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# Mariner program
## Mariners 6 and 7 {#mariners_6_and_7}
Mariners 6 and 7 were identical teammates in a two-spacecraft mission to Mars. Mariner 6 was launched on February 24, 1969, followed by Mariner 7 on March 21, 1969. They flew over the equator and southern hemisphere of the planet Mars. They analyzed atmosphere and surface with remote sensors as well as recording and relaying hundreds of pictures. By chance, both flew over cratered regions and missed both the giant northern volcanoes and the equatorial grand canyon discovered later. Their approach pictures did, however, show the dark features long seen from Earth, but no canals.
- Mission: Mars flybys
- Mass 413 kg (908 lb)
- Sensors: wide- and narrow-angle cameras with digital tape recorder, infrared spectrometer and radiometer, ultraviolet spectrometer, radio occultation and celestial mechanics.
Status: Both Mariner 6 and Mariner 7 are now defunct and are in a heliocentric orbit.
## Mariners 8 and 9 {#mariners_8_and_9}
Mariner 8 and Mariner 9 were identical sister craft designed to map the Martian surface simultaneously, but Mariner 8 was lost in a launch vehicle failure. Mariner 9 was launched in May 1971 and became the first artificial satellite of Mars. Its launch mass was nearly doubled by the onboard rocket propellant needed to thrust it into orbit around Mars, but otherwise it closely resembled its predecessors. It entered Martian orbit in November 1971 and began photographing the surface and analyzing the atmosphere with its infrared and ultraviolet instruments.
Since 1969, Mariner spacecraft operations such as science sequencing and pointing had been programmable, using simple flight computers with limited memory, and the spacecraft used a digital tape-recorder rather than film to store images and other science data. The spacecraft was thus able to wait until the storm abated, the dust settled and the surface was clearly visible before compiling its global mosaic of high-quality images of the surface of Mars.
It also provided the first closeup pictures of Mars' two small, irregular moons, Phobos and Deimos.
- Mission: orbit Mars
- Mass 998 kg (2,200 lb)
- Sensors: wide- and narrow-angle cameras with digital tape recorder, infrared spectrometer and radiometer, ultraviolet spectrometer, radio occultation and celestial mechanics
Status:
- Mariner 8 -- Destroyed in a launch vehicle failure.
- Mariner 9 -- Shut off, in Areocentric (Mars) orbit until at least 2022 when it was projected to fall out of orbit and into the Martian atmosphere.
## Mariner 10 {#mariner_10}
The Mariner 10 spacecraft launched on November 3, 1973, and was the first to use a gravity assist trajectory, accelerating as it entered the gravitational influence of Venus, then being flung by the planet\'s gravity onto a slightly different course to reach Mercury. It was also the first spacecraft to encounter two planets at close range, and for 33 years the only spacecraft to photograph Mercury in closeup.
Here a fortuitous gravity assist enabled the spacecraft to return at six-month intervals for close mapping passes over the planet, covering half the globe (Mercury\'s slow rotation left the other half always in the dark when Mariner returned).
- Mission: plasma, charged particles, magnetic fields, radio occultation and celestial mechanics
Status: Mariner 10 -- Defunct and now in a heliocentric orbit.
## Mariner Jupiter-Saturn {#mariner_jupiter_saturn}
Mariner Jupiter-Saturn was approved in 1972 after the cancellation of the Grand Tour program, which proposed visiting all the outer planets with multiple spacecraft. The Mariner Jupiter-Saturn program proposed two Mariner-derived probes that would perform a scaled back mission involving flybys of only the two gas giants, though designers at JPL built the craft with the intention that further encounters past Saturn would be an option. Trajectories were chosen to allow one probe to visit Jupiter and Saturn first, and perform a flyby of Saturn\'s moon Titan to gather information about the moon\'s substantial atmosphere. The other probe would arrive at Jupiter and Saturn later, and its trajectory would enable it to continue on to Uranus and Neptune assuming the first probe accomplished all its objectives, or be redirected to perform a Titan flyby if necessary. The program\'s name was changed to Voyager just before launch in 1977, and after *Voyager 1* successfully completed its Titan encounter, *Voyager 2* went on to visit the two ice giants
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# Mariner 4
**Mariner 4** (Mariner C-3, together with Mariner 3 known as **Mariner-Mars 1964**) was the fourth in a series of spacecraft intended for planetary exploration in a flyby mode. It was designed to conduct closeup scientific observations of Mars and to transmit these observations to Earth. Launched on November 28, 1964, Mariner 4 performed the first successful flyby of the planet Mars, returning the first close-up pictures of the Martian surface. It captured the first images of another planet ever returned from deep space; their depiction of a cratered, dead planet largely changed the scientific community\'s view of life on Mars.`{{r|Momsen1|Momsen2}}`{=mediawiki} Other mission objectives were to perform field and particle measurements in interplanetary space in the vicinity of Mars and to provide experience in and knowledge of the engineering capabilities for interplanetary flights of long duration. Initially expected to remain in space for eight months, Mariner 4\'s mission lasted about three years in solar orbit. On December 21, 1967, communications with Mariner 4 were terminated.
## Spacecraft and subsystems {#spacecraft_and_subsystems}
The Mariner 4 spacecraft consisted of an octagonal magnesium frame, 127 cm across a diagonal and 45.7 cm high. Four solar panels were attached to the top of the frame with an end-to-end span of 6.88 m, including solar pressure vanes which extended from the ends. A 104.1 x elliptical high-gain parabolic antenna was mounted at the top of the frame as well. An omnidirectional low-gain antenna was mounted on a 223.5 cm tall mast next to the high-gain antenna. The overall height of the spacecraft was 2.89 m. The octagonal frame housed the electronic equipment, cabling, midcourse propulsion system, and attitude control gas supplies and regulators.
The scientific instruments included:`{{r|nasa3|Anderson|Reiff}}`{=mediawiki}
- A helium magnetometer, mounted on the waveguide leading to the omnidirectional antenna, to measure the magnitude and other characteristics of the interplanetary and planetary magnetic fields.
- An ionization chamber/Geiger counter, mounted on the waveguide leading to the omnidirectional antenna nearer the body of the spacecraft, to measure the charged-particle intensity and distribution in interplanetary space and in the vicinity of Mars.
- A trapped radiation detector, mounted on the body with counter-axes pointing 70° and 135° from the solar direction, to measure the intensity and direction of low-energy particles.
- A cosmic ray telescope, mounted inside the body pointing in anti-solar direction, to measure the direction and energy spectrum of protons and alpha particles.
- A solar plasma probe, mounted on the body pointing 10° from the solar direction, to measure the very low energy charged particle flux from the Sun.
- A cosmic dust detector, mounted on the body with microphone plate approximately perpendicular to the plane of orbit, to measure the momentum, distribution, density, and direction of cosmic dust.
- A television camera, mounted on a scan platform at the bottom center of the spacecraft, to obtain closeup pictures of the surface of Mars. This subsystem consisted of four parts: a Cassegrain telescope with a 1.05° by 1.05° field of view, a shutter and red/green filter assembly with 0.08 and 0.20 second exposure times, a slow scan vidicon tube which translated the optical image into an electrical video signal, and the electronic systems required to convert the analogue signal into a digital bitstream for transmission.
The electric power for the instruments and the radio transmitter of Mariner 4 was supplied by 28,224 solar cells contained in the four 176 x solar panels, which could provide 310 watts at the distance of Mars. A rechargeable 1200 W·h silver-zinc battery was also used for maneuvers and backup. Monopropellant hydrazine was used for propulsion, via a four-jet vane vector control motor, with 222 N thrust, installed on one of the sides of the octagonal structure. The space probe\'s attitude control was provided by 12 cold nitrogen gas jets mounted on the ends of the solar panels and three gyros. Solar pressure vanes, each with an area of 0.65 m2, were attached to the tips of the solar panels. Positional information was provided by four Sun sensors, and a sensor for either the Earth, Mars, or the star Canopus, depending on the time in its spaceflight. Mariner 4 was the first space probe that needed a star for a navigational reference object, since earlier missions, which remained near either the Earth, the Moon, or the planet Venus, had sighted onto either the bright face of the home planet or the brightly lit target. During this flight, both the Earth and Mars would be too dim to lock onto. Another bright source at a wide angle away from the Sun was needed and Canopus filled this requirement. Subsequently, Canopus was used as a reference point in many following missions.
The telecommunications equipment on Mariner 4 consisted of dual S-band transmitters (with either a seven-watt triode cavity amplifier or a ten watt traveling-wave tube amplifier) and a single radio receiver which together could send and receive data via the low- and high-gain antennas at 8⅓ or 33⅓ bits per second. Data could also be stored onto a magnetic tape recorder with a capacity of 5.24 million bits for later transmission. All electronic operations were controlled by a command subsystem which could process any of 29 direct command words or three quantitative word commands for mid-course maneuvers. The central computer and sequencer operated stored time-sequence commands using a 38.4 kHz synchronization frequency as a time reference. Temperature control was achieved through the use of adjustable louvers mounted on six of the electronics assemblies, plus multilayer insulating blankets, polished aluminum shields, and surface treatments. Other measurements that could be made included:
- Radio occultation
- Celestial mechanics based on precision tracking
Mariner 4 was also supposed to carry an ultraviolet photometer on the left side of the aft TV Camera scan platform. Late in testing, it was discovered that the inclusion of the UV photometer produced electrical problems that would have jeopardized the TV Camera. As a result, it was removed and replaced with a thermal/inertial mass simulator that was designed to emulate the UV photometer\'s geometry, mass, and other characteristics so that any unintentional problems caused by the removal of the UV photometer would be negated. This spare UV photometer was eventually flown on Mariner 5 in 1967.
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# Mariner 4
## Mission profile {#mission_profile}
### Launch
After Mariner 3 was a total loss due to failure of the payload shroud to jettison, JPL engineers suggested that there had been a malfunction caused during separation of the metal fairing exterior from the fiberglass inner lining due to pressure differences between the inner and outer part of the shroud and that this could have caused the spring-loaded separation mechanism to become tangled and fail to detach properly.
Testing at JPL confirmed this failure mode and an effort was made to develop a new, all-metal fairing. The downside of this was that the new fairing would be significantly heavier and reduce the Atlas-Agena\'s lift capacity. Convair and Lockheed-Martin had to make several performance enhancements to the booster to wring more power out of it. Despite fears that the work could not be completed before the 1964 Mars window closed, the new shroud was ready by November.
After launch from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 12, the protective shroud covering Mariner 4 was jettisoned and the Agena-D/Mariner 4 combination separated from the Atlas-D booster at 14:27:23 UTC on November 28, 1964. The Agena\'s first burn took place from 14:28:14 to 14:30:38. The initial burn put the spacecraft into an Earth parking orbit and the second burn from 15:02:53 to 15:04:28 injected the craft into a Mars transfer orbit. Mariner 4 separated from the Agena at 15:07:09 and began cruise mode operations. The solar panels deployed and the scan platform was unlatched at 15:15:00. Sun acquisition occurred 16 minutes later.
### Lock on Canopus {#lock_on_canopus}
After Sun acquisition, the Canopus star tracker went searching for Canopus. The star tracker was set to respond to any object more than one-eighth as, and less than eight times as bright as Canopus. Including Canopus, there were seven such objects visible to the sensor. It took more than a day of \"star-hopping\" to find Canopus, as the sensor locked on to other stars instead: a stray light pattern from the near Earth, Alderamin, Regulus, Naos, and Gamma Velorum were acquired before Canopus.`{{r|Momsen1|Goss}}`{=mediawiki}
A consistent problem that plagued the spacecraft during the early portion of its mission was that roll error signal transients would occur frequently and on occasion would cause loss of the Canopus star lock. The first attempt at a midcourse maneuver was aborted by a loss of lock shortly after the gyros began spinup. Canopus lock was lost six times within a period of less than three weeks after launch and each time a sequence of radio commands would be required to reacquire the star. After a study of the problem, the investigators concluded that the behavior was due to small dust particles that were being released from the spacecraft by some means and were drifting through the star sensor field-of-view. Sunlight scattered from the particles then appeared as illumination equivalent to that from a bright star. This would cause a roll error transient as the object passed through the field-of-view while the sensor was locked onto Canopus. When the object was bright enough that it exceeded the high gate limits at eight times the Canopus intensity, the spacecraft would automatically disacquire Canopus and initiate a roll search for a new star. Finally, a radio command was sent on December 17, 1964, that removed the high gate limit. There was no further loss of Canopus lock, although roll transients occurred 38 more times before encounter with Mars.`{{r|nasa3|Goss}}`{=mediawiki}
### Midcourse maneuver {#midcourse_maneuver}
The 7½ month flight of Mariner 4 involved one midcourse maneuver on December 5, 1964. The maneuver was initially scheduled for December 4, but due to a loss of lock with Canopus, it was postponed. The maneuver was successfully completed on December 5; it consisted of a negative pitch turn of 39.16 degrees, a positive roll turn of 156.08 degrees, and a thrusting time of 20.07 seconds. The turns aimed the motor of the spacecraft back in the general direction of Earth, as the motor was initially pointed along the direction of flight. Both the pitch and roll changes were completed with better than 1% accuracy, the velocity change with about 2.5% accuracy. After the maneuver, Mariner 4 was on course for Mars as planned.
### Data transmission rate reduced {#data_transmission_rate_reduced}
On January 5, 1965, 36 days after launch and 10261173 km from Earth, Mariner 4 reduced its rate of transmission of scientific data from 33 1/3 to 8 1/2 bits per second. This was the first autonomous action the spacecraft had taken since the midcourse maneuver.
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# Mariner 4
## Mission profile {#mission_profile}
### Mars flyby {#mars_flyby}
The Mariner 4 spacecraft flew by Mars on July 14 and 15, 1965. Its closest approach was 9846 km from the Martian surface at 01:00:57 UT July 15, 1965 (8:00:57 p.m. EST July 14), its distance to Earth was 216 e6km, its speed was 7 km/s relative to Mars, 1.7 km/s relative to Earth.
Planetary science mode was turned on at 15:41:49 UTC on July 14. The camera sequence started at 00:18:36 UT on July 15 (7:18:49 p.m. EST on July 14) and 21 pictures using alternate red and green filters, plus 21 lines of a 22nd picture were taken. The images covered a discontinuous swath of Mars starting near 40° N, 170° E, down to about 35° S, 200° E, and then across to the terminator at 50° S, 255° E, representing about 1% of the planet\'s surface. The images taken during the flyby were stored in the on-board tape recorder. At 02:19:11 UTC, Mariner 4 passed behind Mars as seen from Earth and the radio signal ceased. The signal was reacquired at 03:13:04 UTC when the spacecraft reappeared. Cruise mode was then re-established. Transmission of the taped images to Earth began about 8.5 hours after signal reacquisition and continued until August 3. All images were transmitted twice to ensure no data was missing or corrupt. Each individual photograph took approximately six hours to be transmitted back to Earth.
The spacecraft performed all programmed activities successfully and returned useful data from launch until 22:05:07 UTC on October 1, 1965, when the long distance to Earth (309.2 e6km) and the imprecise antenna orientation led to a temporary loss of communication with the spacecraft until 1967.
### First image hand drawn {#first_image_hand_drawn}
The on-board tape recorder used on Mariner 4 was a spare, not originally intended for the Mariner 4 flight. Between the failure of Mariner 3, the fact that the Mariner 4 recorder was a spare, and some error readings suggesting an issue with the tape recorder, it was determined that the team would test the camera function definitively. This eventually led to the first digital image being painted. While waiting for the image data to be computer processed, the team used a pastel set from an art supply store to hand-color (paint-by-numbers style) a numerical printout of the raw pixels. The resulting image provided early verification that the camera was functioning. The hand-drawn image compared favorably with the final, computer-processed one.
Image:First TV Image of Mars.jpg\|The first digital image from Mars hand-colored like a paint-by-numbers picture Image:M01setSx3.jpg \| Processed first digital image from Mars
### Micrometeoroid hits and end of communications {#micrometeoroid_hits_and_end_of_communications}
Data acquisition resumed in late 1967. The cosmic dust detector registered 17 hits in a 15-minute span on September 15, part of an apparent micrometeoroid shower that temporarily changed the spacecraft attitude and probably slightly damaged its thermal shield. Later it was speculated that Mariner 4 passed through debris of D/1895 Q1 (D/Swift) comet, and even made a flyby of that comet\'s possibly shattered nucleus at 20 e6km.`{{r|Phillips1|Phillips2}}`{=mediawiki}
On December 7 the gas supply in the attitude control system was exhausted, and between December 10 and 11, a total of 83 micrometeoroid hits were recorded which caused perturbation of the spacecraft\'s attitude and degradation of the signal strength. On December 21, 1967, communications with Mariner 4 were terminated. The spacecraft is now derelict in an exterior heliocentric orbit.`{{r|Filmer|Pyle2012}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Mariner 4
## Results
thumb\|upright=1.5\|right\|Jack N. James (center), JPL\'s Mariner 4 Project Manager, with a group in the White House presenting the spacecraft\'s famous picture Number 11 of Mars to US President Lyndon B. Johnson (center right) in July 1965 The total data returned by the mission was 5.2 million bits (about 634 kB). All instruments operated successfully with the exception of a part of the ionization chamber, namely the Geiger--Müller tube, which failed in February 1965. In addition, the plasma probe had its performance degraded by a resistor failure on December 8, 1964, but experimenters were able to recalibrate the instrument and still interpret the data. The images returned showed a Moon-like cratered terrain, which scientists did not expect, although amateur astronomer Donald Cyr had predicted craters.`{{r|ley196604}}`{=mediawiki} Later missions showed that the craters were not typical for Mars, but only for the more ancient region imaged by Mariner 4. A surface atmospheric pressure of 4.1 to and daytime temperatures of −100 °C were estimated. No magnetic field`{{r|O'Gallagher|Smith}}`{=mediawiki} or Martian radiation belts or, again surprisingly, surface water was detected.
Bruce C. Murray used photographs from Mariner 4 to elucidate Mars\' geologic history.
Image:M01Bx6Sx5C.jpg\|The first digital image from Mars Image:Mars (Mariner 4).jpg \| The first close-up image ever taken of Mars. It shows an area about 330 km across by 1200 km from limb to bottom of frame. Image:Mariner 4 craters.gif \| The clearest Mariner 4 image showing craters Image:M04 12.jpg \| Mosaic of frames 1 and 2. The Martian atmosphere is visible over the planet\'s limb. Image:M04 0910.jpg \| Mosaic of frames 9 and 10 Image:M04 1112.jpg \| Mosaic of frames 11 and 12
Images of craters and measurements of a thin atmosphere`{{r|Leighton|Kliore}}`{=mediawiki}---much thinner than expected`{{r|ley196604}}`{=mediawiki}---indicating a relatively inactive planet exposed to the harshness of space, generally dissipated hopes of finding intelligent life on Mars. Life on Mars had been the subject of speculation and science fiction for centuries. If there was life on Mars, after Mariner 4 most concluded it would probably be smaller, simpler forms. Others concluded that a search for life on Earth at kilometer resolution, using several thousand photographs, did not reveal a sign of life on the vast majority of these photographs; thus, based on the 22 photographs taken by Mariner 4, one could not conclude there was no intelligent life on Mars. The solar wind was measured, and compared with simultaneous records from Mariner 5 which went to Venus.
The total cost of the Mariner 4 mission is estimated at \$83.2 million (equivalent to \$`{{Inflation|US|83.2|1965}}`{=mediawiki} million in `{{Inflation/year|US}}`{=mediawiki}). Total research, development, launch, and support costs for the Mariner series of spacecraft (Mariners 1 through 10) was approximately \$554 million (equivalent to \${{#expr:`{{Inflation|US|554|1965|r=-1}}`{=mediawiki}/1000}} billion in `{{Inflation/year|US}}`{=mediawiki})
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# Musical ensemble
A **musical ensemble**, also known as a **music group**, **musical group**, or a **band** is a group of people who perform instrumental and/or vocal music, with the ensemble typically known by a distinct name. Some music ensembles consist solely of instrumentalists, such as the jazz quartet or the orchestra. Other music ensembles consist solely of singers, such as choirs and doo-wop groups. In both popular music and classical music, there are ensembles in which both instrumentalists and singers perform, such as the rock band or the Baroque chamber group for basso continuo (harpsichord and cello) and one or more singers. In classical music, trios or quartets either blend the sounds of musical instrument families (such as piano, strings, and wind instruments) or group instruments from the same instrument family, such as string ensembles (e.g., string quartet) or wind ensembles (e.g., wind quintet). Some ensembles blend the sounds of a variety of instrument families, such as the orchestra, which uses a string section, brass instruments, woodwinds, and percussion instruments, or the concert band, which uses brass, woodwinds, and percussion. In jazz ensembles or combos, the instruments typically include wind instruments (one or more saxophones, trumpets, etc.), one or two chordal \"comping\" instruments (electric guitar, acoustic guitar, piano, or Hammond organ), a bass instrument (bass guitar or double bass), and a drummer or percussionist. Jazz ensembles may be solely instrumental, or they may consist of a group of instruments accompanying one or more singers. In rock and pop ensembles, usually called rock bands or pop bands, there are usually guitars and keyboards (piano, electric piano, Hammond organ, synthesizer, etc.), one or more singers, and a rhythm section made up of a bass guitar and drum kit.
Music ensembles typically have a leader. In jazz bands, rock and pop groups, and similar ensembles, this is the band leader. In classical music, orchestras, concert bands, and choirs are led by a conductor. In orchestra, the concertmaster (principal first violin player) is the instrumentalist leader of the orchestra. In orchestras, the individual sections also have leaders, typically called the \"principal\" of the section (e.g., the leader of the viola section is called the \"principal viola\"). Conductors are also used in jazz big bands and in some very large rock or pop ensembles (e.g., a rock concert that includes a string section, a horn section, and a choir that accompanies a rock band\'s performance).
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# Musical ensemble
## Classical chamber music {#classical_chamber_music}
In Western classical music, smaller ensembles are called chamber music ensembles. The terms duo, trio, quartet, quintet, sextet, septet, octet, nonet, and decet describe groups of two up to ten musicians, respectively. A group of eleven musicians, such as found in *The Carnival of the Animals*, is called an *undecet*, and a group of twelve is called a *duodecet* (see Latin numerical prefixes). A soloist playing unaccompanied (e.g., a pianist playing a solo piano piece or a cellist playing a Bach suite for unaccompanied cello) is not an ensemble because it only contains one musician.
### Four parts {#four_parts}
#### Strings
A string quartet consists of two violins, a viola, and a cello. There is a vast body of music written for string quartets, making it an important genre in classical music.
#### Wind
A woodwind quartet usually features a flute, an oboe, a clarinet, and a bassoon. A brass quartet features two trumpets, a trombone, and a tuba (or French horn (more commonly known as \"horn\")). A saxophone quartet consists of a soprano saxophone, an alto saxophone, a tenor saxophone, and a baritone saxophone.
### Five parts {#five_parts}
The string *quintet* is a common type of group. It is similar to the string quartet, but with an additional viola, cello, or more rarely, the addition of a double bass. Terms such as \"piano quintet\" or \"clarinet quintet\" frequently refer to a string quartet *plus* a fifth instrument. Mozart\'s Clarinet Quintet is similarly a piece written for an ensemble consisting of two violins, a viola, a cello, and a clarinet, the last being the exceptional addition to a \"normal\" string quartet.
Some other quintets in classical music are the wind quintet, usually consisting of flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, and horn; the brass quintet, consisting of two trumpets, one horn, a trombone, and a tuba; and the reed quintet, consisting of an oboe, a soprano clarinet, a saxophone, a bass clarinet, and a bassoon.
### Six or more instruments {#six_or_more_instruments}
Classical chamber ensembles of six (sextet), seven (septet), or eight musicians (octet) are fairly common; the use of latinate terms for larger groups is rare, except for the nonet (nine musicians). In most cases, a larger classical group is referred to as an orchestra of some type or a concert band. A small orchestra with fifteen to thirty members (violins, violas, four cellos, two or three double basses, and several woodwind or brass instruments) is called a chamber orchestra. A sinfonietta usually denotes a somewhat smaller orchestra (though still not a chamber orchestra). Larger orchestras are called symphony orchestras (see below) or philharmonic orchestras.
A pops orchestra is an orchestra that mainly performs light classical music (often in abbreviated, simplified arrangements) and orchestral arrangements and medleys of popular jazz, music theater, or pop music songs.`{{Clarify|date=July 2016}}`{=mediawiki} A string orchestra has only string instruments, i.e., violins, violas, cellos, and double basses.
A symphony orchestra is an ensemble usually comprising at least thirty musicians; the number of players is typically between fifty and ninety-five and may exceed one hundred. A symphony orchestra is divided into families of instruments. In the string family, there are sections of violins (I and II), violas, cellos (often eight), and basses (often from six to eight). The standard woodwind section consists of flutes (one doubling piccolo), oboes (one doubling English horn), soprano clarinets (one doubling bass clarinet), and bassoons (one doubling contrabassoon). The standard brass section consists of horns, trumpets, trombones, and tuba. The percussion section includes the timpani, bass drum, snare drum, and any other percussion instruments called for in a score (e.g., triangle, glockenspiel, chimes, cymbals, wood blocks, etc.). In Baroque music (1600--1750) and music from the early Classical period music (1750--1820), the percussion parts in orchestral works may only include timpani.`{{Clarify|date=July 2016}}`{=mediawiki}
A wind orchestra or concert band is a large classical ensemble generally made up of between 40 and 70 musicians from the woodwind, brass, and percussion families, along with the double bass. The concert band has a larger number and variety of wind instruments than the symphony orchestra but does not have a string section (although a single double bass is common in concert bands). The woodwind section of a concert band consists of piccolo, flutes, oboes (one doubling English horn), bassoons (one doubling contrabassoon), soprano clarinets (one doubling E`{{music|flat}}`{=mediawiki} clarinet, one doubling alto clarinet), bass clarinets (one doubling contrabass clarinet or contra-alto clarinet), alto saxophones (one doubling soprano saxophone), tenor saxophone, and baritone saxophone. The brass section consists of horns, trumpets or cornets, trombones, euphoniums, and tubas. The percussion section consists of the timpani, bass drum, snare drum, and any other percussion instruments called for in a score (e.g., triangle, glockenspiel, chimes, cymbals, wood blocks, etc.).
Less well known is the large symphonic accordion orchestra. Typically, it includes between 50 and 100 musicians whose free-bass instruments are individually re-tuned in order to recreate the full range of orchestral sounds and timbers required for the performance of traditional Western classical music.
When orchestras perform baroque music (from the 17th century and early 18th century), they may also use a harpsichord or pipe organ, to play the continuo part. When orchestras perform Romantic-era music (from the 19th century), they may also use harps or unusual instruments such as the wind machine or cannons. When orchestras perform music from the 20th century or the 21st century, occasionally instruments such as electric guitar, theremin, or even an electronic synthesizer may be used.
## Vocal group {#vocal_group}
A **vocal group** is a performing ensemble of vocalists who sing and harmonize together. The first well-known vocals groups emerged in the 19th century, and the style had reached widespread popularity by the 1940s.
Vocal groups can come in several different forms, including:
### Based on genders {#based_on_genders}
- Boys\' choir -- vocal group of boys who have yet to begin puberty
- Boy band -- vocal group consisting of (young) males
- Girl group -- vocal group consisting of (young) females
- Co-ed group -- vocal group consisting of both males and females, typically in their teens or early twenties
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# Musical ensemble
## Vocal group {#vocal_group}
### Based on project type {#based_on_project_type}
- Sub-unit -- a group that is descended from the main group, with smaller number of members. Usually, all the members are from the main group.
- Supergroup -- a musical group formed with members who are already successful as solo artists or as members of other successful groups.
### Others
- Choir -- a group of voices. By analogy, sometimes a group of similar instruments in a symphony orchestra is referred to as a choir. For example, the woodwind instruments of a symphony orchestra could be called the woodwind choir.
- Doo-wop group
- Vocal quartet (as well as vocal trios and quintets)
- Barbershop quartet -- a cappella close-harmony vocal group
- Gospel quartet
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# Musical ensemble
## Other western musical ensembles {#other_western_musical_ensembles}
A group that plays popular music or military music is usually called a band; a drum and bugle corps is a type of the latter. These bands perform a wide range of music, ranging from arrangements of jazz orchestral, or popular music to military-style marches. Drum corps perform on brass and percussion instruments only. Drum and Bugle Corps incorporate costumes, hats, and pageantry in their performances.
Other band types include:
- Brass bands: groups consisting of around 30 brass and percussion players;
- Corps of drums, Fife and drums, Pipe bands and Drum and bugle corps are mostly ceremonial bands
- Jug bands;
- Marching bands and military bands, dating back to the Ottoman military bands.
- Mexican Mariachi groups typically consist of at least two violins, two trumpets, one Spanish guitar, one vihuela (a high-pitched, five-string guitar), and one Guitarrón (a Mexican acoustic bass that is roughly guitar-shaped), and one or more singers.
- Mexican banda groups
- String bands
See List of musical band types for more.
## Role of women {#role_of_women}
*Main article: Girl group, All-female band* Women have a high prominence in many popular music styles as singers. However, professional women instrumentalists are uncommon in popular music, especially in rock genres such as heavy metal. \"\[P\]laying in a band is largely a male homosocial activity, that is, learning to play in a band is largely a peer-based\... experience, shaped by existing sex-segregated friendship networks.\" As well, rock music \"\...is often defined as a form of male rebellion vis-à-vis female bedroom culture.\" In popular music, there has been a gendered \"distinction between public (male) and private (female) participation\" in music. \"\[S\]everal scholars have argued that men exclude women from bands or the bands\' rehearsals, recordings, performances, and other social activities.\" \"Women are mainly regarded as passive and private consumers of allegedly slick, prefabricated -- hence, inferior -- pop music\..., excluding them from participating as high-status rock musicians.\" One of the reasons that there are rarely mixed gender bands is that \"bands operate as tight-knit units in which homosocial solidarity -- social bonds between people of the same sex\... -- plays a crucial role.\" In the 1960s pop music scene, \"\[s\]inging was sometimes an acceptable pastime for a girl, but playing an instrument\...simply wasn\'t done.\"
\"The rebellion of rock music was largely a male rebellion; the women---often, in the 1950s and \'60s, girls in their teens---in rock usually sang songs as personæ utterly dependent on their macho boyfriends\...\" Philip Auslander says that \"Although there were many women in rock by the late 1960s, most performed only as singers, a traditionally feminine position in popular music.\" Though some women played instruments in American all-female garage rock bands, none of these bands achieved more than regional success. So they \"did not provide viable templates for women\'s on-going participation in rock\". About the gender composition of heavy metal bands, it has been said that \"\[h\]eavy metal performers are almost exclusively male\" \"\...\[a\]t least until the mid-1980s\" apart from \"\...exceptions such as Girlschool\". However, \"\...now \[in the 2010s\] maybe more than ever--strong metal women have put up their dukes and got down to it,\" \"carv\[ing\] out a considerable place for \[them\]selves\". When Suzi Quatro emerged in 1973, \"no other prominent female musician worked in rock simultaneously as a singer, instrumentalist, songwriter, and bandleader.\" According to Auslander, she was \"kicking down the male door in rock and roll and proving that a female *musician* \... and this is a point I am extremely concerned about \... could play as well if not better than the boys\"
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# Military history of Afghanistan
The **Military history of Afghanistan** (*د افغانستان مسلح ځواک*) began before 1709 when the Hotaki dynasty was established in Kandahar followed by the Durrani Empire. The Afghan military was re-organized with assistance from the British in 1880, when the country was ruled by Amir Abdur Rahman Khan. It was modernized during King Amanullah Khan\'s rule in the early 20th century, and then during King Zahir Shah\'s forty-year rule; the Soviet Union supplied almost all weapons, training and military needs between the 1950s and 1970s. From 1978 to 1992, the Soviet-backed Afghan Armed Forces engaged in heavy fighting with the multi-national mujahideen groups who were then backed by the United States, Pakistan and others. After President Najibullah\'s resignation in 1992 and the end of Soviet support, the Afghan military dissolved into portions controlled by different factions. This era was followed by the Taliban regime, whose leaders were trained and influenced by the Pakistan Armed Forces.
After the removal of the Taliban regime in late 2001 and the formation of the Afghan Interim Administration, new military units were created. They were trained by NATO-member states, primarily by the United States. The Afghan Armed Forces operated independently but received some air support from the U.S. Air Force. As a major non-NATO ally, Afghanistan continued to receive billions of dollars in military assistance from the United States up until mid-2021.
With the Taliban takeover of Afghanistan in August 2021, the Islamic Republic Armed Forces were effectively dissolved, with the former insurgents becoming the country\'s new military. Remnants of the disbanded Afghan National Army regrouped to form the National Resistance Front of Afghanistan to wage guerrilla warfare against the Emirate.
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# Military history of Afghanistan
## Origins
Afghans have served in the militaries of the Ghaznavids (963--1187), Ghurids (1148--1215), Delhi Sultanate (1206--1527), Mughals (1526--1858) and the Persian army. The current Afghan military traces its origin to the early 18th century when the Hotaki dynasty rose to power in Kandahar and defeated the Persian Safavid Empire at the Battle of Gulnabad in 1722. `{{Blockquote|''"The sun had just appeared on the horizon when the armies began to observe each other with that curiosity so natural on these dreadful occasions. The Persian army just come out of the [[Isfahan|capital]], being composed of whatever was most brilliant at court, seemed as if it had been formed rather to make a show than to fight. The riches and variety of their arms and vestments, the beauty of their horses, the gold and precious stones with which some of their harnesses were covered, and the richness of their tents contributed to render the Persian camp very pompous and magnificent.''<br />
''On the other side there was a much smaller body of soldiers, disfigured with fatigue and the scorching heat of the sun. Their clothes were so ragged and torn in so long a march that they were scarce sufficient to cover them from the weather, and, their horses being adorned with only leather and brass, there was nothing glittering about them but their spears and sabres..."''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.conflicts.rem33.com/images/Georgia/Allen_14.htm|title=Account of British Trade across the Caspian Sea|work=Jonas Hanway|publisher=[[Centre for Military and Strategic Studies]]|access-date=2010-09-24}}</ref>|[[Jonas Hanway]]|1712–1786}}`{=mediawiki}
When Ahmad Shah Durrani formed the Durrani Empire in 1747, his Afghan army fought a number of wars in the Punjab region of Hindustan during the 18th to the 19th century. One of the famous battles was the 1761 Battle of Panipat in which the Afghans invaded and won a victory against the Maratha Empire. The Afghans then engaged multiple wars with the Sikh Empire. The Afghan--Sikh Wars saw major territorial losses for the Afghans. During the First Anglo-Afghan War, British India invaded Afghanistan in 1838 but withdrew in 1842. During these three years a number of battles took place in different parts of Afghanistan.
> Traditionally, Afghan governments relied on three military institutions: the regular army, tribal levies, and community militias. The regular army was sustained by the state and commanded by government leaders. The tribal or regional levies - irregular forces - consisted of part-time soldiers provided by tribal or regional chieftains. The chiefs received tax breaks, land ownership, cash payments, or other privileges in return. The community militia included all available able-bodied members of the community, mobilized to fight, probably only in exceptional circumstances, for common causes under community leaders. Combining these three institutions created a formidable force whose components supplemented each other\'s strengths and minimized their weaknesses.
At the outbreak of the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878--80) the regular army was about 50,000 strong and consisted of 62 infantry and 16 cavalry regiments, with 324 guns mostly organized in horse and mountain artillery batteries. Jalali writes that \'..although Amir Shir Ali Khan (1863--78) is widely credited for founding the modern Afghan Army, it was only under Abdur Rahman that it became a viable and effective institution.\' The Library of Congress Country Study for Afghanistan states:
> Abdur Rahman was the creator of the modern Afghan state. When he came to the throne \[in 1880\], the army was virtually nonexistent. With the assistance of a liberal financial loan from the British, plus their aid in the form of weapons, ammunition, and other military supplies, he began a 20-year task of creating a respectable regular force by instituting measures that formed the long-term basis of the military system. These included increasing the equalization of military obligation by setting up a system known as the hasht nafari (whereby one man in every eight between the ages of 20 and 40 took his turn at military service); constructing an arsenal in Kabul to reduce dependence on foreign sources for small arms and other ordnance; introducing supervised training courses; organizing troops into divisions, brigades, and regiments, including battalions of artillery; developing pay schedules; and introducing an elementary (and harsh) disciplinary system.
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# Military history of Afghanistan
## 20th century {#th_century}
### Soviet aid {#soviet_aid}
After the Third Anglo-Afghan War ended, the reforming Amanullah Khan did not see the need for a large army, instead deciding to rely on Afghanistan\'s historical martial qualities. This resulted in neglect, cutbacks, recruitment problems, and finally an army unable to quell the 1929 uprising that cost him his throne. However, under his reign, the Afghan Air Force was formed in 1924. The Afghan Armed Forces were expanded during King Zahir Shah\'s reign, reaching a strength of 70,000 in 1933. Adamec writes that the army was 60,000 strong in 1936, and included two corps in Kabul; three divisions in the Southern Province; one division Household troops (Guard Division); one artillery division; and two independent mixed divisions. Total divisions were 13 plus the artillery division. It is not clear how much the Army was involved in the Afghan tribal revolts of 1944--1947.
Following the Second World War, Afghanistan briefly received continued military support from the British government under the Lancaster Plan from 1945 to 1947, until the partition of India transformed British priorities. Afghanistan declined to join the 1955 United States-sponsored Baghdad Pact; this rebuff did not stop the United States from continuing its low-level aid program, but it was reluctant to provide Afghanistan with military assistance, so Daoud turned to the Soviet Union and its allies, and in 1955 he received approximately US\$25 million of military aid.
During the 1950s and 1960s, Afghanistan purchased moderate quantities of Soviet weapons. It was mainly Sukhoi Su-7, Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 fighter jets, T-34 and Iosif Stalin tanks, SU-76 self-propelled guns, GAZ-69 4x4 light trucks of jeep class (in many versions), ZIL-157 military trucks, Katyusha multiple rocket launchers, and BTR-40 and BTR-152 armored personnel carriers. Also included were PPSh-41 and RPK machine guns.
In addition, the Soviet Union and its allies began construction of military airfields in Bagram, Mazar-e-Sharif, and Shindand. By the 1960s, Soviet assistance started to improve the structure, armament, training, and command and control arrangements for the military. The Afghan Armed Forces reached a strength of 98,000 (90,000 soldiers and 8,000 airmen) by this period.
During this time in September 1960, irregulars & regulars of the Royal Afghan Army invaded the Bajaur district of Pakistan which resulted in intense skirmishes with Pakistani forces & local Pakistani tribesmen. However, the Afghan forces faced a defeat after they were flushed out of the area.
After the exile of King Zahir Shah in 1973, President Daud Khan forged stronger ties with the Soviets by signing two highly controversial military aid packages for his nation in 1973 and 1975. Between 1973 and 1978, Afghanistan obtained more sophisticated Soviet weapons such as Mi-4 and Mi-8 helicopters, Sukhoi Su-22 and Il-28 jets. A great many T-55, T-62, and PT-76 tanks arrived and huge amounts of AKM assault rifles were ordered. Armored vehicles delivered in the 1970s also included ZIL-135s, BMP-1s, BRDM-1s, BTR-60s, UAZ-469, and GAZ-66 as well as large quantities of small arms and artillery. The Afghan Armed Forces and police continued to receive up-to-date Soviet weapons, as well as training by the KGB and Soviet Armed Forces, for another three years. Due to problems with local political parties in his country, President Daud Khan decided to distance himself from the Soviets in 1976. He made Afghanistan\'s ties closer to the Greater Middle East and the United States instead.
> By the time Daoud visited the Soviet Union again in April 1977, the Soviets were aware of his purge of the left that began in 1975, his removal of Soviet advisers from some Afghan military units, and his diversification of Afghan military training (especially to nations like India and Egypt, where they could be trained with Soviet weapons but not by Soviets).
In April 1978 there was a coup, known as the Saur Revolution, orchestrated by members of the government loyal to the People\'s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA). This led to a full-scale Soviet invasion in December 1979, led by the 40th Army and the Airborne Forces. In 1981 the total strength of the Afghan Armed Forces was around 85,000 troops according to The New York Times. The Afghan Army had around 35--40,000 soldiers, mostly conscripts; the Air Force had around 7,000 personnel; and the total of all military personnel was around 87,000 in 1984. Throughout the 1980s, the Afghan Armed Forces was heavily involved in fighting against the multi-national mujahiddin rebel groups who were largely backed by the United States and trained by the Pakistan Armed Forces. The rebel groups were fighting to force the Soviet Union to withdraw from Afghanistan as well as to remove the Soviet-backed government of President Mohammad Najibullah. Due to large number of defectors, the Afghan Armed Forces in 1985 were reduced to no more than about 47,000, the actual figure probably being lower. The Air Force had over 150 combat aircraft with about 7,000 officers who were supported by up to 5,000 Cuban Revolutionary Air and Air Defense Force and Czechoslovak Air Force advisers.
Under the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (1978--1992), weapon deliveries by the Soviets were increased and included Mi-24 helicopters, MiG-23 fighter aircraft, ZSU-23-4 \"Shilka\" and ZSU-57-2 anti-aircraft self-propelled mounts, MT-LB armored personnel carriers, BM-27 \"Uragan\" and BM-21 \"Grad\" multiple-launch rocket systems and FROG-7 and Scud launchers. Some of the weapons that were not damaged during the decades of wars are still being used today.
Weapons supplies were made available to the mujahideen rebel groups through numerous countries; the United States purchased all of Israel\'s captured Soviet weapons clandestinely, and then funnelled the weapons to the mujahideen rebels, while Egypt upgraded their own Army\'s weapons, and sent the older weapons to the mujahideen, Turkey sold its World War II stockpiles to the warlords, and the British and Swiss provided Blowpipe missiles and Oerlikon anti-aircraft guns respectively, after they were found to be poor models for their own forces. China provided the most relevant weapons, likely due to their own experience with guerrilla warfare, and kept meticulous record of all the shipments.
