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# Michael Ventris
## Decipherment
At the beginning of the 20th century, archaeologist Arthur Evans began excavating an ancient site at Knossos, on the island of Crete. In doing so, he uncovered a great many clay tablets inscribed with two unknown scripts, Linear A and Linear B. Evans attempted to decipher both in the following decades, with little success.
In 1936, Evans hosted an exhibition on Cretan archaeology at Burlington House in London, home of the Royal Academy. It was the jubilee anniversary (50 years) of the British School of Archaeology in Athens, owners and managers of the Knossos site. Evans had given them the site with his Villa Ariadne house some years previously. Boys from Stowe School were in attendance at one lecture and tour conducted by the 85-year-old Evans himself. Ventris, aged 14 at the time, was present and remembered Evans walking with a stick, probably the cane named Prodger, which Evans carried all his life to assist him with his short-sightedness and night blindness. Evans held up tablets of the unknown scripts for the audience to see. During the interview period following the lecture, Ventris spoke up to confirm that Linear B was as yet undeciphered, and he determined to decipher it.
In 1940, the 18-year-old Ventris had an article \"Introducing the Minoan Language\" published in the *American Journal of Archaeology*. Ventris\'s initial theory was that Etruscan and Linear B were related and that this might provide a key to decipherment. Although this proved incorrect, it was a link he continued to explore until the early 1950s.
Shortly after Evans died, Alice Kober noted that certain words in Linear B inscriptions had changing word endings -- perhaps declensions in the manner of Latin or Greek. Using this basis, Ventris constructed a series of grids associating the symbols on the tablets with consonants and vowels. While *which* consonants and vowels these were remained mysterious, Ventris learned enough about the structure of the underlying language to begin experimenting.
Shortly before World War II, American archaeologist Carl Blegen discovered a further 600 or so tablets of Linear B in the Mycenaean palace of Pylos on the Greek mainland. Photographs of these tablets by archaeologist Alison Frantz facilitated Ventris\'s later decipherment of the Linear B script.
In 1948, Sir John Myres invited a group of academics to help him transcribe Linear B material. Amongst them were Dr. Kober and Ventris. Although they did not collaborate further, Kober\'s work was essential in providing the foundational understanding from which Ventris built his theories on Linear B.
Comparing the Linear B tablets discovered on the Greek mainland and noting that certain symbol groups appeared only in the Cretan texts, Ventris made the inspired guess that those were place names on the island. This proved to be correct. Armed with the symbols he could decipher from this, Ventris soon unlocked much of the text and determined that the underlying language of Linear B, a syllabic script, was in fact Greek. On 1 July 1952, Ventris announced his preliminary findings on a BBC radio talk, which was heard by John Chadwick, a classicist at the University of Cambridge who had been involved in code breaking at Bletchley Park during the Second World War. The two men began to collaborate on further research into deciphering Linear B. In 1953 further Linear B tablets were discovered at ancient Mycenae and ancient Pylos on the Greek mainland, with one of the tablets (PY Ta 641) showing a pictographic tripod cauldron next to Linear B symbols which were translated by Ventris and Chadwick as \"ti-ri-po-de\", tripod being a Greek word. This led to wider international collaboration with other classical scholars, and between 1953 and 1956 Ventris and Chadwick published joint papers. This overturned Evans\'s theories of Minoan history by establishing that Cretan civilization, at least in the later periods associated with the Linear B tablets, had been part of Mycenean Greece.
## Death and legacy {#death_and_legacy}
Ventris was awarded an OBE in 1955 for \"services to Mycenaean paleography\".
On 6 September 1956, the 34-year-old Ventris, who lived in Hampstead, drove to his in-laws\' home late at night to retrieve his wallet. On the way home, he died instantly in a collision in Hatfield, Hertfordshire, after striking a parked lorry parked in a lay-by on the side of the road. The coroner\'s verdict was accidental death. In 1959 Ventris was posthumously awarded the British Academy\'s Kenyon Medal.
Initially, there was some academic scepticism about the decipherment, continuing into the 1960s. Today, the Mycenaean Greek attribution is universally accepted by academics.
An English Heritage blue plaque commemorates Ventris at his home in North End, Hampstead and a street in Heraklion, the capital of the Greek island of Crete, was named in his honour.
The Ventris crater on the far side of the Moon was named in his honour by the IAU in 1970
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# Maniac Mansion
***Maniac Mansion*** is a 1987 graphic adventure video game developed and published by Lucasfilm Games. It follows teenage protagonist Dave Miller as he attempts to rescue his girlfriend Sandy Pantz from a mad scientist, whose mind has been enslaved by a sentient meteor. The player uses a point-and-click interface to guide Dave and two of his six playable friends through the scientist\'s mansion while solving puzzles and avoiding dangers. Gameplay is non-linear, and the game must be completed in different ways based on the player\'s choice of characters. Initially released for the Commodore 64 and Apple II, *Maniac Mansion* was Lucasfilm Games\' first self-published product.
The game was conceived in 1985 by Ron Gilbert and Gary Winnick, who sought to tell a comedic story based on horror film and B-movie clichés. They mapped out the project as a paper-and-pencil game before coding commenced. While earlier adventure titles had relied on command lines, Gilbert disliked such systems, and he developed *Maniac Mansion*{{\'}}s simpler point-and-click interface as a replacement. To speed up production, he created a game engine called SCUMM, which was used in many later LucasArts titles. After its release, *Maniac Mansion* was ported to several platforms. A port for the Nintendo Entertainment System had to be reworked heavily, in response to Nintendo of America\'s concerns that the game was inappropriate for children.
