ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ふフ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|むム}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ゆユ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|るル}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|𛄟𛄢}}`{=mediawiki}\* | |
| *e* `{{nowrap|えエ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|けケ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|せセ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|てテ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ねネ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|へヘ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|めメ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|𛀁𛄡}}`{=mediawiki}\* `{{nowrap|れレ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ゑヱ}}`{=mediawiki} | : \ |
| *o* `{{nowrap|おオ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|こコ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|そソ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|とト}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|のノ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ほホ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|もモ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|よヨ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ろロ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|をヲ}}`{=mediawiki} | |
| | |
| : Japanese kana: hiragana (left) and katakana (right)\ | |
| (Image of this table) | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
- There are presently no kana for *ye*, *yi* or *wu*, as corresponding syllables do not occur natively in modern Japanese.
- The `{{IPA|[jɛ]}}`{=mediawiki} (*ye*) sound is believed to have existed in pre-Classical Japanese, mostly before the advent of kana, and can be represented by the man\'yōgana kanji 江. There was an archaic Hiragana () derived from the man\'yōgana *ye* kanji 江, which is encoded into Unicode at code point U+1B001 (𛀁), but it is not widely supported. It is believed that *e* and *ye* first merged to *ye* before shifting back to *e* during the Edo period. As demonstrated by 17th century-era European sources, the syllable *we* (ゑ・ヱ ) also came to be pronounced as `{{IPA|[jɛ]}}`{=mediawiki} (*ye*). If necessary, the modern orthography allows \[je\] (*ye*) to be written as いぇ (イェ), but this usage is limited and nonstandard.
- The modern Katakana *e*, エ, derives from the man\'yōgana 江, originally pronounced *ye*; a \"Katakana letter Archaic E\" () derived from the man\'yōgana 衣 (*e*) is encoded into Unicode at code point U+1B000 (𛀀), due to being used for that purpose in scholarly works on classical Japanese.
- Some gojūon tables published during the 19th century list additional Katakana in the *ye* (), *wu* () and *yi* () positions. These are not presently used, and the latter two sounds never existed in Japanese. They were added to Unicode in version 14.0 in 2021. These sources also list (Unicode U+1B006, 𛀆) in the Hiragana *yi* position, and in the *ye* position.
- Although removed from the standard orthography with the *gendai kanazukai* reforms, *wi* and *we* still see stylistic use, as in ウヰスキー for *whisky* and ヱビス or ゑびす for Japanese kami Ebisu, and Yebisu, a brand of beer named after Ebisu. Hiragana *wi* and *we* are preserved in certain Okinawan scripts, while katakana *wi* and *we* are preserved in the Ainu language.
- *wo* is preserved only as the accusative particle, normally occurring only in hiragana.
- *si*, *ti*, *tu*, *hu*, *wi*, *we* and *wo* are usually romanized respectively as *shi*, *chi*, *tsu*, *fu*, *i*, *e* and *o* instead, according to contemporary pronunciation.
- the sokuon or small *tsu* (っ/ッ) indicates gemination and is romanized by repeating the following consonant. For example, って is romanized *tte* (exception: っち becomes *tchi*).
### Diacritics
Syllables beginning with the voiced consonants \[g\], \[z\], \[d\] and \[b\] are spelled with kana from the corresponding unvoiced columns (*k*, *s*, *t* and *h*) and the voicing mark, *dakuten*. Syllables beginning with \[p\] are spelled with kana from the *h* column and the half-voicing mark, *handakuten*.
*g* *z* *d* *b* *p* *ng* *l*
----- ------------------------------- ------------------------------- ------------------------------- ------------------------------- ------------------------------- ------------------------------- -------------------------------
*a* `{{nowrap|がガ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ざザ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|だダ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ばバ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ぱパ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|か゚カ゚}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ら゚ラ゚}}`{=mediawiki}
*i* `{{nowrap|ぎギ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|じジ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ぢヂ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|びビ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ぴピ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|き゚キ゚}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|り゚リ゚}}`{=mediawiki}
*u* `{{nowrap|ぐグ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ずズ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|づヅ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ぶブ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ぷプ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|く゚ク゚}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|る゚ル゚}}`{=mediawiki}
*e* `{{nowrap|げゲ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ぜゼ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|でデ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|べベ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ぺペ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|け゚ケ゚}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|れ゚レ゚}}`{=mediawiki}
*o* `{{nowrap|ごゴ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ぞゾ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|どド}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ぼボ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ぽポ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|こ゚コ゚}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|ろ゚ロ゚}}`{=mediawiki}
: Dakuten diacritic marks, hiragana (left) and katakana (right)
- Note that the か゚, ら゚ and the remaining entries in the two rightmost columns, though they exist, are not used in standard Japanese orthography.