Following the Soviet withdrawal in 1989 the mujahiddin rebel attacks continued and grew in intensity. For several years the Afghan Armed Forces had actually increased their effectiveness past levels ever achieved during the Soviet military presence. The eleven-year Siege of Khost ended with the city\'s fall in March 1991. But the government was dealt a major blow when Abdul Rashid Dostum, a leading general, switched allegiances to the mujahideen forces in 1992 and together they captured the city of Kabul. By 1992 the Army fragmented into regional militias under local warlords because of the fall of the Soviet Union which stopped supplying the Afghan Armed Forces and later in 1992 when the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan government lost power.
After the fall of Najibullah\'s regime in 1992, the various Afghan political parties began to assemble their own more formal armed forces. By February 1992 Massoud\'s Jamiat-i-Islami had a central force reported at six battalions strong, plus additional second tier units, \"the bulk of the army, ..made up of regional battalions, subordinate to local commanders of the Supervisory Council.\" On 16 January 1993 *Jane\'s Defence Weekly* reported that \"a special assembly of 1335 delegates elected from across Afghanistan\" had both elected Professor Burhanuddin Rabbani as President of the Islamic State of Afghanistan for two years, and agreed to \"establish a regular army with soldiers mostly drawn from Mojahedin groups.\" Pakistan had offered training assistance. However, a Civil War started between the various warlords, including Ahmad Shah Massoud, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, Abdul Rashid Dostum, Abdul Ali Mazari, Jalaluddin Haqqani, Ismail Khan, Atta Muhammad Nur, Abdul Rasul Sayyaf, Mohammad Nabi Mohammadi, Mohammad Yunus Khalis, Gul Agha Sherzai and many others. They received logistics support from foreign powers including Russia, Pakistan, India, Iran, China, France and others.
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# Military history of Afghanistan
## First Taliban Government period {#first_taliban_government_period}
When the Taliban took power in 1996, the local warlords and their followers fled Kabul to the north of the country. With the backing and support of Pakistan, the Taliban solidified their own state military forces.Al-Qaeda was also training its fighters in the Taliban controlled territory, including their high-quality 055 Brigade. The Taliban forces possessed over 400 T-54/55 and T-62 tanks and more than 200 Armoured personnel carriers. The Afghan Air Force under the Taliban maintained five supersonic MIG-21MFs and 10 Sukhoi-22 fighter-bombers. In 1995, during the 1995 Airstan incident, a Taliban fighter plane captured a Russian transport. They also held six Mil Mi-8 helicopters, five Mi-35s, five L-39Cs, six Antonov An-12, 25 An-26, a dozen An-24/32, an IL-18, and a Yakovlev.
## U.S. war in Afghanistan (2002--2021) {#u.s._war_in_afghanistan_20022021}
After the formation of the Karzai administration in late 2001, the Afghan armed forces was gradually reestablished by the United States and its allies. Over two decades, 2001--2021, the United States spent an estimated \$83 billion on the Afghan military through the Afghanistan Security Forces Fund and an additional \$36 billion to support the Afghan government.
Initially, a new land force, the Afghan National Army (ANA), was created, along with an air arm, the Afghan National Army Air Corps, as part of the army. The army later included Commandos and Special Forces. The ANA Air Corps later split off to become an independent branch, the Afghan Air Force. Training was managed initially by the U.S. Office of Military Cooperation, followed by other U.S. organizations and then Combined Security Transition Command-Afghanistan, and was finally run by the Resolute Support Mission.
The President of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan was the Commander-in-Chief of the Afghan Armed Forces, who were administratively controlled through the Ministry of Defence. Before the Fall of Kabul, they had major bases and small outposts all across Afghanistan, including in the provinces of Badakhshan, Balkh, Helmand, Herat, Kabul, Kandahar, Nangarhar and Parwan, as well as in the cities of Kunduz, Ghazni, Gardez, Khost, Fayzabad, Farah and Zaranj.
The Afghan Air Force was relatively capable before and during the 1980s but by late 2001, the number of operational aircraft available was minimal. The United States and its allies quickly eliminated the remaining strength and ability of the Taliban to operate aircraft in the opening stages of their intervention. With the occupation of airbases by American forces it became clear how destitute the Air Force had become since the withdrawal of the Soviet Union. Most aircraft were only remnants rusting away for a decade or more. Many others were relocated to neighboring countries for storage purposes or sold cheaply. The AAF was reduced to a very small force while the country was torn by civil war. It was gradually strengthened by CSTC-A\'s NATO-led multinational Combined Air Power Transition Force. By 2006, more than 60,000 former militiamen from around the country were disarmed. In 2007, it was reported that the DDR programmes had dismantled 274 paramilitary organizations, reintegrated over 62,000 militia members into civilian life, and recovered more than 84,000 weapons, including heavy weapons. But *The New York Times* also reported a rise in hoarded weapons and a growing Taliban threat, even in the north of the country.
Commandos were established in 2007, later growing from a battalion to a brigade. The aim of Disbandment of Illegal Armed Groups programme was to ban all illegal armed groups in all provinces of the country. Approximately 2,000 such groups have been identified; most of them surrendered to the Afghan government or joined the new armed forces.
The NATO-trained Afghan National Army grew to a size of 31 Kandaks, or Battalions, at one point 28 of which were announced as combat ready. Seven regional corps headquarters were created. The National Military Academy of Afghanistan was built to provide future officers, modeled after the United States Military Academy. The Marshal Fahim National Defense University is located in Kabul province and consists of a headquarters building, classrooms, dining facility, library, and medical clinic. In addition to this, an \$80 million central command center was built next to the Hamid Karzai International Airport. In 2012, Afghanistan became a major non-NATO ally of the United States.
Sizable numbers of Afghan officers are sent to be trained in India either at the Indian Military Academy in Dehradun, the National Defence Academy near Pune or the Officers Training Academy in Chennai. The Indian Military Academy which has been in existence since 1932, provides a 4-year degree to army officers, while the National Defence Academy is a tri-service college provides a 3-year degree after which officers undergo a 1-year specialization in their respective service colleges. The Officers Training Academy on the other hand provides a 49-week course to Graduate officer candidates. In 2014 the number of Afghan officers in training in India was nearly 1,100.
The total manpower of the Afghan Armed Forces was approximately 186,000 as of 2021. It was around 164,000 in May 2011.
The United States was also largely responsible for the growth of the Afghan Air Force, as part of the Combined Air Power Transition Force, from four aircraft at the end of 2001 to about 100 as of 2011. Types include Lockheed C-130 Hercules and Pilatus PC-12 transport aircraft, as well as Mi-17 troop-carrying helicopters and Mil Mi-35 attack helicopters. The aircrew are being trained by an American team. Eventually the air force had over 200 refurbished aircraft, which includes A-29 Super Tucano attack aircraft, Lockheed C-130 Hercules and Pilatus PC-12s military transport aircraft, as well as UH-60A Black Hawk, Mil Mi-17, and other types of helicopters. It also included trainers such as Aero L-39 Albatros and Cessna 182s. The manpower of the Afghan Air Force was around 7,000, which includes over 450 pilots. It also had a small number of female pilots.
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# Military history of Afghanistan
## Taliban government since mid-2021 {#taliban_government_since_mid_2021}
As of 15 August 2021, what remained of the Ghani government\'s armed forces were left leaderless and dispersed due to the 2021 Taliban offensive and the Fall of Kabul to the Taliban. Some have since partly regrouped as the National Resistance Front of Afghanistan.
As Afghan forces accepted the circumstances of the Doha Agreement and the withdrawal of United States troops from Afghanistan, they understood that American close air support and other strategic assets would no longer be available to support them in combat situations against the Taliban, and they became more willing to surrender to the attacking Taliban forces.
Other Afghans allied with the Afghan government looked for ways to maneuver themselves into better positions, having accepted the impending collapse of the government. The Taliban extended their control over the provinces through a series of negotiated surrenders. After Kunduz province was captured, a days long negotiation between the tribes and the Taliban resulted in a surrender of the government-controlled base to the Taliban. Similar negotiations in Herat saw a wave of resignations in the provincial government, and then the same in Helmand and Ghazni. Outgunned, Afghan special forces based in Kandahar fled. Police officers in Kandahar complained that they had not been paid for six months.
In early September 2021 the Taliban announced a new interim government. Among the appointees was Molvi Mullah Yaqoob, Defence Minister, son of ex-Taliban leader Mullah Omar; Mullah Mohammed Fazil Mazloom Akhund, deputy to the Defence Minister; and Qari Farseehuddin, a Tajik, listed as Army Chief.
the Islamic Emirate Army is subdivided into eight corps, mostly superseding the previous corps of the Afghan National Army. They are listed below. In November 2021 Mullah Yaqoob, Acting Minister of Defense, announced the new names and of the corps.
+----------------------------+----------------+------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| Corps | Headquarters | Superseded Corps | Commander(s) | Ref(s) |
+============================+================+==================+========================================================================+========+
| 313 Central Corps | Kabul | | Maulvi Naqibullah \"Sahib\" (`{{small|Chief of Staff}}`{=mediawiki})\ | |
| | | | Maulvi Nasrullah \"Mati\" (`{{small|Commander}}`{=mediawiki})\ | |
| | | | Maulvi Nusrat (`{{small|Deputy Commander}}`{=mediawiki}) | |
+----------------------------+----------------+------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| 201 Khalid Ibn Walid Corps | Laghman | 201st Corps | Abdul Rahman Mansoori (`{{small|Chief of Staff}}`{=mediawiki})\ | |
| | | | Abu Dujana (`{{small|Commander}}`{=mediawiki})\ | |
| | | | Ibrahim (`{{small|Deputy Commander}}`{=mediawiki}) | |
+----------------------------+----------------+------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| 203 Mansoori Corps | Gardez | 203rd Corps | Ahmadullah Mubarak (`{{small|Chief of Staff}}`{=mediawiki})\ | |
| | | | Mohammad Ayub (`{{small|Commander}}`{=mediawiki})\ | |
| | | | Rohul Amin (`{{small|Deputy Commander}}`{=mediawiki}) | |
+----------------------------+----------------+------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| 205 Al-Badr Corps | Kandahar | 205th Corps | Hizbullah Afghan (`{{small|Chief of Staff}}`{=mediawiki})\ | |
| | | | Mehrullah Hamad (`{{small|Commander}}`{=mediawiki})\ | |
| | | | Wali Jan Hamza (`{{small|Deputy Commander}}`{=mediawiki}) | |
+----------------------------+----------------+------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| 207 Al-Farooq Corps | Herat | 207th Corps | Abdul Rahman Haqqani (`{{small|Chief of Staff}}`{=mediawiki})\ | |
| | | | Mohammad Zarif Muzaffar (`{{small|Commander}}`{=mediawiki})\ | |
| | | | Abdul Shakur Baryalai (`{{small|Deputy Commander}}`{=mediawiki}) | |
+----------------------------+----------------+------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| 209 Al-Fatah Corps | Mazar-i-Sharif | 209th Corps | Abdul Razzaq Faizullah (`{{small|Chief of Staff}}`{=mediawiki})\ | |
| | | | Attaullah Omari (`{{small|Commander}}`{=mediawiki})\ | |
| | | | Maulvi Amanuddin (`{{small|Deputy Commander}}`{=mediawiki}) | |
+----------------------------+----------------+------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| 215 Azam Corps | Helmand | 215th Corps | Maulvi Abdul Aziz \"Ansari\" (`{{small|Chief of Staff}}`{=mediawiki})\ | |
| | | | Sharafuddin Taqi (`{{small|Commander}}`{=mediawiki})\ | |
| | | | Mohibullah Nusrat (`{{small|Deputy Commander}}`{=mediawiki}) | |
+----------------------------+----------------+------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
| 217 Omari Corps | Kunduz | 217th Corps | Mohammad Shafiq (`{{small|Chief of Staff}}`{=mediawiki})\ | |
| | | | Rahmatullah Mohammad (`{{small|Commander}}`{=mediawiki})\ | |
| | | | Mohammad Ismail Turkman (`{{small|Deputy Commander}}`{=mediawiki}) | |
+----------------------------+----------------+------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------+
: Army Corps
Badri 313 Battalion, reported as operating in Kabul, is the only unit of the Taliban\'s armed forces that had the numerical designation 313
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# Matilda of Tuscany
**Matilda of Tuscany** (*Matilde di Toscana*; *Matilda* or *Mathilda*; `{{c.|1046}}`{=mediawiki} -- 24 July 1115), or **Matilda of Canossa** (*links=no* `{{IPA|it|maˈtilde di kaˈnɔssa|}}`{=mediawiki}), also referred to as *la Gran Contessa* (\"the Great Countess\"), was a member of the House of Canossa (also known as the Attonids) in the second half of the eleventh century. Matilda was one of the most important governing figures of the Italian Middle Ages. She reigned in a time of constant battles, political intrigues, and excommunications by the Church.
She ruled as a feudal margravine and, as a relative of the imperial Salian dynasty, she brokered a settlement in the so-called Investiture Controversy. In this extensive conflict with the emerging reform Papacy over the relationship between spiritual (*sacerdotium*) and secular (*regnum*) power, Pope Gregory VII dismissed and excommunicated the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV (then King of the Romans) in 1076. At the same time, Matilda came into possession of a substantial territory that included present-day Lombardy, Emilia, Romagna, and Tuscany. She made the Canossa Castle, in the Apennines south of Reggio, the centre of her domains.
After his famous penitential walk in front of Canossa Castle in January 1077, Henry IV was accepted back into the Church by the Pope. However, the understanding between the Emperor and the Pope was short-lived. In the conflicts with Henry IV that arose a little later, from 1080, Matilda put all her military and material resources into the service of the Papacy. Her court became a refuge for many displaced persons during the turmoil of the investiture dispute and enjoyed a cultural boom. Even after the death of Pope Gregory VII in 1085, Matilda remained a vital pillar of the Reform Church. Between 1081 and 1098, grueling disputes with Henry IV meant Canossan rule was in crisis. The historical record is sparse for this time. A turning point resulted from Matilda forming a coalition with the southern German dukes, who opposed Henry IV.
In 1097, Henry IV retreated past the Alps to the northern portion of the Holy Roman Empire, and a power vacuum developed in Italy. The struggle between *regnum* and *sacerdotium* changed the social and rulership structure of the Italian cities permanently, giving them space for emancipation from foreign rule and communal development. From autumn 1098, Matilda regained many of her lost domains. Until the end, she tried to bring the cities under her control. After 1098, she increasingly used the opportunities offered to her to consolidate her rule again. Since she was childless, in her final years, Matilda developed her legacy by focusing her donation activity on Polirone Abbey.
The account of Donizo reports that between 6 and 11 May 1111, Matilda was crowned Imperial Vicar and Vice-Queen of Italy by Henry V at Bianello Castle (Quattro Castella, Reggio Emilia). With her death, the House of Canossa became extinct in 1115. Well into the thirteenth century, popes and emperors fought over what was called the Terre Matildiche (\"Matildine domains\") as their rich inheritance.
The rule of Matilda and her influence became identified as a cultural epoch in Italy that found expression in the flowering of numerous artistic, musical, and literary designs and miracle stories and legends. Her legacy reached its apogee during the Counter-Reformation and the Baroque Period. Pope Urban VIII had Matilda\'s body transferred to Rome in 1630, where she was the first woman to be buried in Saint Peter\'s Basilica.
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# Matilda of Tuscany
## Origins of the House of Canossa {#origins_of_the_house_of_canossa}
Although these names were only created by later generations, Matilda came from the noble House of Canossa, also named the Attonids. The oldest proven ancestor of the House of Canossa was the nobleman Sigifred, who lived in the county of Lucca during the first third of the tenth century. He probably increased his sphere of influence in the area around Parma and in the foothills of the Apennines. His son, Adalbert-Atto, was able to bring several castles in the foothills of the Apennines under his control in the politically fragmented region. Adalbert-Atto married Hildegard, of the Supponid Frankish noble family who had been very influential in northern Italy.
Adalbert-Atto built the Canossa Castle in the southwest of the mountains of Reggio Emilia. After the unexpectred death of King Lothair II of Italy in 950, Adalbert-Atto provided refuge in Canossa Castle to Lothair\'s widow, Queen Adelaide, after Berengar of Ivrea attempted to take power in Italy and imprisoned her for a short time. King Otto I of East Francia then intervened in Italy and married Adelaide in 951. This resulted in a close bond between the House of Canossa and the Ottonian dynasty. Adalbert-Atto appeared in documents from the reign of Otto I as an advocate and he was able to establish contacts with the Papacy for the first time in the wake of the Ottonians. Otto I also awarded the counties of Reggio and Modena to Adalbert-Atto. In 977 at the latest, the county of Mantua was added to the domains awarded to Adalbert-Atto.
Adalbert-Atto\'s son, Tedald, continued the close ties to the Ottonian rulers from 988. Tedald was the grandfather of Matilda. In 996 he is listed as *dux et marchio* (Duke and Margrave) in a document. This title was adopted by all subsequent rulers of the House of Canossa, an inheritance preventing disputes among the three sons of Tedald.
The rise of the family reached its apogee under Matilda\'s father, Boniface. The three successive Canossa rulers (Adalbert-Atto, Tedald, and Boniface) instituted monasteries for their expansion of rule. The founded monasteries (Brescello, Polirone, Santa Maria di Felonica) were established in places of transport and strategic importance for the administrative consolidation of their large estates. Three family saints (Genesius, Apollonius, and Simeon) were used to stabilize the House of Canossa\'s power structure and the family sought to exert influence on convents that had been in existence for a long time (Abbey of Nonantola). Transfer of monasteries to local bishops and the promotion of spiritual institutions also enlarged their network of alliances. An appearance as the guardian of order consolidated their position along the *Via Aemilia*. Historian Arnaldo Tincani was able to prove the considerable number of 120 farms in the Canossa estate near the Po river.
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## Parents, birth, and early years {#parents_birth_and_early_years}
Matilda\'s parents, Boniface and Beatrice of Lorraine first met on the occasion of the wedding of Conrad II\'s son Henry with Gunhilda of Denmark in 1036 at the city of Nijmegen shortly after Boniface had become a widower early that year. Beatrice was the niece and foster daughter of Empress Gisela of Swabia. A marriage covenant was arranged and one year later, in June 1037, Boniface and Beatrice celebrated their marriage in high style, keeping court at Marengo for three months afterward. According to the marital agreements, Beatrice brought important assets in Lorraine: the Château of Briey, the Lordships of Stenay, Mouzay, Juvigny, Longlier, and Orval that constituted the northern part of her paternal family\'s ancestral lands. Beatrice and her sister, Sophia, were the daughters of Duke Frederick II of Upper Lorraine and Matilda of Swabia. After the deaths of their parents she and her sister had been raised in the imperial court by their maternal aunt, Empress Gisela. For Boniface, the marriage to Beatrice, a close relative of the emperor, brought him not only prestige, but also the prospect to have an heir. His first wife had been Richilda, a daughter of Giselbert II, Count Palatine of Bergamo and their only child was a daughter who was born and died in 1014. Boniface and Beatrice had three children, Beatrice (named after her mother), Frederick (named after his maternal grandfather), and Matilda (named after her maternal grandmother). Matilda, probably born around 1046, was the youngest child.
Matilda\'s birthplace and exact date of birth are unknown. Italian scholars have been arguing about her place of birth for centuries. According to Francesco Maria Fiorentini, a doctor and scholar of the seventeenth century, she was born in Lucca, an assumption reinforced by a miniature in the early twelfth-century *Vita Mathildis* by the monk Donizo (or, in Italian, Donizone), where Matilda is referred to as \'Resplendent Matilda\' (*Mathildis Lucens*): since the Latin word *lucens* is similar to *lucensis* (of/from Lucca), this also may be a reference to Matilda\'s birthplace and he interpreted it as such. For Benedictine scholar Camillo Affarosi, Canossa was her place of birth. Lino Lionello Ghirardini and Paolo Golinelli both advocated Mantua as her birthplace. A recent publication by Michèle Kahn Spike also favors Mantua, as it was the center for Boniface\'s court at the time. In addition, Ferrara or the small Tuscan town of San Miniato have been discussed as the possible birthplace. According to author Elke Goez, sources cannot prove that there was a permanent household location for Boniface of Canossa in either Mantua or any other place.
Scholars generally believe that Matilda must have spent her early years around her mother, who was renowned for her learning. She was literate in Latin, as well as reputed to speak German and French. The extent of Matilda\'s education in military matters is debated. It has been asserted that she was taught strategy, tactics, riding, and wielding weapons, but some scholarship challenges these claims. Her father, Boniface of Canossa was a feared and hated prince for some small vassals throughout his life. On 7 May 1052, he was ambushed while hunting in the forest of San Martino dall\'Argine near Mantua and killed. Following the death of their father, Matilda\'s brother, Frederick, inherited the family lands and titles under the regency of their mother, who not only managed to hold the family patrimony together, but also made important contacts with leading figures in the Church renewal movement. Beatrice developed into an increasingly important pillar of the reform of the Papacy. Matilda\'s older sister, Beatrice, died the next year (before 17 December 1053), making Matilda heiress presumptive to Frederick\'s personal holdings. Beatrice was Regent of Tuscany from 1052 until her death in 1076, during the minority of and in co-regency with Matilda.
In mid-1054, determined to safeguard the interests of her children as well as her own, Beatrice of Lorraine married Godfrey the Bearded, a distant kinsman who had been stripped of the Duchy of Upper Lorraine after openly rebelling against Emperor Henry III. Emperor Henry III was enraged by his cousin Beatrice\'s unauthorised union with his most vigorous adversary and took the opportunity to have her arrested, along with Matilda, when he marched south to attend a synod in Florence on Pentecost in 1055. Her brother Frederick\'s rather suspicious death soon thereafter, made Matilda the last member of the House of Canossa. Mother and daughter were taken to Germany, but Godfrey the Bearded successfully avoided capture. Unable to defeat him, Henry III sought a rapprochement. The Emperor\'s early death in October 1056, which brought to throne the underage Henry IV, seems to have accelerated the negotiations and the restoration of the previous balance of power.
Godfrey the Bearded was reconciled with the imperial family and recognized as Margrave of Tuscany in December, while Beatrice and Matilda were released. By the time she and her mother returned to Italy, in the company of Pope Victor II, Matilda was formally acknowledged as sole heiress to the greatest territorial lordship in the southern part of the Empire. In June 1057 the Pope held a synod in Florence; he was present during the infamous capture of Beatrice and Matilda, and, with the deliberated choice of location of the synod also made it clear that the House of Canossa had returned to Italy, strengthened at the side of the Pope and had been completely rehabilitated; with Henry IV being a minor, the reform Papacy sought the protection of the powerful House of Canossa. According to Donizo, the Panegyric biographer of Matilda and her ancestors, she was familiar with both French and German due to her origins and living conditions.
Matilda\'s mother and stepfather thus became heavily involved in the series of disputed papal elections during their regency, supporting the Gregorian Reforms. Godfrey the Bearded\'s brother, Frederick, became Pope Stephen IX, while both of the following two popes, Nicholas II and Alexander II, had been Tuscan bishops. Matilda made her first journey to Rome with her family in the entourage of Nicholas II in 1059. Godfrey and Beatrice actively assisted them in dealing with antipopes, while the role of adolescent Matilda remains unclear. A contemporary account of her stepfather\'s 1067 expedition against Prince Richard I of Capua on behalf of the papacy mentions Matilda\'s participation in the campaign, describing it as the \"first service that the most excellent daughter of Boniface offered to the blessed prince of the apostles\".
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# Matilda of Tuscany
## First marriage: Godfrey the Hunchback {#first_marriage_godfrey_the_hunchback}
Possibly taking advantage of the minority of Henry IV, Beatrice and Godfrey the Bearded wanted to consolidate the connection between the Houses of Lorraine and of Canossa in the long term by marrying their two children. Around 1055, Matilda and her stepbrother Godfrey the Hunchback (son of Godfrey the Bearded from his first marriage) were betrothed. In May 1069, as Godfrey the Bearded lay dying in Verdun, Beatrice and Matilda hastened to reach Lorraine, anxious to ensure a smooth transition of power. Matilda was present at her stepfather\'s deathbed, and on that occasion she is for the first time clearly mentioned as the wife of her stepbrother. After the death of Godfrey the Bearded on 30 December, the newlyweds stayed in Lorraine. Beatrice returned to Italy alone. Matilda became pregnant in 1070; Godfrey the Hunchback seems to have informed the Salian imperial court about this event: in a charter from Henry IV dated 9 May 1071, Godfrey or his heirs are mentioned. Matilda gave birth to a daughter, named Beatrice after her maternal grandmother, but the child died a few weeks after the birth, before 29 August 1071. In 1071, Beatrice had donated property to the Abbey of Frassinoro for the salvation of her granddaughter\'s soul and she granted twelve farms \"for the health and life of my beloved daughter Matilda\" (*pro incolomitate et anima Matilde dilecte filie mee*).
Matilda and Godfrey the Hunchback\'s marriage proved a failure after a short time. The death of their only child and Godfrey\'s physical deformity may have helped fuel deep animosity between the spouses. By the end of 1071, Matilda had left her husband and returned to Italy, where her stay in Mantua on 19 January 1072 can be proven. From there she and her mother issued a deed of donation for the Monastery of Sant\'Andrea. Godfrey the Hunchback fiercely protested the separation and demanded that Matilda come back to him, which she repeatedly refused. In early 1072, he descended into Italy and visited several places in Tuscany, determined not only to enforce the marriage, but to lay claim to these areas as Matilda\'s husband. During this time, Matilda stayed in Lucca and there is no evidence that the couple met. Additionally, Godfrey the Hunchback is named as her husband only in a single document dated 18 August 1073 signed in Mantua for a donation for the Monastery of San Paolo in Parma. In his efforts to restore his marital bond, Godfrey the Hunchback sought the help of both Matilda\'s mother and her ally, the newly elected Pope Gregory VII. He promised military aid to the latter. However, Matilda\'s resolution was unshakable, and in the summer of 1073 Godfrey the Hunchback returned to Lorraine alone, losing all hope for a reconciliation by 1074. Matilda wanted to enter in a monastery as a nun. During 1073--1074 she tried in vain to obtain the dissolution of her marriage with the pope; however, Gregory VII needed Godfrey the Hunchback as an ally and was therefore not interested in granting a divorce. At the same time the pope hoped for Matilda\'s help with his crusade plans.
Rather than supporting the pope as promised in exchange for preserving his marriage, Godfrey the Hunchback turned his attention to imperial affairs. Meanwhile, the conflict later known as the Investiture Controversy was brewing between Gregory VII and Henry IV, with both men claiming the right to appoint bishops and abbots within the empire. Matilda and Godfrey the Hunchback soon found themselves on opposing sides of the dispute, leading to a further deterioration of their difficult relationship. German chroniclers, writing of the synod held at Worms in January 1076, even suggested that Godfrey the Hunchback inspired an allegation by Henry IV of a licentious affair between Gregory VII and Matilda.
Matilda and Godfrey the Hunchback continued to live separately until her husband was assassinated in Vlaardingen (near Rotterdam) on 26 February 1076. Having been accused the previous month of adultery with the pope, Matilda was suspected of ordering her estranged husband\'s death. However, she couldn\'t have known about the proceedings at the Synod of Worms at the time since the news even took three months to reach the pope. It is more likely that Godfrey the Hunchback was killed at the instigation of an enemy nearer to him. Matilda made no spiritual donations for Godfrey the Hunchback.
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## Co-rulership with her mother Beatrice {#co_rulership_with_her_mother_beatrice}
Matilda\'s bold decision to repudiate her husband came at a cost, but ensured her independence. Beatrice started preparing Matilda for rule as head of the House of Canossa by holding court jointly with her and, eventually, encouraging her to issue charters under her own authority as countess (*comitissa*) and duchess (*ducatrix*). Both mother and daughter tried to be present throughout their territory. In what is now Emilia-Romagna their position was much more stable than in the southern Apennines, where they couldn\'t get their followers behind them despite rich donations. They therefore tried to act as guardians of justice and public order. Matilda\'s participation is mentioned in seven of the sixteen *placita* held by Beatrice. Supported by judges, Matilda had already held *placitum* placita alone. On 7 June 1072 Matilda and her mother presided over the court in favor of the Abbey of San Salvatore in Monte Amiata. On 8 February 1073, Matilda went to Lucca without her mother and presided over the court alone, where she made a donation in favor of the local Monastery of San Salvatore e Santa Giustina. At the instigation of the abbess Eritha, the monastery possessions in Lucca and Villanova near Serchio were secured by the King\'s ban (*Königsbann*). For the next six months Matilda\'s residence is not known, while her mother took part in the enthronement ceremony for Pope Gregory VII.
Matilda was introduced by her mother to numerous personalities in church reform, especially Pope Gregory VII. She had already met the future pope, then Archdeacon Hildebrand, in the 1060s. During 9--17 March 1074, she met him for the first time after his election as pope. He developed a special relationship of trust With Matilda and Beatrice, in the period that followed. However, Beatrice died on 18 April 1076. On 27 August 1077 Matilda donated her town of Scanello and other estates to the extent of 600 *mansus* near the court to Bishop Landulf and the chapter of Pisa Cathedral as a soul device (*Seelgerät*) for her and her parents.
The deaths of both her husband and mother within two months considerably augmented Matilda\'s power. She now was the undisputed heir of all lands allotted to both her parents. Her inheritance could have been threatened had Godfrey the Hunchback survived her mother, but she now enjoyed the privileged status of a widow. It seemed unlikely, however, that Emperor Henry IV would formally invest her with the margraviate.
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# Matilda of Tuscany
## Personal rule {#personal_rule}
### Matilda\'s role during the Investiture Controversy {#matildas_role_during_the_investiture_controversy}
#### State of Matilda\'s domains after her accession to power {#state_of_matildas_domains_after_her_accession_to_power}
After the death of her mother, Matilda took over her immense paternal inheritance. This was contrary to the provisions of the Salic and Lombard law currently in force in the Kingdom of Italy, according to which Emperor Henry IV would have been the legal heir. In view of the minority of Henry IV and close cooperation with the reform papacy, a lending under imperial law was of secondary importance for the House of Canossa
Between 1076 and 1080, Matilda travelled to Lorraine to lay claim to her husband\'s estate in Verdun, which he had willed (along with the rest of his patrimony) to his nephew Godfrey of Bouillon, the son of his sister Ida. Godfrey of Bouillon also disputed Matilda\'s rights to Stenay and Mosay, which her mother had received as dowry. The quarrel between aunt and nephew over the episcopal county of Verdun was eventually settled by Theoderic, Bishop of Verdun, who enjoyed the right to nominate the counts. He easily found in favor of Matilda, as such verdict happened to please both Pope Gregory VII and King Henry IV. Matilda then proceeded to invest Verdun to her husband\'s pro-reform cousin, Albert III of Namur. The deep animosity between Matilda and her nephew is thought to have prevented her from travelling to Jerusalem during the First Crusade that he led in the late 1090s.
#### Efforts to achieve a balance between king and pope {#efforts_to_achieve_a_balance_between_king_and_pope}
Matilda was a second cousin of Henry IV through their respective grandmothers, sisters Matilda of Swabia and Empress Gisela. Because of her family ties to the Salian dynasty, she was suitable for a mediator role between the Emperor and the Holy See. Matilda\'s mother died at the time when the conflict between King Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII was escalating. Matilda and Beatrice were among the closest confidants of Gregory VII. From the beginning, he took both into his confidence and let them know about his plans against the Roman-German king.
The disagreement between Pope Gregory VII and King Henry IV culminated in the aftermath of the synod of Worms on 24 January 1076; together with the Archbishops Siegfried of Mainz and Udo of Trier and 24 bishops, the king formulated drastic accusations against Gregory VII. The allegations included Gregory VII\'s election (which was described as illegitimate), the government of the Church through a \"women\'s senate\", and that \"he shared a table with a strange woman and housed her, more familiar than necessary.\" The contempt expressed was so immense that Matilda was not even called by name. The pope responded on 15 February 1076 with the excommunication of the king, releasing all his subjects from the oath of allegiance to him and providing the perfect reason for rebellion against his rule. These measures had a tremendous effect on contemporaries, as the words of the chronicler Bonizo of Sutri show: \"When the news of the banishment of the king reached the ears of the people, our whole world trembled\".
Insubordinate southern German princes gathered in Trebur, awaiting the pope. Matilda\'s first military endeavor, as well as the first major task altogether as ruler, turned out to be protecting the pope during his perilous journey north. Gregory VII could rely on nobody else. As the sole heiress to the House of Canossa patrimony, Matilda controlled all the Apennine passes and nearly all the rest that connected central Italy to the north. The Lombard bishops, who were also excommunicated for taking part in the synod and whose sees bordered Matilda\'s domain, were keen to capture the pope. Gregory VII was aware of the danger, and recorded that all his advisors except Matilda counselled him against travelling to Trebur.
Henry IV had other plans, however. He decided to descend into Italy and intercept Gregory VII, who was thus delayed. The German princes held a separate council and informed the king that he had to submit to the pope within a year or be replaced. Henry IV\'s predecessors had dealt easily with troublesome pontiffs --- they had simply deposed them, and the excommunicated Lombard bishops rejoiced at this prospect. When Matilda heard about Henry IV\'s approach, she urged Gregory VII to take refuge in the Canossa Castle, her family\'s eponymous stronghold. The pope took her advice.
It soon became clear that the intention behind Henry\'s walk to Canossa was to show penance. By 25 January 1077, the king stood barefoot in the snow before the gates of Matilda\'s castle, accompanied by his wife Bertha of Savoy, their infant son Conrad, and Bertha\'s mother, the powerful Margravine Adelaide of Susa (Matilda\'s second cousin; Adelaide\'s grandmother was Prangarda, sister of Tedald of Canossa, Matilda\'s paternal grandfather). Since Matilda\'s castle became the setting for the reconciliation between the emperor and the pope, she must have been very closely involved in the negotiations. The king remained there, in a penitent\'s robe, barefoot, and without a sign of authority, despite the winter cold, until 28 January, when Matilda convinced the pope to see him. Matilda and Adelaide brokered a deal between the men.
Henry IV was taken back into the Church, with both Matilda and Adelaide acting as sponsors and formally swearing to the agreement. For Matilda, the days in Canossa were a challenge. All those arriving had to be accommodated and looked after appropriately. She had to take care of the procurement and storage of food and fodder, and the supplies in the middle of winter. After the ban was dissolved, Henry IV stayed in the Po Valley for several months and demonstratively devoted himself to his rulership. Pope Gregory VII stayed in Matilda\'s castles for the next few months. Henry IV and Matilda never met again in person after the Canossa days. From 1077 to 1080 Matilda followed the usual activities of her rule. In addition to a few donations for the dioceses of Lucca and Mantua, court documents were in dominance.
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# Matilda of Tuscany
## Personal rule {#personal_rule}
### Matilda\'s role during the Investiture Controversy {#matildas_role_during_the_investiture_controversy}
#### Disputes with Henry IV {#disputes_with_henry_iv}
In 1079, Matilda gave the pope all her domains (the so-called *Terre Matildiche*), in open defiance of claims by Henry IV as both the overlord of some of those domains and as one of her close relatives. One year later, the fortunes of papacy and empire turned again: at the Roman synod of Lent in early March 1080 Henry IV was again excommunicated by Gregory VII. The pope combined the anathem with a warning: if the king didn\'t submit to the papal authority by 1 August he should be dethroned. However, unlike previously, the German bishops and princes stood behind Henry IV. In Brixen on 25 June 1080, seven German, one Burgundian, and 20 Italian bishops decided to depose Gregory VII and nominated Archbishop Guibert of Ravenna as pope, who took the name of Clement III. The break between the empire and the papacy also escalated the troubled relationship between Henry IV and Matilda. In September 1080, the Margravine stood on behalf of Bishop Gratianus of Ferrara to court. Marquis Azzo d\'Este, Counts Ugo and Ubert, Albert (son of Count Boso), Paganus di Corsina, Fulcus de Rovereto, Gerardo di Corviago, Petrus de Ermengarda, and Ugo Armatus all met there. Matilda swore there to maintain the upcoming fight against Henry IV. On 15 October 1080 at Volta Mantovana, the imperial troops defeated the army of Matilda and Gregory VII in battle. Some Tuscan nobles took advantage of the uncertainty and positioned themselves against Matilda; few places remained faithful to her. In a donation of 9 December 1080 to the Modenese monastery of San Prospero, only a few local followers are named.
Matilda, however, did not surrender. While Gregory VII was forced into exile, by retaining control over all the western passes in the Apennines, she could force Henry IV to approach Rome via Ravenna; even with this route open, the emperor would find it hard to besiege Rome with a hostile territory at his back. In December 1080 the citizens of Lucca, then the capital of Tuscany, had revolted and driven out her ally, Bishop Anselm. She is believed to have commissioned the renowned Ponte della Maddalena where the Via Francigena crosses the river Serchio at Borgo a Mozzano just north of Lucca.
Henry IV crossed the Alps in the spring of 1081. He gave up his previous reluctance toward his cousin Matilda and honored the city of Lucca for their transfer to the royal side. On 23 June 1081, the king issued the citizens of Lucca a comprehensive privilege in the army camp outside Rome. By granting special urban rights, the king intended to weaken Matilda\'s rule. In July 1081 at a synod in Lucca, Henry IV---on account of her 1079 donation to the Church---imposed Imperial ban upon Matilda and all her domains were forfeit, although this was not enough to eliminate her as a source of trouble, for she retained substantial allodial holdings. The consequences for Matilda, however, were relatively minor in Italy, but she suffered losses in her far-away Lorraine possessions. On 1 June 1085, Henry IV gave Matilda\'s domains Stenay and Mosay to Bishop Dietrich of Verdun.
Matilda remained Pope Gregory VII\'s chief intermediary for communication with northern Europe even as he lost control of Rome and was holed up in the Castel Sant\'Angelo. After Henry IV obtained possession of the pope\'s seal, Matilda wrote to supporters in Germany only to trust papal messages that came through her.
A guerrilla war developed that Matilda waged from her castles in the Apennines. In 1082 she was apparently insolvent. Therefore, she could no longer bind her vassals to her with generous gifts or fiefs. But even in dire straits, she did not let up in her zeal for the reform papacy. Although also a supporter of church reform, her mother had distanced herself from Gregory VII\'s revolutionary goals where these endangered the foundations of her rule structures. In this setting, mother and daughter differed significantly from one another. Matilda had the church treasure of the Apollonius monastery built near Canossa Castle melted down; precious metal vessels and other treasures from Nonantola Abbey also were melted down. She even sold her Allod city of Donceel to the Abbey of Saint-Jacques in Liège. All the proceeds were made available to the pope. The royal side of the dispute then accused her of plundering churches and monasteries. Pisa and Lucca sided with Henry IV. As a result, Matilda lost two of her most important pillars of power in Tuscany. She had to stand by and watch as anti-Gregorian bishops were installed in several places.
Henry IV\'s control of Rome enabled him to enthrone Antipope Clement III, who, in turn, crowned him emperor. After this, Henry IV returned to Germany, leaving it to his allies to attempt Matilda\'s dispossession. These attempts foundered after Matilda (with help of the city of Bologna) defeated them at Sorbara near Modena on 2 July 1084. In the battle, Matilda was able to capture Bishop Bernardo of Parma and make him a hostage. By 1085 Archbishop Tedaldo of Milan and the Bishops Gandolfo of Reggio Emilia and Bernardo of Parma, all members of the pro-imperial party, were dead. Matilda took this opportunity and filled the Bishoprics sees in Modena, Reggio, and Pistoia with church reformers again.
Gregory VII died on 25 May 1085, and Matilda\'s forces, with those of Prince Jordan I of Capua (her off and on again enemy), took to the field in support of a new pope, Victor III. In 1087, Matilda led an expedition to Rome in an attempt to install Victor III, but the strength of the imperial counterattack soon convinced the pope to withdraw from the city.
On his third expedition to Italy, Henry IV besieged Mantua and attacked Matilda\'s sphere of influence. In April 1091 he was able to take the city after an eleven-month siege. In the following months, the emperor achieved further successes against the vassals of the Margravine. In the summer of 1091, he managed to get the entire north area of the Po with the Counties of Mantua, Brescia, and Verona under his control. In 1092 Henry IV was able to conquer most of the counties of Modena and Reggio. The Monastery of San Benedetto in Polirone suffered severe damages in the course of the military conflict so that on 5 October 1092 Matilda gave the monastery the churches of San Prospero, San Donino in Monte Uille, and San Gregorio in Antognano to compensate. Matilda had a meeting with her few remaining faithful allies in the late summer of 1092 at Carpineti. The majority of them were in favor of peace. Only the hermit Johannes from Marola strongly advocated a continuation of the fight against the emperor. Thereupon Matilda implored her followers not to give up the fight. The imperial army began to siege Canossa in the autumn of 1092, but withdrew after a sudden failure of the siege; after this defeat, Henry IV\'s influence in Italy was never recovered.
In the 1090s Henry IV got increasingly on the defensive. A coalition of the southern German princes had prevented him from returning to the empire over the Alpine passes. For several years the emperor remained inactive in the area around Verona. In the spring of 1093, Conrad, his eldest son and heir to the throne, fell from him. With the support of Matilda along with the Patarene-minded cities of northern Italy (Cremona, Lodi, Milan, and Piacenza), the prince rebelled against his father. Sources close to the emperor saw Matilda\'s influence on Conrad as the reason for the rebellion of the son against his father, but contemporary sources don\'t reveal any closer contact between the two before the rebellion. A little later, Conrad was taken prisoner by his father but with Matilda\'s help, he was freed. With the support of the Margravine, Conrad was crowned King of Italy by Archbishop Anselm III of Milan before 4 December 1093. Together with the pope, Matilda organized the marriage of King Conrad with Maximilla, daughter of Count Roger I of Sicily. This was intended to win the support of the Normans of southern Italy against Henry IV. Conrad\'s initiatives to expand his rule in northern Italy probably led to tensions with Matilda, and for this, he didn\'t find any more support for his rule. After 22 October 1097, his political activity was virtually ended, his death in the summer of 1101 from a fever being the only mention.