*Maniac Mansion* was critically acclaimed: reviewers lauded its graphics, cutscenes, animation, and humor. Writer Orson Scott Card praised it as a step toward \"computer games \[becoming\] a valid storytelling art\". It influenced numerous graphic adventure titles, and its point-and-click interface became a standard feature in the genre. The game\'s success solidified Lucasfilm as a serious rival to adventure game studios such as Sierra On-Line. In 1990, *Maniac Mansion* was adapted into a three-season television series of the same name, written by Eugene Levy and starring Joe Flaherty. A sequel to the game, *Day of the Tentacle*, was released in 1993.
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# Maniac Mansion
## Overview
*Maniac Mansion* is a graphic adventure game in which the player uses a point-and-click interface to guide characters through a two-dimensional game world and to solve puzzles. Fifteen action commands, such as \"Walk To\" and \"Unlock\", may be selected by the player from a menu on the screen\'s lower half. The player starts the game by choosing two out of six characters to accompany protagonist Dave Miller: Bernard, Jeff, Michael, Razor, Syd, and Wendy. Each character possesses unique abilities: for example, Syd and Razor can play musical instruments, while Bernard can repair appliances. The game may be completed with any combination of characters; but, since many puzzles are solvable only by certain characters, different paths must be taken based on the group\'s composition. *Maniac Mansion* features cutscenes, a word coined by Ron Gilbert, that interrupt gameplay to advance the story and inform the player about offscreen events.
The game takes place in the mansion of the fictional Edison family: Dr. Fred, a mad scientist; Nurse Edna, his wife; and their son Weird Ed. Living with the Edisons are two large, disembodied tentacles, one purple and the other green. The intro sequence shows that a sentient meteor crashed near the mansion twenty years earlier; it brainwashed the Edisons and directed Dr. Fred to obtain human brains for use in experiments. The game begins as Dave Miller prepares to enter the mansion to rescue his girlfriend, Sandy Pantz, who had been kidnapped by Dr. Fred. With the exception of the green tentacle, the mansion\'s inhabitants are hostile, and will throw the player characters into the dungeon---or, in some situations, kill them---if they see them. When a character dies, the player must continue with the remaining of the three selected characters; the game ends if all characters are killed. *Maniac Mansion* has five possible endings, based on which characters are chosen, which survive, and what the characters accomplish.
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# Maniac Mansion
## Development
### Conception
*Maniac Mansion* was conceived in 1985 when Lucasfilm Games employees Ron Gilbert and Gary Winnick were assigned to create an original game. Gilbert had been hired the previous year as a programmer for the game *Koronis Rift*. He befriended Winnick over their similar tastes in humor, film, and television. Company management provided little oversight in the creation of *Maniac Mansion*, a trend to which Gilbert credited the success of several of his games for Lucasfilm.
Gilbert and Winnick co-wrote and co-designed the project, and also worked separately with Gilbert on programming and Winnick on visuals. As both of them enjoyed B horror films, they decided to make a comedy-horror game set in a haunted house. They drew inspiration from a film whose name Winnick could not recall. He described it as \"a ridiculous teen horror movie\", in which teenagers inside a building were killed one by one without any thought of leaving. This film, combined with clichés from popular horror movies such as *Friday the 13th* and *A Nightmare on Elm Street*, became the basis for the game\'s setting. Early work on the game progressed organically: according to Gilbert, \"very little was written down. Gary and I just talked and laughed a lot, and out it came\". Lucasfilm Games relocated to the Stable House at Skywalker Ranch during *Maniac Mansion*{{\'}}s conception period, and the ranch\'s Main House was used as a model for the mansion. Several rooms from the Main House received exact reproductions in the game, such as a library with a spiral staircase and a media room with a large-screen TV and grand piano.
Story and characters were a primary concern for Gilbert and Winnick. The pair based the game\'s cast on friends, family members, acquaintances, and stereotypes. For example, Winnick\'s girlfriend Ray was the inspiration for Razor, while Dave and Wendy were based, respectively, on Gilbert and a fellow Lucasfilm employee named Wendy. According to Winnick, the Edison family was shaped after characters from EC Comics and Warren Publishing magazines. The sentient meteor that brainwashes Dr. Fred was inspired by a segment from the 1982 anthology film *Creepshow*. The man-eating plant is similar to that of *Little Shop of Horrors*. The developers sought to strike a balance between tension and humor with the game\'s story.
Initially, Gilbert and Winnick struggled to choose a gameplay genre for *Maniac Mansion*. While visiting relatives over Christmas, Gilbert saw his cousin play *King\'s Quest: Quest for the Crown*, an adventure game by Sierra On-Line. Although he was a fan of text adventures, this was Gilbert\'s first experience with a graphic adventure, and he used the holiday to play the game and familiarize himself with the format. As a result, he decided to develop his and Winnick\'s ideas into a graphic adventure game.