- *zi*, *di*, and *du* are often transcribed into English as *ji*, *ji*, and *zu* instead, respectively, according to contemporary pronunciation.
- Usually, \[va\], \[vi\], \[vu\], \[ve\], \[vo\] are represented respectively by バ\[ba\], ビ\[bi\], ブ\[bu\], ベ\[be\], and ボ\[bo\], for example, in loanwords such as バイオリン (*baiorin* \"violin\"), but (less usually) the distinction can be preserved by using \[w-\] with voicing marks or by using \[wu\] and a vowel kana, as in ヴァ(ヷ), ヴィ(ヸ), ヴ, ヴェ(ヹ), and ヴォ(ヺ). Note that ヴ did not have a JIS-encoded Hiragana form (ゔ) until JIS X 0213, meaning that many Shift JIS flavours (including the Windows and HTML5 version) can only represent it as a katakana, although Unicode supports both.
### Digraphs
Syllables beginning with palatalized consonants are spelled with one of the seven consonantal kana from the *i* row followed by small *ya*, *yu* or *yo*. These digraphs are called yōon.
*k* *s* *t* *n* *h* *m* *r*
------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------
*ya* きゃ しゃ ちゃ にゃ ひゃ みゃ りゃ
*yu* きゅ しゅ ちゅ にゅ ひゅ みゅ りゅ
*yo* きょ しょ ちょ にょ ひょ みょ りょ
: Yōon digraphs, hiragana
- There are no digraphs for the semivowel *y* and *w* columns.
- The digraphs are usually transcribed with three letters, leaving out the *i*: C*y*V. For example, きゃ is transcribed as *kya* to distinguish it from the two-kana きや, *kiya*.
- *si*+*y*\* and *ti*+*y*\* are often transcribed *sh\** and *ch\** instead of *sy\** and *ty\**. For example, しゃ is transcribed as *sha*, and ちゅ is transcribed as *chu*.
- In earlier Japanese, digraphs could also be formed with *w*-kana. Although obsolete in modern Japanese, the digraphs くゎ (/kʷa/) and くゐ/くうぃ(/kʷi/), are preserved in certain Okinawan orthographies. In addition, the kana え can be used in Okinawan to form the digraph くぇ, which represents the /kʷe/ sound.
- In loanwords, digraphs with a small *e*-kana can be formed. For example, キェ (or きぇ in hiragana), which is transcribed as *kye*.
*g* *j* *(z)* *j* *(d)* *b* *p* *ng*
------ ------ ----------- ----------- ------ ------ ------
*ya* ぎゃ じゃ ぢゃ びゃ ぴゃ き゚ゃ
*yu* ぎゅ じゅ ぢゅ びゅ ぴゅ き゚ゅ
*yo* ぎょ じょ ぢょ びょ ぴょ き゚ょ
: Yōon digraphs, hiragana
- Note that the き゚ゃ, き゚ゅ and き゚ょ, though they exist, are not used in standard Japanese orthography.
- *zi*+*y*\* and *di*+*y*\* are often transcribed *j\** instead of *zy\** and *dy\**, according to contemporary pronunciation. The form *jy\** is also used in some cases.
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# Kana
## Modern usage {#modern_usage}
The difference in usage between hiragana and katakana is stylistic. Usually, hiragana is the default syllabary, and katakana is used in certain special cases. Hiragana is used to write native Japanese words with no kanji representation (or whose kanji is thought obscure or difficult), as well as grammatical elements such as particles and inflections (okurigana). Today katakana is most commonly used to write words of foreign origin that do not have kanji representations, as well as foreign personal and place names. Katakana is also used to represent onomatopoeia and interjections, emphasis, technical and scientific terms, transcriptions of the Sino-Japanese readings of kanji, and some corporate branding.