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# Matilda of Tuscany
## Personal rule {#personal_rule}
### Matilda\'s role during the Investiture Controversy {#matildas_role_during_the_investiture_controversy}
#### Disputes with Henry IV {#disputes_with_henry_iv}
In 1094 Henry IV\'s second wife, the Rurikid princess Eupraxia of Kiev (renamed Adelaide after her marriage), escaped from her imprisonment at the monastery of San Zeno and spread serious allegations against him. Henry IV then had her arrested in Verona. With the help of Matilda, Adelaide was able to escape again and find refuge with her. At the beginning of March 1095 Pope Urban II called the Council of Piacenza under the protection of Matilda. There Adelaide appeared and made a public confession about Henry IV \"because of the unheard-of atrocities of fornication which she had endured with her husband\": she accused Henry IV of forcing her to participate in orgies, and, according to some later accounts, of attempting a black mass on her naked body. Thanks to these scandals and division within the Imperial family, the prestige and power of Henry IV was increasingly weakened. After the synod, Matilda no longer had any contact with Adelaide.
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# Matilda of Tuscany
## Personal rule {#personal_rule}
### Matilda\'s role during the Investiture Controversy {#matildas_role_during_the_investiture_controversy}
#### Second marriage: Welf V of Bavaria {#second_marriage_welf_v_of_bavaria}
In 1088 Matilda was facing a new attempt at invasion by Henry IV, and decided to pre-empt it by means of a political marriage. In 1089 Matilda (in her early forties) married Welf V, heir to the Duchy of Bavaria and who was probably fifteen to seventeen years old, but none of the contemporary sources goes into the great age difference. The marriage was probably concluded at the instigation of Pope Urban II in order to politically isolate Henry IV. According to historian Elke Goez, the union of northern and southern Alpine opponents of the Salian dynasty initially had no military significance, because Welf V didn\'t appear in northern Italy with troops. In Matilda\'s documents, no Swabian names are listed in the subsequent period, so that Welf V could have moved to Italy alone or with a small entourage. According to the Rosenberg Annals, he even came across the Alps disguised as a pilgrim. Matilda\'s motive for this marriage, despite the large age difference and the political alliance---her new husband was a member of the Welf dynasty, who were important supporters of the papacy from the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries in their conflict with the German emperors (see Guelphs and Ghibellines)---, may also have been the hope for offspring: late pregnancy was quite possible, as the example of Constance of Sicily shows.
Cosmas of Prague (writing in the early twelfth century), included a letter in his *Chronica Boemorum* and claimed that Matilda had sent it to her future husband, but now the letter is thought to be spurious:
:
: *Not for feminine lightness or recklessness, but for the good of all my kingdom, I send you this letter: agreeing to it, you take with it myself and the rule over the whole of Lombardy. I\'ll give you so many cities, so many castles and noble palaces, so much gold and silver, that you will have a famous name, if you endear yourself to me; do not reproof me for boldness because I first address you with the proposal. It\'s reason for both male and female to desire a legitimate union, and it makes no difference whether the man or the woman broaches the first line of love, sofar as an indissoluble marriage is sought. Goodbye*.
Matilda sent an army of thousands to the border of Lombardy to escort her bridegroom, welcomed him with honors, and after the marriage (mid-1089), she organized 120 days of wedding festivities, with such splendor that those of any other medieval rulers pale in comparison. Cosmas also reports that for two nights after the wedding, Welf V, fearing witchcraft, refused to share the marital bed. The third day, Matilda appeared naked on a table especially prepared on sawhorses, and told him that *everything is in front of you and there is no hidden malice*. But the Duke was dumbfounded; Matilda, furious, slapped him and spat in his face, taunting him: *Get out of here, monster, you don\'t deserve our kingdom, you vile thing, viler than a worm or a rotten seaweed, don\'t let me see you again, or you\'ll die a miserable death*\....
Despite the reportedly bad beginning of their marriage, Welf V is documented at least three times as Matilda\'s consort. By the spring of 1095 the couple were separated: in April 1095 Welf V had signed Matilda\'s donation charter for Piadena, but a next diploma dated 21 May 1095 was already issued by Matilda alone. Welf V\'s name no longer appears in any of the Mathildic documents. As a father-in-law, Welf IV tried to reconcile the couple; he was primarily concerned with the possible inheritance of the childless Matilda. The couple was never divorced, nor was the marriage declared invalid.
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# Matilda of Tuscany
## Personal rule {#personal_rule}
### Matilda\'s role during the Investiture Controversy {#matildas_role_during_the_investiture_controversy}
#### Final defeat of Henry IV and new room for maneuvers for Matilda {#final_defeat_of_henry_iv_and_new_room_for_maneuvers_for_matilda}
With the *de facto* end of Matilda\'s marriage, Henry IV regained his capacity to act. Welf IV switched to the imperial side. The emperor locked in Verona was finally able to return to the north of the Alps in 1097. After that he never returned to Italy, and it would be 13 years before his son and namesake set foot on Italian soil for the first time. With the assistance of the French armies heading off to the First Crusade, Matilda was finally able to restore Pope Urban II to Rome. She ordered or led successful expeditions against Ferrara (1101), Parma (1104), Prato (1107), and Mantua (1114).
In eleventh century Italy, the rise of the cities began, in interaction with the overarching conflict. They soon succeeded in establishing their own territories. In Lucca, Pavia, and Pisa, consuls appeared as early as the 1080s, which are considered to be signs of the legal independence of the \"communities\". Pisa sought its advantage in changing alliances with the Salian dynasty and the House of Canossa. Lucca remained completely closed to the Margravine from 1081. It was not until Allucione de Luca\'s marriage to the daughter of the royal judge Flaipert that she gained new opportunities to influence. Flaipert had already been one of the most important advisors of the House of Canossa since the times of Matilda\'s mother. Allucione was a vassal of Count Guidi, with whom Matilda worked closely. Mantua had to make considerable concessions in June 1090; the inhabitants of the city and the suburbs were freed from all \"unjustified\" oppression and all rights and property in Sacca, Sustante and Corte Carpaneta were confirmed.
After 1096 the balance of power slowly began to change again in favor of the Margravine. Matilda resumed her donations to ecclesiastical and social institutions in Lombardy, Emilia, and Tuscany. In the summer of 1099 and 1100 her route first led to Lucca and Pisa. There it can be detected again in the summer of 1105, 1107, and 1111. In early summer of 1099 she gave the Monastery of San Ponziano a piece of land for the establishment of a hospital. With this donation, Matilda resumed her relations with Lucca.
After 1090 Matilda accentuated the consensual rule. After the profound crises, she was no longer able to make political decisions on her own. She held meetings with spiritual and secular nobles in Tuscany and also in her home countries of Emilia. She had to take into account the ideas of her loyal friends and come to an agreement with them. In her role as the most important guarantor of the law, she increasingly lost importance in relation to the bishops. They repeatedly asked the Margravine to put an end to grievances. As a result, the bishops expanded their position within the episcopal cities and in the surrounding area. After 1100 Matilda had to repeatedly protect churches from her own subjects. The accommodation requirements had also been reduced.
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# Matilda of Tuscany
## Personal rule {#personal_rule}
### Court culture and rulership {#court_culture_and_rulership}
The court had developed since the twelfth century to a central institution of royal and princely power. The most important tasks were the visualization of the rule through festivals, art, and literature. The term \"court\" can be understood as \"presence with the ruler\". In contrast to the Brunswick court of the Guelphs, Matilda\'s court offices cannot be verified. Scholars such as Anselm of Lucca, Heribert of Reggio, and Johannes of Mantua were around the Margravine. Matilda encouraged some of them to write their works: for example, Bishop Anselm of Lucca wrote a psalter at her request and Johannes of Mantua a commentary on the Song of Songs and a reflection on the life of Virgin Mary. Works were dedicated or presented to Matilda, such as the *Liber de anulo et baculo* of Rangerius of Lucca, the *Orationes sive meditationes* of Anselm of Canterbury, the *Vita Mathildis* of Donizo, the miracle reports of Ubald of Mantua and the *Liber ad amicum* of Bonizo of Sutri. Matilda contributed to the distribution of the books intended for her by making copies. More works were dedicated only to Henry IV among their direct contemporaries. As a result, the Margravine court temporarily became the most important non-royal spiritual center of the Salian period. It also served as a contact point for displaced Gregorians in the church political disputes. Historian Paolo Golinelli interpreted the repeated admission of high-ranking refugees and their care as an act of charity. As the last political expellee, she granted asylum for a long time to Archbishop Conrad I of Salzburg, the pioneer of the canon reform. This brought her into close contact with this reform movement.
Matilda regularly sought the advice of learned lawyers when making court decisions. A large number of legal advisors are named in their documents. There are 42 *causidici*, 29 *iudices sacri palatii*, 44 *iudices*, 8 *legis doctore*s, and 42 *advocati*. According to historian Elke Goez, Matilda\'s court can be described as \"a focal point for the use of learned jurists in the case law by lay princes\". Matilda encouraged these scholars and drew them to her court. According to Goez, the administration of justice was not a scholarly end in itself, but served to increase the efficiency of rulership. Goez sees a legitimation deficit as the most important trigger for the Margravine\'s intensive administration of justice, since Matilda was never formally invested by the king. In Tuscany in particular, an intensive administration of justice can be documented with almost 30 *placitum*. Matilda\'s involvement in the founding of the Bolognese School of Law, which has been suspected again and again, is viewed by Elke Goez as unlikely. According to chronicler Burchard of Ursperg, the alleged founder of this school, Irnerius, produced an authentic text of the Roman legal sources on behalf of Margravine Matilda. According to historian Johannes Fried, this can at best affect the referring to the Vulgate version of the *Digest*, and even that is considered unlikely. The role of this scholar in Matilda\'s environment is controversial. According to historian Wulf Eckart Voss, Irnerius had been a legal advisor since 1100. In an analysis of the documentary mentions, however, Gundula Grebner came to the conclusion that this scholar should not be classified in the circle of Matilda, but in that of Henry V.
Until well into the fourteenth century, medieval rule was exercised through itinerant court practice. There was neither a capital nor did the rulers of the House of Canossa have a preferred place of residence. Rule in the High Middle Ages was based on presence. Matilda\'s domains comprised most of what is now the dual region of Emilia-Romagna and part of Tuscany. She traveled in her domains in all seasons, and was never alone in this. There were always a number of advisors, clergy, and armed men in their vicinity that could not be precisely estimated. She maintained a special relationship of trust with Bishop Anselm of Lucca, who was her closest advisor until his death in May 1086. In the later years of her life, cardinal legates often stayed in her vicinity. They arranged for communication with the pope. The Margravine had a close relationship with the cardinal legates Bernard degli Uberti and Bonsignore of Reggio. In view of the rigors of travel domination, according to Elke Goez\'s judgment, she must have been athletic, persistent, and capable. The distant possessions brought a considerable administrative burden and were often threatened with takeover by rivals. Therefore, Matilda had to count on local confidants, in whose recruitment she was supported by Pope Gregory VII.
In a rulership without a permanent residence, the visualization of rulership and the representation of rank were of great importance. From Matilda\'s reign there are 139 documents (74 of which are original), four letters, and 115 lost documents (*Deperdita*). The largest proportion of the number of documents are donations to ecclesiastical recipients (45) and court documents (35). In terms of the spatial distribution of the documentary tradition, Northern Italy predominates (82). Tuscany and the neighboring regions (49) are less affected, while Lorraine has only five documents. There is thus a unique tradition for a princess of the High Middle Ages; a comparable number of documents only come back for the time being Henry the Lion five decades later.`{{Clarify|reason=Incomprehensible sentence|date=July 2024}}`{=mediawiki} At least 18 of Matilda\'s documents were sealed. At the time, this was unusual for lay princes in imperial Italy. There were very few women who had their own seal: the Margravine had two seals of different pictorial types ---one shows a female bust with loose, falling hair, while the second seal from the year 1100 is an antique gem and not a portrait of Matilda and Godfrey the Hunchback or Welf V. Matilda\'s chancellery for issuing the diplomas on their own can be excluded with high probability. To consolidate her rule and as an expression of the understanding of rule, Matilda referred in her title to her powerful father; it was called *filia quondam magni Bonifatii ducis*.
The castles in their domain and high church festivals also served to visualize the rule. Matilda celebrated Easter as the most important act of power representation in Pisa in 1074. Matilda\'s pictorial representations also belong in this context, some of which are controversial, however. The statue of the so-called Bonissima on the Palazzo Comunale, the cathedral square of Modena, was probably made in the 1130s at the earliest. The Margravine\'s mosaic in the church of Polirone was also made after her death. Matilda had her ancestors put in splendid coffins. However, she didn\'t succeed in bringing together all the remains of her ancestors to create a central point of reference for rule and memory: her grandfather remained buried in Brescello, while the remains of her father were kept in Mantua and those of her mother in Pisa. Their withdrawal would have meant a political retreat and the loss of Pisa and Mantua. By using the written form, Matilda supplemented the presence of the immediate presence of power in all parts of her sphere of influence. In her great courts she used the script to increase the income from her lands. Scripture-based administration was still a very unusual means of realizing rule for lay princes in the eleventh century.
In the years from 1081 to 1098, however, the rule of the House of Canossa was in a crisis. The documentary and letter transmission is largely suspended for this period. A total of only 17 pieces have survived, not a single document from eight years. After this finding Matilda wasn\'t in Tuscany for almost twenty years. However, from autumn 1098 she was able to regain a large part of her lost territories. This increased interest in receiving certificates from her. Ninety-four documents have survived from the last 20 years. Matilda tried to consolidate her rule with the increased use of writing. After the death of her mother (18 April 1076), she often provided her documents with the phrase \"*Matilda Dei gratia si quid est*\" (\"Matilda, by God\'s grace, if she is something\"). The personal combination of symbol (cross) and text was unique in the personal execution of the certificates. By referring to the immediacy of God, she wanted to legitimize her contestable position. There is no consensus in research about the meaning of the qualifying suffix \"*si quid est*\". This formulation, which can be found in 38 original and 31 copiously handed down texts by the Margravine, ultimately remains as puzzling as it is singular in terms of tradition. One possible explanation for their use is that Matilda was never formally invested with the Margraviate of Tuscany by the king. Like her mother, Matilda carried out all kinds of legal transactions without mentioning her husbands and thus with full independence. Both princesses took over the official titles of their husbands, but refrained from masculinizing their titles.
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# Matilda of Tuscany
## Personal rule {#personal_rule}
### Patronage of churches and hospitals {#patronage_of_churches_and_hospitals}
After the discovery of contemporary diplomas, Elke Goez refuted the widespread notion that the Margravine had given churches and monasteries rich gifts at all times of her life. Very few donations were initially made. Already one year after the death of her mother, Matilda lost influence on the inner-city monasteries in Tuscany and thus an important pillar of her rule.
The issuing of deeds for monasteries concentrated on convents that were located in Matilda\'s immediate sphere of influence in northern and central Italy or Lorraine. The main exception to this was Montecassino. Among the most important of her numerous donations to monasteries and churches were those to Fonte Avellana, Farfa, Montecassino, Vallombrosa, Nonantola, and Polirone. In this way she secured the financing of the old church buildings. She often stipulated that the proceeds from the donated land should be used to build churches in the center of the episcopal cities. This money was an important contribution to the funds for the expansion and decoration of the churches of San Pietro in Mantua, Santa Maria Assunta e San Geminiano of Modena, Santa Maria Assunta of Parma, San Martino of Lucca, Santa Maria Assunta of Pisa, and Santa Maria Assunta of Volterra.
Matilda supported the construction of Pisa Cathedral with several donations (in 1083, 1100, and 1103). Her name should be permanently associated with the cathedral building project. They released Nonantola from paying tithes to the Bishop of Modena; the funds thus freed up could be used for the monastery buildings. In Modena, with her participation, she secured the continued construction of the cathedral. Matilda acted as mediator in the dispute between cathedral canons and citizens about the remains of Saint Geminianus. The festive consecration could take place in 1106, with the *Relatio fundationis cathedralis Mutinae* recording these processes. Matilda is presented as a political authority: she is present with an army, gives support, recommends receiving the pope, and reappears for the ordination, during which she dedicates immeasurable gifts to the patron.
Numerous examples show that Matilda made donations to bishops who were loyal to the Gregorian reforms. In May 1109 she gave land in the area of Ferrara to the Gregorian Bishop Landolfo of Ferrara in San Cesario sul Panaro and in June of the same year possessions in the vicinity of Ficarolo. The Bishop Wido of Ferrara, however, was hostile to Pope Gregory VII and had written *De scismate Hildebrandi* against him. The siege of Ferrara undertaken by Matilda in 1101 led to the expulsion of the schismatic bishop.
On the other hand, nothing is known of Matilda\'s sponsorship of nunneries. Their only relevant intervention concerned the Benedictine nuns of San Sisto of Piacenza, whom they chased out of the monastery for their immoral behavior and replaced with monks.
Matilda founded and sponsored numerous hospitals to care for the poor and pilgrims. For the hospitals, she selected municipal institutions and important Apennine passes. The welfare institutions not only fulfilled charitable tasks, but were also important for the legitimation and consolidation of the margravial rule.
Some churches traditionally said to have been founded by Matilda include: Sant\'Andrea Apostolo of Vitriola in Montefiorino (Modena); Sant\'Anselmo in Pieve di Coriano (Province of Mantua); San Giovanni Decollato in Pescarolo ed Uniti (Cremona); Santa Maria Assunta in Monteveglio (Bologna); San Martino in Barisano near Forlì; San Zeno in Cerea (Verona), and San Salvaro in Legnago (Verona).
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# Matilda of Tuscany
## Personal rule {#personal_rule}
### Adoption of Guido Guidi around 1099 {#adoption_of_guido_guidi_around_1099}
In the later years of her life, Matilda was increasingly faced with the question of who should take over the House of Canossa\'s inheritance. She could no longer have children of her own, and apparently for this reason she adopted Guido *Guerra*, member of the Guidi family, who were one of her main supporters in Florence (although in a genealogically strictly way, the Margravine\'s feudal heirs were the House of Savoy, descendants of Prangarda of Canossa, Matilda\'s paternal great-aunt). On 12 November 1099, he was referred to in a diploma as Matilda\'s adopted son (*adoptivus filius domine comitisse Matilde*). With his consent, Matilda renewed and expanded a donation from her ancestors to the Brescello monastery. However, this is the only time that Guido had the title of adoptive son (*adoptivus filius*) in a document that was considered to be authentic. At that time there were an unusually large number of vassals in Matilda\'s environment. In March 1100, the Margravine and Guido *Guerra* took part in a meeting of abbots of the Vallombrosians Order, which they both sponsored. On 19 November 1103 they gave the monastery of Vallombrosa possessions on both sides of the Vicano and half of the castle of Magnale with the town of Pagiano. After Matilda had bequeathed her property to the Apostolic See in 1102 (so-called second \"Matildine Donation\"), Guido withdrew from her. With the donation he lost hope of the inheritance. However, he signed three more documents with Matilda for the Abbey of Polirone.
From these sources, Elke Goez, for example, concludes that Guido *Guerra* was adopted by Matilda. According to her, the Margravine must have consulted with her loyal followers beforehand and reached a consensus for this far-reaching political decision. Ultimately, pragmatic reasons were decisive: Matilda needed a political and economic administrator for Tuscany. The Guidi family estates in the north and east of Florence were also a useful addition to the House of Canossa possessions. Guido *Guerra* hoped that Matilda\'s adoption would not only give him the inheritance, but also an increase in rank. He also hoped for support in the dispute between the Guidi and the Cadolinger families for supremacy in Tuscany. The Cadolinger were named after one of their ancestors, Count Cadalo, who was attested from 952 to 986; they died out in 1113.
Paolo Golinelli doubts this reconstruction of the events. He thinks that Guido *Guerra* held an important position among the Margravine\'s vassals, but was not adopted by her. This is supported by the fact that after 1108 he only appeared once as a witness in one of their documents, namely in a document dated 6 May 1115, which Matilda granted in favor of the Abbey of Polirone while she was on her deathbed at Bondeno di Roncore.
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# Matilda of Tuscany
## Personal rule {#personal_rule}
### Matildine Donation {#matildine_donation}
On 17 November 1102 Matilda donated her property to the Apostolic See at Canossa Castle in the presence of the Cardinal Legate Bernardo of San Crisogono. This is a renewal of the donation, as the first diploma was allegedly lost. Matilda had initially transferred all of her property to the Apostolic See in the Holy Cross Chapel of the Lateran before Pope Gregory VII. Most research has dated this first donation to the years between 1077 and 1080. Paolo Golinelli spoke out for the period between 1077 and 1081. Werner Goez placed the first donation in the years 1074 and 1075, when Matilda\'s presence in Rome can be proven. At the second donation, despite the importance of the event, very few witnesses were present. With Atto from Montebaranzone and Bonusvicinus from Canossa, the diploma was attested by two people of no recognizable rank who are not mentioned in any other certificate.
The Matildine Donation caused a sensation in the twelfth century and has also received a lot of attention in research. The entire tradition of the document comes from the curia. According to Paolo Golinelli, the donation of 1102 is a forgery from the 1130s; in reality, Matilda made Henry V her only heir in 1110/11. Even Johannes Laudage in his study of the contemporary sources, thought that the Matildine Donation was spurious. Elke and Werner Goez, on the other hand, viewed the second donation diploma from November 1102 as authentic in their document edition. Bernd Schneidmüller and Elke Goez believe that a diploma was issued about the renewed transfer of the *Terre Matildiche* out of curial fear of the Welfs. Welf IV died in November 1101. His eldest son and successor Welf V had rulership rights over the House of Canossa domains through his marriage to Matilda. Therefore, reference was made to an earlier award of the inheritance before Matilda\'s second marriage. Otherwise, given the spouse\'s considerable influence, their consent should have been obtained.
Werner Goez explains with different ideas about the legal implications of the process that Matilda often had her own property even after 1102 without recognizing any consideration for Rome\'s rights. Goez observed that the donation is only mentioned in Matildine documents that were created under the influence of papal legates. Matilda didn\'t want a complete waiver of all other real estates and usable rights and perhaps did not notice how far the consequences of the formulation of the second Matildine Donation went.
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# Matilda of Tuscany
## Personal rule {#personal_rule}
### Last years and death {#last_years_and_death}
In the last phase of her life, Matilda pursued the plan to strengthen the Abbey of Polirone. The Church of Gonzaga freed them in 1101 from the *malos sacerdotes fornicarios et adulteros* (\"wicked, unchaste, and adulterous priests\") and gave them to the monks of Polirone. The Gonzaga clergy were charged with violating the duty of celibacy. One of the main evils that the church reformers acted against. In the same year she gave the Abbey of Polirone a poor house that she had built in Mantua; she thus withdrew it from the monks of the monastery of Sant\'Andrea in Mantua who had been accused of simony. The Abbey of Polirone received a total of twelve donations in the last five years of Matilda\'s life. So she transferred her property in Villola (16 kilometers southeast of Mantua) and the Insula Sancti Benedicti (island in the Po, today on the south bank in the area of San Benedetto Po) to this monastery. The Abbey thus rose to become the official monastery of the House of Canossa, with Matilda choosing it as her burial place. The monks used Matilda\'s generous donations to rebuild the entire Abbey and the main church. Matilda wanted to secure her memory not only through gifts, but also through written memories. Polirone was given a very valuable Gospel manuscript. The book, preserved today in New York, contains a liber vitae, a memorial book, in which all important donors and benefactors of the monastery are listed. This document also deals with Matilda\'s memorial. The Gospel manuscript was commissioned by the Margravine. It is not clear whether the codex originated in Polirone or was sent there as a gift from Matilda. It is the only larger surviving memorial from a Cluniac monastery in northern Italy. Paolo Golinelli emphasized that, through Matilda\'s favor, Polirone also became a base where reform forces gathered.
Henry V had been in diplomatic contact with Matilda since 1109. He emphasized his blood relationship with the Margravine and demonstratively cultivated the connection. At his coronation as emperor in 1111, disputes over the investiture question broke out again. Henry V captured Pope Paschal II and some of the cardinals in St. Peter\'s Basilica and forced his imperial coronation. When Matilda found out about this, she asked for the release of two cardinals, Bernard of Parma and Bonsignore of Reggio, who were close to her. Henry V complied with her request and released both cardinals. Matilda did nothing to get the pope and the other cardinals free. On the way back from the Rome train, Henry V visited the Margravine during 6--11 May 1111 at Castle of Bianello in Quattro Castella, Reggio Emilia. Matilda then achieved the solution from the imperial ban imposed to her. According to the unique testimony of her biographer Donizo, Henry V transferred to Matilda the rule of Liguria and crowned her Imperial Vicar and Vice-Queen of Italy. At this meeting he also concluded a firm agreement (*firmum foedus*) with her, which was mentioned only by Donizo and whose details are unknown. This agreement has been undisputedly interpreted in German historical studies since Wilhelm von Giesebrecht as an inheritance treaty, while Italian historians such as Luigi Simeoni and Werner Goez repeatedly questioned this. Elke Goez, on the other hand, assumed a mutual agreement with benefits from both sides: Matilda, whose health was weakened, probably waived her further support for Pope Paschal II with a view to a good understanding with the emperor. Paolo Golinelli thinks that Matilda recognized Henry V as the heir to her domains and only after this, the imperial ban against Matilda was lifted and she recovered the possessions in the northern Italian parts of the formerly powerful House of Canossa with the exception of Tuscany. Donizo imaginatively embellished this process with the title of Vice-Queen. Some researchers see in the agreement with Henry V a turning away from the ideals of the so-called Gregorian reform, but Enrico Spagnesi emphasizes that Matilda had by no means given up her church reform-minded policy.
A short time after her meeting with Henry V, Matilda retired to Montebaranzone near Prignano sulla Secchia. In Mantua in the summer of 1114 the rumor that she had died sparked jubilation. The Mantuans strived for autonomy and demanded admission to the margravial Rivalta Castle located five kilometers west of Mantua. When the citizens found out that Matilda was still alive, they burned the castle down. Rivalta Castle symbolized the hated power of the Margravine. Donizo, in turn, used this incident as an instrument to illustrate the chaotic conditions that the sheer rumor of Matilda\'s death could trigger. The Margravine guaranteed peace and security for the population, and was able to recapture Mantua. In April 1115, the aging Margravine gave the Church of San Michele in Mantua the rights and income of the Pacengo court. This documented legal transaction proves their intention to win over an important spiritual community in Mantua.
Matilda often visited the town of Bondeno di Roncore (today Bondanazzo), in the district of Reggiolo, Reggio Emilia, just in the middle of the Po valley, where she owned a small castle, which she often visited between 1106 and 1115. During a stay there, she fell seriously ill, so that she could finally no longer leave the castle. In the last months of her life, the sick Margravine was no longer able to travel strenuously. According to Vito Fumagalli, she stayed in the Polirone area not only because of her illness: the House of Canossa had largely been ousted from its previous position of power at the beginning of the twelfth century. In her final hours the Bishop of Reggio, Cardinal Bonsignore, stayed at her deathbed and gave her the sacraments of death. On the night of 24 July 1115, Matilda died of sudden cardiac arrest at the age of 69. After her death in 1116 Henry V succeeded in taking possession of the *Terre Matildiche* without any apparent resistance from the curia. The once loyal subjects of the Margravine accepted the emperor as their new master without resistance; for example, powerful vassals such as Arduin de Palude, Sasso of Bibianello, Count Albert of Sabbioneta, Ariald of Melegnano, Opizo of Gonzaga and many others came to the emperor and accepted him as their overlord.
Matilda was at first buried in the Abbey of San Benedetto in Polirone, located in the town of San Benedetto Po; then, in 1633, at the behest of Pope Urban VIII, her body was moved to Rome and placed in Castel Sant\'Angelo. Finally, in 1645 her remains were definitely deposited in the Vatican, where they now lie in St. Peter\'s Basilica. She is one of only six women who have the honor of being buried in the Basilica, the others being Queen Christina of Sweden, Maria Clementina Sobieska (wife of James Francis Edward Stuart), St. Petronilla, Queen Charlotte of Cyprus, and Agnesina Colonna Caetani. A memorial tomb for Matilda, commissioned by Pope Urban VIII and designed by Gianlorenzo Bernini with the statues being created by sculptor Andrea Bolgi, marks her burial place in St. Peter\'s and is often called the *Honor and Glory of Italy*.
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# Matilda of Tuscany
## Legacy
### High and Late Middle Ages {#high_and_late_middle_ages}
Between 1111 and 1115 Donizo wrote the chronicle *De principibus Canusinis* in Latin hexameters, in which he tells the story of the House of Canossa, especially Matilda. Since the first edition by Sebastian Tengnagel, it has been called *Vita Mathildis*. This work is the main source to the Margravine\'s life. The *Vita Mathildis* consists of two parts. The first part is dedicated to the early members of the House of Canossa, the second deals exclusively with Matilda. Donizo was a monk in the monastery of Sant\'Apollonio; with the *Vita Mathildis* he wanted to secure eternal memory of the Margravine. Donizo has most likely coordinated his *Vita* with Matilda in terms of content, including the book illumination, down to the smallest detail. Shortly before the work was handed over, Matilda died. Text and images on the family history of the House of Canossa served to glorify Matilda, were important for the public staging of the family and were intended to guarantee eternal memory. Positive events were highlighted, negative events were skipped. The *Vita Mathildis* stands at the beginning of a new literary genre. With the early Guelph tradition, it establishes medieval family history. The house and reform monasteries, sponsored by Guelph and Canossa women, attempted to organize the memories of the community of relatives and thereby \"to express awareness of the present and an orientation towards the present\" in the memory of one\'s own past. Eugenio Riversi considers the memory of the family epoch, especially the commemoration of the anniversaries of the dead, to be one of the characteristic elements in Donizo\'s work.
Bonizo of Sutri gave Matilda his *Liber ad amicum*. In it he compared her to her glorification with biblical women. After an assassination attempt on him in 1090, however, his attitude changed, as he didn\'t feel sufficiently supported by the Margravine. In his *Liber de vita christiana* he took the view that domination by women was harmful; as examples he named Cleopatra and the Merovingian Queen Fredegund. Rangerius of Lucca also distanced himself from Matilda when she didn\'t position herself against Henry V in 1111. Out of bitterness, he didn\'t dedicate his *Liber de anulo et baculo* to Matilda, but to John of Gaeta, later Pope Gelasius II.
Violent criticism of Matilda is related to the Investiture Controversy and relates to specific events. Thus the *Vita Heinrici IV. imperatoris* blames her for the rebellion of Conrad against his father Henry IV. The Milanese chronicler Landulfus Senior made a polemical statement in the eleventh century: he accused Matilda of having ordered the murder of her first husband. She is also said to have incited Pope Gregory VII to excommunicate the king. Landulf\'s polemics were directed against Matilda\'s Patarian partisans for the archbishop\'s chair in Milan.
Matilda\'s tomb was converted into a mausoleum before the middle of the twelfth century. For Paolo Golinelli, this early design of the grave is the beginning of the Margravine\'s myth. In the course of the twelfth century, two opposing developments occurred: Matilda\'s person was mystified, at the same time historical memory of the House of Canossa declined. In the thirteenth century, Matilda\'s guilty feelings about the murder of her first husband became a popular topic. The *Gesta episcoporum Halberstadensium* took it up: Matilda confessed to Pope Gregory VII her participation in the murder of her husband, whereupon the pontiff released her from the crime. Through this act of leniency, Matilda felt obliged to donate her property to the Holy See. In the fourteenth century there was a lack of clarity about the historical facts about Matilda. Only the name of the Margravine, her reputation as a virtuous woman, her many donations to churches and hospitals, and the transfer of her goods to the Holy See were present. Knowledge of the conflicts between Henry IV and Gregory VII was forgotten. Because of their connection to the Guidi family that gave her little attention in the Florentine chronicles as the Guidi were mortal enemies of Florence. In the *Nuova Cronica* wrote by Giovanni Villani in 1306, Matilda was a decent and pious person. She is described there as product of a secret marriage between a Byzantine princess with an Italian knight. She also didn\'t consummate the marriage with Welf V; instead, she decided to live her life chaste and with pious works.
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# Matilda of Tuscany
## Legacy
### Early modern times {#early_modern_times}
In the fifteenth century, Matilda\'s marriage to Welf V disappeared from chronicles and narrative literature. Numerous families in Italy tried rather to claim Matilda as their ancestor and to derive their power from her. Giovanni Battista Panetti wanted to prove the Margravine\'s belonging to the House of Este in his *Historia comitissae Mathildis*. He claimed that Matilda was married to Albert Azzo II d\'Este, the grandfather of Welf V. In his epic *Orlando Furioso*, poet Ludovico Ariosto also mentioned Matilda\'s alleged relationship with the House of Este; Giovanni Battista Giraldi also assumed a marriage between Matilda and Albert Azzo II and mentioned Ariosto as reference. Many more generations followed this tradition, and only the Este archivist Ludovico Antonio Muratori was the one able to dismiss the alleged relationship of Matilda and the House of Este in the eighteenth century. Nevertheless, he did not draw a more realistic picture of the Margravine; for him she was an Amazon queen. In Mantua, Matilda was also linked by marriage with the House of Gonzaga. Giulio Dal Pozzo underpinned the claims of the Malaspina family of descent from Matilda in his work *Meraviglie Heroiche del Sesso Donnesco Memorabili nella Duchessa Matilda Marchesana Malaspina, Contessa di Canossa*, written in 1678.
Dante\'s *Divine Comedy* made a significant contribution to Matilda\'s myth: she has been posited by some critics as the origin of the mysterious \"Matelda\" who appears to Dante gathering flowers in the earthly paradise in Dante\'s *Purgatorio*; whether Dante is referring to the Margravine, Mechthild of Magdeburg or Mechthild of Hackeborn is still a matter of dispute. In the fifteenth century, Matilda was stylized by Giovanni Sabadino degli Arienti and Jacopo Filippo Foresti as a warrior for God and the Church.
Matilda reached the climax of the positive assessment in the time of the Counter-Reformation and in the Baroque; she should serve as a symbol of the triumph of the church over all adversaries for everyone to see. In the dispute between Catholics and Protestants in the sixteenth century, two opposing judgments were received. From a Catholic perspective, Matilda was glorified for supporting the pope; for the Protestants, she was responsible for the humiliation of Henry IV in Canossa and was denigrated as a \"pope whore\", as in the biography of Henry IV by Johann Stumpf.
In the historiography of the eighteenth century (Ludovico Antonio Muratori, Girolamo Tiraboschi) Matilda was the symbol of the new Italian nobility, who wanted to create a pan-Italian identity. Contemporary representations (Saverio Dalla Rosa) presented her as the Pope\'s protector.
In addition to the upscale literature, numerous regional legends and miracle stories in particular contributed to Matilda\'s subsequent stylization. She was transfigured relatively early from the benefactress of numerous churches and monasteries to the sole monastery and church donor of the entire Apennine landscape. Around 100 churches are attributed to Matilda, this developed from the twelfth century. Numerous miracles are also associated with the Margravine. She is said to have asked the pope to bless the Branciana fountain; according to a legend, women can get pregnant after a single drink from the well. According to another legend, Matilda should prefer to stay at the Savignano Castle; there one should see the princess galloping in the sky on full moon nights on a white horse. According to a legend from Montebaranzone, she brought justice to a poor widow and her twelve-year-old son. Numerous legends also surround about Matilda\'s marriages: she is said to have had up to seven husbands and, as a young girl, fell in love with Henry IV.
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# Matilda of Tuscany
## Legacy
### Modern times {#modern_times}
In the nineteenth century, which was enthusiastic about the Middle Ages, the Margravine\'s myth was renewed. The remains of Canossa Castle were rediscovered and Matilda\'s whereabouts became popular travel destinations. In addition, Dante\'s praise for *Matelda* came back into the spotlight. One of the first German pilgrims to Canossa was the poet August von Platen-Hallermünde. In 1839, Heinrich Heine published the poem *Auf dem Schloßhof zu Canossa steht der deutsche Kaiser Heinrich* (\"The German Emperor Henry stands in the courtyard of Canossa\"), in which it says: \"Peep out of the window above / Two figures, and the moonlight / Gregory\'s bald head flickers / And the breasts of Mathildis\".
In the era of the *Risorgimento*, the struggle for national unification was in the foreground in Italy. Matilda was instrumentalized for daily political events. Silvio Pellico stood up for the political unity of Italy, and he designed a play called *Mathilde*. Antonio Bresciani Borsa wrote a historical novel *La contessa Matilde di Canossa e Isabella di Groniga* (1858). The work was very successful in its time and saw Italian editions in 1858, 1867, 1876, and 1891. French (1850 and 1862), German (1868), and English (1875) translations were also published.
The Matilda\'s myth lives on in Italy to the present day. The Matildines were a Catholic women\'s association founded in Reggio Emilia in 1918, similar to the *Azzione Cattolica*. The organization wanted to bring together young people from the province who wanted to work with the church hierarchy to spread the Christian faith. The Matildines revered the Margravine as a pious, strong, and steadfast daughter of St. Peter. After the World War II, numerous biographies and novels were written in Italy on Matilda and Canossa. Maria Bellonci published the story *Trafitto a Canossa* (\"Tormented in Canossa\"), Laura Mancinelli the novel *Il principe scalzo*. Local historical publications honor her as the founder of churches and castles in the regions of Reggio Emilia, Mantua, Modena, Parma, Lucca and Casentino.
Quattro Castella is named after the four Canusinian castles on the four hills at the foot of the Apennines. Bianello is the only castle that is still in use. A large number of communities on the northern and southern Apennines traces their origins and their heyday back to Matilda\'s epoch. Numerous citizen initiatives in Italy organize removals under the motto \"Matilda and her time\". Emilian circles applied for Matilda\'s beatification in 1988 without success. The place Quattro Castella had its name changed to Canossa out of reverence for Matilda. Since 1955 the *Corteo Storico Matildico* in Bianello Castle has been a reminiscent display of Matilda\'s meeting with Henry V and reported coronation as vicar and vice-queen; the event has taken place every year since then, usually on the last Sunday of May. The organizer is the municipality of Quattro Castella, which has owned the castle since 2000. The ruins on the hills of Quattro Castella have been the subject of a petition for UNESCO World Heritage.
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# Matilda of Tuscany
## Legacy
### Research history {#research_history}
Matilda receives much attention in Italian history. Matildine Congresses were held in 1963, 1970, and 1977. On the occasion of the 900th anniversary of the Walk of Canossa, the Istituto Superiore di Studi Matildici was founded in Italy in 1977 and inaugurated in May 1979. The institute is dedicated to the research of all notable citizens of Canossa and publishes a magazine entitled *Annali Canossani*.
In Italy, Ovidio Capitani was one of the best experts on Canossa history in the twentieth century. According to his judgment in 1978, Matilda\'s policy was \"*tutto legato al passato*\", completely tied to the past, i.e. outdated and inflexible in the face of a changing time. Vito Fumagalli presented several national historical studies on the Margraves of Canossa; he saw the causes of the Canossa\'s power in rich and centralized allodial goods, in a strategic network of fortifications, and in the support of the Salian rulers. In 1998, a year after his death, Fumagalli\'s biography of Matilda was published.
Of the Italian medievalists, Paolo Golinelli has dealt most intensively with Matilda in the past three decades. In 1991 he published a biography of Matilda, which appeared in 1998 in a German translation. On the occasion of the 900th return of Matilda\'s meeting with her allies in Carpineti, a financially supported congress was held in October 1992 by the province of Reggio Emilia. The rule of the House of Canossa and the various problems of rule in northern Italy of the tenth and eleventh centuries were dealt with. The contributions to this conference were edited by Paolo Golinelli. An international congress in Reggio Emilia in September 1997 was devoted to her afterlife in cultural and literary terms. The aim of the conference was to find out why Matilda attracted such interest in posterity. Thematically, arts and crafts, tourism, and folklore have been dealt with until recently. Most of the contributions were devoted to the genealogical attempts of the northern Italian nobility to link Matilda in the early modern period. Golinelli published the anthology in 1999. As an important result of this conference it turned out that goods and family relationships have been ascribed to her that have not been historically proven.
In German history, Alfred Overmann\'s dissertation formed the starting point for studying the history of the margravine. Since 1893 Overmann placed his investigation about Matilda in several *Regest* publications. The work was reprinted in 1965 and published in 1980 in an Italian translation. In the last few decades Werner and Elke Goez in particular have dealt with Matilda. From 1986 the couple worked together on the scientific edition of their documents. More than 90 archives and libraries in six countries were visited. The edition was created in 1998 in the series *Diplomata*, which the *Monumenta Germaniae Historica* published. In addition to numerous individual studies on Matilda, Elke Goez published a biography of Matilda\'s mother Beatrice (1995) and emerged as the author of a history of Italy in the Middle Ages (2010). In 2012 she presented a biography of Matilda.
The 900th year of Henry IV\'s death in 2006 brought Matilda into the spotlight in the exhibitions in Paderborn (2006) and Mantua (2008). The 900th anniversary of her death in 2015 was the occasion for various initiatives in Italy and sessions at the International Medieval Congress at Leeds. The 21st *Congresso Internazionale di Studi Langobardi* took place in October of the same year. This resulted in two conference volumes. In Williamsburg, Virginia from February to April 2015, an exhibition took place at the Muscarelle Museum of Art, the first in the United States on Matilda.
### Popular culture {#popular_culture}
In the arts, the story of Matilda and Henry IV is the main plot device in Luigi Pirandello\'s play *Enrico IV*, and the Margravine is the main historical character in Kathleen McGowan\'s novel *The Book of Love* (Simon & Schuster, 2009).
Matilda is a featured figure on Judy Chicago\'s installation piece The Dinner Party, being represented as one of the 999 names on the Heritage Floor, along some other contemporaries like her second cousin Adelaide of Susa.
In the grand strategy role-playing video game *Crusader Kings III*, Matilda is a playable character and is featured in the Rags to Riches start in 1066
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# Mecklenburg
**Mecklenburg** (`{{IPA|de|ˈmeːklənbʊʁk|-|De-Mecklenburg2.ogg}}`{=mediawiki}; *Mękel(n)borg* `{{IPA|nds|ˈmɛːkəl(n)bɔrx|}}`{=mediawiki}) is a historical region in northern Germany comprising the western and larger part of the federal-state Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. The largest cities of the region are Rostock, Schwerin, Neubrandenburg, Wismar and Güstrow.