*Maniac Mansion*{{\'}}s story and structure were designed before coding commenced. The project\'s earliest incarnation was a paper-and-pencil board game, in which the mansion\'s floor plan was used as a game board, and cards represented events and characters. Lines connected the rooms to illustrate pathways by which characters could travel. Strips of cellulose acetate were used to map out the game\'s puzzles by tracking which items worked together when used by certain characters. Impressed by the map\'s complexity, Winnick included it in the final game as a poster hung on a wall. Because each character contributes different skills and resources, the pair spent months working on the event combinations that could occur. This extended the game\'s production time beyond that of previous Lucasfilm Games projects, which almost led to Gilbert\'s firing. The game\'s dialogue, written by David Fox, was not created until after programming had begun.
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# Maniac Mansion
## Development
### Production and SCUMM {#production_and_scumm}
Gilbert started programming *Maniac Mansion* in 6502 assembly language, but he quickly decided that the project was too large and complex for this method. He decided that a new game engine would have to be created. Its coding language was initially planned to be Lisp-inspired, but Gilbert opted for one similar to C and Yacc. Lucasfilm employee Chip Morningstar contributed the base code for the engine, which Gilbert then built on. Gilbert hoped to create a \"system that could be used on many adventure games, cutting down the time it took to make them\". *Maniac Mansion*{{\'}}s first six-to-nine months of production were dedicated largely to engine development. The game was developed around the Commodore 64 home computer, an 8-bit system with only 64 KB of memory. The team wanted to include scrolling screens, but as it was normally impossible to scroll bitmap graphics on the Commodore 64, they had to use lower-detail tile graphics. Winnick gave each character a large head made of three stacked sprites to make them recognizable.
Although Gilbert wrote much of the foundational code for *Maniac Mansion*, the majority of the game\'s events were programmed by Lucasfilm employee David Fox. Fox was between projects and planned to work on the game only for a month, but he remained with the team for six months. With Gilbert, he wrote the characters\' dialog and choreographed the action. Winnick\'s concept art inspired him to add new elements to the game: for example, Fox allowed the player to place a hamster inside the kitchen\'s microwave.
The team wanted to avoid punishing the player for applying everyday logic in *Maniac Mansion*. Fox noted that one Sierra game features a scene in which the player, without prior warning, may encounter a game over screen simply by picking up a shard of glass. He characterized such game design as \"sadistic\", and he commented: \"I know that in the real world I can successfully pick up a broken piece of mirror without dying\". Because of the project\'s nonlinear puzzle design, the team struggled to prevent no-win scenarios, in which the player unexpectedly became unable to complete the game. As a result of this problem, Gilbert later explained: \"We were constantly fighting against the desire just to rip out all the endings and just go with three characters, or even sometimes just one character\". Lucasfilm Games had only one playtester, and many dead-ends went undetected as a result. Further playtesting was provided by Gilbert\'s uncle, to whom Gilbert mailed a floppy disk of the game\'s latest version each week.
The *Maniac Mansion* team wanted to retain the structure of a text-based adventure game, but without the standard command-line interface. Gilbert and Winnick were frustrated by the genre\'s text parsers and frequent game over screens. While in college, Gilbert had enjoyed *Colossal Cave Adventure* and the games of Infocom, but he disliked their lack of visuals. He found the inclusion of graphics in Sierra On-Line games, such as *King\'s Quest*, to be a step in the right direction, but these games still require the player to type, and to guess which commands must be input. In response, Gilbert programmed a point-and-click graphical user interface that displays every possible command. Fox had made a similar attempt to streamline Lucasfilm\'s earlier *Labyrinth: The Computer Game* and he conceived the entirety of *Maniac Mansion*{{\'}}s interface, according to Gilbert. Forty input commands were planned at first, but the number was gradually reduced to 12. Gilbert finished the *Maniac Mansion* engine---which he later named \"Script Creation Utility for Maniac Mansion\" (SCUMM)---after roughly one year of work. Although the game was designed for the Commodore 64, the SCUMM engine allowed it to be ported easily to other platforms.
After 18 to 24 months of development, *Maniac Mansion* debuted at the 1987 Consumer Electronics Show in Chicago. The game was released for the Commodore 64 and Apple II in October 1987. While previous Lucasfilm Games products had been published by outside companies, *Maniac Mansion* was self-published. This became a trend at Lucasfilm. The company hired Ken Macklin, an acquaintance of Winnick\'s, to design the game\'s packaging artwork. Gilbert and Winnick collaborated with the marketing department to design the back cover. The two also created an insert that includes hints, a backstory, and jokes. An MS-DOS port was released in early 1988, developed in part by Lucasfilm employees Aric Wilmunder and Brad Taylor. Ports for the Amiga, Atari ST and Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) followed, with the Amiga and Atari ST ports in 1989 and the NES port in 1990. The 16-bit versions of Maniac Mansion featured a copy protection system requiring the user to enter graphical symbols out of a code book included with the game. This was not present in the Commodore 64 and Apple versions due to lack of disk space, so those instead used an on-disk copy protection.
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# Maniac Mansion
## Nintendo Entertainment System version {#nintendo_entertainment_system_version}
There were two separate versions of the game developed for the NES. The first port was handled and published by Jaleco only in Japan. Released on June 23, 1988, it featured characters redrawn in a cute art style and generally shrunken rooms. No scrolling is present, leading to rooms larger than a single screen to be displayed via flip-screens. Many of the background details are missing, and instead of a save feature a password, over 100 characters long, is required to save progress. In September 1990 Jaleco released an American version of *Maniac Mansion* as the first NES title developed by Lucasfilm Games in cooperation with Realtime Associates. Generally, this port is regarded as being far closer to the original game than the Japanese effort.