Kana can be written in small form above or next to lesser-known kanji in order to show pronunciation; this is called furigana. Furigana is used most widely in children\'s or learners\' books. Literature for young children who do not yet know kanji may dispense with it altogether and instead use hiragana combined with spaces.
Systems supporting only a limited set of characters, such as Wabun code for Morse code telegrams and single-byte digital character encodings such as JIS X 0201 or EBCDIK, likewise dispense with kanji, instead using only katakana. This is not necessary in systems supporting double-byte or variable-width encodings such as Shift JIS, EUC-JP, UTF-8 or UTF-16.
## History
Old Japanese was written entirely in kanji, and a set of kanji called *man\'yōgana* were first used to represent the phonetic values of grammatical particles and morphemes. As there was no consistent method of sound representation, a phoneme could be represented by multiple kanji, and even those kana\'s pronunciations differed in whether they were to be read as `{{Nihongo3|"meaning kana"|訓仮名|[[kun'yomi|kungana]]}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{Nihongo3|"sound kana"|音仮名|[[on'yomi|ongana]]}}`{=mediawiki}, making decipherment problematic. The *\[\[man\'yōshū\]\]*, a poetry anthology assembled sometime after 759 and the eponym of *man\'yōgana*, exemplifies this phenomenon, where as many as almost twenty kanji were used for the mora *ka*. The consistency of the kana used was thus dependent on the style of the writer. Hiragana developed as a distinct script from cursive *man\'yōgana*, whereas katakana developed from abbreviated parts of regular script *man\'yōgana* as a glossing system to add readings or explanations to Buddhist sutras. Both of these systems were simplified to make writing easier. The shapes of many hiragana resembled the Chinese cursive script, as did those of many katakana the Korean *gugyeol*, suggesting that the Japanese followed the continental pattern of their neighbors.
Kana is traditionally said to have been invented by the Buddhist priest Kūkai in the ninth century. Kūkai certainly brought the Siddhaṃ script of India home on his return from China in 806; his interest in the sacred aspects of speech and writing led him to the conclusion that Japanese would be better represented by a phonetic alphabet than by the kanji which had been used up to that point. The modern arrangement of kana reflects that of the devanagari order used for Sanskrit in the Buddhist Siddhaṃ script hybrid known by the Japanese at the time, before, the traditional *iroha* arrangement used to follow the order of a poem which uses each kana once. Kana\'s vowel (a-i-u-e-o) and consonant (k, s, t, n, h, m, y, r, w) order coincide with the Sanskrit order, except for the letter s, but that is explained by the properties of Old Japanese and the version of Siddham buddhist monks learnt at the time. However, the first time this order was used in Japanese was during the Heian period by Myōkaku, a priest and Sanskrit scholar of the 12th century, member of the same order of Kūkai and credited as reviving Saskrit studies. In 1695, a priest named Keichū published a 5 volume book that is considered to be fundamental in fixing the sound order to this day; and this work, in turn, was probably based on an earlier 3 volume systematic study of the grammar and the writing system of the Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, written by another priest, Kakugen, in 1681, also member of the order of Kūkai and Myōkaku.
However, hiragana and katakana did not quickly supplant *man\'yōgana*. It was only in 1900 that the present set of kana was codified. All the other forms of hiragana and katakana developed before the 1900 codification are known as `{{Nihongo3|"variant kana"|変体仮名|[[hentaigana]]}}`{=mediawiki}. Rules for their usage as per the spelling reforms of 1946, the `{{Nihongo3|"present-day kana usage"|現代仮名遣い|[[Modern kana usage|gendai kana-zukai]]}}`{=mediawiki}, which abolished the kana for *wi* (ゐ・ヰ), *we* (ゑ・ヱ), and *wo* (を・ヲ) (except that the last was reserved as the accusative particle).
a i u e o =:≠
----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -------
-- ≠ ≠ = ≠ = 2:3
k = = = ≠ = 4:1
s ≠ = ≠ = = 3:2
t ≠ ≠ = = = 3:2
n = = = = = 5:0
h ≠ = = = = 4:1
m = ≠ ≠ = = 3:2
y = = = 3:0
r = = ≠ = = 4:1
w = ≠ = ≠ 2:2
n ≠ 0:1
=:≠ 6:4 5:4 6:4 7:2 9:1 33:15
: Identical man'yōgana roots of katakana and hiragana glyphs
## Collation
Kana are the basis for collation in Japanese. They are taken in the order given by the *gojūon* (あ い う え お \... わ を ん), though iroha (い ろ は に ほ へ と \... せ す (ん)) ordering is used for enumeration in some circumstances. Dictionaries differ in the sequence order for long/short vowel distinction, small *tsu* and diacritics. As Japanese does not use word spaces (except as a tool for children), there can be no word-by-word collation; all collation is kana-by-kana.