The name Mecklenburg derives from a castle named *Mikilenburg* (Old Saxon for \"big castle\", hence its translation into Neo-Latin and Greek as *Megalopolis*), located between the cities of Schwerin and Wismar. In Slavic languages it was known as *Veligrad*, which also means \"big castle\". It was the ancestral seat of the House of Mecklenburg; for a time the area was divided into Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz among the same dynasty.
Linguistically Mecklenburgers retain and use many features of Low German vocabulary or phonology.
The adjective for the region is *Mecklenburgian* or *Mecklenburgish* (*link=no*); inhabitants are called Mecklenburgians or Mecklenburgers (*link=no*).
## Geography
Mecklenburg is known for its mostly flat countryside. Much of the terrain is boggy, with ponds, marshes and fields as common features, with small forests interspersed. The terrain changes as one moves north towards the Baltic Sea.
Under the peat of Mecklenburg are sometimes found deposits of ancient lava flows. Traditionally, at least in the countryside, the stone from these flows is cut and used in the construction of homes, often in joint use with cement, brick and wood, forming a unique look to the exterior of country houses.
Mecklenburg has productive farming, but the land is most suitable for grazing for livestock.
### List of urban centers in Mecklenburg {#list_of_urban_centers_in_mecklenburg}
+-----------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+-------+
| Town/\ | District | Population\ | Image |
| municipality | | as of December 31, 2012 | |
+=================+=============================+=========================+=======+
| Rostock | district-free city | 206,011 (12-31-2015) | |
+-----------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+-------+
| Schwerin | district-free city | 91,264 | |
+-----------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+-------+
| Neubrandenburg | Mecklenburgische Seenplatte | 63,509 | |
+-----------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+-------+
| Wismar | Nordwestmecklenburg | 42,433 | |
+-----------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+-------+
| Güstrow | Rostock | 28,586 | |
+-----------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+-------+
| Neustrelitz | Mecklenburgische Seenplatte | 20,322 | |
+-----------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+-------+
| Waren (Müritz) | Mecklenburgische Seenplatte | 21,074 | |
+-----------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+-------+
| Parchim | Ludwigslust-Parchim | 17,174 | |
+-----------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+-------+
| Ludwigslust | Ludwigslust-Parchim | 11,998 | |
+-----------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+-------+
| Bad Doberan | Rostock | 11,427 | |
+-----------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+-------+
| Hagenow | Ludwigslust-Parchim | 11,324 | |
+-----------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+-------+
| Grevesmühlen | Nordwestmecklenburg | 10,621 | |
+-----------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+-------+
| Boizenburg/Elbe | Ludwigslust-Parchim | 10,169 | |
+-----------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+-------+
| Teterow | Rostock | 8,733 | |
+-----------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+-------+
| Malchin | Mecklenburgische Seenplatte | 7,657 | |
+-----------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+-------+
| | | | |
+-----------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+-------+
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# Mecklenburg
## History
### Early history {#early_history}
Mecklenburg is the site of many prehistoric dolmen tombs. Its earliest organised inhabitants may have had Celtic origins. By no later than 100 BC the area had been populated by pre-Christian Germanic peoples.
The traditional symbol of Mecklenburg, the grinning steer\'s head (Low German: *Ossenkopp*, lit.: \'oxen\'s head\', with *osse* being a synonym for steer and bull in Middle Low German), with an attached hide, and a crown above, may have originated from this period. It represents what early peoples would have worn, i.e. a steers\'s head as a helmet, with the hide hanging down the back to protect the neck from the sun, and overall as a way to instill fear in the enemy.
From the 7th through the 12th centuries, Mecklenburg was inhabited by Western Slavs who migrated there from what is now eastern Poland and north-western Ukraine. Among them were the Obotrites and other tribes that Frankish sources referred to as \"Wends\". The 11th-century founder of the Mecklenburger dynasty of Dukes and later Grand Dukes, which lasted until 1918, was Nyklot of the Obotrites.
In the late 12th century, Henry the Lion, Duke of the Saxons, reconquered the region, took oaths from its local lords, and Christianized its people, in a precursor to the Northern Crusades. From the 12th to 14th centuries, large numbers of Germans and Flemings settled the area (Ostsiedlung), importing German law and improved agricultural techniques. The Wends who survived all warfare and devastation of the centuries before, including invasions of and expeditions into Saxony, Denmark and Liutizic areas as well as internal conflicts, were assimilated in the centuries thereafter. However, elements of certain names and words used in Mecklenburg speak to the lingering Slavic influence. An example would be the city of Schwerin, which was originally called *Zuarin* in Slavic. Another example is the town of Bresegard, the \'gard\' portion of the town name deriving from the Slavic word \'grad\', meaning city or town.
Since the 12th century, the territory remained stable and relatively independent of its neighbours; one of the few German territories for which this is true. During the Reformation, the Duke in Schwerin would convert to Protestantism and so would follow the Duchy of Mecklenburg in 1549.
### History, 1621--1933`{{anchor|partitioned}}`{=mediawiki} {#history_16211933}
Like many German territories, Mecklenburg was sometimes partitioned and re-partitioned among different members of the ruling dynasty. In 1621 it was divided into the two duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Güstrow. With the extinction of the Güstrow line in 1701, the Güstrow lands were redivided, part going to the Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and part going to the new line of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.
In 1815, the two Mecklenburgian duchies were raised to Grand Duchies, the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and subsequently existed separately as such in Germany under enlightened but absolute rule (constitutions being granted on the eve of World War I) until the revolution of 1918. Life in Mecklenburg could be quite harsh. Practices such as having to ask for permission from the Grand Duke to get married, or having to apply for permission to emigrate, would linger late into the history of Mecklenburg (i.e. 1918), long after such practices had been abandoned in other German areas. Even as late as the later half of the 19th century the Grand Duke personally owned half of the countryside. The last Duke abdicated in 1918, as monarchies fell throughout Europe. The Duke\'s ruling house reigned in Mecklenburg uninterrupted (except for two years) from its incorporation into the Holy Roman Empire until 1918. From 1918 to 1933, the duchies were free states in the Weimar Republic.
Traditionally Mecklenburg has always been one of the poorer German regions. The reasons for this may be varied, but one factor stands out: agriculturally the land is poor and can not produce at the same level as other parts of Germany. The two Mecklenburgs made attempts at being independent states after 1918, but eventually failed as their dependence on the rest of the German lands became apparent.
### History since 1934 {#history_since_1934}
After three centuries of partition, Mecklenburg was united on 1 January 1934 by the German government. During World War II the Wehrmacht assigned Mecklenburg and Pomerania to Wehrkreis II under the command of *General der Infanterie* Werner Kienitz, with the headquarters at Stettin. Mecklenburg was assigned to an Area headquartered at Schwerin, which was responsible for military units in Schwerin, Rostock, Parchim, and Neustrelitz.
After World War II, the Soviet government occupying eastern Germany merged Mecklenburg with the smaller neighbouring region of Western Pomerania (German *Vorpommern*) to form the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Mecklenburg contributed about two-thirds of the geographical size of the new state and the majority of its population. Also, the new state became temporary or permanent home for many refugees expelled from former German territories seized by the Soviet Union and Poland after the war. The Soviets changed the name from \"Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania\" to \"Mecklenburg\" in 1947.
In 1952, the East German government ended the independent existence of Mecklenburg, creating three districts (\"Bezirke\") out of its territory: Rostock, Schwerin and Neubrandenburg.
During German reunification in 1990, the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern was revived, and is now one of the 16 states of the Federal Republic of Germany.
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# Mecklenburg
## Coat of arms of the duchies of Mecklenburg {#coat_of_arms_of_the_duchies_of_mecklenburg}
The House of Mecklenburg was founded by Niklot, prince of the Obotrites, Chizzini and Circipani on the Baltic Sea, who died in 1160. His Christian progeny was recognized as prince of the Holy Roman Empire 1170 and Duke of Mecklenburg 8 July 1348. On 27 February 1658 the ducal house divided in two branches: Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz.
The flag of both Mecklenburg duchies is traditionally made of the colours blue, yellow and red. The sequence however changed more than once in the past 300 years. In 1813 the duchies used yellow-red-blue. 23 December 1863 for Schwerin and 4 January 1864 for Strelitz blue-yellow-red was ordered. Mecklenburg-Schwerin however used white instead of yellow for flags on sea by law of 24 March 1855.
Siebmachers Wappenbuch gives therefore (?) blue-white-red for Schwerin and blue-yellow-red for Strelitz. According to this source, the grand ducal house of Schwerin used a flag of 3.75 to 5.625 M with the middle arms on a white quadrant (1.75 M) in the middle.
The middle arms show the shield of Mecklenburg as arranged in the 17th century. The county of Schwerin in the middle and in the quartering Mecklenburg (bull\'s head with hide), Rostock (griffin), principality of Schwerin (griffin surmounting green rectangle), Ratzeburg (cross surmounted by crown), Stargard (arm with hand holding ring) and Wenden (bull\'s head). The shield is supported by a bull and a griffin and surmounted by a royal crown.
The dukes of Strelitz used according to Siebmachers the blue-yellow-red flag with just the (oval) shield of Mecklenburg in the yellow band.
Ströhl in 1897 and Bulgaria show another arrangement: The grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin flows a flag (4:5) with the arms of the figures from the shield of arms.
The former Schwerin standard with the white quadrant is now ascribed to the grand dukes of Strelitz. Ströhl mentions a flag for the grand ducal house by law of 23 December 1863 with the middle arms in the yellow band. And he mentions a special sea flag, the same but with a white middle band. \'Berühmte Fahnen\' shows furthermore a standard for grand duchess Alexandra of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, princess of Hannover (1882--1963), showing her shield and that of Mecklenburg joined by the order of the Wendic Crown in a white oval. On sea the yellow band in her flag was of course white. The princes (dukes) of Mecklenburg-Schwerin had according to this source their own standard, showing the griffin of Rostock.
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# Mecklenburg
## Economy
### Agriculture
A flat landscape, Mecklenburg is known for its farmlands---which produces quinoa, wheat, barley and maize---and its animal husbandry, notably its cattle and the Mecklenburger breed of horse. Recently, given the upheavals and environmental disruptions created by globalisation, German farmers have become concerned about potentially invasive species such as the Greater rhea and the Asian hornet.
### Tourism
Mecklenburg has seen a huge increase in tourism since German reunification in 1990, particularly with its beaches and seaside resorts at the Baltic Sea (\"German Riviera\", Warnemünde, Boltenhagen, Heiligendamm, Kühlungsborn, Rerik and others), the Mecklenburg Lakeland (*Mecklenburgische Seenplatte*) and the Mecklenburg Switzerland (*Mecklenburgische Schweiz*) with their pristine nature, the old Hanseatic towns of Rostock, Greifswald, Stralsund and Wismar (the latter two being World Heritage) well known for their medieval Brick Gothic buildings, and the former royal residences of Schwerin, Güstrow, Ludwigslust and Neustrelitz
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# Management science
*Management Science* (journal)}} **Management science** (or **managerial science**) is a wide and interdisciplinary study of solving complex problems and making strategic decisions as it pertains to institutions, corporations, governments and other types of organizational entities. It is closely related to management, economics, business, engineering, management consulting, and other fields. It uses various scientific research-based principles, strategies, and analytical methods including mathematical modeling, statistics and numerical algorithms and aims to improve an organization\'s ability to enact rational and accurate management decisions by arriving at optimal or near optimal solutions to complex decision problems.
Management science looks to help businesses achieve goals using a number of scientific methods. The field was initially an outgrowth of applied mathematics, where early challenges were problems relating to the optimization of systems which could be modeled linearly, i.e., determining the optima (maximum value of profit, assembly line performance, crop yield, bandwidth, etc. or minimum of loss, risk, costs, etc.) of some objective function. Today, the discipline of management science may encompass a diverse range of managerial and organizational activity as it regards to a problem which is structured in mathematical or other quantitative form in order to derive managerially relevant insights and solutions.
## Overview
Management science is concerned with a number of areas of study:
- Developing and applying models and concepts that may prove useful in helping to illuminate management issues and solve managerial problems. The models used can often be represented mathematically, but sometimes computer-based, visual or verbal representations are used as well or instead.
- Designing and developing new and better models of organizational excellence.
- Helping to improve, stabilize or otherwise manage profit margins in enterprises.
Management science research can be done on three levels:
- The fundamental level lies in three mathematical disciplines: probability, optimization, and dynamical systems theory.
- The modeling level is about building models, analyzing them mathematically, gathering and analyzing data, implementing models on computers, solving them, experimenting with them---all this is part of management science research on the modeling level. This level is mainly instrumental, and driven mainly by statistics and econometrics.
- The application level, just as in any other engineering and economics disciplines, strives to make a practical impact and be a driver for change in the real world.
The management scientist\'s mandate is to use rational, systematic and science-based techniques to inform and improve decisions of all kinds. The techniques of management science are not restricted to business applications but may be applied to military, medical, public administration, charitable groups, political groups or community groups. The norm for scholars in management science is to focus their work in a certain area or subfield of management like public administration, finance, calculus, information and so forth.
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# Management science
## History
Although management science as it exists now covers a myriad of topics having to do with coming up with solutions that increase the efficiency of a business, it was not even a field of study in the not too distant past. There are a number of businessmen and management specialists who can receive credit for the creation of the idea of management science. Most commonly, however, the founder of the field is considered to be Frederick Winslow Taylor in the early 20th century. Likewise, administration expert Luther Gulick and management expert Peter Drucker both had an impact on the development of management science in the 1930s and 1940s. Drucker is quoted as having said that, \"the purpose of the corporation is to be economically efficient.\" This thought process is foundational to management science. Even before the influence of these men, there was Louis Brandeis who became known as \"the people\'s lawyer\". In 1910, Brandeis was the creator of a new business approach which he coined as \"scientific management\", a term that is often falsely attributed to the aforementioned Frederick Winslow Taylor.
These men represent some of the earliest ideas of management science at its conception. After the idea was born, it was further explored around the time of World War II. It was at this time that management science became more than an idea and was put into practice. This sort of experimentation was essential to the development of the field as it is known today.
The origins of management science can be traced to operations research, which became influential during World War II when the Allied forces recruited scientists of various disciplines to assist with military operations. In these early applications, the scientists used simple mathematical models to make efficient use of limited technologies and resources. The application of these models to the corporate sector became known as management science.
In 1967 Stafford Beer characterized the field of management science as \"the business use of operations research\".
## Theory
Some of the fields that management science involves include: `{{div col|colwidth=22em}}`{=mediawiki}
- Contract theory
- Data mining
- Decision analysis
- Engineering
- Forecasting
- Marketing
- Finance
- Operations
- Game theory
- Industrial engineering
- Logistics
- Management consulting
- Mathematical modeling
- Optimization
- Operational research
- Probability and statistics
- Project management
- Psychology
- Simulation
- Social network / Transportation forecasting models
- Sociology
- Supply chain management
## Applications
Management science\'s applications are diverse allowing the use of it in many fields. Below are examples of the applications of management science.
In finance, management science is instrumental in portfolio optimization, risk management, and investment strategies. By employing mathematical models, analysts can assess market trends, optimize asset allocation, and mitigate financial risks, contributing to more informed and strategic decision-making.
In healthcare, management science plays a crucial role in optimizing resource allocation, patient scheduling, and facility management. Mathematical models aid healthcare professionals in streamlining operations, reducing waiting times, and improving overall efficiency in the delivery of care.
Logistics and supply chain management benefit significantly from management science applications. Optimization algorithms assist in route planning, inventory management, and demand forecasting, enhancing the efficiency of the entire supply chain.
In manufacturing, management science supports process optimization, production planning, and quality control. Mathematical models help identify bottlenecks, reduce production costs, and enhance overall productivity.
Furthermore, management science contributes to strategic decision-making in project management, marketing, and human resources. By leveraging quantitative techniques, organizations can make data-driven decisions, allocate resources effectively, and enhance overall performance across diverse functional areas
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# Marietta Alboni
\[\[<File:Disderi>, Adolphe Eugène (1810-1890) - Alboni, Marietta (1826-1894), contralto 3.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|
Marietta Alboni\
*carte de visite* by E. Disdéri
\]\]
**Maria Anna Marzia** (called **Marietta**) **Alboni** (6 March 1826 -- 23 June 1894) was an Italian contralto opera singer. She is considered \"one of the greatest contraltos in operatic history\".
## Biography
Alboni was born at Città di Castello, in Umbria. She became a pupil of `{{Interlanguage link multi|Antonio Bagioli (1783–1855)|it|3=Antonio Bagioli (1783-1855)|lt=Antonio Bagioli}}`{=mediawiki} of Cesena, Emilia--Romagna, and later of the composer Gioachino Rossini, when he was \'perpetual honorary adviser\' in (and then the principal of) the Liceo Musicale, now Conservatorio Giovanni Battista Martini, in Bologna. Rossini tested the humble thirteen-year-old girl himself, had her admitted to the school with special treatment, and even procured her an early engagement to tour his *Stabat Mater* around Northern Italy, so that she could pay for her studies. After she achieved her diploma and made a modest debut in Bologna, in 1842, as \"Climene\" in Pacini\'s *Saffo*, she obtained a triennial engagement thanks to Rossini\'s influence on the impresario Bartolomeo Merelli, Intendant at both Milan\'s Teatro alla Scala and Vienna\'s Imperial Kärntnertortheater. The favourable contract was signed by Rossini himself, \"on behalf of Eustachio Alboni\", father of Marietta, who was still a minor. The singer remained, throughout her life, deeply grateful to her ancient \"maestro\", nearly a second father to her.
Her debut at Teatro alla Scala took place in December 1842 as \"Neocle\" in the Italian version of *Le siège de Corinthe*, which was followed by roles in operas by Marliani, Donizetti (as \"Maffio Orsini\" and \"Leonora\" in the Scala premiere of an Italian version of *La favorite*), Salvi and Pacini. In the season 1844--1845 she was engaged in the Saint Petersburg Imperial Bolshoi Kamenny Theatre; later, in 1846--47, she toured the principal cities of Central Europe, finally reaching London and Paris, where she settled permanently. In London, \"she appeared in leading roles by Rossini and Donizetti (where she outshone Giulia Grisi and Jenny Lind) and also sang Cherubino (performing with Henriette Sontag)\". For the 1848 London run of *Les Huguenots*, Meyerbeer transposed the role of the page \"Urbain\" \'from soprano to contralto and composed the aria \"Non! -- non, non, non, non, non! Vous n\'avez jamais, je gage\" in Act 2\' for her. On 28 August 1848, she sang at a concert in Manchester\'s Concert Hall, sharing the stage with Lorenzo Salvi and Frédéric Chopin. She toured the United States in 1852--53, appearing there with Camilla Urso.
In 1853 she wed a nobleman, Count Carlo Pepoli, of the Papal States, but she kept her maiden name for the stage. In 1863 she had to retire the first time on account of her husband\'s serious mental illness. He died in 1867. A year later, in 1868, Alboni would take part in the funeral of her beloved master and friend, Rossini, in the Église de la Sainte-Trinité. There she sang, alongside Adelina Patti, the leading soprano of the time, a stanza of *Dies irae*, \"Liber scriptum\", adjusted to the music of the duet \"Quis est Homo\" from Rossini\'s own *Stabat Mater*. Out of deference to her master, she also accepted to resume her singing career mainly in order to tour the orchestral version of the *Petite messe solennelle* around Europe. Rossini had once expressed his hope that she would take upon herself to perform it when he was dead. He had said that he had composed it, and especially the new section \"O salutaris\", just having her voice in mind.
In 1872 she permanently retired from the stage with four performances of \"Fidalma\" in Cimarosa\'s *Il matrimonio segreto*, at the Paris Théâtre des Italiens but, in fact, she never gave up singing in private and in benefit concerts. When in 1887 the French and Italian Governments agreed upon moving the mortal remains of Rossini into the Basilica di Santa Croce in Florence, Alboni, then a sixty-one-year-old lady living in seclusion, wrote to the Italian Foreign Minister, Di Robilant, proposing that the *Petite Messe Solennelle*, \"the last musical composition by Rossini\", be performed in Santa Croce the day of the funeral, and \"demanding the honour, as an Italian and a pupil of the immortal Maestro,\" of singing it herself in her \"dear and beloved homeland\". Her wish, however, never came true and she was just given the chance of being present at the exhumation ceremony in Paris. The Paris correspondent of the Rome newspaper *Il Fanfulla* wrote on the occasion: \"photographers snapped in the same shot the greatest performer of *Cenerentola* and *Semiramide*, and what is left of the man who wrote these masterpieces\".
In 1877 she had remarried---to a French military officer named Charles Zieger. She died at Ville-d\'Avray, near Paris, in her \"Villa La Cenerentola\", and was buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery. Always engaged in charity (often in memory of Maestro Rossini), she left nearly all her estate to the poor of Paris. In her will she wrote that by singing she had earned all her fortune, and on singing she would pass away, with the sweet thought that she had employed it to encourage and to console.
## Artistic features {#artistic_features}
Alboni\'s voice, an exceptionally fine contralto with a seamless compass of two and one-half octaves, extending as high as the soprano range, was said to possess at once power, sweetness, fullness, and extraordinary flexibility. She had no peers in passages requiring a sensitive delivery and semi-religious calmness, owing to the moving quality of her velvety tone. She possessed vivacity, grace, and charm as an actress of the *comédienne* type; but she was not a natural *tragédienne*, and her attempt at the strongly dramatic part of Norma was sometimes reported to have turned out a failure. Nevertheless, she scored a real triumph in 1850, when she made her operatic debut at the Paris Opéra performing the tragic role of \"Fidès\" in Meyerbeer\'s *Le prophète*, which had been created the year before by no less than Pauline Viardot. Furthermore, she was able to cope with such dramatic roles as \"Azucena\" and \"Ulrica\" in Verdi\'s *Il trovatore* and *Un ballo in maschera*, and even with the baritone role of \"Don Carlo\" in *Ernani* (London, 1847).
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# Marietta Alboni
## Repertoire
The following list of the roles performed by Marietta Alboni was drawn up by Arthur Pougin and published in his biography of the singer. It is reported here with the addition of further works and characters according to the sources stated in footnotes
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# Margaret Murray
**Margaret Alice Murray** `{{Post-nominals|country=GBR|FSAs|FRAI}}`{=mediawiki} (13 July 1863 -- 13 November 1963) was an Anglo-Indian Egyptologist, archaeologist, anthropologist, historian, and folklorist. The first woman to be appointed as a lecturer in archaeology in the United Kingdom, she worked at University College London (UCL) from 1898 to 1935. She was president of the Folklore Society from 1953 to 1955, and published widely.
Born to a wealthy middle-class English family in Calcutta, British India, Murray divided her youth between India, Britain, and Germany, training as both a nurse and a social worker. Moving to London, in 1894 she began studying Egyptology at UCL, developing a friendship with department head Flinders Petrie, who encouraged her early academic publications and appointed her junior lecturer in 1898. In 1902--1903, she took part in Petrie\'s excavations at Abydos, Egypt, there discovering the Osireion temple, and the following season investigated the Saqqara cemetery, both of which established her reputation in Egyptology. Supplementing her UCL wage by giving public classes and lectures at the British Museum and Manchester Museum, it was at the latter in 1908 that she led the unwrapping of Khnum-nakht, one of the mummies recovered from the Tomb of two Brothers`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}the first time that a woman had publicly unwrapped a mummy. Recognising that British Egyptomania reflected the existence of widespread public interest in Ancient Egypt, Murray wrote several books on Egyptology targeted at a general audience.
Murray became closely involved in the first-wave feminist movement, joining the Women\'s Social and Political Union and devoting much time to improving women\'s status at UCL. Unable to return to Egypt due to the First World War, she focused her research on the witch-cult hypothesis, the theory that the witch trials of Early Modern Christendom were an attempt to extinguish a surviving pre-Christian, pagan religion devoted to a Horned God. Although later academically discredited, the theory gained widespread attention and proved a significant influence on the emerging new religious movement of Wicca. From 1921 to 1931, she undertook excavations of prehistoric sites on Malta and Menorca and developed her interest in folkloristics. Awarded an honorary doctorate in 1927, she was appointed assistant professor in 1928 and retired from UCL in 1935. That year she visited Palestine to aid Petrie\'s excavation of Tall al-Ajjul and in 1937 she led a small excavation at Petra, Jordan. Taking on the presidency of the Folklore Society in later life, she lectured at such institutions as the University of Cambridge and City Literary Institute, and continued to publish until her death.
Murray\'s work in Egyptology and archaeology was widely acclaimed and earned her the nickname of \"The Grand Old Woman of Egyptology\", although after her death many of her contributions to the field were overshadowed by those of Petrie. Conversely, Murray\'s work in folkloristics and the history of witchcraft has been academically discredited and her methods in these areas heavily criticised. The influence of her witch-cult theory in both religion and literature has been examined by scholars, and she herself has been dubbed the \"Grandmother of Wicca\".
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# Margaret Murray
## Early life {#early_life}
### Youth: 1863--1893 {#youth_18631893}
Margaret Murray was born on 13 July 1863 in Calcutta, then a major military city and the capital of British India. She lived in the city with her parents James and Margaret Murray, an older sister named Mary, and her paternal grandmother and great-grandmother. James Murray, born in India of Anglo-Irish descent, was a businessman and manager of the Serampore paper mills who was thrice elected President of the Calcutta Chamber of Commerce. Margaret (née Carr) had moved to India from Britain in 1857 to work as a missionary, preaching Christianity and educating Indian women. She continued with this work after marrying James and giving birth to her two daughters.
Although most of their lives were spent in the European area of Calcutta, which was walled off from the Indian sectors of the city, Murray encountered members of Indian society through her family\'s employment of ten Indian servants and through childhood holidays to Mussoorie. The historian Amara Thornton has suggested that Murray\'s Indian childhood exerted an influence over her throughout her life, expressing the view that Murray could be seen as having a hybrid transnational identity that was both British and Indian. During her childhood, Murray received no formal education, and in later life expressed pride that she had never had to sit an exam before entering university.
In 1870, Margaret and her sister Mary were sent to Britain, moving in with their uncle John, a vicar, and his wife Harriet at their home in Lambourn, Berkshire. Although John provided them with a strongly Christian education and a belief in the inferiority of women, both of which she would reject, he awakened Murray\'s interest in archaeology through taking her to see local monuments. In 1873, the girls\' mother arrived in Europe and took them with her to Bonn in Germany, where they both became fluent in German. In 1875 they returned to Calcutta, staying there until 1877. They then moved with their parents back to England, where they settled in Sydenham, London. There, they spent much time visiting The Crystal Palace, while their father worked at his firm\'s London office.
In 1880, they returned to Calcutta, where Margaret remained for the next seven years. She became a nurse at the Calcutta General Hospital, which was run by the Sisters of the Anglican Sisterhood of Clower, and there was involved with the hospital\'s attempts to deal with a cholera outbreak. In 1881, at age 18, Margaret heard about James Murray (no relation) and his \"general appeal to English speakers around the world to read their local books and send him words and quotations\" for entry into the OED. She had a routine of taking a book onto the roof in the cool early-morning air. She began with William L\'Isle\'s edition of Aelfric\'s *Saxon Treatise concerning the Old and New Testament*, from which she submitted 300 entries to Murray. She continued as a volunteer until 1888, submitting a total of 5,000 entries.
In 1887, she returned to England, moving to Rugby, Warwickshire, where her uncle John, now widowed, had moved. She took up employment as a social worker dealing with local underprivileged people. When her father retired to England, she moved into his house in Bushey Heath, Hertfordshire, living with him until his death in 1891. In 1893 she travelled to Madras, Tamil Nadu, where her sister had moved to with her new husband.
Later in 1893, Murray received her first introduction to Egyptology when her elder sister, Mary, alerted her to an advertisement in *The Times* for classes in Egyptian hieroglyphs taught by Flinders Petrie, Murray\'s future mentor. Reflecting upon this in her autobiography, Murray notes it was her sister\'s insistence on attending these classes, largely spurred on by her own inability to do so, which set her down the path of her Egyptological career.
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# Margaret Murray
## Early life {#early_life}
### Early years at University College London: 1894--1905 {#early_years_at_university_college_london_18941905}
Encouraged by her mother and sister, Murray decided to enrol at the newly opened department of Egyptology at University College London (UCL). At the time of Murray\'s enrolment, Egyptology was not a formally trained degree, with the exception of the University of Oxford, which offered Middle Egyptian amongst a trio of \"Oriental languages\". Having been founded by an endowment from Amelia Edwards, one of the co-founders of the Egypt Exploration Fund (EEF), the department was run by the pioneering early archaeologist Sir William Flinders Petrie, and based in the Edwards Library of UCL\'s South Cloisters. Murray began her studies at UCL at age 30 in January 1894, as part of a class composed largely of other women and older men. She took courses in the Ancient Egyptian and Coptic languages which were taught by Francis Llewellyn Griffith and Walter Ewing Crum respectively.
Murray soon got to know Petrie, becoming his copyist and illustrator and producing the drawings for the published report on his excavations at Qift, *Koptos*. In turn, he aided and encouraged her to write her first research paper, \"The Descent of Property in the Early Periods of Egyptian History\", which was published in the *Proceedings of the Society for Biblical Archaeology* in 1895. Becoming Petrie\'s *de facto* though unofficial assistant, Murray began to give some of the linguistic lessons in Griffith\'s absence. In 1898 she was appointed to the position of junior lecturer, responsible for teaching the linguistic courses at the Egyptology department; this made her the first female lecturer in archaeology in the United Kingdom. In this capacity, she spent two days a week at UCL, devoting the other days to caring for her ailing mother. As time went on, she came to teach courses on Ancient Egyptian history, religion, and language.
Among Murray\'s students -- to whom she referred as \"the Gang\" -- were several who went on to produce noted contributions to Egyptology, including Reginald Engelbach, Georgina Aitken, Guy Brunton, and Myrtle Broome. She supplemented her UCL salary by teaching evening classes in Egyptology at the British Museum. At this point, Murray had no experience in field archaeology, and so during the 1902--1903 field season, she travelled to Egypt to join Petrie\'s excavations at Abydos. Petrie and his wife, Hilda Petrie, had been excavating at the site since 1899, having taken over the archaeological investigation from French Coptic scholar Émile Amélineau. Murray at first joined as site nurse, but was subsequently taught how to excavate by Petrie and given a senior position.
This led to issues with some of the male excavators, who disliked the idea of taking orders from a woman. This experience, coupled with discussions with other female excavators (some of whom were active in the feminist movement), led Murray to adopt openly feminist viewpoints. While excavating at Abydos, Murray uncovered the Osireion, a temple devoted to the god Osiris which had been constructed by order of Pharaoh Seti I during the period of the New Kingdom. She published her site report as *The Osireion at Abydos* in 1904; in the report, she examined the inscriptions that had been discovered at the site to discern the purpose and use of the building.
During the 1903--1904 field season, Murray returned to Egypt, and at Petrie\'s instruction began her investigations at the Saqqara cemetery near Cairo, which dated from the period of the Old Kingdom. Murray did not have legal permission to excavate the site, and instead spent her time transcribing the inscriptions from ten of the tombs that had been excavated in the 1860s by Auguste Mariette. She published her findings in 1905 as *Saqqara Mastabas I*, although would not publish translations of the inscriptions until 1937 as *Saqqara Mastabas II*. Both *The Osireion at Abydos* and *Saqqara Mastabas I* proved to be very influential in the Egyptological community, with Petrie recognising Murray\'s contribution to his own career.
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# Margaret Murray
## Early life {#early_life}
### Feminism, the First World War, and folklore: 1905--1920 {#feminism_the_first_world_war_and_folklore_19051920}
On returning to London, Murray took an active role in the feminist movement, volunteering and financially donating to the cause and taking part in feminist demonstrations, protests, and marches. Joining the Women\'s Social and Political Union, she was present at large marches like the Mud March of 1907 and the Women\'s Coronation Procession of June 1911. She concealed the militancy of her actions in order to retain the image of respectability within academia. Murray also pushed the professional boundaries for women throughout her own career, and mentored other women in archaeology and throughout academia. As women could not use the men\'s common room, she successfully campaigned for UCL to open a common room for women, and later ensured that a larger, better-equipped room was converted for the purpose; it was later renamed the Margaret Murray Room. At UCL, she became a friend of fellow female lecturer Winifred Smith, and together they campaigned to improve the status and recognition of women in the university, with Murray becoming particularly annoyed at female staff who were afraid of upsetting or offending the male university establishment with their demands. Feeling that students should get nutritious yet affordable lunches, for many years she sat on the UCL Refectory Committee. She took on an unofficial administrative role within the Egyptology Department, and was largely responsible for introduction of a formal certificate in Egyptian archaeology in 1910.
Various museums around the United Kingdom invited Murray to advise them on their Egyptological collections, resulting in her cataloguing the Egyptian artefacts owned by the Dublin National Museum, the National Museum of Antiquities in Edinburgh, and the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, being elected a Fellow of the latter in thanks. Petrie had established connections with the Egyptological wing of Manchester Museum in Manchester, and it was there that many of his finds had been housed. Murray thus often travelled to the museum to catalogue these artefacts, and during the 1906--07 school year regularly lectured there.
In 1907, Petrie excavated the Tomb of the Two Brothers, a Middle Kingdom burial of two Egyptian priests, Nakht-ankh and Khnum-nakht, and it was decided that Murray would carry out the public unwrapping of the latter\'s mummified body. Taking place at the museum in May 1908, it represented the first time that a woman had led a public mummy unwrapping and was attended by over 500 onlookers, attracting press attention. Murray was particularly keen to emphasise the importance that the unwrapping would have for the scholarly understanding of the Middle Kingdom and its burial practices, and lashed out against members of the public who saw it as immoral; she declared that \"every vestige of ancient remains must be carefully studied and recorded without sentimentality and without fear of the outcry of the ignorant\". She subsequently published a book about her analysis of the two bodies, *The Tomb of the Two Brothers*, which remained a key publication on Middle Kingdom mummification practices into the 21st century. Murray was dedicated to public education, hoping to infuse Egyptomania with solid scholarship about Ancient Egypt, and to this end authored a series of books aimed at a general audience. In 1905 she published *Elementary Egyptian Grammar* which was followed in 1911 by *Elementary Coptic (Sahidic) Grammar*. In 1913, she published *Ancient Egyptian Legends* for John Murray\'s \"The Wisdom of the East\" series. She was particularly pleased with the increased public interest in Egyptology that followed Howard Carter\'s discovery of the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun in 1922. From at least 1911 until his death in 1940, Murray was a close friend of the anthropologist Charles Gabriel Seligman of the London School of Economics, and together they co-authored a variety of papers on Egyptology that were aimed at an anthropological audience. Many of these dealt with subjects that Egyptological journals would not publish, such as the \"Sa\" sign for the uterus, and thus were published in *Man*, the journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute. It was at Seligman\'s recommendation that she was invited to become a member of the Institute in 1916.
In 1914, Petrie launched the academic journal *Ancient Egypt*, published through his own British School of Archaeology in Egypt (BSAE), which was based at UCL. Given that he was often away from London excavating in Egypt, Murray was left to operate as *de facto* editor much of the time. She also published many research articles in the journal and authored many of its book reviews, particularly of the German-language publications which Petrie could not read.
The outbreak of the First World War in 1914, in which the United Kingdom went to war against Germany and the Ottoman Empire, meant that Petrie and other staff members were unable to return to Egypt for excavation. Instead, Petrie and Murray spent much of the time reorganising the artefact collections that they had attained over the past decades. To aid Britain\'s war effort, Murray enrolled as a volunteer nurse in the Volunteer Air Detachment of the College Women\'s Union Society, and for several weeks was posted to Saint-Malo in France.
After being taken ill herself, she was sent to recuperate in Glastonbury, Somerset, where she became interested in Glastonbury Abbey and the folklore surrounding it which connected it to the legendary figure of King Arthur and to the idea that the Holy Grail had been brought there by Joseph of Aramathea. Pursuing this interest, she published the paper \"Egyptian Elements in the Grail Romance\" in the journal *Ancient Egypt*, although few agreed with her conclusions and it was criticised for making unsubstantiated leaps with the evidence by the likes of Jessie Weston.
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# Margaret Murray
## Later life {#later_life}
### Witch-cult, Malta, and Menorca: 1921--1935 {#witch_cult_malta_and_menorca_19211935}
Murray\'s interest in folklore led her to develop an interest in the witch trials of Early Modern Europe. In 1917, she published a paper in *Folklore*, the journal of the Folklore Society, in which she first articulated her version of the witch-cult theory, arguing that the witches persecuted in European history were actually followers of \"a definite religion with beliefs, ritual, and organization as highly developed as that of any cult in the end\". She followed this up with papers on the subject in the journals *Man* and the *Scottish Historical Review*. She articulated these views more fully in her 1921 book *The Witch-Cult in Western Europe*, published by Oxford University Press after receiving a positive peer review by Henry Balfour, and which received both criticism and support on publication. Many reviews in academic journals were critical, with historians claiming that she had distorted and misinterpreted the contemporary records that she was using, but the book was nevertheless influential. As a result of her work in this area, she was invited to provide the entry on \"witchcraft\" for the fourteenth edition of the *Encyclopædia Britannica* in 1929. She used the opportunity to propagate her own witch-cult theory, failing to mention the alternate theories proposed by other academics. Her entry would be included in the encyclopedia until 1969, becoming readily accessible to the public, and it was for this reason that her ideas on the subject had such a significant impact. It received a particularly enthusiastic reception by occultists such as Dion Fortune, Lewis Spence, Ralph Shirley, and J. W. Brodie Innes, perhaps because its claims regarding an ancient secret society chimed with similar claims common among various occult groups. Murray joined the Folklore Society in February 1927, and was elected to the society\'s council a month later, although she stood down in 1929. Murray reiterated her witch-cult theory in her 1933 book, *The God of the Witches*, which was aimed at a wider, non-academic audience. In this book, she cut out or toned down what she saw as the more unpleasant aspects of the witch-cult, such as animal and child sacrifice, and began describing the religion in more positive terms as \"the Old Religion\".
At UCL, Murray was promoted to lecturer in 1921 and to senior lecturer in 1922. From 1921 to 1927, she led archaeological excavations on Malta, assisted by Edith Guest and Gertrude Caton Thompson. She excavated the Bronze Age megalithic monuments of Santa Sofia, Santa Maria tal-Bakkari, Għar Dalam, and Borġ in-Nadur, all of which were threatened by the construction of a new aerodrome. In this she was funded by the Percy Sladen Memorial Fund. Her resulting three-volume excavation report came to be seen as an important publication within the field of Maltese archaeology. During the excavations, she had taken an interest in the island\'s folklore, resulting in the 1932 publication of her book *Maltese Folktales*, much of which was a translation of earlier stories collected by Manuel Magri and her friend Liza Galea. In 1932 Murray returned to Malta to aid in the cataloguing of the Bronze Age pottery collection held in Malta Museum, resulting in another publication, *Corpus of the Bronze Age Pottery of Malta*.
On the basis of her work in Malta, Louis Clarke, the curator of the Cambridge Museum of Ethnology and Anthropology, invited her to lead excavations on the island of Menorca from 1930 to 1931. With the aid of Guest, she excavated the talaiotic sites of Trepucó and Sa Torreta de Tramuntana, resulting in the publication of *Cambridge Excavations in Minorca*. Murray also continued to publish works on Egyptology for a general audience, such as *Egyptian Sculpture* (1930) and *Egyptian Temples* (1931), which received largely positive reviews. In the summer of 1925 she led a team of volunteers to excavate Homestead Moat in Whomerle Wood near to Stevenage, Hertfordshire; she did not publish an excavation report and did not mention the event in her autobiography, with her motives for carrying out the excavation remaining unclear.
In 1924, UCL promoted Murray to the position of assistant professor, and, in 1927, she was awarded an honorary doctorate for her career in Egyptology. That year, Murray was tasked with guiding Mary of Teck, the Queen consort, around the Egyptology department during the latter\'s visit to UCL. The pressures of teaching had eased by this point, allowing Murray to spend more time travelling internationally; in 1920 she returned to Egypt and in 1929 visited South Africa, where she attended the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, whose theme was the prehistory of southern Africa. In the early 1930s she travelled to the Soviet Union, where she visited museums in Leningrad, Moscow, Kharkiv, and Kyiv, and then in late 1935 she undertook a lecture tour of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Estonia.
Although having reached legal retirement age in 1927, and thus unable to be offered another five-year contract, Murray was reappointed on an annual basis each year until 1935. At this point, she retired, expressing the opinion that she was glad to leave UCL, for reasons that she did not make clear. In 1933, Petrie had retired from UCL and moved to Jerusalem in Mandatory Palestine with his wife; Murray therefore took over as editor of the *Ancient Egypt* journal, renaming it *Ancient Egypt and the East* to reflect its increasing research interest in the ancient societies that surrounded and interacted with Egypt. The journal folded in 1935, perhaps due to Murray\'s retirement. Murray then spent some time in Jerusalem, where she aided the Petries in their excavation at Tall al-Ajjul, a Bronze Age mound south of Gaza.
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# Margaret Murray
## Later life {#later_life}
### Petra, Cambridge, and London: 1935--1953 {#petra_cambridge_and_london_19351953}
During Murray\'s 1935 trip to Palestine, she visited Petra in neighbouring Jordan. Intrigued by the site, in March and April 1937 she returned in order to carry out a small excavation in several cave dwellings at the site, subsequently writing both an excavation report and a guidebook on Petra. Back in England, from 1934 to 1940, Murray aided the cataloguing of Egyptian antiquities at Girton College, Cambridge, and also gave lectures in Egyptology at the university until 1942. Her interest in folklore more broadly continued and she wrote the introduction to *Lincolshire Folklore* by Ethel Rudkin, in which she discussed how superior women were as folklorists to men.