Company management was occupied with other projects, and so the port received little attention until employee Douglas Crockford volunteered to direct it. The team used a modified version of the SCUMM engine called \"NES SCUMM\" for the port. According to Crockford, \"\[one\] of the main differences between the NES and PCs is that the NES can do certain things much faster\". The graphics had to be entirely redrawn to match the NES\'s display resolution. Tim Schafer, who later designed *Maniac Mansion*{{\'}}s sequel *Day of the Tentacle*, received his first professional credit as a playtester for the NES version of *Maniac Mansion*.
During *Maniac Mansion*{{\'}}s development for the Commodore 64, Lucasfilm had censored profanity in the script: for instance, the early line of dialogue \"Don\'t be a shit head\" became \"Don\'t be a tuna head\". Additional content was removed from the NES version to make it suitable for a younger audience, and to conform with Nintendo\'s policies. Jaleco USA president Howie Rubin warned Crockford about content to which Nintendo might object, such as the word \"kill\". After reading the NES Game Standards Policy for himself, Crockford suspected that further elements of *Maniac Mansion* could be problematic, and he sent a list of questionable content to Jaleco. When the company replied that the content was reasonable, Lucasfilm Games submitted *Maniac Mansion* for approval.
One month later, Nintendo of America was concerned that its content was objectionable, believing it was inappropriate for children, and contacted Lucasfilm Games to request they tone down the inappropriate content, particularly profanity and nudity. Crockford censored this content but attempted to leave the game\'s essence intact. For example, Nintendo wanted graffiti in one room, which provided an important hint to players, removed from the game. Unable to comply without simultaneously removing the hint, the team simply shortened it. Sexually suggestive and otherwise \"graphic\" dialogue was edited, including a remark from Dr. Fred about \"pretty brains \[being\] sucked out\". The nudity described by Nintendo encompassed a swimsuit calendar, a classical sculpture and a poster of a mummy in a Playmate pose. After a brief fight to keep the sculpture, the team ultimately removed all three. The phrase \"NES SCUMM System\" in the credits sequence was censored.
Lucasfilm Games re-submitted the edited version of *Maniac Mansion* to Nintendo, which then manufactured 250,000 cartridges. Each cartridge was fitted with a battery-powered back-up to save data. Nintendo announced the port through its official magazine in early 1990, and it provided further coverage later that year. The ability to microwave a hamster remained in the game, which Crockford cited as an example of the censors\' contradictory criteria. Nintendo later noticed it, and after the first batch of cartridges was sold, Jaleco was forced to remove the content from future shipments.
Late in development, Jaleco commissioned Realtime Associates to provide background music, which no previous version of *Maniac Mansion* had featured. Realtime Associates\' founder and president David Warhol noted that \"video games at that time had to have \'wall to wall\' music\". He brought in George \"The Fat Man\" Sanger and his band, along with David Hayes, to compose the score. Their goal was to create songs that suited each character, such as a punk rock theme for Razor, an electronic rock theme for Bernard and a version of Thin Lizzy\'s \"The Boys Are Back in Town\" for Dave Miller. Warhol translated their work into NES chiptune music.
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# Maniac Mansion
## Reception
According to Stuart Hunt of *Retro Gamer*, *Maniac Mansion* received highly positive reviews from critics. Nevertheless, Ron Gilbert noted that \"it wasn\'t a huge hit\" commercially. In 2011, Hunt wrote that \"as so often tends to be the way with cult classics, the popularity it saw was slow in coming\".
Keith Farrell of *Compute!\'s Gazette* was struck by *Maniac Mansion*{{\'}}s similarity to film, particularly in its use of cutscenes to impart \"information or urgency\". He lauded the game\'s graphics, animation and high level of detail. *Commodore User*{{\'}}s Bill Scolding and three reviewers from *Zzap!64* compared the game to *The Rocky Horror Picture Show*. Further comparisons were drawn to *Psycho*, *Friday the 13th*, *The Texas Chain Saw Massacre*, *The Addams Family* and *Scooby-Doo*. Russ Ceccola of *Commodore Magazine* found the cutscenes to be creative and well made, and he commented that the \"characters are distinctively Lucasfilm\'s, bringing facial expressions and personality to each individual character\". In *Compute!*, Orson Scott Card praised the game\'s humor, cinematic storytelling and lack of violence. He called it \"compellingly good\" and evidence of Lucasfilm\'s push \"to make computer games a valid storytelling art\". In describing *Maniac Mansion* as Lucasfilms\' \"breakthrough game\", Matthew Castillo of *Asimov\'s Science Fiction* magazine praised the \"B-movie\" horror elements, the use of cutscenes and the visuals.