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# Kana
## In Unicode {#in_unicode}
The hiragana range in Unicode is U+3040 \... U+309F, and the katakana range is U+30A0 \... U+30FF. The obsolete and rare characters (*wi* and *we*) also have their proper code points.
Characters U+3095 and U+3096 are hiragana small *ka* and small *ke*, respectively. U+30F5 and U+30F6 are their katakana equivalents. Characters U+3099 and U+309A are combining dakuten and handakuten, which correspond to the spacing characters U+309B and U+309C. U+309D is the hiragana iteration mark, used to repeat a previous hiragana. U+309E is the voiced hiragana iteration mark, which stands in for the previous hiragana but with the consonant voiced (*k* becomes *g*, *h* becomes *b*, etc.). U+30FD and U+30FE are the katakana iteration marks. U+309F is a ligature of *yori* (より) sometimes used in vertical writing. U+30FF is a ligature of *koto* (コト), also found in vertical writing.
Additionally, there are halfwidth equivalents to the standard fullwidth katakana. These are encoded within the Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms block (U+FF00--U+FFEF), starting at U+FF65 and ending at U+FF9F (characters U+FF61--U+FF64 are halfwidth punctuation marks): `{{Unicode chart Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms|subset=katakana}}`{=mediawiki}
There is also a small \"Katakana Phonetic Extensions\" range (U+31F0 \... U+31FF), which includes some additional small kana characters for writing the Ainu language. Further small kana characters are present in the \"Small Kana Extension\" block. `{{Unicode chart Katakana Phonetic Extensions}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Unicode chart Small Kana Extension}}`{=mediawiki}
Unicode also includes \"Katakana letter archaic E\" (U+1B000), as well as 255 archaic Hiragana, in the Kana Supplement block. It also includes a further 31 archaic Hiragana in the Kana Extended-A block. `{{Unicode chart Kana Supplement}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Unicode chart Kana Extended-A}}`{=mediawiki}
The Kana Extended-B block was added in September, 2021 with the release of version 14
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# Knights of the Lambda Calculus
The **Knights of the Lambda Calculus** is a semi-fictional organization of expert Lisp and Scheme hackers. The name refers to the lambda calculus, a mathematical formalism invented by Alonzo Church, with which Lisp is intimately connected, and references the Knights Templar.
There is no actual organization that goes by the name *Knights of the Lambda Calculus*; it mostly only exists as a hacker culture in-joke. The concept most likely originated at MIT. For example, in the Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs [video lectures](http://www.swiss.ai.mit.edu/classes/6.001/abelson-sussman-lectures/), Gerald Jay Sussman presents the audience with the button, saying they are now members of this special group. However, according to the Jargon File, a \"well-known LISPer\" has been known to give out buttons with Knights insignia on them, and some people have claimed to have membership in the Knights.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
A group that evolved from, or is similar to them, called *The Knights of Eastern Calculus*, makes a major appearance in the anime series *Serial Experiments Lain*, the logo of which is a reference to Freemasonry. References to MIT professors and other American computer scientists are prominent in Episode 9 of the series. At one point in the anime, Lain is seen with code displayed on her handheld device that appears to be Lisp
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# Knowbot
A **knowbot** is a kind of bot that automatically collects certain specified information from web sites.
KNOWBOT is the acronym for Knowledge-Based Object Technology. This term, used as early as 1988 and known to have been implemented by December 1989 at the latest describes computer-based objects developed for collecting and storing specific information, to use that information to accomplish a particular task, and to enable sharing that information with other objects or processes. An early use of knowbots was to provide a computerized assistant to users to complete redundant detailed tasks without a need to train the user in computer technology
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Knowbot
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# Knuth
**Knuth** is a surname of Nordic origin
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