During the Second World War, Murray evaded the Blitz of London by moving to Cambridge, where she volunteered for a group (probably the Army Bureau of Current Affairs or The British Way and Purpose) who educated military personnel to prepare them for post-war life. Based in the city, she embarked on research into the town\'s Early Modern history, examining documents stored in local parish churches, Downing College, and Ely Cathedral; she never published her findings. In 1945, she briefly became involved in the \"Who put Bella in the Wych Elm?\" murder case.
After the war ended she returned to London, settling into a bedsit room in Endsleigh Street, which was close to University College London (UCL) and the Institute of Archaeology (then an independent institution, now part of UCL); she continued her involvement with the former and made use of the latter\'s library. On most days, she visited the British Museum in order to consult their library, and twice a week she taught adult education classes on Ancient Egyptian history and religion at the City Literary Institute; upon her retirement from this position she nominated her former pupil, Veronica Seton-Williams, to replace her.
Murray\'s interest in popularising Egyptology among the wider public continued; in 1949 she published *Ancient Egyptian Religious Poetry*, her second work for John Murray\'s \"The Wisdom of the East\" series. That year she also published *The Splendour That Was Egypt*, in which she collated many of her UCL lectures. The book adopted a diffusionist perspective that argued that Egypt influenced Greco-Roman society and thus modern Western society. This was seen as a compromise between Petrie\'s belief that other societies influenced the emergence of Egyptian civilisation and Grafton Elliot Smith\'s highly unorthodox and heavily criticised hyperdiffusionist view that Egypt was the source of all global civilisation. The book received a mixed reception from the archaeological community.
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# Margaret Murray
## Later life {#later_life}
### Final years: 1953--1963 {#final_years_19531963}
In 1953, Murray was appointed to the presidency of the Folklore Society following the resignation of former president Allan Gomme. The Society had initially approached John Mavrogordato for the post, but he had declined, with Murray accepting the nomination several months later. Murray remained president for two terms, until 1955. In her 1954 presidential address, \"England as a Field for Folklore Research\", she lamented what she saw as the English people\'s disinterest in their own folklore in favour of that from other nations. For the autumn 1961 issue of *Folklore*, the society published a *festschrift* to Murray to commemorate her 98th birthday. The issue contained contributions from various scholars paying tribute to her -- with papers dealing with archaeology, fairies, Near Eastern religious symbols, Greek folk songs -- but notably not about witchcraft, potentially because no other folklorists were willing to defend her witch-cult theory.
In May 1957, Murray had championed the archaeologist T. C. Lethbridge\'s controversial claims that he had discovered three pre-Christian chalk hill figures on Wandlebury Hill in the Gog Magog Hills, Cambridgeshire. Privately she expressed concern about the reality of the figures. Lethbridge subsequently authored a book championing her witch-cult theory in which he sought the cult\'s origins in pre-Christian culture. In 1960, she donated her collection of papers -- including correspondences with a wide range of individuals across the country -- to the Folklore Society Archive, where it is now known as \"the Murray Collection\".
Crippled with arthritis, Murray had moved into a home in North Finchley, north London, where she was cared for by a retired couple who were trained nurses; from here she occasionally took taxis into central London to visit the UCL library. Amid failing health, in 1962 Murray moved into the Queen Victoria Memorial Hospital, Welwyn, Hertfordshire, where she could receive 24-hour care; she lived here for the final 18 months of her life. To mark her hundredth birthday, on 13 July 1963 a group of her friends, former students, and doctors gathered for a party at nearby Ayot St. Lawrence. Two days later, her doctor drove her to UCL for a second birthday party, again attended by many of her friends, colleagues, and former students; it was the last time that she visited the university. In *Man*, the journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, it was noted that Murray was \"the only Fellow of the Institute to \[reach their centenary\] within living memory, if not in its whole history\". That year she published two books; one was *The Genesis of Religion*, in which she argued that humanity\'s first deities had been goddesses rather than male gods. The second was her autobiography, *My First Hundred Years*, which received predominantly positive reviews. She died on 13 November 1963, and her body was cremated.
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# Margaret Murray
## Murray\'s witch-cult hypotheses {#murrays_witch_cult_hypotheses}
The later folklorists Caroline Oates and Juliette Wood have suggested that Murray was best known for her witch-cult theory, with biographer Margaret S. Drower expressing the view that it was her work on this subject which \"perhaps more than any other, made her known to the general public\". It has been claimed that Murray\'s was the \"first feminist study of the witch trials\", as well as being the first to have actually \"empowered the witches\" by giving the (largely female) accused both free will and a voice distinct from that of their interrogators. The theory was faulty, in part because all of her academic training was in Egyptology, with no background knowledge in European history, but also because she exhibited a \"tendency to generalize wildly on the basis of very slender evidence\".
Oates and Wood, however, noted that Murray\'s interpretations of the evidence fit within wider perspectives on the past that existed at the time, stating that \"Murray was far from isolated in her method of reading ancient ritual origins into later myths\". In particular, her approach was influenced by the work of the anthropologist James Frazer, who had argued for the existence of a pervasive dying-and-resurrecting god myth, and she was also influenced by the interpretative approaches of E. O. James, Karl Pearson, Herbert Fleure, and Harold Peake.
### Argument
In *The Witch-Cult in Western Europe*, Murray stated that she had restricted her research to Great Britain, although made some recourse to sources from France, Flanders, and New England. She drew a division between what she termed \"Operative Witchcraft\", which referred to the performance of spells with any purpose, and \"Ritual Witchcraft\", by which she meant \"the ancient religion of Western Europe\", a fertility-based faith that she also termed \"the Dianic cult\". She claimed that the cult had \"very probably\" once been devoted to the worship of both a male deity and a \"Mother Goddess\" but that \"at the time when the cult is recorded the worship of the male deity appears to have superseded that of the female\". In her argument, Murray claimed that the figure referred to as the Devil in the trial accounts was the witches\' god, \"manifest and incarnate\", to whom the witches offered their prayers. She claimed that at the witches\' meetings, the god would be personified, usually by a man or at times by a woman or an animal; when a human personified this entity, Murray claimed that they were usually dressed plainly, though they appeared in full costume for the witches\' Sabbaths.
Members joined the cult either as children or adults through what Murray called \"admission ceremonies\"; Murray asserted that applicants had to agree to join of their own free will, and agree to devote themselves to the service of their deity. She also claimed that in some cases, these individuals had to sign a covenant or were baptised into the faith. At the same time, she claimed that the religion was largely passed down hereditary lines. Murray described the religion as being divided into covens containing thirteen members, led by a coven officer who was often termed the \"Devil\" in the trial accounts, but who was accountable to a \"Grand Master\". According to Murray, the records of the coven were kept in a secret book, with the coven also disciplining its members, to the extent of executing those deemed traitors.
Describing this witch-cult as \"a joyous religion\", she claimed that the two primary festivals that it celebrated were on May Eve and November Eve, although that other dates of religious observation were 1 February and 1 August, the winter and summer solstices, and Easter. She asserted that the \"General Meeting of all members of the religion\" were known as Sabbaths, while the more private ritual meetings were known as Esbats. The Esbats, Murray claimed, were nocturnal rites that began at midnight, and were \"primarily for business, whereas the Sabbath was purely religious\". At the former, magical rites were performed both for malevolent and benevolent ends. She asserted the Sabbath ceremonies involved the witches paying homage to the deity, renewing their \"vows of fidelity and obedience\" to him, and providing him with accounts of all the magical actions that they had conducted since the previous Sabbath. Once this business had been concluded, admissions to the cult or marriages were conducted, ceremonies and fertility rites took place, and then the Sabbath ended with feasting and dancing.
Deeming Ritual Witchcraft to be \"a fertility cult\", she asserted that many of its rites were designed to ensure fertility and rain-making. She claimed that there were four types of sacrifice performed by the witches: blood-sacrifice, in which the neophyte writes their name in blood; the sacrifice of animals; the sacrifice of a non-Christian child to procure magical powers; and the sacrifice of the witches\' god by fire to ensure fertility. She interpreted accounts of witches shapeshifting into various animals as being representative of a rite in which the witches dressed as specific animals which they took to be sacred. She asserted that accounts of familiars were based on the witches\' use of animals, which she divided into \"divining familiars\" used in divination and \"domestic familiars\" used in other magic rites.
Murray asserted that a pre-Christian fertility-based religion had survived the Christianization process in Britain, although that it came to be \"practised only in certain places and among certain classes of the community\". She believed that folkloric stories of fairies in Britain were based on a surviving race of dwarfs, who continued to live on the island up until the Early Modern period. She asserted that this race followed the same pagan religion as the witches, thus explaining the folkloric connection between the two. In the appendices to the book, she also alleged that Joan of Arc and Gilles de Rais were members of the witch-cult and were executed for it, a claim which has been refuted by historians, especially in the case of Joan of Arc.
The later historian Ronald Hutton commented that *The Witch-Cult in Western Europe* \"rested upon a small amount of archival research, with extensive use of printed trial records in 19th-century editions, plus early modern pamphlets and works of demonology\". He also noted that the book\'s tone was generally \"dry and clinical, and every assertion was meticulously footnoted to a source, with lavish quotation\". It was not a bestseller; in its first thirty years, only 2,020 copies were sold. However, it led many people to treat Murray as an authority on the subject; in 1929, she was invited to provide the entry on \"Witchcraft\" for the *Encyclopædia Britannica*, and used it to present her interpretation of the subject as if it were universally accepted in scholarship. It remained in the encyclopedia until being replaced in 1969.
Murray followed *The Witch-Cult in Western Europe* with *The God of the Witches*, published by the popular press Sampson Low in 1931; although similar in content, unlike her previous volume it was aimed at a mass market audience. The tone of the book also differed strongly from its predecessor, containing \"emotionally inflated \[language\] and coloured with religious phraseology\" and repeatedly referring to the witch-cult as \"the Old Religion\". In this book she also \"cut out or toned down\" many of the claims made in her previous volume which would have painted the cult in a bad light, such as those which discussed sex and the sacrifice of animals and children.
In this book she began to refer to the witches\' deity as the Horned God, and asserted that it was an entity who had been worshipped in Europe since the Palaeolithic. She further asserted that in the Bronze Age, the worship of the deity could be found throughout Europe, Asia, and parts of Africa, claiming that the depiction of various horned figures from these societies proved that. Among the evidence cited were the horned figures found at Mohenjo-Daro, which are often interpreted as depictions of Pashupati, as well as the deities Osiris and Amon in Egypt and the Minotaur of Minoan Crete. Within continental Europe, she claimed that the Horned God was represented by Pan in Greece, Cernunnos in Gaul, and in various Scandinavian rock carvings. Claiming that this divinity had been declared the Devil by the Christian authorities, she nevertheless asserted that his worship was testified in officially Christian societies right through to the Modern period, citing folkloric practices such as the Dorset Ooser and the Puck Fair as evidence of his veneration.
In 1954, she published *The Divine King in England*, in which she greatly extended on the theory, taking influence from Frazer\'s *The Golden Bough*, an anthropological book that made the claim that societies all over the world sacrificed their kings to the deities of nature. In her book, she claimed that this practice had continued into medieval England, and that, for instance, the death of William II was really a ritual sacrifice. No academic took the book seriously, and it was ignored by many of her supporters.
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# Margaret Murray
## Murray\'s witch-cult hypotheses {#murrays_witch_cult_hypotheses}
### Academic reception {#academic_reception}
#### Early support {#early_support}
Upon initial publication, Murray\'s thesis gained a favourable reception from many readers, including some significant scholars, albeit none who were experts in the witch trials. Historians of Early Modern Britain like George Norman Clark and Christopher Hill incorporated her theories into their work, although the latter subsequently distanced himself from the theory. For the 1961 reprint of *The Witch-Cult in Western Europe*, the Medieval historian Steven Runciman provided a foreword in which he accepted that some of Murray\'s \"minor details may be open to criticism\", but in which he was otherwise supportive of her thesis. Her theories were recapitulated by Arno Runeberg in his 1947 book *Witches, Demons and Fertility Magic* as well as Pennethorne Hughes in his 1952 book *Witches*. As a result, the Canadian historian Elliot Rose, writing in 1962, claimed that the Murrayite interpretations of the witch trials \"seem to hold, at the time of writing, an almost undisputed sway at the higher intellectual levels\", being widely accepted among \"educated people\".
Rose suggested that the reason that Murray\'s theory gained such support was partly because of her \"imposing credentials\" as a member of staff at UCL, a position that lent her theory greater legitimacy in the eyes of many readers. He further suggested that the Murrayite view was attractive to many as it confirmed \"the general picture of pre-Christian Europe a reader of Frazer or \[\[Robert Graves\|\[Robert\] Graves\]\] would be familiar with\". Similarly, Hutton suggested that the cause of the Murrayite theory\'s popularity was because it \"appealed to so many of the emotional impulses of the age\", including \"the notion of the English countryside as a timeless place full of ancient secrets\", the literary popularity of Pan, the widespread belief that the majority of British had remained pagan long after the process of Christianisation, and the idea that folk customs represented pagan survivals. At the same time, Hutton suggested, it seemed more plausible to many than the previously dominant rationalist idea that the witch trials were the result of mass delusion.
Related to this, the folklorist Jacqueline Simpson suggested that part of the Murrayite theory\'s appeal was that it appeared to give a \"sensible, demystifying, liberating approach to a longstanding but sterile argument\" between the rationalists who denied that there had been any witches and those, like Montague Summers, who insisted that there had been a real Satanic conspiracy against Christendom in the Early Modern period replete with witches with supernatural powers. \"How refreshing\", noted the historian Hilda Ellis Davidson, \"and exciting her first book was `{{em|at that period}}`{=mediawiki}. A new approach, and such a surprising one.\"
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# Margaret Murray
## Murray\'s witch-cult hypotheses {#murrays_witch_cult_hypotheses}
### Academic reception {#academic_reception}
#### Early criticism {#early_criticism}
Murray\'s theories never received support from experts in the Early Modern witch trials, and from her early publications onward many of her ideas were challenged by those who highlighted her \"factual errors and methodological failings\". Indeed, the majority of scholarly reviews of her work produced during the 1920s and 1930s were largely critical. George L. Burr reviewed both of her initial books on the witch-cult for the *American Historical Review*. He stated that she was not acquainted with the \"careful general histories by modern scholars\" and criticised her for assuming that the trial accounts accurately reflected the accused witches\' genuine experiences of witchcraft, regardless of whether those confessions had been obtained through torture and coercion. He also charged her with selectively using the evidence to serve her interpretation, for instance by omitting any supernatural or miraculous events that appear in the trial accounts. W. R. Halliday was highly critical in his review for *Folklore*, as was E. M. Loeb in his review for *American Anthropologist*.
Soon after, one of the foremost specialists of the trial records, L\'Estrange Ewen, brought out a series of books which rejected Murray\'s interpretation. Rose suggested that Murray\'s books on the witch-cult \"contain an incredible number of minor errors of fact or of calculation and several inconsistencies of reasoning\". He accepted that her case \"could, perhaps, still be proved by somebody else, though I very much doubt it\". Highlighting that there is a gap of about a thousand years between the Christianisation of Britain and the start of the witch trials there, he argues that there is no evidence for the existence of the witch-cult anywhere in the intervening period. He further criticises Murray for treating pre-Christian Britain as a socially and culturally monolithic entity, whereas in reality, it contained a diverse array of societies and religious beliefs. He also challenges Murray\'s claim that the majority of Britons in the Middle Ages remained pagan as \"a view grounded on ignorance alone\".
Murray did not respond directly to the criticisms of her work, but reacted to her critics in a hostile manner; in later life she asserted that she eventually ceased reading reviews of her work, and believed that her critics were simply acting out of their own Christian prejudices to non-Christian religion. Simpson noted that despite these critical reviews, within the field of British folkloristics, Murray\'s theories were permitted \"to pass unapproved but unchallenged, either out of politeness or because nobody was really interested enough to research the topic\". As evidence, she noted that no substantial research articles on the subject of witchcraft were published in *Folklore* between Murray\'s in 1917 and Rossell Hope Robbins\'s in 1963. She highlighted that when regional studies of British folklore were published in this period by folklorists like Theo Brown, Ruth Tongue, or Enid Porter, none adopted the Murrayite framework for interpreting witchcraft beliefs, thus evidencing her claim that Murray\'s theories were widely ignored by scholars of folkloristics.
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# Margaret Murray
## Murray\'s witch-cult hypotheses {#murrays_witch_cult_hypotheses}
### Academic reception {#academic_reception}
#### Academic rejection {#academic_rejection}
Murray\'s work was increasingly criticised following her death in 1963, with the definitive academic rejection of the Murrayite witch-cult theory occurring during the 1970s. During these decades, a variety of scholars across Europe and North America -- such as Alan Macfarlane, Erik Midelfort, William Monter, Robert Muchembled, Gerhard Schormann, Bente Alver and Bengt Ankarloo -- published in-depth studies of the archival records from the witch trials, leaving no doubt that those tried for witchcraft were not practitioners of a surviving pre-Christian religion. In 1971, the English historian Keith Thomas stated that on the basis of this research, there was \"very little evidence to suggest that the accused witches were either devil-worshippers or members of a pagan fertility cult\". He stated that Murray\'s conclusions were \"almost totally groundless\" because she ignored the systematic study of the trial accounts provided by Ewen and instead used sources very selectively to argue her point.
In 1975, the historian Norman Cohn commented that Murray\'s \"knowledge of European history, even of English history, was superficial and her grasp of historical method was non-existent\", adding that her ideas were \"firmly set in an exaggerated and distorted version of the Frazerian mould\". That same year, the historian of religion Mircea Eliade described Murray\'s work as \"hopelessly inadequate\", containing \"numberless and appalling errors\". In 1996, the feminist historian Diane Purkiss stated that although Murray\'s thesis was \"intrinsically improbable\" and commanded \"little or no allegiance within the modern academy\", she felt that male scholars like Thomas, Cohn, and Macfarlane had unfairly adopted an androcentric approach by which they contrasted their own, male and methodologically sound interpretation against Murray\'s \"feminised belief\" about the witch-cult.
Hutton stated that Murray had treated her source material with \"reckless abandon\", in that she had taken \"vivid details of alleged witch practices\" from \"sources scattered across a great extent of space and time\" and then declared them to be normative of the cult as a whole. Simpson outlined how Murray had selected her use of evidence very specifically, particularly by ignoring and/or rationalising any accounts of supernatural or miraculous events in the trial records, thereby distorting the events that she was describing. Thus, Simpson pointed out, Murray rationalised claims that the cloven-hoofed Devil appeared at the witches\' Sabbath by stating that he was a man with a special kind of shoe, and similarly asserted that witches\' claims to have flown through the air on broomsticks were actually based on their practice of either hopping along on broomsticks or smearing hallucinogenic salves onto themselves. Concurring with this assessment, the historian Jeffrey Burton Russell, writing with the independent author Brooks Alexander, stated that \"Murray\'s use of sources, in general, is appalling\". The pair went on to claim that \"today, scholars are agreed that Murray was more than just wrong -- she was completely and embarrassingly wrong on nearly all of her basic premises\".
The Italian historian Carlo Ginzburg has been cited as being willing to give \"some slight support\" to Murray\'s theory. Ginzburg stated that although her thesis had been \"formulated in a wholly uncritical way\" and contained \"serious defects\", it did contain \"a kernel of truth\". He stated his opinion that she was right in claiming that European witchcraft had \"roots in an ancient fertility cult\", something that he argued was vindicated by his work researching the *\[\[benandanti\]\]*, an agrarian visionary tradition recorded in the Friuli district of Northeastern Italy during the 16th and 17th centuries. Several historians and folklorists have pointed out that Ginzburg\'s arguments are very different to Murray\'s: whereas Murray argued for the existence of a pre-Christian witches\' cult whose members physically met during the witches\' Sabbaths, Ginzburg argued that some of the European visionary traditions that were conflated with witchcraft in the Early Modern period had their origins in pre-Christian fertility religions. Moreover, other historians have expressed criticism of Ginzburg\'s interpretation of the *benandanti*; Cohn stated that there was \"nothing whatsoever\" in the source material to justify the idea that the *benandanti* were the \"survival of an age-old fertility cult\". Echoing these views, Hutton commented that Ginzburg\'s claim that the *benandanti*\'s visionary traditions were a survival from pre-Christian practices was an idea resting on \"imperfect material and conceptual foundations\". He added that Ginzburg\'s \"assumption\" that \"what was being dreamed about in the sixteenth century had in fact been acted out in religious ceremonies\" dating to \"pagan times\", was entirely \"an inference of his own\" and not one supported by the documentary evidence.
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# Margaret Murray
## Personal life {#personal_life}
On researching the history of UCL\'s Egyptology department, the historian Rosalind M. Janssen stated that Murray was \"remembered with gratitude and immense affection by all her former students. A wise and witty teacher, two generations of Egyptologists have forever been in her debt.\" Alongside teaching them, Murray was known to socialise with her UCL students outside of class hours.
Archaeologist Ralph Merrifield, who knew Murray through the Folklore Society, described her as a \"diminutive and kindly scholar, who radiated intelligence and strength of character into extreme old age\". Davidson, who also knew Murray through the Society, noted that at their meetings \"she would sit near the front, a bent and seemingly guileless old lady dozing peacefully, and then in the middle of a discussion would suddenly intervene with a relevant and penetrating comment which showed that she had missed not one word of the argument\". The later folklorist Juliette Wood noted that many members of the Folklore Society \"remember her fondly\", adding that Murray had been \"especially keen to encourage younger researchers, even those who disagreed with her ideas\".
One of Murray\'s friends in the Society, E. O. James, described her as a \"mine of information and a perpetual inspiration ever ready to impart her vast and varied stores of specialised knowledge without reserve, or, be it said, much if any regard for the generally accepted opinions and conclusions of the experts!\" Davidson described her as being \"not at all assertive \[\...\] \[she\] never thrust her ideas on anyone. \[In relation to her witch-cult theory,\] she behaved in fact rather like someone who was a fully convinced member of some unusual religious sect, or perhaps, of the Freemasons, but never on any account got into arguments about it in public.\" The archaeologist Glyn Daniel observed that Murray remained mentally alert into her old age, commenting that \"her vigour and forthrightness and ruthless energy never deserted her\".
Murray never married, instead devoting her life to her work, and for this reason, Hutton drew comparisons between her and two other prominent female British scholars of the period, Jane Harrison and Jessie Weston. Murray\'s biographer Kathleen L. Sheppard stated that she was deeply committed to public outreach, particularly when it came to Egyptology, and that as such she \"wanted to change the means by which the public obtained knowledge about Egypt\'s history: she wished to throw open the doors to the scientific laboratory and invite the public in\". She considered travel to be one of her favourite activities, although due to restraints on her time and finances she was unable to do this regularly; her salary remained small and the revenue from her books was meagre.
Raised a devout Christian by her mother, Murray had initially become a Sunday School teacher to preach the faith, but after entering the academic profession she rejected religion, gaining a reputation among other members of the Folklore Society as a noted sceptic and a rationalist. She was openly critical of organised religion, although continued to maintain a personal belief in a God of some sort, relating in her autobiography that she believed in \"an unseen over-ruling Power\", \"which science calls Nature and religion calls God\". She was also a believer and a practitioner of magic, performing curses against those she felt deserved it; in one case she cursed a fellow academic, Jaroslav Černý, when she felt that his promotion to the position of Professor of Egyptology over her friend Walter Bryan Emery was unworthy. Her curse entailed mixing up ingredients in a frying pan, and was undertaken in the presence of two colleagues. In another instance, she was said to have created a wax image of Kaiser Wilhelm II and then melted it during the First World War. Ruth Whitehouse argues that, given Murray\'s lack of mention of such incidents in her autobiography and generally rational approach, a \"spirit of mischief\" as opposed to \"a real belief in the efficacy of the spells\" may have motivated her practice of magic.
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# Margaret Murray
## Legacy
### In academia {#in_academia}
Hutton noted that Murray was one of the earliest women to \"make a serious impact upon the world of professional scholarship\", and the archaeologist Niall Finneran described her as \"one of the greatest characters of post-war British archaeology\". Upon her death, Daniel referred to her as \"the Grand Old Woman of Egyptology\", with Hutton noting that Egyptology represented \"the core of her academic career\". In 2014, Thornton referred to her as \"one of Britain\'s most famous Egyptologists\".
However, according to the archaeologist Ruth Whitehouse, Murray\'s contributions to archaeology and Egyptology were often overlooked as her work was overshadowed by that of Petrie, to the extent that she was often thought of primarily as one of Petrie\'s assistants rather than as a scholar in her own right. By her retirement she had come to be highly regarded within the discipline, although, according to Whitehouse, Murray\'s reputation declined following her death, something that Whitehouse attributed to the rejection of her witch-cult theory and the general erasure of women archaeologists from the discipline\'s male-dominated history.
In his obituary for Murray in *Folklore*, James noted that her death was \"an event of unusual interest and importance in the annals of the Folk-Lore Society in particular as well as in the wider sphere in which her influence was felt in so many directions and disciplines\". However, later academic folklorists, such as Simpson and Wood, have cited Murray and her witch-cult theory as an embarrassment to their field, and to the Folklore Society specifically. Simpson suggested that Murray\'s position as President of the Society was a causal factor in the mistrustful attitude that many historians held toward folkloristics as an academic discipline, as they erroneously came to believe that all folklorists endorsed Murray\'s ideas. Similarly, Catherine Noble stated that \"Murray caused considerable damage to the study of witchcraft\".
In 1935, UCL introduced the Margaret Murray Prize, awarded to the student who is deemed to have produced the best dissertation in Egyptology; it continued to be presented annually into the 21st century. In 1969, UCL named one of their common rooms in her honour, but it was converted into an office in 1989.
In June 1983, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother visited the room and there was gifted a copy of Murray\'s *My First Hundred Years*. UCL also hold two busts of Murray, one kept in the Petrie Museum and the other in the library of the UCL Institute of Archaeology. This sculpture was commissioned by one of her students, Violet MacDermot, and produced by the artist Stephen Rickard. UCL also possess a watercolour painting of Murray by Winifred Brunton; formerly exhibited in the Petrie Gallery, it was later placed into the Art Collection stores. In 2013, on the 150th anniversary of Murray\'s birth and the 50th of her death, the UCL Institute of Archaeology\'s Ruth Whitehouse described Murray as \"a remarkable woman\" whose life was \"well worth celebrating, both in the archaeological world at large and especially in UCL\".
The historian of archaeology Rosalind M. Janssen titled her study of Egyptology at UCL *The First Hundred Years* \"as a tribute\" to Murray. Murray\'s friend Margaret Stefana Drower authored a short biography of her, which was included as a chapter in the 2004 edited volume on *Breaking Ground: Pioneering Women Archaeologists*. In 2013, Lexington Books published *The Life of Margaret Alice Murray: A Woman\'s Work in Archaeology*, a biography of Murray authored by Kathleen L. Sheppard, then an assistant professor at Missouri University of Science and Technology; the book was based upon Sheppard\'s doctoral dissertation produced at the University of Oklahoma. Although characterising it as being \"written in a clear and engaging manner\", one reviewer noted that Sheppard\'s book focuses on Murray the \"scientist\" and as such neglects to discuss Murray\'s involvement in magical practices and her relationship with Wicca.
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# Margaret Murray
## Legacy
### In Wicca {#in_wicca}
Murray\'s witch-cult theories provided the blueprint for the contemporary Pagan religion of Wicca, with Murray being referred to as the \"Grandmother of Wicca\". The Pagan studies scholar Ethan Doyle White stated that it was the theory which \"formed the historical narrative around which Wicca built itself\", for on its emergence in England during the 1940s and 1950s, Wicca claimed to be the survival of this witch-cult. Wicca\'s theological structure, revolving around a Horned God and Mother Goddess, was adopted from Murray\'s ideas about the ancient witch-cult, and Wiccan groups were named *covens* and their meetings termed *esbats*, both words that Murray had popularised. As with Murray\'s witch-cult, Wicca\'s practitioners entered via an initiation ceremony; Murray\'s claims that witches wrote down their spells in a book may have been an influence on Wicca\'s Book of Shadows. Wicca\'s early system of seasonal festivities were also based on Murray\'s framework.
Noting that there is no evidence of Wicca existing before the publication of Murray\'s books, Merrifield commented that for those in 20th century Britain who wished to form their own witches\' covens, \"Murray may have seemed the ideal fairy godmother, and her theory became the pumpkin coach that could transport them into the realm of fantasy for which they longed\". The historian Philip Heselton suggested that the New Forest coven -- the oldest alleged Wiccan group -- was founded *circa* 1935 by esotericists aware of Murray\'s theory and who may have believed themselves to be reincarnated witch-cult members. It was Gerald Gardner, who claimed to be an initiate of the New Forest coven, who established the tradition of Gardnerian Wicca and popularised the religion; according to Simpson, Gardner was the only member of the Folklore Society to \"wholeheartedly\" accept Murray\'s witch-cult hypothesis. The duo knew each other, with Murray writing the foreword to Gardner\'s 1954 book *Witchcraft Today*, although in that foreword she did not explicitly specify whether she believed Gardner\'s claim that he had discovered a survival of her witch-cult. In 2005, Noble suggested that \"Murray\'s name might be all but forgotten today if it were not for Gerald Gardner\".
Murray\'s witch-cult theories were likely also a core influence on the non-Gardnerian Wiccan traditions that were established in Britain and Australia between 1930 and 1970 by the likes of Bob Clay-Egerton, Robert Cochrane, Charles Cardell, and Rosaleen Norton. The prominent Wiccan Doreen Valiente eagerly searched for what she believed were other surviving remnants of the Murrayite witch-cult around Britain. Valiente remained committed to a belief in Murray\'s witch-cult after its academic rejection, and she described Murray as \"a remarkable woman\".
In San Francisco during the late 1960s, Murray\'s writings were among the sources used by Aidan A. Kelly in the creation of his Wiccan tradition, the New Reformed Orthodox Order of the Golden Dawn. In Los Angeles during the early 1970s, they were used by Zsuzsanna Budapest when she was establishing her feminist-oriented tradition of Dianic Wicca. The Murrayite witch-cult theory also provided the basis for the ideas espoused in *Witchcraft and the Gay Counterculture*, a 1978 book written by the American gay liberation activist Arthur Evans.
Members of the Wiccan community gradually became aware of academia\'s rejection of the witch-cult theory. Accordingly, belief in its literal truth declined during the 1980s and 1990s, with many Wiccans instead coming to view it as a myth that conveyed metaphorical or symbolic truths. Others insisted that the historical origins of the religion did not matter and that instead Wicca was legitimated by the spiritual experiences it gave to its participants. In response, Hutton authored *The Triumph of the Moon*, a historical study exploring Wicca\'s early development; on publication in 1999 the book exerted a strong impact on the British Pagan community, further eroding belief in the Murrayite theory among Wiccans. Conversely, other practitioners clung on to the theory, treating it as an important article of faith and rejecting post-Murrayite scholarship on European witchcraft. Several prominent practitioners continued to insist that Wicca was a religion with origins stretching back to the Palaeolithic, but others rejected the validity of historical scholarship and emphasised intuition and emotion as the arbiter of truth. A few \"counter-revisionist\" Wiccans -- among them Donald H. Frew, Jani Farrell-Roberts, and Ben Whitmore -- published critiques in which they attacked post-Murrayite scholarship on matters of detail, but none defended Murray\'s original hypothesis completely.
### In literature {#in_literature}
Simpson noted that the publication of the Murray thesis in the *Encyclopædia Britannica* made it accessible to \"journalists, film-makers popular novelists and thriller writers\", who adopted it \"enthusiastically\". It influenced the work of Aldous Huxley and Robert Graves. Murray\'s ideas shaped the depiction of paganism in the work of historical novelist Rosemary Sutcliff. Murray\'s ideas about religion can also be discerned in the fictions of another British historical novelist, Henry Treece. It was also an influence on the American horror author H. P. Lovecraft, who cited *The Witch-Cult in Western Europe* in his writings about the fictional cult of Cthulhu. Another horror writer, Dennis Wheatley, incorporated Murray\'s ideas about witchcraft into his novel *The Devil Rides Out* and cited Murray\'s work in his non-fiction book on the occult, *The Devil and all his Works*.
The author Sylvia Townsend Warner cited Murray\'s work on the witch-cult as an influence on her 1926 novel *Lolly Willowes*, and sent a copy of her book to Murray in appreciation, with the two meeting for lunch shortly after. There was nevertheless some difference in their depictions of the witch-cult; whereas Murray had depicted an organised pre-Christian cult, Warner depicted a vague family tradition that was explicitly Satanic. In 1927, Warner lectured on the subject of witchcraft, exhibiting a strong influence from Murray\'s work. Analysing the relationship between Murray and Warner, the English literature scholar Mimi Winick characterised both as being \"engaged in imagining new possibilities for women in modernity\".
The fantasy novel Lammas Night is based on the same idea of the role of the royal family
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# Mummy
A **mummy** is a dead human or an animal whose soft tissues and organs have been preserved by either intentional or accidental exposure to chemicals, extreme cold, very low humidity, or lack of air, so that the recovered body does not decay further if kept in cool and dry conditions. Some authorities restrict the use of the term to bodies deliberately embalmed with chemicals, but the use of the word to cover accidentally desiccated bodies goes back to at least the early 17th century.
Mummies of humans and animals have been found on every continent, both as a result of natural preservation through unusual conditions, and as cultural artifacts. Over one million animal mummies have been found in Egypt, many of which are cats. Many of the Egyptian animal mummies are sacred ibis, and radiocarbon dating suggests the Egyptian ibis mummies that have been analyzed were from a time frame that falls between approximately 450 and 250 BC.
In addition to the mummies of ancient Egypt, deliberate mummification was a feature of several ancient cultures in areas of America and Asia with very dry climates. The Spirit Cave mummies of Fallon, Nevada, in North America were accurately dated at more than 9,400 years old. Before this discovery, the oldest known deliberate mummy was a child, one of the Chinchorro mummies found in the Camarones Valley, Chile, which dates around 5050 BC. The oldest known naturally mummified human corpse is a severed head dated as 6,000 years old, found in 1936 at the *Cueva de las Momias* in Argentina.
## Etymology and meaning {#etymology_and_meaning}
The English word *mummy* is derived from medieval Latin *Mumia*, a borrowing of the medieval Arabic word *mūmiya* (مومياء) which meant an embalmed corpse, as well as the bituminous embalming substance. This word was borrowed from Persian where it meant asphalt, and is derived from the word *mūm* meaning wax. The meaning of \"corpse preserved by desiccation\" developed post-medievally. The Medieval English term \"mummy\" was defined as \"medical preparation of the substance of mummies\", rather than the entire corpse, with Richard Hakluyt in 1599 AD complaining that \"these dead bodies are the Mummy which the Phisistians and Apothecaries doe against our willes make us to swallow\". These substances were called mummia.
The Oxford English Dictionary defines a mummy as \"the body of a human being or animal embalmed (according to the ancient Egyptian or some analogous method) as a preparation for burial\", citing sources from 1615 AD onward. However, Chamber\'s *Cyclopædia* and the Victorian zoologist Francis Trevelyan Buckland define a mummy as follows: \"A human or animal body desiccated by exposure to sun or air. Also applied to the frozen carcase of an animal imbedded in prehistoric snow\".
Wasps of the genus *Aleiodes* are known as \"mummy wasps\" because they wrap their caterpillar prey as \"mummies\".
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# Mummy
## History of mummy studies {#history_of_mummy_studies}
While interest in the study of mummies dates as far back as Ptolemaic Greece, most structured scientific study began at the beginning of the 20th century. Prior to this, many rediscovered mummies were sold as curiosities or for use in pseudoscientific novelties such as mummia. The first modern scientific examinations of mummies began in 1901, conducted by professors at the English-language Government School of Medicine in Cairo, Egypt. The first X-ray of a mummy came in 1903, when professors Grafton Elliot Smith and Howard Carter used the only X-ray machine in Cairo at the time to examine the mummified body of Thutmose IV. British chemist Alfred Lucas applied chemical analyses to Egyptian mummies during this same period, which returned many results about the types of substances used in embalming. Lucas also made significant contributions to the analysis of Tutankhamun in 1922.
Pathological study of mummies saw varying levels of popularity throughout the 20th century. In 1992, the First World Congress on Mummy Studies was held in Puerto de la Cruz on Tenerife in the Canary Islands. More than 300 scientists attended the Congress to share nearly 100 years of collected data on mummies. The information presented at the meeting triggered a new surge of interest in the subject, with one of the major results being the integration of biomedical and bioarchaeological information on mummies with existing databases. This was not possible prior to the Congress due to the unique and highly specialized techniques required to gather such data.
In more recent years, CT scanning has become an invaluable tool in the study of mummification by allowing researchers to digitally \"unwrap\" mummies without risking damage to the body. The level of detail in such scans is so intricate that small linens used in tiny areas such as the nostrils can be digitally reconstructed in 3-D. Such modelling has been utilized to perform digital autopsies on mummies to determine the cause of death and lifestyle, such as in the case of Tutankhamun.
## `{{anchor|Anthropogenic|Spontaneous|Natural}}`{=mediawiki}Types
Mummies are typically divided into one of two distinct categories: anthropogenic or spontaneous. Anthropogenic mummies were deliberately created by the living for any number of reasons, the most common being for religious purposes. Spontaneous mummies, such as Ötzi and the Maronite mummies, were created unintentionally due to natural conditions such as extremely dry heat or cold, or acidic and anaerobic conditions such as those found in bogs. While most individual mummies exclusively belong to one category or the other, there are examples of both types being connected to a single culture, such as those from the ancient Egyptian culture and the Andean cultures of South America. Some of the later well-preserved corpses of the mummification were found under Christian churches, such as the mummified vicar Nicolaus Rungius found under the St. Michael Church in Keminmaa, Finland. There are also cases that fall outside of these categories.
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# Mummy
## Egyptian mummies {#egyptian_mummies}
Until recently, it was believed that the earliest ancient Egyptian mummies were created naturally due to the environment in which they were buried. In 2014, an 11-year study by the University of York, Macquarie University and the University of Oxford suggested that artificial mummification occurred 1,500 years earlier than first thought. This was confirmed in 2018, when tests on a 5,600-year-old mummy in Turin revealed that it had been deliberately mummified using linen wrappings and embalming oils made from conifer resin and aromatic plant extracts.
The preservation of the dead had a profound effect on ancient Egyptian religion. Mummification was an integral part of the rituals for the dead beginning as early as the 2nd dynasty (about 2800 BC). Egyptians saw the preservation of the body after death as an important step to living well in the afterlife. As Egypt gained more prosperity, burial practices became a status symbol for the wealthy as well. This cultural hierarchy led to the creation of elaborate tombs, and more sophisticated methods of embalming.
By the 4th dynasty (about 2600 BC) Egyptian embalmers began to achieve \"true mummification\" through a process of evisceration. Much of this early experimentation with mummification in Egypt is unknown.
The few documents that directly describe the mummification process date to the Greco-Roman period. The majority of the papyri that have survived only describe the ceremonial rituals involved in embalming, not the actual surgical processes involved. A text known as *The Ritual of Embalming* does describe some of the practical logistics of embalming; however, there are only two known copies and each is incomplete. With regards to mummification shown in images, there are apparently also very few. The tomb of Tjay, designated TT23, is one of only two known which show the wrapping of a mummy (Riggs 2014).
Another text that describes the processes being used in the latter periods is Herodotus\' Histories. Written in Book 2 of the *Histories* is one of the most detailed descriptions of the Egyptian mummification process, including the mention of using natron in order to dehydrate corpses for preservation. However, these descriptions are short and fairly vague, leaving scholars to infer the majority of the techniques that were used by studying mummies that have been unearthed.
By utilizing current advancements in technology, scientists have been able to uncover a plethora of new information about the techniques used in mummification. A series of CT scans performed on a 2,400-year-old mummy in 2008 revealed a tool that was left inside the cranial cavity of the skull. The tool was a rod, made of an organic material, that was used to break apart the brain to allow it to drain out of the nose. This discovery helped to dispel the claim within Herodotus\' works that the rod had been a hook made of iron. Earlier experimentation in 1994 by researchers Bob Brier and Ronald Wade supported these findings. While attempting to replicate Egyptian mummification, Brier and Wade discovered that removal of the brain was much easier when the brain was liquefied and allowed to drain with the help of gravity, as opposed to trying to pull the organ out piece by piece with a hook.
Through various methods of study over many decades, modern Egyptologists now have an accurate understanding of how mummification was achieved in ancient Egypt. The first and most important step was to halt the process of decomposition, by removing the internal organs and washing out the body with a mix of spices and palm wine. The only organ left behind was the heart, as tradition held the heart was the seat of thought and feeling and would therefore still be needed in the afterlife. After cleansing, the body was then dried out with natron inside the empty body cavity as well as outside on the skin. The internal organs were also dried and either sealed in individual jars, or wrapped to be replaced within the body. This process typically took forty days.
After dehydration, the mummy was wrapped in many layers of linen cloth. Within the layers, Egyptian priests placed small amulets to guard the decedent from evil. Once the mummy was completely wrapped, it was coated in resin in order to keep the threat of moist air away. The resin was also applied to the coffin in order to seal it. The mummy was then sealed within its tomb, alongside the worldly goods that were believed to help aid it in the afterlife.
*Aspergillus niger*, a hardy species of fungus capable of living in a variety of environments, has been found in the mummies of ancient Egyptian tombs and can be inhaled when they are disturbed.
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# Mummy
## Egyptian mummies {#egyptian_mummies}
### Mummification and rank {#mummification_and_rank}
Mummification is one of the defining customs in ancient Egyptian society for people today. The practice of preserving the human body is believed to be a quintessential feature of Egyptian life. Yet even mummification has a history of development and was accessible to different ranks of society in different ways during different periods. There were at least three different processes of mummification according to Herodotus. They range from \"the most perfect\" to the method employed by the \"poorer classes\".
#### \"Most perfect\" method {#most_perfect_method}
The most expensive process was to preserve the body by dehydration and protect against pests, such as insects. Almost all of the actions Herodotus described served one of these two functions.