German magazine *Happy-Computer* commended the point-and-click interface and likened it to that of *Uninvited* by ICOM Simulations. The publication highlighted *Maniac Mansion*{{\'}}s graphics, originality, and overall enjoyability: one of the writers called it the best adventure title yet released. *Happy-Computer* later reported that *Maniac Mansion* was the highest-selling video game in West Germany for three consecutive months. The game\'s humor received praise from *Zzap!64*, whose reviewers called the point-and-click controls \"tremendous\" and the total package \"innovative and polished\". Shay Addams of *Questbusters: The Adventurer\'s Newsletter* preferred *Maniac Mansion*{{\'}}s interface to that of *Labyrinth: The Computer Game*. He considered the game to be Lucasfilm\'s best, and he recommended it to Commodore 64 and Apple II users unable to run titles with better visuals, such as those from Sierra On-Line. A writer for *ACE* enjoyed the game\'s animation and depth, but he noted that fans of text-based adventures would dislike the game\'s simplicity.
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# Maniac Mansion
## Reception
### Ports
*PC Computing* in 1988 wrote that *Maniac Mansion* for the PC had a clever story but \"grade B animation\", concluding that \"the result falls short of the magic we expect from George Lucas\". Reviewing the MS-DOS and Atari ST ports, a critic from *The Games Machine* called *Maniac Mansion* \"an enjoyable romp\" that was structurally superior to later LucasArts adventure games. The writer noticed poor pathfinding and disliked the limited audio. Reviewers for *The Deseret News* lauded the audiovisuals and considered the product \"wonderful fun\". *Computer Gaming World*{{\'}}s Charles Ardai praised the game for attaining \"the necessary and precarious balance between laughs and suspense that so many comic horror films and novels lack\". Although he faulted the control system\'s limited options, he hailed it as \"one of the most comfortable ever devised\". Writing for *VideoGames & Computer Entertainment*, Bill Kunkel and Joyce Worley stated that the game\'s plot and premise were typical of the horror genre, but they praised the interface and execution.
Reviewing *Maniac Mansion*{{\'}}s Amiga version four years after its release, Simon Byron of *The One Amiga* praised the game for retaining \"charm and humour\", but suggested that its art direction had become \"tacky\" compared to more recent titles. Stephen Bradly of *Amiga Format* found the game derivative, but encountered \"loads of visual humour\" in it, adding: \"Strangely, it\'s quite compelling after a while\". Michael Labiner of Germany\'s *Amiga Joker* considered *Maniac Mansion* to be one of the best adventure games for the system. He noted minor graphical flaws, such as a limited color palette, but he argued that the gameplay made up for such shortcomings. Writing for *Datormagazin* in Sweden, Ingela Palmér commented that the Amiga and Commodore 64 versions of *Maniac Mansion* were nearly identical. She criticized the graphics and gameplay of both releases but felt the game to be highly enjoyable regardless.
Reviewing the NES release, *Entertainment Weekly* named it the #20 greatest game released that season: \"The graphics are merely okay and the music is Nintendo at its tinniest, but Maniac Mansion\'s plot is enough to overcome these faults. In this command-driven game --- adapted from the computer hit --- three buddies venture into a sinister haunted mansion and wind up juggling a bunch of wacky story lines\". British magazine *Mean Machines* commended the game\'s presentation, playability, and replay value. The publication also noted undetailed graphics and \"ear-bashing tunes\". The magazine\'s Julian Rignall compared *Maniac Mansion* to the title *Shadowgate*, but he preferred the former\'s controls and lack of \"death-without-warning situations\". Writers for Germany\'s *Video Games* referred to the NES version as a \"classic\". Co-reviewer Heinrich Lenhardt stated that *Maniac Mansion* was unlike any other NES adventure game, and that it was no less enjoyable than its home computer releases. Co-reviewer Winnie Forster found it to be \"one of the most original representatives of the \[adventure game\] genre\". In retrospective features, *Edge* magazine called the NES version \"somewhat neutered\" and *GamesTM* referred to it as \"infamous\" and \"heavily censored\".
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# Maniac Mansion
## TV adaptation and game sequel {#tv_adaptation_and_game_sequel}
Lucasfilm conceived the idea for a television adaptation of *Maniac Mansion*, the rights to which were purchased by The Family Channel in 1990. The two companies collaborated with Atlantis Films to produce a sitcom named after the game, which debuted in September of that year. It aired on YTV in Canada and The Family Channel in the United States. Based in part on the video game, the series focuses on the Edison family\'s life and stars Joe Flaherty as Dr. Fred. Its writing staff was led by Eugene Levy. Gilbert later said that the premise of the series changed during production until it differed heavily from the game\'s original plot. Upon its debut, the adaptation received positive reviews from *Variety*, *Entertainment Weekly* and the *Los Angeles Times*. *Time* named it one of the year\'s best new series. Ken Tucker of *Entertainment Weekly* questioned the decision to air the series on The Family Channel, given Flaherty\'s subversive humor. Discussing the series in retrospect, Richard Cobbett of *PC Gamer* criticized its generic storylines and lack of relevance to the game. The series lasted for three seasons; sixty-six episodes were filmed.
In the early 1990s, LucasArts tasked Dave Grossman and Tim Schafer, both of whom had worked on the *Monkey Island* series, with designing a sequel to *Maniac Mansion*. Gilbert and Winnick initially assisted with the project\'s writing. The team included voice acting and more detailed graphics, which Gilbert had originally envisioned for *Maniac Mansion*. The first game\'s nonlinear design was discarded, and the team implemented a Chuck Jones-inspired visual style, alongside numerous puzzles based on time travel. Bernard and the Edison family were retained. The sequel *Day of the Tentacle* was released in 1993, and came with a fully playable copy of *Maniac Mansion* hidden as an Easter egg within the game.
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# Maniac Mansion
## Impact and legacy {#impact_and_legacy}
In 2010, the staff of *GamesTM* dubbed *Maniac Mansion* a \"seminal\" title that overhauled the gameplay of the graphic adventure genre. Removing the need to guess syntax allowed players to concentrate on the story and puzzles, which created a smoother and more enjoyable experience, according to the magazine. Eurogamer\'s Kristan Reed agreed: he believed that the design was \"infinitely more elegant and intuitive\" than its predecessors and that it freed players from \"guessing-game frustration\". Designer Dave Grossman, who worked on Lucasfilm Games\' later *Day of the Tentacle* and *The Secret of Monkey Island*, felt that *Maniac Mansion* had revolutionized the adventure game genre. *Maniac Mansion*{{\'}}s implementation of the concept was widely imitated in other adventure titles. Writing in the game studies journal *Kinephanos*, Jonathan Lessard argued that *Maniac Mansion* led a \"Casual Revolution\" in the late 1980s, which opened the adventure genre to a wider audience. Similarly, Christopher Buecheler of GameSpy called the game a contributor to its genre\'s subsequent critical adoration and commercial success.
Reed highlighted the \"wonderfully ambitious\" design of *Maniac Mansion*, in reference to its writing, interface, and cast of characters. Game designer Sheri Graner Ray believed the game to challenge \"damsel in distress\" stereotypes through its inclusion of female protagonists. Conversely, writer Mark Dery argued that the goal of rescuing a kidnapped cheerleader reinforced negative gender roles. The Lucasfilm team built on their experiences from *Maniac Mansion* and became increasingly ambitious in subsequent titles. Gilbert admitted to making mistakes---such as the inclusion of no-win situations---in *Maniac Mansion*, and he applied these lessons to future projects. For example, the game relies on timers rather than events to trigger cutscenes, which occasionally results in awkward transitions: Gilbert worked to avoid this flaw with the *Monkey Island* series. Because of *Maniac Mansion*{{\'}}s imperfections, Gilbert considers it his favorite among the games he made.
According to writers Mike and Sandie Morrison, Lucasfilm Games became \"serious competition\" in the adventure genre after the release of *Maniac Mansion*. The game\'s success solidified Lucasfilm as one of the leading producers of adventure games: authors Rusel DeMaria and Johnny Wilson described it as a \"landmark title\" for the company. In their view, *Maniac Mansion*---along with *Space Quest: The Sarien Encounter* and *Leisure Suit Larry in the Land of the Lounge Lizards*---inaugurated a \"new era of humor-based adventure games\". This belief was shared by Reed, who wrote that *Maniac Mansion* \"set in motion a captivating chapter in the history of gaming\" that encompassed wit, invention, and style. The SCUMM engine was reused by Lucasfilm in eleven later titles; improvements were made to its code with each game. Over time, rival adventure game developers adopted this paradigm in their own software. *GamesTM* attributed the change to a desire to streamline production and create enjoyable games. Following his 1992 departure from LucasArts---a conglomeration of Lucasfilm Games, ILM and Skywalker Sound formed in 1990---Gilbert used SCUMM to create adventure games and *Backyard Sports* titles for Humongous Entertainment.
In 2011, Richard Cobbett summarized *Maniac Mansion* as \"one of the most intricate and important adventure games ever made\". *Retro Gamer* ranked it as one of the ten best Commodore 64 games in 2006, and IGN later named it one of the ten best LucasArts adventure games. Seven years after the NES version\'s debut, *Nintendo Power* named it the 61st best game ever. The publication dubbed it the 16th best NES title in 2008. The game\'s uniqueness and clever writing were praised by *Nintendo Power*: in 2010, the magazine\'s Chris Hoffman stated that the game is \"unlike anything else out there --- a point-and-click adventure with an awesome sense of humor and multiple solutions to almost every puzzle\". In its retrospective coverage, *Nintendo Power* several times noted the ability to microwave a hamster, which the staff considered to be an iconic scene. In March 2012, *Retro Gamer* listed the hamster incident as one of the \"100 Classic Gaming Moments\".
*Maniac Mansion* enthusiasts have drawn fan art of its characters, participated in tentacle-themed cosplay and produced a trailer for a fictitious film adaptation of the game. German fan Sascha Borisow created a fan game remake, titled *Maniac Mansion Deluxe*, with enhanced audio and visuals. He used the Adventure Game Studio engine to develop the project, which he distributed free of charge on the Internet. By the end of 2004, the remake had over 200,000 downloads. A remake with three-dimensional graphics called *Meteor Mess* was created by the German developer Vampyr Games, and, as of 2011, another group in Germany produced one with art direction similar to that of *Day of the Tentacle*. Fans have created an episodic series of games based on *Maniac Mansion*. Gilbert has said that he would like to see an official remake, similar in its graphics and gameplay to *The Secret of Monkey Island: Special Edition* and *Monkey Island 2 Special Edition: LeChuck\'s Revenge*. He also expressed doubts about its potential quality, in light of George Lucas\'s enhanced remakes of the original *Star Wars* trilogy. In December 2017, Disney, which gained rights to the LucasArts games following its acquisition of Lucasfilm, published *Maniac Mansion* running atop the ScummVM virtual machine to various digital storefronts. Physical re-releases of the NES and PC versions are scheduled for release by Limited Run Games. A musical that parodied the main arc of the video game, *Mansión Maniática, Pablo Flores Torres* was released in Argentina in 2023
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# May 13
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# Mind map
`{{InfoMaps}}`{=mediawiki} A **mind map** is a diagram used to visually organize information into a hierarchy, showing relationships among pieces of the whole. It is often based on a single concept, drawn as an image in the center of a blank page, to which associated representations of ideas such as images, words and parts of words are added. Major ideas are connected directly to the central concept, and other ideas branch out from those major ideas.