First, the brain was removed from the cranium through the nose; the gray matter was discarded. Modern mummy excavations have shown that instead of an iron hook inserted through the nose as Herodotus claims, a rod was used to liquefy the brain via the cranium, which then drained out the nose by gravity. The embalmers then rinsed the skull with certain drugs that mostly cleared any residue of brain tissue and also had the effect of killing bacteria. Next, the embalmers made an incision along the flank with a sharp blade fashioned from an Ethiopian stone and removed the contents of the abdomen. Herodotus does not discuss the separate preservation of these organs and their placement either in special jars or back in the cavity, a process that was part of the most expensive embalming, according to archaeological evidence.
The abdominal cavity was then rinsed with palm wine and an infusion of crushed, fragrant herbs and spices; the cavity was then filled with spices including myrrh, cassia, and, Herodotus notes, \"every other sort of spice except frankincense\", also to preserve the person.
The body was further dehydrated by placing it in natron, a naturally occurring salt, for 70 days. Herodotus insists that the body did not stay in the natron longer than 70 days. Any shorter time and the body would not be completely dehydrated; any longer, and the body would be too stiff to move into position for wrapping. The embalmers then washed the body again and wrapped it with linen bandages. The bandages were covered with a gum that modern research has shown is both a waterproofing agent and an antimicrobial agent.
At this point, the body was given back to the family. These \"perfect\" mummies were then placed in human-shaped wooden cases. Wealthy people placed these wooden cases in stone sarcophagi that provided further protection. The family placed the sarcophagus in the tomb upright against the wall, according to Herodotus.
#### Avoiding expense {#avoiding_expense}
The second process that Herodotus describes was used by middle-class people or people who \"wish to avoid expense\". In this method, an oil derived from cedar trees was injected with a syringe into the abdomen. A rectal plug prevented the oil from escaping. This oil probably had the dual purpose of liquefying the internal organs but also of disinfecting the abdominal cavity. (By liquefying the organs, the family avoided the expense of canopic jars and separate preservation.) The body was then placed in natron for seventy days. At the end of this time, the body was removed and the cedar oil, now containing the liquefied organs, was drained through the rectum. With the body dehydrated, it could be returned to the family. Herodotus does not describe the process of burial of such mummies, but they were perhaps placed in a shaft tomb. Poorer people used coffins fashioned from terracotta.
#### Inexpensive method {#inexpensive_method}
The third and least expensive method the embalmers offered was to clear the intestines with an unnamed liquid, injected as an enema. The body was then placed in natron for seventy days and returned to the family. Herodotus gives no further details.
## Christian mummies {#christian_mummies}
In Christian tradition, some bodies of saints are naturally conserved and venerated.
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## Mummification in other cultures {#mummification_in_other_cultures}
### Africa
In addition to the mummies of Egypt, there have been instances of mummies being discovered in other areas of the African continent. The bodies show a mix of anthropogenic and spontaneous mummification, with some being thousands of years old.
#### Canary Islands {#canary_islands}
*Main article: Guanche mummies* The mummies of the Canary Islands belong to the indigenous Guanche people and date to the time before 14th-century Spanish explorers settled in the area. All deceased people within the Guanche culture were mummified during this time, though the level of care taken with embalming and burial varied depending on individual social status. Embalming was carried out by specialized groups, organized according to gender, who were considered unclean by the rest of the community. The techniques for embalming were similar to those of the ancient Egyptians, involving evisceration, preservation, and stuffing of the evacuated bodily cavities, then wrapping the body in animal skins. Despite the successful techniques utilized by the Guanche, very few mummies remain due to looting and desecration.
#### Libya
The mummified remains of an infant were discovered during an expedition by archaeologist Fabrizio Mori to Libya during the winter of 1958--1959 in the natural cave structure of Uan Muhuggiag. After curious deposits and cave paintings were discovered on the surfaces of the cave, expedition leaders decided to excavate. Uncovered alongside fragmented animal bone tools was the mummified body of an infant, wrapped in animal skin and wearing a necklace made of ostrich egg shell beads. Professor Tongiorgi of the University of Pisa radiocarbon-dated the infant to between 5,000 and 8,000 years old. A long incision located on the right abdominal wall, and the absence of internal organs, indicated that the body had been eviscerated post-mortem, possibly in an effort to preserve the remains. A bundle of herbs found within the body cavity also supported this conclusion. Further research revealed that the child had been around 30 months old at the time of death, though gender could not be determined due to poor preservation of the sex organs.
#### South Africa {#south_africa}
The first mummy to be discovered in South Africa was found in the Baviaanskloof Wilderness Area by Dr. Johan Binneman in 1999. Nicknamed Moses, the mummy was estimated to be around 2,000 years old. After being linked to the indigenous Khoi culture of the region, the National Council of Khoi Chiefs of South Africa began to make legal demands that the mummy be returned shortly after the body was moved to the Albany Museum in Grahamstown.
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# Mummy
## Mummification in other cultures {#mummification_in_other_cultures}
### Asia
The mummies of Asia are usually considered to be accidental. The decedents were buried in just the right place where the environment could act as an agent for preservation. This is particularly common in the desert areas of the Tarim Basin and Iran. Mummies have been discovered in more humid Asian climates; however, these are subject to rapid decay after being removed from the grave.
#### China
Mummies from various dynasties throughout China\'s history have been discovered in several locations across the country. They are almost exclusively considered to be unintentional mummifications. Many areas in which mummies have been uncovered are difficult for preservation, due to their warm, moist climates. This makes the recovery of mummies a challenge, as exposure to the outside world can cause the bodies to decay in a matter of hours.
An example of a Chinese mummy that was preserved despite being buried in an environment not conducive to mummification is Xin Zhui. Also known as Lady Dai, she was discovered in the early 1970s at the Mawangdui archaeological site in Changsha. She was the wife of the Marquis of Dai during the Han dynasty, who was also buried with her alongside another young man often considered to be a very close relative. However, Xin Zhui\'s body was the only one of the three to be mummified. Her corpse was so well-preserved that surgeons from the Hunan Provincial Medical Institute were able to perform an autopsy. The exact reason why her body was so completely preserved has yet to be determined.
Among the mummies discovered in China are those termed Tarim mummies because of their discovery in the Tarim Basin. The dry desert climate of the basin proved to be an excellent agent for desiccation. For this reason, over 200 Tarim mummies, which are over 4,000 years old, were excavated from a cemetery in the present-day Xinjiang region. The mummies were found buried in upside-down boats with hundreds of 13-foot-long wooden poles in the place of tombstones. DNA sequence data shows that the mummies had Haplogroup R1a (Y-DNA) characteristic of western Eurasia in the area of East-Central Europe, Central Asia and the Indus Valley. This has created a stir in the Turkic-speaking Uighur population of the region, who claim the area has always belonged to their culture, while it was not until the 10th century that Uighurs are said by scholars to have moved to the region from Central Asia. American Sinologist Victor H. Mair claims that \"*the earliest mummies in the Tarim Basin were exclusively Caucasoid, or Europoid*\" with \"east Asian migrants arriving in the eastern portions of the Tarim Basin around 3,000 years ago\", while Mair also notes that it was not until 842 that the Uighur peoples settled in the area. Other mummified remains have been recovered from around the Tarim Basin at sites including Qäwrighul, Yanghai, Shengjindian, Shanpula (Sampul), Zaghunluq, and Qizilchoqa.
#### Iran
As of 2012, at least eight mummified human remains have been recovered from the Douzlakh Salt Mine at Chehr Abad in northwestern Iran. Due to their salt preservation, these bodies are collectively known as Saltmen. Carbon-14 testing conducted in 2008 dated three of the bodies to around 400 BC. Later isotopic research on the other mummies returned similar dates, however, many of these individuals were found to be from a region that is not closely associated with the mine. It was during this time that researchers determined the mine suffered a major collapse, which likely caused the death of the miners. Since there is significant archaeological data that indicates the area was not actively inhabited during this time period, current consensus holds that the accident occurred during a brief period of temporary mining activity.
#### Lebanon
In 1990, a team of speleologists uncovered eight mummies, dating back to around 1283 AD, during a rescue excavation in the e \'Asi al-Hadath cave in the Qadisha Valley of Lebanon. The well-preserved spontaneous mummies, including an infant named dubbed Yasmine, offer insights into Maronite villagers\' lives during the Mamluk era. The grotto\'s high altitude and dry conditions naturally mummified the bodies. The discovery provides historical context, aligning with documented Mamluk raids in the region. Artifacts, including pottery with inscriptions, manuscripts, and clothing, suggest a Maronite community, and the mummies\' burial practices parallel present-day Lebanese customs. The remains were called \"Maronite mummies\" because the individuals found in the \'Asi-al Hadath cave were believed to be Maronites, an indigenous Christian community in the region. Some of the mummies have been transferred to the National Museum of Beirut.
#### Korea
Mummies have been discovered in Korea that have been dated to around the 15th to 19th centuries, during the Joseon period. This is thought to be because of the rise of Neo-Confucianism in Korea, which prescribed certain burial practices that created conditions favorable to mummification. However, this mummification was likely unintentional, and even culturally seen as ominous and undesirable.
Mummification likely occurred due to a number of factors. One such factor was the airtight seal (especially as the Korean climate is unfavorable to mummification) around the bodies, which was achieved using a mix of lime, clay, and sand. Recreations of the sealing process found that chemical reactions with the lime possibly caused a high and prolonged release of heat, which killed bacteria in the bodies. In addition, a large amount of clothing was usually placed inside tombs, which led to a shortage of oxygen inside. Mummies buried using the lime mixture sealing technique reportedly have especially excellently preserved soft skin and hair, which has enabled medical and genetic studies to be performed. Insights have been offered into the lifestyles and pathologies of Korean people during this period. Specific diseases for each individual have been identified.
#### Philippines
Philippine mummies are called Kabayan Mummies. They are common in Igorot culture and their heritage. The mummies are found in some areas named Kabayan, Sagada and among others. The mummies are dated between the 14th and 19th centuries.
#### Siberia
In 1993, a team of Russian archaeologists led by Dr. Natalia Polosmak discovered the Siberian Ice Maiden, a Scytho-Siberian woman, on the Ukok Plateau in the Altai Mountains near the Mongolian border. The mummy was naturally frozen due to the severe climatic conditions of the Siberian steppe. Also known as Princess Ukok, the mummy was dressed in finely detailed clothing and wore an elaborate headdress and jewelry. Alongside her body were buried six decorated horses and a symbolic meal for her last journey. Her left arm and hand were tattooed with animal style figures, including a highly stylized deer.
The Ice Maiden has been a source of some recent controversy. The mummy\'s skin has suffered some slight decay, and the tattoos have faded since the excavation. Some residents of the Altai Republic, formed after the breakup of the Soviet Union, have requested the return of the Ice Maiden, who is currently stored in Novosibirsk in Siberia.
Another Siberian mummy, a man, was discovered much earlier in 1929. His skin was also marked with tattoos of two monsters resembling griffins, which decorated his chest, and three partially obliterated images which seem to represent two deer and a mountain goat on his left arm.
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## Mummification in other cultures {#mummification_in_other_cultures}
### Europe
thumb\|upright=0.8\|Mummy of Nicolaus Rungius under the floor of St. Michael Church in Keminmaa, Finland The European continent is home to a diverse spectrum of spontaneous and anthropogenic mummies. Some of the best-preserved mummies have come from bogs located across the region. The Capuchin monks that inhabited the area left behind hundreds of intentionally-preserved bodies that have provided insight into the customs and cultures of people from various eras. One of the oldest mummies (nicknamed Ötzi) was discovered on this continent. New mummies continue to be uncovered in Europe well into the 21st century.
#### Bog bodies {#bog_bodies}
Great Britain, Ireland, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Denmark have produced a number of bog bodies, mummies of people deposited in sphagnum bogs, apparently as a result of murder or ritual sacrifices. In such cases, the acidity of the water, low temperature and lack of oxygen combined to tan the body\'s skin and soft tissues. The skeleton typically disintegrates over time. Such mummies are remarkably well preserved on emerging from the bog, with skin and internal organs intact; it is even possible to determine the decedent\'s last meal by examining stomach contents. The Haraldskær Woman was discovered by labourers in a bog in Jutland in 1835. She was erroneously identified as an early medieval Danish queen, and for that reason was placed in a royal sarcophagus at the Saint Nicolai Church, Vejle, where she currently remains. Another bog body, also from Denmark, known as the Tollund Man was discovered in 1950. The corpse was noted for its excellent preservation of the face and feet, which appeared as if the man had recently died. Only the head of Tollund Man remains, due to the decomposition of the rest of his body, which was not preserved along with the head.
#### Czech Republic {#czech_republic}
The majority of mummies recovered in the Czech Republic come from underground crypts. While there is some evidence of deliberate mummification, most sources state that desiccation occurred naturally due to unique conditions within the crypts.
The Capuchin Crypt in Brno contains three hundred years of mummified remains directly below the main altar. Beginning in the 18th century when the crypt was opened, and continuing until the practice was discontinued in 1787, the Capuchin friars of the monastery would lay the deceased on a pillow of bricks on the ground. The unique air quality and topsoil within the crypt naturally preserved the bodies over time.
Approximately fifty mummies were discovered in an abandoned crypt beneath the Church of St. Procopius of Sázava in Vamberk in the mid-1980s. Workers digging a trench accidentally broke into the crypt, which began to fill with waste water. The mummies quickly began to deteriorate, though thirty-four were able to be rescued and stored temporarily at the District Museum of the Orlické Mountains until they could be returned to the monastery in 2000. The mummies range in age and social status at time of death, with at least two children and one priest. The majority of the Vamberk mummies date from the 18th century.
The Klatovy catacombs currently house an exhibition of Jesuit mummies, alongside some aristocrats, that were originally interred between 1674 and 1783. In the early 1930s, the mummies were accidentally damaged during repairs, resulting in the loss of 140 bodies. The newly updated airing system preserves the thirty-eight bodies that are currently on display.
#### Denmark
Apart from several bog bodies, Denmark has also yielded several other mummies, such as the three Borum Eshøj mummies, the Skrydstrup Woman and the Egtved Girl, who were all found inside burial mounds, or tumuli.
In 1875, the Borum Eshøj grave mound was uncovered, which had been built around three coffins, which belonged to a middle aged man and woman as well as a man in his early twenties. Through examination, the woman was discovered to be around 50--60 years old. She was found with several artifacts made of bronze, consisting of buttons, a belt plate, and rings, showing she was of higher class. All of the hair had been removed from the skull later when farmers had dug through the casket. Her original hairstyle is unknown. The two men wore kilts, and the younger man wore a sheath which contained a bronze dagger. All three mummies were dated to 1351--1345 BC.
The Skrydstrup Woman was unearthed from a tumulus in Southern Jutland, in 1935. Carbon-14 dating showed that she had died around 1300 BC; examination also revealed that she was around 18--19 years old at the time of death, and that she had been buried in the summertime. Her hair had been drawn up in an elaborate hairstyle, which was then covered by a horse hair hairnet made by the sprang technique. She was wearing a blouse and a necklace as well as two golden earrings, showing she was of higher class.
The Egtved Girl, dated to 1370 BC, was also found inside a sealed coffin within a tumulus, in 1921. She was wearing a bodice and a skirt, including a belt and bronze bracelets. Found with the girl, at her feet, were the cremated remains of a child and, by her head, a box containing some bronze pins, a hairnet, and an awl.
#### Hungary
In 1994, 265 mummified bodies were found in the crypt of a Dominican church in Vác, Hungary from the 1729--1838 period. The discovery proved to be scientifically important, and by 2006 an exhibition was established in the Museum of Natural History in Budapest. Unique to the Hungarian mummies are their elaborately decorated coffins, with no two being exactly alike.
#### Italy
The varied geography and climatology of Italy has led to many cases of spontaneous mummification. Italian mummies display the same diversity, with a conglomeration of natural and intentional mummification spread across many centuries and cultures.
The oldest natural mummy in Europe was discovered in 1991 in the Ötztal Alps on the Austrian-Italian border. Nicknamed Ötzi, the mummy is a 5,300-year-old male believed to be a member of the Tamins-Carasso-Isera cultural group of South Tyrol. Despite his age, a recent DNA study conducted by Walther Parson of Innsbruck Medical University revealed Ötzi has 19 living genetic relatives.
The Capuchin Catacombs of Palermo were built in the 16th century by the friars of Palermo\'s Capuchin monastery. Originally intended to hold the deliberately mummified remains of dead friars, interment in the catacombs became a status symbol for the local population in the following centuries. Burials continued until the 1920s, with one of the final burials being that of Rosalia Lombardo. In all, the catacombs host nearly 8000 mummies.
The most recent discovery of mummies in Italy came in 2010, when sixty mummified human remains were found in the crypt of the Conversion of St Paul church in Roccapelago di Pievepelago, Italy. Built in the 15th century as a cannon hold and later converted in the 16th century, the crypt had been sealed once it had reached capacity, leaving the bodies to be protected and preserved. The crypt was reopened during restoration work on the church, revealing the diverse array of mummies inside. The bodies were quickly moved to a museum for further study.
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# Mummy
## Mummification in other cultures {#mummification_in_other_cultures}
### North America {#north_america}
The mummies of North America are often steeped in controversy, as many of these bodies have been linked to still-existing native cultures. While the mummies provide a wealth of historically significant data, native cultures and tradition often demands the remains be returned to their original resting places. This has led to many legal actions by Native American councils, leading to most museums keeping mummified remains out of the public eye.
#### Canada
Kwäday Dän Ts\'ìnchi (\"Long ago person found\" in the Southern Tutchone language of the Champagne and Aishihik First Nations), was found in August 1999 by three First Nations hunters at the edge of a glacier in Tatshenshini-Alsek Provincial Park, British Columbia, Canada. According to the Kwäday Dän Ts\'ìnchi Project, the remains are the oldest well preserved mummy discovered in North America. (The Spirit Cave mummy although not well preserved, is much older.) Initial radiocarbon tests date the mummy to around 550 years-old.
#### Greenland
In 1972, eight remarkably preserved mummies were discovered at an abandoned Inuit settlement called Qilakitsoq, in Greenland. The \"Greenland Mummies\" consisted of a six-month-old baby, a four-year-old boy, and six women of various ages, who died around 500 years ago. Their bodies were naturally mummified by the sub-zero temperatures and dry winds in the cave in which they were found.
#### Mexico
Intentional mummification in pre-Columbian Mexico was practiced by the Aztec culture. These bodies are collectively known as Aztec mummies. Genuine Aztec mummies were \"bundled\" in a woven wrap and often had their faces covered by a ceremonial mask. Public knowledge of Aztec mummies increased due to traveling exhibits and museums in the 19th and 20th centuries, though these bodies were typically naturally desiccated remains and not actually the mummies associated with Aztec culture.
Natural mummification has been known to occur in several places in Mexico; this includes the mummies of Guanajuato. A collection of these mummies, most of which date to the late 19th century, have been on display at *El Museo de las Momias* in the city of Guanajuato since 1970. The museum claims to have the smallest mummy in the world on display (a mummified fetus). It was thought that minerals in the soil had the preserving effect, however it may rather be due to the warm, arid climate. Mexican mummies are also on display in the small town of Encarnación de Díaz, Jalisco.
#### United States {#united_states}
Spirit Cave Man was discovered in 1940 during salvage work prior to guano mining activity that was scheduled to begin in the area. The mummy is a middle-aged male, found completely dressed and lying on a blanket made of animal skin. Radiocarbon tests in the 1990s dated the mummy to being nearly 9,000 years old. The remains were held at the Nevada State Museum, though the local Native American community began petitioning to have the remains returned and reburied in 1995. When the Bureau of Land Management did not repatriate the mummy in 2000, the Fallon Paiute-Shoshone Tribe sued under the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act. After DNA sequencing determined that the remains were in fact related to modern Native Americans, they were repatriated to the tribe in 2016.
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# Mummy
## Mummification in other cultures {#mummification_in_other_cultures}
### Oceania
Mummies from Oceania are not limited only to Australia. Discoveries of mummified remains have also been located in New Guinea, New Zealand, and the Torres Strait, though these mummies have been historically harder to examine and classify. Prior to the 20th century, most literature on mummification in the region was either silent or anecdotal. However, the boom of interest generated by the scientific study of Egyptian mummification lead to more concentrated study of mummies in other cultures, including those of Oceania.
#### Australia
The aboriginal mummification traditions found in Australia are thought be related to those found in the Torres Strait islands, the inhabitants of which achieved a high level of sophisticated mummification techniques. Australian mummies lack some of the technical ability of the Torres Strait mummies, however much of the ritual aspects of the mummification process are similar. Full-body mummification was achieved by these cultures, but not the level of artistic preservation as found on smaller islands. The reason for this seems to be for easier transport of bodies by more nomadic tribes.
#### New Guinea {#new_guinea}
Until the mid-twentieth century, the Angu (or Anga) people of Papua New Guinea practiced mummification by smoking the bodies of the dead. Sites of their preserved mummies exist in the Morobe Province.
#### Torres Strait {#torres_strait}
The mummies of the Torres Strait have a considerably higher level of preservation technique as well as creativity compared to those found on Australia. The process began with removal of viscera, after which the bodies were set in a seated position on a platform and either left to dry in the sun or smoked over a fire in order to aid in desiccation. In the case of smoking, some tribes would collect the fat that drained from the body to mix with ocher to create red paint that would then be smeared back on the skin of the mummy. The mummies remained on the platforms, decorated with the clothing and jewelry they wore in life, before being buried.
#### New Zealand {#new_zealand}
Some Māori tribes from New Zealand would keep mummified heads as trophies from tribal warfare. They are also known as Mokomokai. In the 19th century, many of the trophies were acquired by Europeans who found the tattooed skin to be a phenomenal curiosity. Westerners began to offer valuable commodities in exchange for the uniquely tattooed mummified heads. The heads were later put on display in museums, 16 of them in France alone. In 2010, at a ceremony in the Hôtel de Ville in Rouen, Rouen City Council returned one of the heads to New Zealand, despite earlier protests by the Culture Ministry of France.
There is also evidence that some Māori tribes may have practiced full-body mummification, though the practice is not thought to have been widespread. The discussion of Māori mummification has been historically controversial, with some experts in past decades claiming that such mummies have never existed. The historical significance of full-body mummification within Māori culture is acknowledged by science, although there is still debate as to the nature of their exact mummification processes. Some mummies appear to have been spontaneously created by the natural environment, while others exhibit signs of direct human involvement. Generally, modern consensus tends to agree that there could have been a mixture of both types of mummification, similar to that of the Ancient Egyptian culture.
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# Mummy
## Mummification in other cultures {#mummification_in_other_cultures}
### South America {#south_america}
The South American continent contains some of the oldest mummies in the world, both deliberate and accidental. The bodies were preserved by the best agent for mummification: the environment. The Pacific coastal desert in Peru and Chile is one of the driest areas in the world and the dryness facilitated mummification. Rather than developing elaborate processes such as later-dynasty ancient Egyptians, the early South Americans often left their dead in naturally dry or frozen areas, though some did perform surgical preparation when mummification was intentional. Some of the reasons for intentional mummification in South America include memorialization, immortalization, and religious offerings. A large number of mummified bodies have been found in pre-Columbian cemeteries scattered around Peru. The bodies had often been wrapped for burial in finely-woven textiles.
#### Chauchilla Cemetery {#chauchilla_cemetery}
Chauchilla Cemetery is a cemetery that contains prehispanic mummified human remains and archeological artifacts, located 30 km south of the city of Nazca in Peru.
#### Chinchorro mummies {#chinchorro_mummies}
*Main article: Chinchorro mummies* The Chinchorro mummies are the oldest intentionally prepared mummified bodies ever found. Beginning in 5th millennium BC and continuing for an estimated 3,500 years, all human burials within the Chinchorro culture were prepared for mummification. The bodies were carefully prepared, beginning with removal of the internal organs and skin, before being left in the hot, dry climate of the Atacama Desert, which aided in desiccation. A large number of Chinchorro mummies were also prepared by skilled artisans to be preserved in a more artistic fashion, though the purpose of this practice is widely debated.
#### Inca mummies {#inca_mummies}
Several naturally-preserved, unintentional mummies dating from the Incan period (1438--1532 AD) have been found in the colder regions of Argentina, Chile, and Peru. These are collectively known as \"ice mummies\". The first Incan ice mummy was discovered in 1954 atop El Plomo Peak in Chile, after an eruption of the nearby volcano Sabancaya melted away ice that covered the body. The Mummy of El Plomo was a male child who was presumed to be wealthy due to his well-fed bodily characteristics. He was considered to be the most well-preserved ice mummy in the world until the discovery of Mummy Juanita in 1995.
Mummy Juanita was discovered near the summit of Ampato in the Peruvian section of the Andes mountains by archaeologist Johan Reinhard. Her body had been so thoroughly frozen that it had not been desiccated; much of her skin, muscle tissue, and internal organs retained their original structure. She is believed to be a ritual sacrifice, due to the close proximity of her body to the Incan capital of Cusco, as well as the fact she was wearing highly intricate clothing to indicate her special social status. Several Incan ceremonial artifacts and temporary shelters uncovered in the surrounding area seem to support this theory.
More evidence that the Inca left sacrificial victims to die in the elements, and later be unintentionally preserved, came in 1999 with the discovery of the Llullaillaco mummies on the border of Argentina and Chile. The three mummies are children, two girls and one boy, who are thought to be sacrifices associated with the ancient ritual of *qhapaq hucha*. Recent biochemical analysis of the mummies has revealed that the victims had consumed increasing quantities of alcohol and coca, possibly in the form of chicha, in the months leading up to sacrifice. The dominant theory for the drugging reasons that, alongside ritual uses, the substances probably made the children more docile. Chewed coca leaves found inside the eldest child\'s mouth upon her discovery in 1999 supports this theory.
The bodies of Inca emperors and wives were mummified after death. In 1533, the Spanish conquistadors of the Inca Empire viewed the mummies in the Inca capital of Cuzco. The mummies were displayed, often in lifelike positions, in the palaces of the deceased emperors and had a retinue of servants to care for them. The Spanish were impressed with the quality of the mummification which involved removal of the organs, embalming, and freeze-drying.
The population revered the mummies of the Inca emperors. This reverence seemed idolatry to the Roman Catholic Spanish and in 1550 they confiscated the mummies. The mummies were taken to Lima where they were displayed in the San Andres Hospital. The mummies deteriorated in the humid climate of Lima and eventually they were either buried or destroyed by the Spanish.
An attempt to find the mummies of the Inca emperors beneath the San Andres hospital in 2001 was unsuccessful. The archaeologists found a crypt, but it was empty. Possibly the mummies had been removed when the building was repaired after an earthquake.
## Self-mummification {#self_mummification}
Monks whose bodies remain incorrupt without any traces of deliberate mummification are venerated by some Buddhists who believe they successfully were able to mortify their flesh to death. Self-mummification was practiced until the late 1800s in Japan and has been outlawed since the early 1900s.
Many Mahayana Buddhist monks were reported to know their time of death and left their last testaments and their students accordingly buried them sitting in lotus position, put into a vessel with drying agents (such as wood, paper, or lime) and surrounded by bricks, to be exhumed later, usually after three years. The preserved bodies would then be decorated with paint and adorned with gold.
Bodies purported to be those of self-mummified monks are exhibited in several Japanese shrines, and it has been claimed that the monks, prior to their death, stuck to a sparse diet made up of salt, nuts, seeds, roots, pine bark, and `{{transliteration|ja|[[Toxicodendron vernicifluum|urushi]]}}`{=mediawiki} tea.
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# Mummy
## Modern mummies {#modern_mummies}
### Jeremy Bentham {#jeremy_bentham}
In the 1830s, Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism, left instructions to be followed upon his death which led to the creation of a sort of modern-day mummy. He asked that his body be displayed to illustrate how the \"horror at dissection originates in ignorance\"; once so displayed and lectured about, he asked that his body parts be preserved, including his skeleton (minus his skull, which despite being mis-preserved, was displayed beneath his feet until theft required it to be stored elsewhere), which were to be dressed in the clothes he usually wore and \"seated in a Chair usually occupied by me when living in the attitude in which I am sitting when engaged in thought\". His body, outfitted with a wax head created because of problems preparing it as Bentham requested, is on open display in the University College London.
### Vladimir Lenin {#vladimir_lenin}
During the early 20th century, the Russian movement of Cosmism, as represented by Nikolai Fyodorovich Fyodorov, envisioned scientific resurrection of dead people. The idea was so popular that, after Vladimir Lenin\'s death, Leonid Krasin and Alexander Bogdanov suggested to cryonically preserve his body and brain in order to revive him in the future. Necessary equipment was purchased abroad, but for a variety of reasons the plan was not realized. Instead his body was embalmed and placed on permanent exhibition in the Lenin Mausoleum in Moscow, where it is displayed to this day. The mausoleum itself was modeled by Alexey Shchusev on the Pyramid of Djoser and the Tomb of Cyrus.
### Gottfried Knoche {#gottfried_knoche}
In late 19th-century Venezuela, a German-born doctor named Gottfried Knoche conducted experiments in mummification at his laboratory in the forest near La Guaira. He developed an embalming fluid (based on an aluminum chloride compound) that mummified corpses without having to remove the internal organs. The formula for his fluid was never revealed and has not been discovered. Most of the several dozen mummies created with the fluid (including himself and his immediate family) have been lost or were severely damaged by vandals and looters.
### Summum
In 1975, an esoteric organization by the name of Summum introduced \"Modern Mummification\", a service that utilizes modern techniques along with aspects of ancient methods of mummification. The first person to formally undergo Summum\'s process of modern mummification was the founder of Summum, Summum Bonum Amen Ra, who died in January 2008. Summum is currently considered to be the only \"commercial mummification business\" in the world.
### Alan Billis {#alan_billis}
In 2010, a team led by forensic archaeologist Stephen Buckley mummified Alan Billis using techniques based on 19 years of research of 18th-dynasty Egyptian mummification. The process was filmed for television, for the documentary *Mummifying Alan: Egypt\'s Last Secret*. Billis made the decision to allow his body to be mummified after being diagnosed with terminal cancer in 2009. His body currently resides at London\'s Gordon Museum.
### Amélie of Leuchtenberg {#amélie_of_leuchtenberg}
Amélie of Leuchtenberg (1812--1873) was Empress of Brazil as the wife of Emperor Pedro I (also King of Portugal as Pedro IV). Between February and September 2012, researchers at the University of São Paulo in Brazil exhumed her remains, as well as those of her husband and his first wife, Maria Leopoldina. They were surprised to find that the body of Amélie had been mummified. Skin, hair and internal organs were preserved. Examinations at the Hospital das Clínicas found an incision in the empress\' jugular vein. Aromatics such as camphor and myrrh were injected into the incision during the embalming process. \"It certainly helped to nullify the decomposition\", said Brazilian forensic archaeologist Valdirene Ambiel, responsible for the research. She added that another contributing factor was the casket, saying it was so hermetically sealed that there were no micro-organisms in it. Before the reinterment, scientists reembalmed Amélie\'s mummified body using a method similar to the first one.
The remains of Amélie, Pedro I, and Maria Leopoldina are interred in the Monument to the Independence of Brazil in São Paulo.
### Plastination
Plastination is a technique used in anatomy to conserve bodies or body parts. The water and fat are replaced by certain plastics, yielding specimens that can be touched, do not smell or decay, and even retain most microscopic properties of the original sample.
The technique was invented by Gunther von Hagens when working at the anatomical institute of the Heidelberg University in 1978. Von Hagens has patented the technique in several countries and is heavily involved in its promotion, especially as the creator and director of the Body Worlds traveling exhibitions, exhibiting plastinated human bodies internationally. He also founded and directs the Institute for Plastination in Heidelberg.
More than 40 institutions worldwide have facilities for plastination, mainly for medical research and study, and most affiliated to the International Society for Plastination.
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# Mummy
## Treatment of ancient mummies in modern times {#treatment_of_ancient_mummies_in_modern_times}
In the Middle Ages, based on a mistranslation from the Arabic term for bitumen, it was thought that mummies possessed healing properties. As a result, it became common practice to grind Egyptian mummies into a powder to be sold and used as medicine. Francis Bacon and Robert Boyle recommended them for healing bruises and preventing bleeding.
When actual mummies became unavailable, the sun-desiccated corpses of criminals, slaves and people who committed suicide were substituted by some merchants. The trade in mummies seems to have been disapproved of by Turkish authorities who ruled Egypt -- several Egyptians were imprisoned for boiling mummies to make oil in 1424. However, mummies were in high demand in Europe and it was possible to buy them for the right amount of money. John Snaderson, an English tradesman who visited Egypt in the 16th century shipped six hundred pounds of mummy back to England.
The practice developed into a wide-scale business that flourished until the late 16th century. As recently as two centuries ago, mummies were still believed to have medicinal properties to stop bleeding, and were sold as pharmaceuticals in powdered form as in mellified man. Artists also made use of Egyptian mummies; a brownish pigment known as mummy brown, based on *mummia* (sometimes called alternatively *caput mortuum*, Latin for *death\'s head*), which was originally obtained by grinding human and animal Egyptian mummies. It was most popular in the 17th century, but was discontinued in the early 19th century when its composition became generally known to artists who replaced the said pigment by a totally different blend -but keeping the original name, mummia or mummy brown-yielding a similar tint and based on ground minerals (oxides and fired earths) and or blends of powdered gums and oleoresins (such as myrrh and frankincense) as well as ground bitumen. These blends appeared on the market as forgeries of powdered mummy pigment but were ultimately considered as acceptable replacements, once antique mummies were no longer permitted to be destroyed. In 1890, about 180,000 mummified cats were excavated and shipped from Egypt to England to be processed for use in fertilizer.
During the 19th century, following the discovery of the first tombs and artifacts in Egypt, egyptology became popular in Europe, especially in Victorian England. European aristocrats would occasionally entertain themselves by purchasing mummies, having them unwrapped, and holding observation sessions. The pioneer of this kind of entertainment in Britain was Thomas Pettigrew known as \"Mummy\" Pettigrew due to his work. Such unrolling sessions destroyed hundreds of mummies, because the exposure to the air caused them to disintegrate.
While mummies were used in medicine, some researchers have brought into question these other uses such as making paper and paint, fueling locomotives and fertilizing land. The use of mummies as fuel for locomotives was documented by Mark Twain, likely humorously, but the truth of the story remains debatable. During the American Civil War, mummy-wrapping linens were said to have been used to manufacture paper. Evidence for the reality of these claims is still equivocal. Researcher Ben Radford reports that, in her book *The Mummy Congress*, Heather Pringle writes: \"No mummy expert has ever been able to authenticate the story \... Twain seems to be the only published source -- and a rather suspect one at that\". Pringle also writes that there is no evidence for the \"mummy paper\" either. Radford says that many journalists have not done a good job with their research, and while it is true that mummies were often not shown respect in the 1800s, there is no evidence for this rumor.
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# Mummy
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
A 2023 report by *CNN* revealed that a number of museums in Britain were rethinking how they described their displays of ancient Egyptian human remains, known as \"mummies,\" in order to emphasize that these individuals were once living people. The museums started using terms such as \"mummified person\" or the individual\'s name instead of \"mummy.\" The shift in language was also intended to distance the display of mummies from their depiction in popular culture, which often \"undermined their humanity\" by depicting them as supernatural monsters and perpetuating the notion of a \"mummy\'s curse.\" The change in language is part of a larger effort by museums to address historical bias and reflect on the way they represent the past to audiences. The British Museum, for example, has not banned the use of the term \"mummy\" in its displays, but has started to use alternative terminology such as \"mummified remains\" and including the individual\'s name when known
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# Mount Saint Vincent University
**Mount Saint Vincent University**, often referred to as **the Mount**, is a public, primarily undergraduate, university located in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, and was established in 1873. Mount Saint Vincent offers undergraduate Arts, Science, Education, and Professional Studies undergraduate programs. The Mount has 13 graduate degrees in Applied Human Nutrition, School Psychology, Child and Youth Study, Education, Family Studies and Gerontology, Public Relations and Women\'s Studies. The Mount offers a doctorate program and a Ph.D. in Educational Studies through a joint initiative with St. Francis Xavier University and Acadia University. The Mount offers over 190 courses, ten undergraduate degree programs, and four online graduate degree programs.
The university attracts many students partly because of its small class sizes, specialty programs, and location. The Mount has Canada Research Chairs in Gender Identity and Social Practices as well as Food Security and Policy Change. This institution is unique nationwide as it has a Chair in learning disabilities, a Master of Public Relations program, a Bachelor of Science in Communication Studies, and numerous other programs, faculty, and research initiatives.
## History
Established by the Sisters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul (Halifax) as a women\'s college in 1873, the Mount was one of the few institutions of higher education for women in Canada at a time when women could not vote. The original purpose of the academy was to train novices and young sisters as teachers. Still, the Sisters also recognized a need to educate other young women. Over the ensuing years, the order developed a convent, schools, an orphanage, and health care facilities throughout the Halifax area and across North America.
The Sisters of Charity Halifax, also staffed the Shubenacadie Residential School in Nova Scotia, which was open from 1930 to 1967, and the Cranbrook Residential School in British Columbia, which was open from 1890 to 1970. In October 2021, then-MSVU President Dr. Ramona Lumpkin apologized on behalf of the university to the survivors, their families and communities, as well as all Indigenous peoples, for the university's role in the tragedy of residential schools in Canada.
Architect Charles Welsford West designed the Romanesque chapel and annex (1903--05) at Mount St. Vincent Academy (now the University). He was the Architect of Nova Scotia Public Works & Mines 1932--1950.
By 1912, the Sisters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul (Halifax) recognized the need to offer more significant opportunities through university education. They adopted a plan to establish a college for young women. Two years later, in 1914, the Sisters partnered with Dalhousie University, enabling Mount Saint Vincent to offer the first two years of a bachelor\'s degree program to be credited toward`{{clarify|date=July 2012}}`{=mediawiki} a Dalhousie degree.
In 1925, the Nova Scotia Legislature awarded the Mount the right to grant degrees, making it the only independent women\'s college in the British Commonwealth. By 1951, degrees were offered in Arts, Secretarial Science, Music, Home Economics, Library Science, Nursing and Education.
A new charter was granted in 1966, and the College became Mount Saint Vincent University, establishing a board of governors and senate. This was also a period of tremendous growth-- with enrolment increases, new construction, and new agreements. In 1967, the Mount began admitting male students. The university continued to evolve with the expansion of programs during the 1970s and entered into several new fields, including Child Study, Public Relations, Gerontology, Tourism and Hospitality Management, Cooperative Education, and Distance Education. In July 1988, the Sisters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul (Halifax) officially transferred ownership of the institution to the Board of Governors.
### Caritas Day {#caritas_day}
After a fire in 1951 burned down Mount Saint Vincent\'s only building, the people of Halifax came together to support students by providing alternative accommodations for their classes. In recognition of the generosity of their community, the Sisters of Charity established a memorial holiday in appreciation of their gesture. Caritas Day, named after the Christian virtue of charity, takes place on the last Wednesday of January of each year. No classes are held on this day, and students are encouraged to volunteer their time instead. Caritas Day is an opportunity for students and faculty alike to connect with the Sisters of Charity and come together outside of class in a personally and academically beneficial setting.
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# Mount Saint Vincent University
## Programs
Mount Saint Vincent University offers over 40 undergraduate arts, sciences, and professional studies degrees. Professional studies programs include Applied Human Nutrition, Business Administration, Child and Youth Study, Family Studies and Gerontology, Information Technology, Public Relations, Non-profit Leadership, and Tourism and Hospitality Management. All undergraduate programs are work-experience eligible, meaning any Mount student can participate in a work placement (practicum, co-op, internship) as part of their program.
The Mount also offers diplomas in Business Administration and tourism and hospitality Management and certificates in Accounting, Business Administration, Marketing, Proficiency in French, and Non-profit Leadership.
Following the consolidation of post-secondary programs across Nova Scotia in the 1990s, the Mount became home to the only education program in the Halifax area. The faculty of Education is home to the only school psychology graduate program in Atlantic Canada. Graduates of this program are eligible to become registered psychologists in Nova Scotia and several other provinces in Canada.
The Mount houses 16 research centres and institutes.
The Department of Applied Human Nutrition has an accredited dietetic program. The University is accredited by a professional organization such as the Dietitians of Canada, and the university\'s graduates may subsequently become registered dietitians.
Mount Saint Vincent University is the only university in Canada to offer a Master of Public Relations program (MPR). The MPR program graduated its first class in October 2009. The Canadian Public Relations Society (CPRS) recognizes MSVU\'s MPR program for excellence in PR education in its Pathways to the Profession guide.
### Support services {#support_services}
Academic programs are supported by a wide variety of electronic and print research resources in the MSVU Library. Research services include drop-in reference assistance, research appointments, and classroom workshops.
January 2019 marked the 40th anniversary of the Mount\'s co-operative education program. It is the longest-standing nationally accredited co-op program in the Maritime Provinces, offering an optional co-op program in 1979 for students in the Bachelor of Business Administration program. Four decades later, more than 8,000 Business Administration, Public Relations, and Tourism & Hospitality Management students have taken their learning from the classroom to the workplace, completing paid work terms in industries related to their field of study (today, co-op is a required part of the Public Relations and Tourism & Hospitality Management degrees). Since 2014, the Mount Co-op Office has also enabled experiential opportunities for Arts and Science students through an Arts & Science Internship Program.
Mount Saint Vincent University is home to the Centre for Women in Business, a not-for-profit university business development centre (UBDC), dedicated to assisting with entrepreneurial activities within and throughout Nova Scotia. Founded in 1992 by the University\'s Department of Business & Tourism, this remains the only UBDC in Canada with a primary focus on women. The Centre has served more than 7500 clients over the past 18 years.
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# Mount Saint Vincent University
## Art Gallery {#art_gallery}
The Mount Saint Vincent University Art Gallery is located on the first floor of Seton Academic Centre. It opened in 1971 as a resource for Mount Saint Vincent, the communities served by the university, artists, Metro Halifax residents, and the art public. Admission is always free of charge.