Mind maps can also be drawn by hand, either as \"notes\" during a lecture, meeting or planning session, for example, or as higher quality pictures when more time is available. Mind maps are considered to be a type of spider diagram.
## Origin
Although the term \"mind map\" was first popularized by British popular psychology author and television personality Tony Buzan, the use of diagrams that visually \"map\" information using branching and radial maps traces back centuries. These pictorial methods record knowledge and model systems, and have a long history in learning, brainstorming, memory, visual thinking, and problem solving by educators, engineers, psychologists, and others. Some of the earliest examples of such graphical records were developed by Porphyry of Tyros, a noted thinker of the 3rd century, as he graphically visualized the concept categories of Aristotle. Philosopher Ramon Llull (1235--1315) also used such techniques.
Buzan\'s specific approach, and the introduction of the term \"mind map\", started with a 1974 BBC TV series he hosted, called *Use Your Head*. In this show, and companion book series, Buzan promoted his conception of radial tree, diagramming key words in a colorful, radiant, tree-like structure.
## Differences from other visualizations {#differences_from_other_visualizations}
- *Concept maps*: Mind maps differ from concept maps in that mind maps are based on a radial hierarchy (tree structure) denoting relationships with a central concept, whereas concept maps can be more free-form, based on connections between concepts in more diverse patterns. Also, concept maps typically have text labels on the links between nodes. However, either can be part of a larger personal knowledge base system.
- *Modeling graphs* or *graphical modeling languages*: There is no rigorous right or wrong with mind maps, which rely on the arbitrariness of mnemonic associations to aid people\'s information organization and memory. In contrast, a modeling graph such as a UML diagram structures elements using a precise standardized iconography to aid the design of systems.
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# Mind map
## Research
### Effectiveness
Cunningham (2005) conducted a user study in which 80% of the students thought \"mindmapping helped them understand concepts and ideas in science\". Other studies also report some subjective positive effects of the use of mind maps. Positive opinions on their effectiveness, however, were much more prominent among students of art and design than in students of computer and information technology, with 62.5% vs 34% (respectively) agreeing that they were able to understand concepts better with mind mapping software. Farrand, Hussain, and Hennessy (2002) found that spider diagrams (similar to concept maps) had limited, but significant, impact on memory recall in undergraduate students (a 10% increase over baseline for a 600-word text only) as compared to preferred study methods (a 6% increase over baseline). This improvement was only robust after a week for those in the diagram group and there was a significant decrease in motivation compared to the subjects\' preferred methods of note taking. A meta study about concept mapping concluded that concept mapping is more effective than \"reading text passages, attending lectures, and participating in class discussions\". The same study also concluded that concept mapping is slightly more effective \"than other constructive activities such as writing summaries and outlines\". However, results were inconsistent, with the authors noting \"significant heterogeneity was found in most subsets\". In addition, they concluded that low-ability students may benefit more from mind mapping than high-ability students.
### Features
Joeran Beel and Stefan Langer conducted a comprehensive analysis of the content of mind maps. They analysed 19,379 mind maps from 11,179 users of the mind mapping applications SciPlore MindMapping (now Docear) and MindMeister. Results include that average users create only a few mind maps (mean=2.7), average mind maps are rather small (31 nodes) with each node containing about three words (median). However, there were exceptions. One user created more than 200 mind maps, the largest mind map consisted of more than 50,000 nodes and the largest node contained \~7,500 words. The study also showed that between different mind mapping applications (Docear vs MindMeister) significant differences exist related to how users create mind maps.
### Automatic creation {#automatic_creation}
There have been some attempts to create mind maps automatically. Brucks & Schommer created mind maps automatically from full-text streams. Rothenberger et al. extracted the main story of a text and presented it as mind map. There is also a patent application about automatically creating sub-topics in mind maps.
## Tools
Mind-mapping software can be used to organize large amounts of information, combining spatial organization, dynamic hierarchical structuring and node folding. Software packages can extend the concept of mind-mapping by allowing individuals to map more than thoughts and ideas with information on their computers and the Internet, like spreadsheets, documents, Internet sites, images and videos. It has been suggested that mind-mapping can improve learning/study efficiency up to 15% over conventional note-taking.
## Gallery
The following dozen examples of mind maps show the range of styles that a mind map may take, from hand-drawn to computer-generated and from mostly text to highly illustrated. Despite their stylistic differences, all of the examples share a tree structure that hierarchically connects sub-topics to a main topic.