MSVU Art Gallery reflects the University\'s educational aims by devoting a significant part of its activities to the representation of women as cultural subjects and producers. Its exhibitions explore various forms of cultural production, highlighting the achievements of Nova Scotian artists and themes relevant to academic programs offered by the university.
## Wikuom
The Mount was the first Nova Scotia university to add a wikuom to its campus facilities. First raised on June 12, 2017, the wikuom is a welcoming traditional Mi\'kmaq space where Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities can gather and learn together.
The Mount is also home to the Aboriginal Student Centre (ASC), which is home to ASC staff who provide academic advising, counseling, and other support services to students. The ASC hosts several events, including the Mount\'s Mid-Winter Feast, Blanket Exercises, Cultural Workshops, Mini-Mount Camps, and more.
## Athletics
Home to the Mystics, the Mount competes in the Atlantic Colleges Athletic Association (ACAA) in Women\'s & Men\'s Basketball, Women\'s & Men\'s Soccer, Cross Country and Women\'s Volleyball. The Mystics hold championship titles in all sports, making them the most acclaimed team of the ACAA division.
- Women\'s Volleyball claimed the ACAA title for the 8th consecutive year, February 2019
## Notable alumni {#notable_alumni}
Notable graduates of the Mount include:
- Patricia Arab
- Joanne Bernard
- Carolyn Bertram
- Ryan Cochrane
- Rafah DiConstanzo
- Barrie Dunn
- Alice Mary Hagen
- Leroy Lowe
- Catherine McKinnon
- Paul D
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# Minestrone
**Minestrone** (`{{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|ɪ|n|ə|s|ˈ|t|r|oʊ|n|i}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|it|mineˈstroːne|lang}}`{=mediawiki}) or ***minestrone di verdure*** is a thick soup of Italian origin based on vegetables. It typically includes onions, carrots, celery, potatoes, cabbage, tomatoes, often legumes, such as beans, chickpeas or fava beans, and sometimes pasta or rice. Minestrone traditionally is made without meat, but it has no precise recipe and can be made with many different ingredients.
## Etymology
The word *minestrone*, meaning a thick vegetable soup, is attested in English from 1871. It is from Italian *minestrone*, the augmentative form of *minestra*, \'soup\', or more literally \'that which is served\', from *minestrare*, \'to serve\', and cognate with *administer* as in \'to administer a remedy\'.
Because of its unique origins and the absence of a fixed recipe, minestrone varies widely across Italy depending on traditional cooking times, ingredients, and season. It ranges from a thick and dense texture with very boiled-down vegetables to a more brothy soup with large quantities of diced and lightly cooked vegetables; it may also include meats.
In modern Italian, there are three words corresponding to the English word *soup*: *zuppa*, which is used in the sense of tomato soup, or fish soup; *minestra*, which is used in the sense of a more substantial soup such as a vegetable soup, and also for \"dry\" soups, namely pasta dishes; and *minestrone*, which means a very substantial or large soup or stew, although the meaning has now come to be associated with this particular dish.
## History
Some of the earliest origins of minestrone pre-date the expansion of the Latin tribes of Rome into what became the Roman Kingdom (later Roman Republic and Empire), when the local diet was \"vegetarian by necessity\" and consisted mostly of vegetables, such as onions, lentils, cabbage, garlic, fava beans, mushrooms, carrots, asparagus, and turnips.
During this time, the main dish of a meal would have been *pulte*, a simple but filling porridge of spelt flour cooked in salt water, to which whatever vegetables that were available would have been added.
It was not until the 2nd century BC, when Rome had conquered Italy and monopolized the commercial and road networks, that a huge diversity of products flooded the capital and began to change their diet, and by association, the diet of Italy, most notably with the more frequent inclusion of meats, including as a stock for soups.
Spelt flour was also removed from soups, as bread had been introduced into the Roman diet by the Greeks, and *pulte* became a meal largely for the poor.
The ancient Romans recognized the health benefits of a simple or \"frugal\" diet (from the Latin *fruges*, the common name given to cereals, vegetables and legumes) and thick vegetable soups and vegetables remained a staple.
Marcus Apicius\'s ancient cookbook *De Re Coquinaria* described *polus*, a Roman soup dating back to 30 AD made of farro, chickpeas, and fava beans, with onions, garlic, lard, and greens thrown in.
As eating habits and ingredients changed in Italy, so did minestrone. Apicius updates the *pultes* and *pulticulae* with fancy trimmings such as cooked brains and wine. After the introduction of tomatoes to Italy from the New World in the 15th century, the plant was included as an ingredient in minestrone.
The tradition of not losing rural roots continues today, and minestrone is now known in Italy as belonging to the style of cooking called *cucina povera* (\'cuisine of the poor\'), meaning dishes that have rustic, rural roots, as opposed to *cucina nobile* (\'cuisine of the nobles\'), or the cooking style of the aristocracy and nobles.
## Regional variations {#regional_variations}
*Minestrone alla genovese* is a variant typical of Liguria which makes greater use of herbs, including pesto.
*Imbakbaka* or *mbakbaka* is a type of stew in Libya made with pasta, chickpeas, bzar spice, and meat. It originated through Italian colonization
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# Miranda (moon)
\| density = `{{val|1.148|u=g/cm3}}`{=mediawiki} (calculated) \| surface_grav = `{{Gr|0.06293|235.8}}`{=mediawiki} m/s^2^ \| escape_velocity = `{{V2|0.06293|235.8}}`{=mediawiki} km/s \| rotation = synchronous \| axial_tilt = 0° \| albedo = 0.32 \| temp_name1 = solstice \| mean_temp_1 = `{{nowrap|≈ 60 [[Kelvin|K]]}}`{=mediawiki} \| max_temp_1 = `{{val|84|1|u=K}}`{=mediawiki} \| min_temp_1 = ? \| note = no \| magnitude = 16.6 }} **Miranda**, also designated **Uranus V**, is the smallest and innermost of Uranus\'s five round satellites. It was discovered by Gerard Kuiper on 16 February 1948 at McDonald Observatory in Texas, and named after Miranda from William Shakespeare\'s play *The Tempest*. Like the other large moons of Uranus, Miranda orbits close to its planet\'s equatorial plane. Because Uranus orbits the Sun on its side, Miranda\'s orbit is nearly perpendicular to the ecliptic and shares Uranus\'s extreme seasonal cycle.
At just 470 km in diameter, Miranda is one of the smallest closely observed objects in the Solar System that might be in hydrostatic equilibrium (spherical under its own gravity), and its total surface area is roughly equal to that of the U.S. state of Texas. The only close-up images of Miranda are from the *Voyager 2* probe, which made observations of Miranda during its Uranus flyby in January 1986. During the flyby, Miranda\'s southern hemisphere pointed towards the Sun, so only that part was studied.
Miranda probably formed from an accretion disc that surrounded the planet shortly after its formation and, like other large moons, it is likely differentiated, with an inner core of rock surrounded by a mantle of ice. Miranda has one of the most extreme and varied topographies of any object in the Solar System, including Verona Rupes, a roughly 20 km scarp that may be the highest cliff in the Solar System, and chevron-shaped tectonic features called *coronae*. The origin and evolution of this varied geology, the most of any Uranian satellite, are still not fully understood, and multiple hypotheses exist regarding Miranda\'s evolution.
## Discovery and name {#discovery_and_name}
Miranda was discovered on 16 February 1948 by planetary astronomer Gerard Kuiper using the McDonald Observatory\'s 82 in Otto Struve Telescope. Its motion around Uranus was confirmed on 1 March 1948. It was the first satellite of Uranus discovered in nearly 100 years. Kuiper elected to name the object \"Miranda\" after the character in Shakespeare\'s *The Tempest*, because the four previously discovered moons of Uranus, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon, had all been named after characters of Shakespeare or Alexander Pope. However, the previous moons had been named specifically after fairies, whereas Miranda was a human. Subsequently discovered satellites of Uranus were named after characters from Shakespeare and Pope, whether fairies or not. The moon is also designated Uranus V.
Planetary moons other than Earth\'s were never given symbols in the astronomical literature. Denis Moskowitz, a software engineer who designed most of the dwarf planet symbols, proposed an M (the initial of Miranda) combined with the low globe of Jérôme Lalande\'s Uranus symbol as the symbol of Miranda (). This symbol is not widely used.
## Orbit
Of Uranus\'s five round satellites, Miranda orbits closest to it, at roughly 129 000 km from the surface; about a quarter again as far as its most distant ring. It is the round moon that has the smallest orbit around a major planet. Its orbital period is 34 hours and, like that of the Moon, is synchronous with its rotation period, which means it always shows the same face to Uranus, a condition known as tidal locking. Miranda\'s orbital inclination (4.34°) is unusually high for a body so close to its planet -- roughly ten times that of the other major Uranian satellites, and 73 times that of Oberon. The reason for this is still uncertain; there are no mean-motion resonances between the moons that could explain it, leading to the hypothesis that the moons occasionally pass through secondary resonances, which at some point in the past led to Miranda being locked for a time into a 3:1 resonance with Umbriel, before chaotic behaviour induced by the secondary resonances moved it out again. In the Uranian system, due to the planet\'s lesser degree of oblateness and the larger relative size of its satellites, escape from a mean-motion resonance is much easier than for satellites of Jupiter or Saturn.
## Observation and exploration {#observation_and_exploration}
Miranda\'s apparent magnitude is +16.6, making it invisible to many amateur telescopes. Virtually all known information regarding its geology and geography was obtained during the flyby of Uranus made by *Voyager 2* on 25 January 1986, The closest approach of *Voyager 2* to Miranda was 29000 km---significantly less than the distances to all other Uranian moons. Of all the Uranian satellites, Miranda had the most visible surface. The discovery team had expected Miranda to resemble Mimas, and found themselves at a loss to explain the moon\'s unique geography in the 24-hour window before releasing the images to the press. In 2017, as part of its Planetary Science Decadal Survey, NASA evaluated the possibility of an orbiter to return to Uranus some time in the 2020s. Uranus was the preferred destination over Neptune due to favourable planetary alignments meaning shorter flight times.
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# Miranda (moon)
## Composition and internal structure {#composition_and_internal_structure}
At 1.15 g/cm^3^, Miranda is the least dense of Uranus\'s round satellites. That density suggests a composition of more than 60% water ice. Miranda\'s surface may be mostly water ice, though it is far rockier than its corresponding satellites in the Saturn system, indicating that heat from radioactive decay may have led to internal differentiation, allowing silicate rock and organic compounds to settle in its interior. Miranda is too small for any internal heat to have been retained over the age of the Solar System. Miranda is the least spherical of Uranus\'s satellites, with an equatorial diameter 3% wider than its polar diameter. Only water has been detected so far on Miranda\'s surface, though it has been speculated that methane, ammonia, carbon monoxide or nitrogen may also exist at 3% concentrations. These bulk properties are similar to Saturn\'s moon Mimas, though Mimas is smaller, less dense, and more oblate. A study published in 2024 suggests that Miranda might have had a liquid ocean of about 100 km thickness beneath the surface within the last 100-500 million years. Some studies argue that Miranda may still possess a subsurface ocean.
Precisely how a body as small as Miranda could have enough internal energy to produce the myriad geological features seen on its surface has not been established with certainty, though the currently favoured hypothesis is that it was driven by tidal heating during a past time when it was in 3:1 orbital resonance with Umbriel. The resonance would have increased Miranda\'s orbital eccentricity to 0.1, and generated tidal friction due to the varying tidal forces from Uranus. As Miranda approached Uranus, tidal force increased; as it retreated, tidal force decreased, causing flexing that would have warmed Miranda\'s interior by 20 K, enough to trigger melting. The period of tidal flexing could have lasted for up to 100 million years. Also, if clathrate existed within Miranda, as has been hypothesised for the satellites of Uranus, it may have acted as an insulator, since it has a lower conductivity than water, increasing Miranda\'s temperature still further. Miranda may have also once been in a 5:3 orbital resonance with Ariel, which would have also contributed to its internal heating. However, the maximum heating attributable to the resonance with Umbriel was likely about three times greater.
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# Miranda (moon)
## Geography
Miranda has a unique surface. Among the geological structures that cover it are fractures, faults, valleys, craters, ridges, gorges, depressions, cliffs, and terraces. This moon is a mosaic of highly varied zones. Some areas are older and darker. As such, they bear numerous impact craters, as is expected of a small inert body. Other regions are made of rectangular or ovoid strips. They feature complex sets of parallel ridges and rupes (fault scarps) as well as numerous outcrops of bright and dark materials, suggesting an exotic composition. This moon is most likely composed only of water ice on the surface, as well as silicate rocks and other more or less buried organic compounds.
+------------------+---------------+-------------+-----------+------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Name | Type | Length\ | Latitude\ | Longitude\ | Origin of the name |
| | | (diameter)\ | (°) | (°) | |
| | | (km) | | | |
+==================+===============+=============+===========+============+===============================================================================+
| Mantua Regio | Regiones | 399 | −39.6 | 180.2 | Italian region of part of the plot of *The Two Gentlemen of Verona* |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+-----------+------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Ephesus Regio | | 225 | −15 | 250 | The twins\' house in Turkey in *The Comedy of Errors* |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+-----------+------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Sicilia Regio | | 174 | −30 | 317.2 | Italian region of the plot of *The Winter\'s Tale* |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+-----------+------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Dunsinane Regio | | 244 | −31.5 | 11.9 | Hill in Scotland at which Macbeth is defeated |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+-----------+------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Arden Corona | Coronae | 318 | −29.1 | 73.7 | Forest in England where the plot of *As You Like It* takes place |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+-----------+------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Elsinore Corona | | 323 | −24.8 | 257.1 | Castle in Denmark that is the setting for *Hamlet* |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+-----------+------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Inverness Corona | | 234 | −66.9 | 325.7 | Macbeth\'s castle in Scotland |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+-----------+------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Argier Rupes | Rupes | 141 | −43.2 | 322.8 | Region of France where the beginning of the plot of *The Tempest* takes place |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+-----------+------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Verona Rupes | | 116 | −18.3 | 347.8 | Italian city where the plot of *Romeo and Juliet* takes place |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+-----------+------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Alonso | Impact crater | 25 | −44 | 352.6 | King of Naples in *The Tempest* |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+-----------+------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Ferdinand | | 17 | −34.8 | 202.1 | Son of the King of Naples in *The Tempest* |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+-----------+------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Francisco | | 14 | −73.2 | 236 | A lord of Naples in *The Tempest* |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+-----------+------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Gonzalo | | 11 | −11.4 | 77 | An honest old councilor from Naples in *The Tempest* |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+-----------+------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Prospero | | 21 | −32.9 | 329.9 | Legitimate Duke of Milan in *The Tempest* |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+-----------+------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Stephano | | 16 | −41.1 | 234.1 | A drunken butler in *The Tempest* |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+-----------+------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Trinculo | | 11 | −63.7 | 163.4 | A jester in *The Tempest* |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+-----------+------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
: Main geological structures visible on the known part of Miranda\
(all named in reference to works by William Shakespeare)
### Regiones
The regiones identified on the images taken by the *Voyager 2* probe are named \"Mantua Regio\", \"Ephesus Regio\", \"Sicilia Regio\", and \"Dunsinane Regio\". They designate major regions of Miranda where hilly terrain and plains follow one another, more or less dominated by ancient impact craters. Normal faults also mark these ancient regions. Some escarpments are as old as the formation of the regions while others are much more recent and appear to have formed after the coronae. These faults are accompanied by grabens characteristic of ancient tectonic activity. The surface of these regions is fairly uniformly dark. However, the cliffs bordering certain impact craters reveal, at depth, the presence of much more luminous material.
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# Miranda (moon)
## Geography
### Coronae
Miranda is one of very few objects in the Solar system to have crowns (also called coronae). The three known coronae observed on Miranda are named Inverness Corona near the south pole, Arden Corona at the apex of the moon\'s orbital motion, and Elsinore Corona at the antapex. The highest albedo contrasts on Miranda\'s surface occur within the Inverness and Arden coronae.
#### Inverness Corona {#inverness_corona}
Inverness Corona is a trapezoidal region of approximately 200 km on a side which lies near the south pole. This region is characterized by a central geological structure which takes the shape of a luminous chevron, a surface with a relatively high albedo, and a series of gorges which extend northwards from a point near the pole. At a latitude of around −55°, north-south oriented gorges tend to intersect with others, which follow an east-west direction. The outer boundary of Inverness, as well as its internal patterns of ridges and bands of contrasting albedos, form numerous salient angles. It is bounded on three sides (south, east and north) by a complex system of faults. The nature of the west coast is less clear, but may also be tectonic. Within the crown, the surface is dominated by parallel gorges spaced a few kilometers apart. The low number of impact craters indicates that Inverness is the youngest among the three coronae observed on the surface of Miranda.
#### Arden Corona {#arden_corona}
Arden Corona, present in the front hemisphere of Miranda, extends over approximately 300 km from east to west. The other dimension, however, remains unknown because the terrain extended beyond the terminator (on the hemisphere plunged into night) when *Voyager 2* photographed it. The outer margin of this corona forms parallel and dark bands which surround in gentle curves a more clearly rectangular core at least 100 km wide. The overall effect has been described as an ovoid of lines. The interior and belt of Arden show very different morphologies. The interior topography appears regular and soft. It is also characterized by a mottled pattern resulting from large patches of relatively bright material scattered over a generally dark surface. The stratigraphic relationship between the light and dark marks could not be determined from the images provided by *Voyager 2*. The area at the margin of Arden is characterized by concentric albedo bands which extend from the western end of the crown where they intersect crateriform terrain (near 40° longitude) and on the side east, where they extend beyond the, in the northern hemisphere (near 110° longitude). The contrasting albedo bands are composed of outer fault scarp faces. This succession of escarpments gradually pushes the land into a deep hollow along the border between Arden and the crateriform terrain called Mantua Regio. Arden was formed during a geological episode which preceded the formation of Inverness but which is contemporary with the formation of Elsinore.
#### Elsinore Corona {#elsinore_corona}
Elsinore Corona is the third corona, which was observed in the rear hemisphere of Miranda, along the terminator. It is broadly similar to Arden in size and internal structure. They both have an outer belt about 100 km wide, which wraps around an inner core. The topography of the core of Elsinore consists of a complex set of intersections of troughs and bumps which are truncated by this outer belt which is marked by roughly concentric linear ridges. The troughs also include small segments of rolling, cratered terrain. Elsinore also presents segments of furrows, called \"*sulcus*\", comparable to those observed on Ganymede.
### Rupes
Miranda also features enormous escarpments that can be traced across the moon. Some of them are older than the coronae, others younger. The most spectacular fault system begins at a deep valley visible at the terminator.
This network of faults begins on the northwest side of Inverness where it forms a deep gorge on the outer edge of the ovoid which surrounds the crown. This geological formation is named \"*Argier Rupes*\".
The most impressive fault then extends to the terminator, extending from the top of the central \"chevron\" of Inverness. Near the terminator, a gigantic luminous cliff, named Verona Rupes, forms complex grabens. The fault is approximately 20 km wide, the graben at the bright edge is 10 to 15 km deep. The height of the sheer cliff is 5 to 10 km. Although it could not be observed by the *Voyager 2* probe on the face immersed in the polar night of Miranda, it is probable that this geological structure extends beyond the terminator in the northern hemisphere.
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# Miranda (moon)
## Geography
### Impact craters {#impact_craters}
During the close flyby of *Voyager 2* in January 1986, only the craters on the southern hemisphere of Miranda could be observed. They generally had diameters of over 500 m, representing the limit of resolution of the digital images transmitted by the probe during its flight. These craters have very varied morphologies. Some have well-defined borders and are sometimes surrounded by ejecta deposits characteristic of impact craters. Others are very degraded and sometimes barely recognizable, as their topography has been altered. The age of a crater does not give an indication of the date of formation of the terrain it marked. On the other hand, this date depends on the number of craters present on a site, regardless of their age. The more impact craters a terrain has, the older it is. Scientists use these as \"planetary chronometers\"; they count observed craters to date the formation of the terrain of inert natural satellites devoid of atmospheres, such as Callisto.
No multiple ring crater, nor any complex crater with a central peak, has been observed on Miranda. Simple craters, that is to say whose cavity is bowl-shaped, and transitional craters (with a flat bottom) are the norm, with their diameter not correlated to their shape. Thus simple craters of more than 15 km are observed while elsewhere transitional craters of 2.5 km have been identified. Ejecta deposits are rare, and are never associated with craters larger than 15 km in diameter. The ejecta that sometimes surround craters with a diameter less than 3 km appear systematically brighter than the material surrounding them. On the other hand, ejecta associated with craters of size between 3 km and 15 km are generally darker than what surrounds them (the albedo of the ejecta is lower than that of the matter surrounding them). Finally, some ejecta deposits, associated with diameters of all sizes, have an albedo comparable to that of the material on which they rest.
#### In regiones {#in_regiones}
In some regiones, and particularly in those of the visible part of the anti-Uranian hemisphere (which continually turns its back on the planet), craters are very frequent. They are sometimes stuck to each other with very little space between each one. Elsewhere, craters are less frequent and are separated by large, weakly undulated surfaces. The rim of many craters is surrounded by luminous material while streaks of dark material are observed on the walls which surround the bottom of the craters. In Matuna Regio, between the craters Truncilo and Fransesco, there is a gigantic circular geological structure of 170 km in diameter which could be a basin impact very significantly degraded. These findings suggest that these regions contain a shiny material at shallow depth, while a layer of dark material (or a material which darkens upon contact with the external environment) is present, at greater depth.
#### In coronae {#in_coronae}
Craters are statistically up to ten times less numerous in the coronae than in the anti-Uranian regions, which indicates that these formations are younger.
The density of impact craters could be established for different areas of Inverness, and made it possible to establish the age of each. Considering these measurements, the entire geological formation was formed in a relative unit of time. However, other observations make it possible to establish that the youngest zone, within this crown, is the one which separates the \"chevron\", from Argier Rupes.
The density of impact craters in the core and in the Arden belt is statistically similar. The two distinct parts of this formation must therefore have been part of a common geological episode. Nevertheless, the superposition of craters on bands of the central core of Arden indicates that its formation preceded that of the scarps which surround it. The data from the impact craters can be interpreted as follows: the interior and marginal zones of the corona, including most of the albedo bands, were formed during the same period of time. Their formation was followed by later tectonic developments which produced the high-relief fault scarps observed along the edge of the crown near longitude 110°.
The density of impact craters seems the same in the structure surrounding Elsinore as in its central core. The two zones of the crown seem to have formed during the same geological period, but other geological elements suggest that the perimeter of Elsinore is younger than its core.
#### Other observations {#other_observations}
The number of craters should be higher in the hemisphere at the apex of the orbital movement than at the antapex. However, it is the anti-Uranian hemisphere which is densest in craters. This situation could be explained by a past event having caused a reorientation of Miranda\'s axis of rotation by 90° compared to that which is currently known. In this case, the paleoapex hemisphere of the moon would have become the current anti-Uranian hemisphere. However, the count of impact craters being limited to the southern hemisphere only, illuminated during the passage of the Voyager 2 probe, it is possible that Miranda has experienced a more complex reorientation and that its paleoapex is located somewhere in the northern hemisphere, which has not yet been photographed.
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# Miranda (moon)
## Origin and formation {#origin_and_formation}
Several scenarios are proposed to explain its formation and geological evolution. One of them postulates that it would result from the accretion of a disk of gas and dust called a \"subnebula\". This sub-nebula either existed around Uranus for some period of time after its formation, or was created following a cosmic impact which would have given its great obliquity to the axis of rotation of Uranus. However, this relatively small moon has areas that are surprisingly young compared to the geological time scale. It seems that the most recent geological formations only date back a few hundred million years. However, thermal models applicable to moons the size of Miranda predict rapid cooling and the absence of geological evolution following its accretion from the subnebula. Geological activity over such a long period cannot be justified either by the heat resulting from the initial accretion, nor by the heat generated by the fission of radioactive materials involved in the formation.
Miranda has the youngest surface among those of the satellites of the Uranian system, which indicates that its geography has undergone the most important evolutions. This geography would be explained by a complex geological history including a still unknown combination of different astronomical phenomena. Among these phenomena would be tidal forces, mechanisms of orbital resonances, processes of partial differentiation, or even movements of convection.
The geological patchwork could be partly the result of a catastrophic collision with an impactor. This event may have completely dislocated Miranda. The different pieces would then have re-assembled, then gradually reorganized in the spherical form that the *Voyager 2* probe photographed. Some scientists even speak of several cycles of collision and re-accretion of the moon. This geological hypothesis was depreciated in 2011 in favor of hypotheses involving Uranian tidal forces. These would have pulled and turned the materials present under Inverness and Arden to create fault scarps. The stretching and distortion caused by Uranus\'s gravity, which alone could have provided the heat source necessary to power these uprisings.
The oldest known regions on the surface of Miranda are cratered plains such as Sicilia Regio and Ephesus Regio. The formation of these terrains follows the accretion of the moon then its cooling. The bottoms of the oldest craters are thus partially covered with material from the depths of the moon referred to as endogenous resurfacing, which was a surprising observation. The geological youth of Miranda demonstrates that a heat source then took over from the initial heat provided by the accretion of the moon. The most satisfactory explanation for the origin of the heat which animated the moon is the one which also explains the volcanism on Io: a situation of orbital resonance now on Miranda and the important phenomenon of tidal forces generated by Uranus.
After this first geological epoch, Miranda experienced a period of cooling which generated an overall extension of its core and produced fragments and cracks of its mantle on the surface, in the form of grabens. It is indeed possible that Miranda, Ariel, and Umbriel participated in several important resonances involving the pairs Miranda/Ariel, Ariel/Umbriel, and Miranda/Umbriel. Unlike those observed on Jupiter\'s moon Io, these orbital resonance phenomena between Miranda and Ariel could not lead to a stable capture of the small moon. Instead of being captured, Miranda\'s orbital resonance with Ariel and Umbriel may have led to the increase in its eccentricity and orbital inclination. By successively escaping several orbital resonances, Miranda alternated phases of heating and cooling. Thus all the known grabens of Miranda were not formed during this second geological episode.
A third major geological epoch occurs with the orbital reorientation of Miranda and the formation of Elsinore and Arden coronae. A singular volcanic event, made of flows of solid materials, could then to have taken place, within the coronae in formation. Another explanation proposed for the formation of these two coronae would be the product of a diapir which would have formed in the heart of the moon. On this occasion Miranda would have at least partially differentiated. Considering the size and position of these coronae, it is possible that their formation contributed to changing the moment of inertia of the moon. This could have caused a 90° reorientation of Miranda. Doubt remains as to the concomitant existence of these two formations. It is possible that at this time, the moon was distorted to the point that its asphericity and eccentricity temporarily caused it to undergo a chaotic rotational movement, such as that observed on Hyperion. If Miranda\'s orbital reorientation occurred before the two coronae formed on the surface, then Elsinore would be older than Arden. Chaotic movement phenomena generated by the entry into 3:1 resonance between the orbit of Miranda and that of Umbriel could have contributed to an increase in Miranda\'s orbital inclination greater than 3°.
A final geological episode consists of the formation of Inverness which seems to have induced surface tensions which gave rise to the creation of additional grabens including Verona Rupes and Argier Rupes. Following this new cooling of Miranda, its total volume could have increased by 4%. It is probable that these different geological episodes followed one another without interruption.
Ultimately, Miranda\'s geological history may have spanned a period of more than 3 billion years. It would have started 3.5 billion years ago with the appearance of heavily cratered regions and ended a few hundred million years ago, with the formation of the coronae.
The phenomena of orbital resonances, and mainly that associated with Umbriel, but also, to a lesser extent, that of Ariel, would have had a significant impact on the orbital eccentricity of Miranda, and would also have contributed to the internal heating and geological activity of the moon. The whole would have induced convection movements in its substrate and allowed the start of planetary differentiation. At the same time, these phenomena would have only slightly disturbed the orbits of the other moons involved, which are more massive than Miranda. However, Miranda\'s surface may appear too tortured to be the sole product of orbital resonance phenomena.
After Miranda escaped from this resonance with Umbriel, through a mechanism that likely moved the moon into its current, abnormally high orbital tilt, the eccentricity would have been reduced. The tidal forces would then have erased the eccentricity and the temperature at the heart of the moon. This would have allowed it to regain a spherical shape, without allowing it to erase the impressive geological artifacts such as Verona Rupes. This eccentricity being the source of the tidal forces, its reduction would have deactivated the heat source which fueled the ancient geological activity of Miranda, making it a cold and inert moon
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# Machete
A **machete** (`{{IPAc-en|m|ə|ˈ|ʃ|ɛ|t|i}}`{=mediawiki}; `{{IPA|es|maˈtʃete}}`{=mediawiki}) is a broad blade used either as an agricultural implement similar to an axe, or in combat like a long-bladed knife. The blade is typically 30 to long and usually under 3 mm thick. In the Spanish language, the word is possibly a diminutive form of the word *macho*, which was used to refer to sledgehammers. Alternatively, its origin may be *machaera*, the name given by the Greeks and Romans to the falcata. It is the origin of the English language equivalent term *matchet*, though this is rarely used. In much of the English-speaking Caribbean, such as Jamaica, Barbados, Guyana, Grenada, and Trinidad and Tobago, the term *cutlass* is used for these agricultural tools.
## Uses
### Agriculture
In various tropical and subtropical countries, the machete is frequently used to cut through rainforest undergrowth and for agricultural purposes (e.g. cutting sugar cane). Besides this, in Latin America a common use is for such household tasks as cutting large foodstuffs into pieces---much as a cleaver is used---or to perform crude cutting tasks, such as making simple wooden handles for other tools. It is common to see people using machetes for other jobs, such as splitting open coconuts, yard work, removing small branches and plants, chopping animals\' food, and clearing bushes.
Machetes are often considered tools and used by adults. However, many hunter--gatherer societies and cultures surviving through subsistence agriculture begin teaching babies to use sharp tools, including machetes, before their first birthdays.
### Warfare
People in uprisings sometimes use these weapons. For example, the Boricua Popular Army are unofficially called *macheteros* because of the machete-wielding laborers of sugar cane fields of past Puerto Rico.
Many of the killings in the 1994 Rwandan genocide were performed with machetes, and they were the primary weapon used by the Interahamwe militias there. Machetes were also a distinctive tool and weapon of the Haitian *Tonton Macoute*.
In 1762, the British captured Havana in a lengthy siege during the Seven Years\' War. Volunteer militiamen led by Pepe Antonio, a Guanabacoa councilman, were issued with machetes during the unsuccessful defense of the city. The machete was also the most iconic weapon during the independence wars in Cuba, although it saw limited battlefield use. Carlos Manuel de Céspedes, owner of the sugar refinery *La Demajagua* near Manzanillo, freed his slaves on 10 October 1868. He proceeded to lead them, armed with machetes, in revolt against the Spanish government. The first cavalry charge using machetes as the primary weapon was carried out on 4 November 1868 by Máximo Gómez, a sergeant born in the Dominican Republic, who later became the general in chief of the Cuban Army.
The machete is a common side arm and tool for many ethnic groups in West Africa. Machetes in this role are referenced in Chinua Achebe\'s *Things Fall Apart*.
Some countries have a name for the blow of a machete; the Spanish *machetazo* is sometimes used in English. In the British Virgin Islands, Grenada, Jamaica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Barbados, Saint Lucia, and Trinidad and Tobago, the word *planass* means to hit someone with the flat of the blade of a machete or cutlass. To strike with the sharpened edge is to \"chop\". Throughout the English-speaking islands of the Caribbean, the term \"cutlass\" refers to a laborers\' cutting tool.
The Brazilian Army\'s Instruction Center on Jungle Warfare developed a machete-style knife with a blade 10 in in length and a very pronounced clip point. This machete is issued with a 5 in Bowie knife and a sharpening stone in the scabbard, collectively called a \"jungle kit\" (*Conjunto de Selva* in Portuguese); it is manufactured by Indústria de Material Bélico do Brasil (IMBEL).
The machete was used as a weapon during the Mau Mau rebellion, in the Rwandan Genocide, and in South Africa, particularly in the 1980s and early 1990s when the former province of Natal was wracked by conflict between the African National Congress and the Zulu-nationalist Inkatha Freedom Party.
## Manufacture
Good machetes rely on the materials used and the shape. In the past, the most famous manufacturer of machetes in Latin America and the Spanish-speaking Caribbean was Collins Company of Collinsville, Connecticut. The company was founded as Collins & Company in 1826 by Samuel W. Collins to make axes. Its first machetes were sold in 1845 and became so famous that a machete was called *un collin*. In the English-speaking Caribbean, Robert Mole & Sons of Birmingham, England, was long considered the manufacturer of agricultural cutlasses of the best quality. Some Robert Mole blades survive as souvenirs of travellers to Trinidad, Jamaica, and, less commonly, St. Lucia.
Colombia is the largest exporter of machetes worldwide.
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# Machete
## Cultural influence {#cultural_influence}
The flag of Angola features a machete, along with a cog-wheel.
The southern Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul has a dance called the *dança dos facões* (machetes\' dance) in which the dancers, who are usually men, bang their machetes against various surfaces while dancing, simulating a battle. *Maculelê*, an Afro-Brazilian dance and martial art, can also be performed with *facões*. This practice began in the city of Santo Amaro, Bahia, in the northeastern part of the country.
In the Philippines, the *bolo* is used in training in *eskrima*, the indigenous martial art of the Philippines.
In the Jalisco region of Mexico, Los Machetes is a popular folk dance. This dance tells the story of cutting down sugar cane during the harvest. Los Machetes was created by Mexican farm workers who spent a great amount of time perfecting the use of the tool, the machete, for harvesting. Traditionally, real machetes are used while performing this dance.
## Similar tools {#similar_tools}
The ***panga*** or *tapanga* is a variant used in East and Southern Africa. This name may be of Swahili etymology; not to be confused with the panga fish. The *panga* blade broadens on the backside and has a length of 16 to. The upper inclined portion of the blade may be sharpened.
Other similar tools include the *parang* and the *golok* (from Malaysia and Indonesia); however, these tend to have shorter, thicker blades with a primary grind, and are more effective on woody vegetation.
The tsakat is a similar tool used in Armenia for clearing land of vegetation
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# Mechanized infantry
upright=1.35\|right\|thumb\|U.S. Army mechanized infantry dismount from an M113 armored personnel carrier during training in 1985. `{{War}}`{=mediawiki} **Mechanized infantry** are infantry units equipped with armored personnel carriers (APCs) or infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) for transport and combat (see also armoured corps).
As defined by the United States Army, mechanized infantry is distinguished from motorized infantry in that its vehicles provide a degree of armor protection and armament for use in combat, whereas motorized infantry are provided with \"soft-skinned\" wheeled vehicles for transportation only. Most APCs and IFVs are fully tracked or are all-wheel drive vehicles (6×6 or 8×8), for mobility across rough ground. Some militaries distinguish between mechanized and **armored** (or **armoured**) **infantry**, designating troops carried by APCs as mechanized and those in IFVs as armored.
The support weapons for mechanized infantry are also provided with motorized transport, or they are built directly into combat vehicles to keep pace with the mechanized infantry in combat. For units equipped with most types of APC or any type of IFV, fire support weapons, such as machine guns, autocannons, small-bore direct-fire howitzers, and anti-tank guided missiles are often mounted directly on the infantry\'s own transport vehicles.
Compared with \"light\" truck-mobile infantry, mechanized infantry can maintain rapid tactical movement and, if mounted in IFVs, have more integral firepower. They require more combat supplies (ammunition and especially fuel) and ordnance supplies (spare vehicle components), and a comparatively larger proportion of manpower is required to crew and maintain the vehicles. For example, most APCs mount a section of seven or eight infantrymen but have a crew of two. Most IFVs carry only six or seven infantry but require a crew of three. To be effective in the field, mechanized units also require many mechanics, with specialized maintenance and recovery vehicles and equipment.
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# Mechanized infantry
## History
As early as 1915 the British instigated a tracked vehicle that could carry 50 equipped troops under armour but the project got no further than trials before cancellation. Some of the first mechanized infantry were German assault teams mounted on A7V tanks during World War I. The vehicles were extra-large to let them carry sizeable assault teams and would regularly carry infantry on board in addition to their already large crews that were trained as stormtroopers. All machine-gun-armed A7V tanks carried two small flamethrowers for their dismounts to use. A7V tank would often carry a second officer to lead the assault team.
During the Battle of St. Quentin in late March 1918, A7Vs were accompanied by twenty stormtroopers from Rohr Assault Battalion, but it is unspecified if they were acting as dismounts or were accompanying the tanks on foot. During the battle, tank crews were reported to have dismounted and attacked enemy positions with grenades and flamethrowers on numerous occasions.
Another example is the capture of Villers-Bretonneux, in which A7Vs suppressed the defenders with machine gun fire and assault teams dismounted to attack them with grenades.
The British heavy tank design was given an extended hull to cross wide German trenches. This Mark V\*\* had space for fourteen troops. The Mark IX tank based on the Mark V was designed solely for carrying troops with space for 30 but the war ended before the order was complete and they could be used.
Towards the end of World War I, all the armies involved were faced with the problem of maintaining the momentum of an attack. Tanks, artillery, or infiltration tactics could all be used to break through an enemy defense, but almost all offensives launched in 1918 ground to a halt after a few days. The following infantry quickly became exhausted, and artillery, supplies and fresh formations could not be brought forward over the battlefields quickly enough to maintain the pressure on the regrouping enemy forces.
It was widely acknowledged that cavalry was too vulnerable to be used on most European battlefields, but many armies continued to deploy them. Motorized infantry could maintain rapid movement, but their trucks required either a good road network or firm open terrain, such as desert. They were unable to traverse a battlefield obstructed by craters, barbed wire, and trenches. Tracked or all-wheel drive vehicles were to be the solution.
Following the war, development of mechanized forces was largely theoretical for some time, but many nations began rearming in the 1930s. The British Army had established an Experimental Mechanized Force in 1927, but it failed to pursue that line because of budget constraints and the prior need to garrison the frontiers of the British Empire.
Although some proponents of mobile warfare, such as J. F. C. Fuller, advocated building \"tank fleets\", other, such as Heinz Guderian in Germany, Adna R. Chaffee Jr. in the United States, and Mikhail Tukhachevsky in the Soviet Union, recognized that tank units required close support from infantry and other arms and that such supporting arms needed to maintain the same pace as the tanks.
As the Germans rearmed in the 1930s, they equipped some infantry units in their new Panzer divisions with the half-track Sd.Kfz. 251, which could keep up with tanks on most terrain. The French Army also created \"light mechanized\" (*légère mécanisée*) divisions in which some of the infantry units possessed small tracked carriers. Together with the motorization of the other infantry and support units, this gave both armies highly mobile combined-arms formations. The German doctrine was to use them to exploit breakthroughs in *Blitzkrieg* offensives, whereas the French envisaged them being used to shift reserves rapidly in a defensive battle.
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# Mechanized infantry
## History
### World War II {#world_war_ii}
As World War II progressed, most major armies integrated tanks or assault guns with mechanized infantry, as well as other supporting arms, such as artillery and combat engineers, as combined arms units.
Allied armored formations included a mechanized infantry element for combined arms teamwork. For example, US armored divisions had a balance of three battalions each of tanks, armored infantry, and self-propelled artillery. The US armored infantry was fully equipped with M2 and M3 halftracks. In the British and Commonwealth armies, \"Type A armoured brigades,\" intended for independent operations or to form part of armored divisions, had a \"motor infantry\" battalion mounted in Universal Carriers or later in lend-lease halftracks. \"Type B\" brigades lacked a motor infantry component and were subordinated to infantry formations.
The Canadian Army and, subsequently the British Army, used expedients such as the Kangaroo APC, usually for specific operations rather than to create permanent mechanized infantry formations. The first such operation was Operation Totalize in the Battle of Normandy, which failed to achieve its ultimate objectives but showed that mechanized infantry could incur far fewer casualties than dismounted troops in set-piece operations.
The German Army, having introduced mechanized infantry in its *Panzer* divisions, later named them *\[\[Panzergrenadier\]\]* units. In the middle of the war, it created entire mechanized infantry divisions and named *italic=no* divisions.
Because the German economy could not produce adequate numbers of its half-track APC, barely a quarter or a third of the infantry in Panzer or *italic=no* divisions were mechanized, except in a few favored formations. The rest were moved by truck. However, most German reconnaissance units in such formations were also primarily mechanized infantry and could undertake infantry missions when it was needed. The Allies generally used jeeps, armored cars, or light tanks for reconnaissance.
The Red Army began the war while still in the process of reorganizing its armored and mechanized formations, most of which were destroyed during the first months of the German Invasion of the Soviet Union. About a year later, the Soviets recreated division-sized mechanized infantry units, termed mechanized corps, usually with one tank brigade and three mechanized infantry brigades, with motorized supporting arms. They were generally used in the exploitation phase of offensives, as part of the prewar Soviet concept of deep operations.
The Soviet Army also created several cavalry mechanized groups in which tanks, mechanized infantry and horsed cavalry were mixed. They were also used in the exploitation and pursuit phases of offensives. Red Army mechanized infantry were generally carried on tanks or trucks, with only a few dedicated lend-lease half-track APCs.
The New Zealand Army ultimately fielded a division of a roughly similar composition to a Soviet mechanized corps, which fought in the Italian Campaign, but it had little scope for mobile operations until near the end of the war.
The Romanian Army fielded a mixed assortment of vehicles. These amounted to 126 French-designed Renault UE Chenillettes which were licence-built locally, 34 captured and refurbished Soviet armored tractors, 27 German-made armored half-tracks of the Sd.Kfz. 250 and Sd.Kfz. 251 types, over 200 Czechoslovak Tatra, Praga and Skoda trucks (the Tatra trucks were a model which was specifically built for the Romanian Army) as well as 300 German Horch 901 4x4 field cars. Sd.Kfz. 8 and Sd.Kfz. 9 half-tracks were also acquired, as well as nine vehicles of the Sd.Kfz. 10 type and 100 RSO/01 fully tracked tractors. The Romanians also produced five prototypes of an indigenous artillery tractor.
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# Mechanized infantry
## History
### Cold War {#cold_war}
On July 9, 1945, Decree of the State Defence Committee No. GKO-9488ss, \"On the Resupply of Armored and Mechanized Forces of the Red Army\" was issued. It ordered the creation of mechanised divisions from many rifle divisions, included in the Armored and Mechanised Troops. In some cases, cavalry divisions and airborne divisions also became mechanised divisions The Soviet *motorised rifle troops* officially appeared in accordance with the Directive of the Minister of Defense of the USSR No. org. / 3/62540 of February 27, 1957. This directive ordered part of the mechanized divisions and all rifle units and formations reorganized into \'motorised rifle\' in the period 1957 to 1964. Creation of the motorised rifle troops was facilitated by large-scale mechanisation of the whole Soviet Ground Forces.
This became possible due to the increase in the production of armored personnel carriers, self-propelled guns and so on. For example, in the period before the formation and in the initial period of the formation of the *motorized rifle troops*:
- BTR-40 -- in the period from 1950 to 1960s, 8,500 units were produced
- BTR-50 --- 1954 to 1970s -- 6,500 pieces
- BTR-152 --- 1947 to 1962 -- 12,421 pieces
- BRDM-1 --- 1957 to 1966 -- 10,000 units
One or two motorised rifle regiments were also present in each tank division, and many tank regiments included one motorised rifle battalion.
After 1945, the Soviet Armed Forces and NATO further developed the equipment and doctrine for mechanized infantry. With the exception of airborne formations, the Red Army mechanized all its infantry formations. Initially, wheeled APCs, like the BTR-152, were used, some of which lacked overhead protection and were therefore vulnerable to artillery fire. It still gave the Soviet Army greater strategic flexibility because of the large land area and the long borders of the Soviet Union and its allies in the Warsaw Pact. Armored vehicles meant infantry were capable of overcoming water barriers and having means of protection against Weapons of Mass Destruction.
The US Army established the basic configuration of the tracked APC with the M75 and M59 before it adopted the lighter M113, which could be carried by Lockheed C-130 Hercules and other transport aircraft. The vehicle gave infantry the same mobility as tanks but with much less effective armor protection (it still had nuclear, biological, and chemical protection).
In the Vietnam War, the M113 was often fitted with extra armament and used as an *ad hoc* infantry fighting vehicle. Early operations by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam using the vehicle showed that troops were far more effective while they were mounted in the vehicles than when they dismounted. American doctrine subsequently emphasized mounted tactics. The Americans ultimately deployed a mechanized brigade and ten mechanized battalions to Vietnam.
The *motorized rifle troops* of the Soviet Armed Forces were the world\'s first infantry units that adopted a new class of combat vehicles in 1966 -- Infantry fighting vehicles. BMP-1 began entering service in 1966. In the Federal Republic of Germany, an approximate analogue, the Marder, appeared only in 1970. Unlike the APC, which was intended merely to transport the infantry from place to place under armor, the IFV had heavy firepower that could support infantry. The Infantry fighting vehicle concept was subsequently copied by almost all countries of the world.
The introduction of the BMP-1 prompted the development of similar vehicles in Western armies, such as the West German Marder and American M2 Bradley. Many IFVs were also equipped with firing ports from which their infantry could fire their weapons from inside, but they were generally not successful and have been dropped from modern IFVs.
Soviet organization led to different tactics between the \"light\" and the \"heavy\" varieties of mechanized infantry. In the Soviet Army, a first-line \"motor rifle\" division from the 1970s onward usually had two regiments equipped with wheeled BTR-60 APCs and one with the tracked BMP-1 IFV. The \"light\" regiments were intended to make dismounted attacks on the division\'s flanks, while the BMP-equipped \"heavy\" regiment remained mounted and supported the division\'s tank regiment on the main axis of advance. Both types of infantry regiment still were officially titled \"motor rifle\" units.
A line of development in the Soviet Armed Forces from the 1980s was the provision of specialized IFVs for use by the Russian Airborne Troops. The first of them was the BMD-1, which had the same firepower as the BMP-1 but could be carried in or even parachuted from the standard Soviet transport aircraft. That made airborne formations into mechanized infantry at the cost of reducing their \"bayonet\" strength, as the BMD could carry only three or at most four paratroopers in addition to its three-man crew. They were used in that role in the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979.
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# Mechanized infantry
## Present day {#present_day}
At present, almost all infantry units from industrialized nations are provided with some type of motor transport. Infantry units equipped with IFVs rather than lighter vehicles are commonly designated as \"heavy\", indicating more combat power but also more costly long-range transportation requirements. In Operation Desert Shield, during the buildup phase of the First Gulf War, the U.S. Army was concerned about the lack of mobility, protection and firepower offered by existing rapid deployment (i.e., airborne) formations; and also about the slowness of deploying regular armored units. The experience led the U.S. Army to form combat brigades based on the Stryker wheeled IFV.
In the British Army, \"heavy\" units equipped with the Warrior IFV are described as \"armoured infantry\", and units with the Bulldog APC as \"mechanised infantry\". This convention is becoming widespread; for example the French Army has \"*motorisées*\" units equipped with the wheeled VAB and \"*mécanisées*\" units with the tracked AMX-10P.
The transport and other logistic requirements have led many armies to adopt wheeled APCs when their existing stocks of tracked APCs require replacement. An example is the Canadian Army, which has used the LAV III wheeled IFV in fighting in Afghanistan. The Italian, Spanish and Swedish armies are adopting (and exporting) new indigenous-produced tracked IFVs. The Swedish CV90 IFV in particular has been adopted by several armies.
A recent trend seen in the Israel Defense Forces and the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation is the development and introduction of exceptionally well-armored APCs (HAPC), such as the IDF Achzarit, that are converted from obsolete main battle tanks (such as the Soviet T-55). Such vehicles are usually expedients, and lack of space prevents the armament of an IFV being carried in addition to an infantry section or squad. In the Russian Army, such vehicles were introduced for fighting in urban areas, where the risk from short range infantry anti-tank weapons, such as the RPG-7, is highest, after Russian tank and motor infantry units suffered heavy losses fighting Chechen troops in Grozny during the First Chechen War in 1995.
Many APCs and IFVs currently under development are intended for rapid deployment by aircraft. New technologies that promise reduction in weight, such as electric drive, may be incorporated. However, facing a similar threat in post-invasion Iraq to that which prompted the Russians to convert tanks to APCs, the occupying armies have found it necessary to apply extra armor to existing APCs and IFVs, which adds to the overall size and weight. Some of the latest designs (such as the German Puma) are intended to allow a light, basic model vehicle, which is air-transportable, to be fitted in the field with additional protection, thereby ensuring both strategic flexibility and survivability.
### Medium mechanized forces {#medium_mechanized_forces}
In the late Cold War and early 21st century, various countries developed medium infantry forces armed with armored vehicles, which typically consisted of wheeled armored personnel carriers, infantry fighting vehicles, and assault guns. Medium mechanized forces are characterized by having more strategic air and road mobility than heavier, tank-based armored forces while offering better armor protection for the formation than the lighter motorized infantry formation, in which vehicles were considered \"battle taxis\" due to poor protection. The earliest experiment was the short-lived Soviet Light Motor Rifle Division in 1987, which consisted of wheeled BTR platforms for its primary armament. In the 1990s, the United States explored Stryker Brigade Combat Team (SBCT) formation and doctrines, which was a medium mechanized infantry formation with all-wheeled platforms centered around Stryker armored personnel carrier. In the early 21st century, China reformed its ground forces with the concept called Medium Combined Arms Brigade (CA-BDE), armed with Type 08 universal wheeled platform. A similar trend of adopting the medium mechanized forces was observed in European countries, including the Italian, Polish, and French armed forces.
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# Mechanized infantry
## Combined arms operations {#combined_arms_operations}
It is generally accepted that single weapons system types are much less effective without the support of the full combined arms team; the pre-World War II notion of \"tank fleets\" has proven to be as unsound as the World War I idea of unsupported infantry attacks. Though many nations\' armored formations included an organic mechanized infantry component at the start of World War II, the proportion of mechanized infantry in such combined arms formations was increased by most armies as the war progressed.
The lesson was re-learned, first by the Pakistani Army in the 1965 war with India, where the nation fielded two different types of armored divisions: one which was almost exclusively armor (the 1st), while another was more balanced (the 6th). The latter division showed itself to be far more combat-capable than the former.
Having achieved spectacular successes in the offensive with tank-heavy formations during the Six-Day War, the Israel Defense Forces found in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 that a doctrine that relied primarily on tanks and aircraft had proven inadequate. As a makeshift remedy, paratroopers were provided with motorized transport and used as mechanized infantry in coordination with the armor
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# MOS Technology 6510
thumb\|300px\|Internals of a Commodore 64 showing the 6510 CPU (40-pin DIP, lower left). The chip on the right is the 6581 SID. The production week/year (WWYY) of each chip is given below its name.
The **MOS Technology 6510** is an 8-bit microprocessor designed by MOS Technology. It is a modified form of the very successful 6502. The 6510 is widely used in the Commodore 64 (C64) home computer and its variants. It is also used in the Seagate ST-251 MFM hard disk.
The primary change from the 6502 is the addition of an 8-bit general purpose I/O port, although 6 I/O pins are available in the most common version of the 6510. In addition, the address bus can be made tri-state and the CPU can be halted cleanly.
## Use
In the C64, the extra I/O pins of the processor are used to control the computer\'s memory map by bank switching, and for controlling three of the four signal lines of the Datasette tape recorder (the electric motor control, key-press sensing and write data lines; the read data line went to another I/O chip). It is possible, by writing the correct bit pattern to the processor at address \$01, to completely expose almost the full 64 KB of RAM in the C64, leaving no ROM or I/O hardware exposed except for the processor I/O port itself and its data directional register at address \$00.
## Variants
### MOS 8500 `{{anchor|8500}}`{=mediawiki} {#mos_8500}
In 1985, MOS produced the **8500**, an HMOS version of the 6510. Other than the process modification, it is virtually identical to the NMOS version of the 6510. The 8500 was originally designed for use in the modernised C64, the C64C. However, in 1985, limited quantities of 8500s were found on older NMOS-based C64s. It finally made its official debut in 1987, appearing in a motherboard using the new 85xx HMOS chipset.
### MOS 7501/8501 `{{anchor|7501|8501}}`{=mediawiki} {#mos_75018501}
The **7501/8501** variant of the 6510 was introduced in 1984. Compared to the 6510, this variant extends the number of I/O port pins from 6 to 8, but omits the pins for non-maskable interrupt and clock output. It is used in Commodore\'s C16, C116 and Plus/4 home computers, where its I/O port controls not only the Datasette but also the CBM Bus interface. The main difference between 7501 and 8501 CPUs is that they were manufactured with slightly different processes: 7501 was manufactured with HMOS-1 and 8501 with HMOS-2.
### MOS 8502 `{{anchor|8502}}`{=mediawiki} {#mos_8502}
The 2 MHz-capable 8502 variant is used in the Commodore 128. All these CPUs are opcode compatible (including undocumented opcodes).
### MOS 6510T `{{anchor|6510T}}`{=mediawiki} {#mos_6510t}
The Commodore 1551 disk drive (for the Commodore Plus/4) uses the **6510T**, a version of the 6510 with eight I/O lines. The NMI and RDY signals are not available
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# Motorola 6800
The **6800** (\"*sixty-eight hundred*\") is an 8-bit microprocessor designed and first manufactured by Motorola in 1974. The MC6800 microprocessor was part of the M6800 Microcomputer System (later dubbed *68xx*) that also included serial and parallel interface ICs, RAM, ROM and other support chips. A significant design feature was that the M6800 family of ICs required only a single five-volt power supply at a time when most other microprocessors required three voltages. The M6800 Microcomputer System was announced in March 1974 and was in full production by the end of that year. American Microsystems was licensed as the second source.
The 6800 has a 16-bit address bus that can directly access `{{val|64|u=[[Kilobyte|KB]]}}`{=mediawiki} of memory and an 8-bit bi-directional data bus. It has 72 instructions with seven addressing modes for a total of 197 opcodes. The original MC6800 could have a clock frequency of up to `{{val|1|ul=MHz}}`{=mediawiki}. Later versions had a maximum clock frequency of `{{val|2|u=MHz}}`{=mediawiki}.
In addition to the ICs, Motorola also provided a complete assembly language development system. The customer could use the software on a remote timeshare computer or on an in-house minicomputer system. The Motorola EXORciser was a desktop computer built with the M6800 ICs that could be used for prototyping and debugging new designs. An expansive documentation package included datasheets on all ICs, two assembly language programming manuals, and a 700-page application manual that showed how to design a point-of-sale terminal (a computerized cash register) around the 6800.
The 6800 was popular in computer peripherals, test equipment applications and point-of-sale terminals. It has also been used in arcade games and pinball machines. The MC6802, introduced in 1977, included 128 bytes of RAM and an internal clock oscillator on chip. The MC6801 and MC6805 included RAM, ROM and I/O on a single chip and were popular in automotive applications. Some MC6805 models integrated a Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI). The Motorola 6809 was an updated compatible design.
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# Motorola 6800
## History
### Motorola\'s history in semiconductors {#motorolas_history_in_semiconductors}
thumb\|upright \| Motorola began making semiconductors in the 1950s. Galvin Manufacturing Corporation was founded in 1928; the company name was changed to Motorola in 1947. They began commercial production of transistors at a new US\$1.5 million facility in Phoenix, Arizona in 1955.
By the mid-1960s, Motorola had expanded their semiconductor division under the direction of Lester Hogan. Motorola\'s transistors and integrated circuits were used in-house for their communication, military, automotive and consumer products and they were also sold to other companies. In 1968, Robert Noyce left Fairchild Semiconductor to found Intel, and Fairchild responded by hiring Hogan as the new CEO. Eight other Motorola employees moved with him, they became known as \"Hogan\'s heroes\". The resulting chaos was nevertheless short lived, and the company continued to grow through this period.
By 1973 the Semiconductor Products Division (SPD) had sales of \$419 million and was the second largest semiconductor company after Texas Instruments.
### 5065
By the early 1970s it was clear that most of the large companies in the semiconductor space, including Fairchild and the still-new Intel, were planning to introduce microprocessors. Intel began shopping around the initial concept of what would become the Intel 4004, and on their sales trips they visited Victor Comptometer in Chicago looking for potential customers. Victor had introduced the world\'s first electronic calculator that used integrated circuits, the Victor 3900. There, Tom Bennett saw the design.
In 1971, Motorola decided to enter the calculator business. Looking for someone to lead the effort, the hired Bennett away from Victor. Shortly after joining, Olivetti visited Motorola with a outline of a design for a microprocessor they were planning to use in a series of programmable calculators. Motorola agreed to complete the design and produce it on their PMOS lines in Phoenix.
While the design was eventually completed successfully, their fab proved unable to produce the chips. The problems with the line had become obvious with a number of similar failures; it also proved unable to make competitive memory devices and other designs. To save the contract, Motorola licensed the design to their competitor, Mostek, with the requirement that Mostek could only sell outside the calculator market. Mostek then put the design on the market as the Mostek 5065.
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# Motorola 6800
## History
### Development team {#development_team}
Customers continued to approach the company with new ideas, and it became increasingly obvious that these concepts could be implemented using a single flexible microprocessor design. A new effort began in late 1971, but in early 1972, the marketing department returned a report stating they could only sell 18,000 over a five year period. Unconvinced, Bennett hired Link Young to try again. Young returned with a potential order for 200,000 from National Data Corporation, more than enough to start design work.
The team was composed of designer Tom Bennett, engineering director Jeff LaVell, product marketer Link Young and systems designers Mike Wiles, Gene Schriber and Doug Powell. They were all located in Mesa, Arizona, in greater Phoenix. By the time the project was finished, Bennett had 17 chip designers and layout people working on five chips. LaVell had 15 to 20 system engineers and there was another applications engineering group of similar size.
Tom Bennett had a background in industrial controls and had worked for Victor Comptometer in the 1960s designing the first electronic calculator to use MOS ICs, the Victor 3900. In May 1969 Ted Hoff showed Bennett early diagrams of the Intel 4004 to see if it would meet their calculator needs. Bennett joined Motorola in 1971 to design calculator ICs. He was soon assigned as the chief architect of the microprocessor project that produced the 6800. Others have taken credit for designing the 6800. In September 1975 Robert H. Cushman, *EDN* magazine\'s microprocessor editor, interviewed Chuck Peddle about MOS Technology\'s new 6502 microprocessor. Cushman then asked \"Tom Bennett, master architect of the 6800\", to comment about this new competitor. After the 6800 project Bennett worked on automotive applications and Motorola became a major supplier of microprocessors used in automobiles.
Jeff LaVell joined Motorola in 1966 and worked in the computer industry marketing organization. LaVell had previously worked for Collins Radio on their C8500 computer that was built with small scale ECL ICs. In 1971, he led a group that examined the needs of their existing customers such as Hewlett-Packard, National Cash Register, Control Data Corporation (CDC), and Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). They would study the customer\'s products and try to identify functions that could be implemented in larger integrated circuits at a lower cost. The result of the survey was a family of 15 building blocks; each could be implemented in an integrated circuit. Some of these blocks were implemented in the initial M6800 release and more were added over the next few years. To evaluate the 6800 architecture while the chip was being designed, LaVell\'s team built an equivalent circuit using 451 small scale TTL ICs on five 10 by 10 inch (25 by 25 cm) circuit boards. Later they reduced this to 114 ICs on one board by using ROMs and MSI (medium scale integration) logic devices.
John Buchanan was a memory designer at Motorola when Bennett asked him to design a voltage doubler for the 6800. Typical n-channel MOS IC\'s required three power supplies: −5 volts, +5 volts and +12 volts. The M6800 family was to use only one, +5 volts. It was easy to eliminate the −5 volt supply by using an internal voltage inverter, but the enhancement-mode logic also needed a supply of 10 to 12 volts. To address this, the design added an on-chip voltage doubler. Buchanan did the circuit design, analysis and layout for the 6800 microprocessor. He received patents on the voltage doubler and the 6800 chip layout. Rod Orgill assisted Buchanan with analyses and 6800 chip layout. Later Orgill would design the MOS Technology 6501 microprocessor that was socket compatible with the 6800.
Bill Lattin joined Motorola in 1969 and his group provided the computer simulation tools for characterizing the new MOS circuits in the 6800. Lattin and Frank Jenkins had both attended UC Berkeley and studied computer circuit simulators under Donald Pederson, the designer of the SPICE circuit simulator. Motorola\'s simulator, MTIME, was an advanced version of the TIME circuit simulator that Jenkins had developed at Berkeley. The group published a technical paper, \"MOS-device modeling for computer implementation\" in 1973 describing a \"5-V single-supply n-channel technology\" operating at 1 MHz. They could simulate a 50 MOSFET circuit on an IBM 370/165 mainframe computer. In November 1975, Lattin joined Intel to work on their next generation microprocessor.
Bill Mensch joined Motorola in 1971 after graduating from the University of Arizona. He had worked several years as an electronics technician before earning his BSEE degree. The first year at Motorola was a series of three-month rotations through four different areas. Mensch did a flowchart for a modem that would become the 6860. He also worked the application group that was defining the M6800 system. After this training year, he was assigned to the 6820 Peripheral Interface Adapter (PIA) development team. Mensch was a major contributor to the design of this chip and received a patent on the IC layout and was named as a co-inventor of seven other M6800 system patents. Later Mensch would design the MOS Technology 6502 microprocessor.
Mike Wiles was a design engineer in Jeff LaVell\'s group and made numerous customer visits with Tom Bennett during 6800 product definition phase. He is listed as an inventor on eighteen 6800 patents but is best known for a computer program, MIKBUG. This was a monitor for a 6800 computer system that allowed the user to examine the contents of RAM and to save or load programs to tape. This 512 byte program occupied half of an MCM6830 ROM. This ROM was used in the Motorola MEK6800 design evaluation kit and early hobby computer kits. Wiles stayed with Motorola, moved to Austin and helped design the MC6801 microcontroller that was released in 1978.
Chuck Peddle joined the design team in 1973 after the 6800 processor design was done but he contributed to overall system design and to several peripheral chips, particularly the 6820 (PIA) parallel interface. Peddle is listed as an inventor on sixteen Motorola patents, most have six or more co-inventors. Like the other engineers on the team, Peddle visited potential customers and solicited their feedback. Peddle and John Buchanan built one of the earliest 6800 demonstration boards. In August 1974, Chuck Peddle left Motorola and joined a small semiconductor company in Pennsylvania, MOS Technology. There he led the team that designed the 6500 microprocessor family.
| 1,067 |
Motorola 6800
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# Motorola 6800
## History
### MC6800 microprocessor design {#mc6800_microprocessor_design}
thumb\|upright=1.5\| A Motorola MC6800 microprocessor registers and I/O lines
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| --------------------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- ------------------------- |
| ^1^~5~ ^1^~4~ ^1^~3~ ^1^~2~ ^1^~1~ ^1^~0~ ^0^~9~ ^0^~8~ ^0^~7~ ^0^~6~ ^0^~5~ ^0^~4~ ^0^~3~ ^0^~2~ ^0^~1~ ^0^~0~ *(bit position)* |
| **Main registers** |
| A **A** accumulator |
| B **B** accumulator |
| **Index registers** |
| IX **I**ndex register |
| SP **S**tack **P**ointer |
| **Program counter** |
| PC **P**rogram **C**ounter |
| **Status register** |
| 1 1 H I N Z V C Flags |
| --------------------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- ------------------------- |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
: Motorola 6800 registers
The Motorola 6800 and the Intel 8080 were designed at the same time and were similar in function. The 8080 was an extension and enhancement of the Intel 8008, which in turn was an LSI implementation of the TTL-based CPU design used in the Datapoint 2200. The 6800 architecture was a TTL-compatible LSI design modeled after the DEC PDP-11 processor.
The 6800 had an 8-bit bidirectional data bus, a 16-bit address bus that could address 64 KB of memory, and came in a 40-pin DIP package. The 6800 had two 8-bit accumulators, a 16-bit index register, and a 16-bit stack pointer. The direct addressing mode, often known as the zero page in other processors, allowed fast access to the first 256 bytes of memory. I/O devices were addressed as memory so there were no special I/O instructions. When the 6800 was reset, it loaded the program counter from the highest address and started execution at the memory location stored there.
The 6800 had a three-state control that would disable the address bus to allow another device direct memory access. For instance, a floppy disk controller could load data into memory without requiring any support from the CPU. It was even possible to have two 6800 processors access the same memory. However, in practice systems of such complexity usually required the use of external bus transceivers to drive the system bus; in such circuits, the on-processor bus control was disabled entirely in favor of using the similar capabilities of the bus transceiver. In contrast, the 6802 dispensed with this on-chip control entirely in order to free up pins for other functions in the same 40-pin package as the 6800, but this functionality could still be achieved using an external bus transceiver.
MOS ICs typically used dual clock signals (a two-phase clock) in the 1970s. These were generated externally for the 6800, The 6800 had a minimum clock rate of 100 kHz, and initially ran at a maximum rate of 1 MHz. Higher-speed versions of the 6800 were released in 1976.
Other divisions in Motorola developed components for the M6800 family. The Components Products Department designed the MC6870 two-phase clock IC, and the Memory Products group provided a full line of ROMs and RAMs. The CMOS group\'s MC14411 Bit Rate Generator provided a 75 to 9600 baud clock for the MC6850 serial interface. The buffers for address and data buses were standard Motorola products. Motorola could supply every IC, transistor, and diode necessary to build an MC6800-based computer.
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20,301 |
# Motorola 6800
## History
### MOS ICs {#mos_ics}
thumb\|upright=.75 \| A silicon wafer holding many integrated circuit chips
The first-generation metal--oxide--semiconductor (MOS) chips used p-channel field-effect transistors, known as p-channel MOSFETs (p-channel describes the configuration of the transistor). These ICs were used in calculators and in the first microprocessor, the Intel 4004. They were easy to produce but were slow and difficult to interface to the popular TTL digital logic ICs. An n-channel MOS integrated circuit could operate two or three times faster and was compatible with TTL. They were much more difficult to produce because of an increased sensitivity to contamination that required an ultra clean production line and meticulous process control. Motorola did not have an n-channel MOS production capability and had to develop one for the 6800 family.
Motorola\'s n-channel MOS test integrated circuits were complete in late 1971 and these indicated the clock rate would be limited to 1 MHz. These used \"enhancement-mode\" MOS transistors. There was a newer fabrication technology that used \"depletion-mode\" MOS transistors as loads, which would allow smaller and faster circuits (this was also known as depletion-load nMOS). The \"depletion-mode\" processing required extra steps so Motorola decided to stay with \"enhancement-mode\" for the new single-supply-voltage design. The 1 MHz clock rate meant the chip designers would have to come up with several architectural innovations to speed up the microprocessor throughput. These resulting circuits were faster but required more area on the chip.
In the 1970s, semiconductors were fabricated on 3 inch (75 mm) diameter silicon wafers. Each wafer could produce 100 to 200 integrated circuit chips or dies. The technical literature would state the length and width of each chip in \"mils\" (0.001 inch). The current industry practice is to state the chip area. Processing wafers required multiple steps and flaws would appear at various locations on the wafer during each step. The larger the chip the more likely it would encounter a defect. The percentage of working chips, or yield, declined steeply for chips larger than 160 mils (4 mm) on a side.
The target size for the 6800 was 180 mils (4.6 mm) on each side but the final size was 212 mils (5.4 mm) with an area of 29.0 mm^2^. At 180 mils, a 3 in wafer will hold about 190 chips, 212 mils reduces that to 140 chips. At this size the yield may be 20% or 28 chips per wafer. The Motorola 1975 annual report highlights the new MC6800 microprocessor but has several paragraphs on the \"MOS yield problems.\"
The yield problem was solved with a design revision started in 1975 to use depletion mode in the M6800 family devices. The 6800 die size was reduced to 160 mils (4 mm) per side with an area of 16.5 mm^2^. This also allowed faster clock speeds, the MC68A00 would operate at 1.5 MHz and the MC68B00 at 2.0 MHz. The new parts were available in July 1976.
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Motorola 6800
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20,301 |
# Motorola 6800
## History
### M6800 family introduction {#m6800_family_introduction}
thumb\|upright=1.5 \| An early advertisement for the Motorola\'s M6800 family microcomputer system
The March 7, 1974 issue of *Electronics* had a two-page story on the Motorola MC6800 microprocessor along with the MC6820 Peripheral Interface Adapter, the MC6850 Asynchronous Communications Interface Adapter, the MCM6810 128 byte RAM and the MCM6830 1024 byte ROM. This was followed by an eight-page article in the April 18, 1974 issue, written by the Motorola design team. This issue also had an article introducing the Intel 8080.
Both the Intel 8080 and the Motorola MC6800 processors began layout around December 1972. The first working 8080 chips were produced January 1974 and the first public announcement was in February 1974. The 8080 used same three voltage N-channel MOS process as Intel\'s existing memory chips allowing full production to begin that April.
The first working MC6800 chips were produced in February 1974 and engineering samples were given to select customers. Hewlett-Packard in Loveland, Colorado wanted the MC6800 for a new desktop calculator and had a prototype system working by June. The MC6800 used a new single-voltage N-channel MOS process that proved to be very difficult to implement. The M6800 microcomputer system was finally in production by November 1974. Motorola matched Intel\'s price for single microprocessor, \$360. (The IBM System/360 was a well-known computer at this time.) In April 1975 the MEK6800D1 microcomputer design kit was offered for \$300. The kit included all six chips in the M6800 family plus application and programming manuals. The price of a single MC6800 microprocessor was \$175.
Link Young was the product marketer that developed the total system approach for the M6800 family release. In addition to releasing a full set of support chips with the 6800 microprocessor, Motorola offered a software and hardware development system. The software development tools were available on remote time-sharing computers or the source code was available so the customer could use an in-house computer system. The software that would run on a microprocessor system was typically written in assembly language. The development system consisted of a text editor, assembler and a simulator. This allowed the developer to test the software before the target system was complete. The hardware development was a desktop computer built with M6800 family CPU and peripherals known as the EXORcisor. Motorola offered a three- to five-day microprocessor design course for the 6800 hardware and software. This systems-oriented approach became the standard way new microprocessor were introduced.
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Motorola 6800
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20,301 |
# Motorola 6800
## History
### Design team breakup {#design_team_breakup}
The principal design effort on the M6800 family was complete in mid-1974, and many engineers left the group or the company. Several factors led to the break-up of the design group.
Motorola had opened a new MOS semiconductor facility in Austin, Texas. The entire engineering team was scheduled to relocate there in 1975. Many of the employees liked living in the Phoenix suburb of Mesa and were very wary about moving to Austin. The team leaders were unsuccessful with their pleas to senior management on deferring the move.
A recession hit the semiconductor industry in mid-1974 resulting in thousands of layoffs. A November 1974 issue of *Electronics* magazine reports that Motorola had laid off 4,500 employees, Texas Instruments 7,000 and Signetics 4,000. Motorola\'s Semiconductor Products Division would lose thirty million dollars in the next 12 months and there were rumors that the IC group would be sold off. Motorola did not sell the division but they did change the management and organization. By the end of 1974 Intel fired almost a third of its 3,500 employees. The MOS IC business rebounded but job security was not taken for granted in 1974 and 1975.
Chuck Peddle (and other Motorola engineers) had been visiting customers to explain the benefits of microprocessors. Both Intel and Motorola had initially set the price of a single microprocessor at `{{val|p=$|360}}`{=mediawiki}. Many customers were hesitant to adopt this new microprocessor technology with such a high price tag. (The actual price for production quantities was much lower.) In mid-1974 Peddle proposed a simplified microprocessor that could be sold at a much lower price. Motorola\'s \"total product family\" strategy did not focus on the price of MPU but on reducing the customer\'s total design cost. Peddle\'s concept was repeatedly rejected, and eventually management told him to stop talking about it. He wrote a memo stating that these instructions were a clear statement that Motorola was abandoning the concept, meaning they could not claim intellectual property against it.
Peddle continued working for Motorola while looking for investors for his new microprocessor concept. After approaching Mostek and being rejected, in August 1974 Chuck Peddle left Motorola and joined a small semiconductor company in Pennsylvania, MOS Technology. He was followed by seven other Motorola engineers: Harry Bawcom, Ray Hirt, Terry Holdt, Mike James, Will Mathis, Bill Mensch and Rod Orgill. Peddle\'s group at MOS Technology developed two new microprocessors that were compatible with the Motorola peripheral chips like the 6820 PIA. Rod Orgill designed the MCS6501 processor that would plug into a MC6800 socket and Bill Mensch did the MCS6502 that had the clock generation circuit on chip. These microprocessors would not run 6800 programs because they had a different architecture and instruction set. The major goal was a microprocessor that would sell for under `{{val|p=$|25}}`{=mediawiki}. This would be done by removing non-essential features to reduce the chip size. An 8-bit stack pointer was used instead of a 16-bit one. The second accumulator was omitted. The address buffers did not have a three-state mode for Direct Memory Access (DMA) data transfers. The goal was to get the chip size down to 153 mils x 168 mils (`{{val|3.9|u=mm}}`{=mediawiki}`{{resx}}`{=mediawiki}`{{val|4.3|u=mm}}`{=mediawiki}).
Peddle was a very effective spokesman and the MOS Technology microprocessors were extensively covered in the trade press. One of the earliest was a full-page story on the MCS6501 and MCS6502 microprocessors in the July 24, 1975 issue of *Electronics* magazine. Stories also ran in *EE Times* (August 24, 1975), *EDN* (September 20, 1975), *Electronic News* (November 3, 1975) and *Byte* (November 1975). Advertisements for the 6501 appeared in several publications the first week of August 1975. The 6501 would be for sale at the WESCON trade show in San Francisco, September 16--19, 1975, for `{{val|p=$|20}}`{=mediawiki} each. In September 1975 the advertisements included both the 6501 and the 6502 microprocessors. The 6502 would only cost `{{val|p=$|25}}`{=mediawiki}.
Motorola responded to MOS Technology\'s `{{val|p=$|20}}`{=mediawiki} microprocessor by immediately reducing the single-unit price of the 6800 microprocessor from `{{val|p=$|175}}`{=mediawiki} to `{{val|p=$|69}}`{=mediawiki} and then suing MOS Technology in November 1975. Motorola claimed that the eight former Motorola engineers used technical information developed at Motorola in the design of the 6501 and 6502 microprocessors. MOS Technology\'s other business, calculator chips, was declining due to a price war with Texas Instruments so their financial backer, Allen-Bradley, decided to limit the possible losses and sold the assets of MOS Technology back to the founders. The lawsuit was settled in April 1976 with MOS Technology dropping the 6501 chip that would plug into a Motorola 6800 socket and licensing Motorola\'s peripheral chips. Motorola reduced the single-unit price of the 6800 to `{{val|p=$|35}}`{=mediawiki}.
The MOS Technology vs. Motorola lawsuit has developed a David and Goliath narrative over the years. One point was that Motorola did not have patents on the technology. This was technically true when the lawsuit was filed in late 1975 On October 30, 1974, before the 6800 was released, Motorola filed numerous patents applications on the microprocessor family, and over twenty patents were subsequently granted. The first was to Tom Bennett on June 8, 1976, for the 6800 internal address bus. The second was to Bill Mensch on July 6, 1976, for the 6820 chip layout. Many of these patents named several of the departing engineers as co-inventors. These patents covered the 6800 bus and how the peripheral chips interfaced with the microprocessor.
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Motorola 6800
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20,301 |
# Motorola 6800
## History
### Move to Austin {#move_to_austin}
Gary Daniels was designing ICs for electronic wristwatches when Motorola shut down their Timepiece Electronics Unit. Tom Bennett offered him a job in the microprocessor group in November 1974. Bennett did not want to leave the Phoenix area so Gary Daniels managed the microprocessor development in Austin. (Daniels was the microprocessor design manager for the next ten years before he was promoted to a vice president.)
The first task was to redesign the 6800 MPU to improve the manufacturing yield and to operate at a faster clock. This design used depletion-mode technology and was known internally as the MC6800D. The transistor count went from 4000 to 5000 but the die area was reduced from 29.0 mm^2^ to 16.5 mm^2^ (allowing the price of the CPU to be lowered to \$35). The maximum clock rate for selected parts doubled to 2 MHz. The other chips in the M6800 family were also redesigned to use depletion-mode technology. The Peripheral Interface Adapter had a slight change in the electrical characteristics of the I/O pins so the MC6820 became the MC6821. These new IC were completed in July 1976.
A new low-cost clock generator chip, the MC6875, was released in 1977. It replaced the \$35 MC6870 hybrid IC. The MC6875 came in a 16-pin dip package and could use quartz crystal or a resistor capacitor network.
Another project was incorporating 128 bytes of RAM and the clock generator on a single 11,000-transistor chip. The MC6802 microprocessor was released in March 1977. The companion MC6846 chip had 2048 byte ROM, an 8-bit bidirectional port and a programmable timer. This was a two-chip microcomputer. The 6802 has an on-chip oscillator that uses an external 4 MHz quartz crystal to produce the two-phase 1 MHz clock. The internal 128 byte RAM could be disabled by grounding a pin and devices with defective RAM were sold as a MC6808. The 6808 was rarely used as the main microprocessor on general-purpose computers, being more popular in embedded systems (the 1979 ACFA-8 microcomputer proved an exception).
A series of peripheral chip were introduced by 1978. The MC6840 programmable counter had three 16-bit binary counters that could be used for frequency measurement, event counting, or interval measurement. The MC6844 Direct Memory Access Controller could transfer data from an I/O controller to RAM without loading down the MC6800 microprocessor. The MC6845 CRT Controller (CRTC) provided the control logic for a character based computer terminal. The 6845 had support for a light pen, an alternative to a computer mouse.
The MC6845 was a very popular chip: it was even used in the original IBM Monochrome Display Adapter and the original IBM Color Graphics Adapter for the IBM PC and successors, where the 6845 was used with an Intel 8088 CPU. During the time of cold war technology embargoes, a 6845 clone named CM607 was produced in Bulgaria. The later IBM Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA) card contained a custom IBM chip (the EGA CRTC) that replaced the Motorola 6845, adding many enhancements, in a mostly-compatible way. The IBM Video Graphics Array (VGA), which became ubiquitous (to the point that it is still emulated as the baseline functionality of most modern PC video adapter chips) incorporates a compatible near-superset of the EGA CRTC, still mostly-compatible with the MC6845 (but by this point without the light pen support, which the EGA CRTC retained).
The MC6801 was a single-chip microcomputer (that today would also be called a microcontroller) incorporating a 6802 CPU with 128 bytes of RAM, a 2 KB ROM, a 16-bit timer, 31 programmable parallel I/O lines, and a serial port. (The MC6803 was the same except without the ROM and with fewer different bus configurations.) It could also use the I/O lines as data and address buses to connect to standard M6800 peripherals. The 6801 would execute 6800 code, but it had ten additional instructions, and the execution time of key instructions was reduced. The two 8-bit accumulators could act as a single 16-bit accumulator for double precision addition, subtraction and multiplication. It was initially designed for automotive use, with General Motors as the lead customer. The first application was a trip computer for the 1978 Cadillac Seville. This 35,000 transistor chip was too expensive for wide-scale adoption in automobiles, so a reduced function MC6805 single-chip microcomputer was designed.
The MC6801 was one of the first microprocessors with a multiply instruction.
The Hitachi HD6303 (not to be confused with the Hitachi 6309) is a second-source reimplementation of the Motorola MC6803, with a few additional instructions, and a slightly faster implementation of the 8x8 multiply instruction. The Hitachi HD6303 is used in the first PDA, the 1984 Psion Organiser. The Hitachi HD6303 was also used in the 1983 \"Pocket Telex\".
The Motorola MC6803 was also used in the TRS-80 MC-10 and the closely related Matra Alice.
The MC6809 was the most advanced 8-bit microprocessor Motorola produced. It had a new instruction set that was similar to the 6800 but abandoned op-code compatibility for improved performance and high-level language support; the 6809 and 6800 were software compatible in that assemblers could (and generally did) generate code which was equivalent to 6800 opcodes that the 6809 did not directly emulate. In that sense, the 6809 was upward compatible with the 6800. The 6809 had two 16-bit index registers, two 16-bit stack pointers, and many instructions to perform 16-bit operations, including the first 8-bit multiply instruction (generating a 16-bit product) in a microprocessor. Other key points of the 6809 design were full support for both position-independent code (object code that can run wherever it is loaded in memory) and reentrant code (object code that can be re-invoked when interrupted or by calling itself recursively), features previously seen only in much larger machines such as IBM 360 mainframes.
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Motorola 6800
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# Motorola 6800
## Use in personal computers {#use_in_personal_computers}
The MITS Altair 8800, the first successful personal computer, used the Intel 8080 microprocessor and was featured on the January 1975 cover of *Popular Electronics*. The first personal computers using the Motorola 6800 were introduced in late 1975. Sphere Corporation of Bountiful, Utah ran a quarter-page advertisement in the July 1975 issue of *Radio-Electronics* for a `{{nowrap|$650 USD}}`{=mediawiki} computer kit with a 6800 microprocessor, `{{nowrap|4 kilobytes}}`{=mediawiki} of RAM, a video board and a keyboard. This would display 16 lines of 32 characters on a TV or monitor. The Sphere computer kits began shipping in November 1975. Southwest Technical Products Corporation of San Antonio, Texas, officially announced their SWTPC 6800 Computer System in November 1975. Wayne Green visited SWTPC in August 1975 and described the SWTPC computer kit complete with photos of a working system in the October 1975 issue of *73*. The SWTPC 6800 was based on the Motorola MEK6800 design evaluation kit chip set and used the MIKBUG ROM Software. The MITS Altair 680 was on the cover of the November 1975 issue of *Popular Electronics*. The Altair 680 used a 6800 microprocessor and, unlike the SWTPC machine, also had a front panel with toggle switches and LEDs. The initial design had to be revised and first deliveries of the Altair 680B were in April 1976.
Sphere was a small startup company and had difficulties delivering all of the products they announced. They filed for a Chapter 11 bankruptcy in April 1977. The Altair 680B was popular but MITS focused most of the resources on their Altair 8800 computer system and they exited the hobby market in 1978. The Southwest Technical Products computer was the most successful 6800 based personal computer. Other companies, for instance, Smoke Signal Broadcasting (California), Gimix (Chicago), Midwest Scientific (Olathe, Kansas), and Helix Systems (Hazelwood, Missouri), started producing SWTPC 6800 bus compatible boards and complete systems. Technical Systems Consultants of West Lafayette, Indiana, supplied tape based software for the 6800 (and later 6809) based computers and, after disk systems became available, operating systems and disk software as well. The 8080 systems were far more popular than the 6800 ones.
thumb\|upright \|The Tektronix 4051 graphics computing system used a 6800 microprocessor.
The Tektronix 4051 Graphics Computing System was introduced in October 1975. This was a professional desktop computer that had a 6800 microprocessor with up to 32 KB of user RAM, 300 KB magnetic tape storage, BASIC in ROM and a 1024 by 780 graphics display. The Tektronix 4051 sold for `{{val|p=$|7000}}`{=mediawiki} (`{{Inflation|US|7000|1975|r=-2|fmt=eq}}`{=mediawiki})`{{Inflation/fn|US}}`{=mediawiki}, rather higher than the personal computers using the 6800.
The 6800 processor was also used in the APF MP1000 game console. The Matsushita JR series used a Panasonic MN1800A NMOS microprocessor, compatible with the MC6802.
HP introduced the 9815A desktop calculator based on the 6800 in 1975. All HP\'s other machines at the time used their own processor designs. It was fitted with 16k of ROM and 2k of RAM with optional IO expansion and RAM expansion to 4k. A later 9815S included both options as standard.
The architecture and instruction set of the 6800 were easy for beginners to understand and Heathkit developed a microprocessor course and the ET3400 6800 trainer. The course and trainer proved popular with individuals and schools.
Motorola\'s next generation 8-bit microprocessor architecture, the MC6809 (1979), was not binary code compatible with the 6800, but nearly all assembly code would assemble and run on the 6809; 6800 family peripheral chips worked as a matter of course.
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