<File:100> PM Team.png <File:A> Mind Map on ICT and Pedagogy.jpg <File:Acid-base> Disorders.png <File:Aspirin> and other Salicylates(2).png <File:Branches> of Brachial plexus.jpeg <File:Cranial> nerves.PNG <File:Doing-things-differently-mind-map-paul-foreman.png> <File:Economics> Concepts - student flashcard.png <File:LighthouseMap.pdf> <File:MindMapGuidlines.svg> <File:Spray> diagram Student learning characteristics.png <File:Tennis-mindmap
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# Microgyrus
In neuroanatomy, a **microgyrus** is an area of the cerebral cortex that includes only four cortical layers instead of six.
Microgyria are believed by some to be part of the genetic lack of prenatal development which is a cause of, or one of the causes of, dyslexia.
Albert Galaburda of Harvard Medical School noticed that language centers in dyslexic brains showed microscopic flaws known as ectopias and microgyria (Galaburda *et al.*, 2006, *Nature Neuroscience* **9**(10): 1213--1217). Both affect the normal six-layer structure of the cortex. These flaws affect connectivity and functionality of the cortex in critical areas related to sound and visual processing. These and similar structural abnormalities may be the basis of the inevitable and hard to overcome difficulty in reading
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# Mercury (programming language)
**Mercury** is a functional logic programming language made for real-world uses. The first version was developed at the University of Melbourne, Computer Science department, by Fergus Henderson, Thomas Conway, and Zoltan Somogyi, under Somogyi\'s supervision, and released on April 8, 1995.
Mercury is a purely declarative logic programming language. It is related to both Prolog and Haskell. It features a strong, static, polymorphic type system, and a strong mode and determinism system.
The official implementation, the Melbourne Mercury Compiler, is available for most Unix and Unix-like platforms, including Linux, macOS, and for Windows.
## Overview
Mercury is based on the logic programming language Prolog. It has the same syntax and the same basic concepts such as the selective linear definite clause resolution (SLD) algorithm. It can be viewed as a pure subset of Prolog with strong types and modes. As such, it is often compared to its predecessor in features and run-time efficiency.
The language is designed using software engineering principles. Unlike the original implementations of Prolog, it has a separate compilation phase, rather than being directly interpreted. This allows a much wider range of errors to be detected before running a program. It features a strict static type and mode system and a module system.
By using information obtained at compile time (such as type and mode), programs written in Mercury typically perform significantly faster than equivalent programs written in Prolog. Its authors claim that Mercury is the fastest logic language in the world, by a wide margin.
Mercury is a purely declarative language, unlike Prolog, since it lacks *extra-logical* Prolog statements such as `!` (cut) and imperative input/output (I/O). This enables advanced static program analysis and program optimization, including compile-time garbage collection, but it can make certain programming constructs (such as a switch over a number of options, with a default`{{Dubious|Examples_of_difficulties_introduced_by_declarativeness.3F|date=February 2009}}`{=mediawiki}) harder to express. While Mercury does allow impure functionality, it serves mainly as a way to call foreign language code. All impure code must be explicitly marked. Operations which would typically be impure (such as input/output) are expressed using pure constructs in Mercury using linear types, by threading a dummy *world* value through all relevant code.
Notable programs written in Mercury include the Mercury compiler and the Prince XML formatter. The Software company ODASE has also been using Mercury to develop its Ontology-Centric software development platform, ODASE.
## Back-ends {#back_ends}
Mercury has several back-ends, which enable compiling Mercury code into several languages, including:
### Production level {#production_level}
- Low-level C for GNU Compiler Collection (GCC), the original Mercury back-end
- High-level C
- Java
- C#
### Past
- Assembly language via the GCC back-end
- Aditi, a deductive database system also developed at the University of Melbourne. Mercury-0.12.2 is the last version to support Aditi.
- Common Intermediate Language (CIL) for the .NET Framework
- Erlang
Mercury also features a foreign language interface, allowing code in other languages (depending on the chosen back-end) to be linked with Mercury code. The following foreign languages are possible:
Back-end Foreign language(s)
----------------- ------------------------------------------
C (both levels) C
Java Java
Erlang Erlang
IL Common Intermediate Language (CIL) or C#
Other languages can then be interfaced to by calling them from these languages. However, this means that foreign language code may need to be written several times for the different backends, otherwise portability between backends will be lost.
The most commonly used back-end is the original low-level C back-end.
## Examples
Hello World:
``` prolog
:- module hello.
:- interface.
:- import_module io.
:- pred main(io::di, io::uo) is det.
:- implementation.
main(!IO) :-
io.write_string("Hello, World!\n", !IO).
```
Calculating the 10th Fibonacci number (in the most obvious way):
``` prolog
:- module fib.
:- interface.
:- import_module io.
:- pred main(io::di, io::uo) is det.
:- implementation.
:- import_module int.
:- func fib(int) = int.
fib(N) = (if N =< 2 then 1 else fib(N - 1) + fib(N - 2)).
main(!IO) :-
io.write_string("fib(10) = ", !IO),
io.write_int(fib(10), !IO),
io.nl(!IO).
% Could instead use io.format("fib(10) = %d\n", [i(fib(10))], !IO).
```
`!IO` is a \"state variable\", which is syntactic sugar for a pair of variables which are assigned concrete names at compilation; for example, the above is desugared to something like:
``` prolog
main(IO0, IO) :-
io.write_string("fib(10) = ", IO0, IO1),
io.write_int(fib(10), IO1, IO2),
io.nl(IO2, IO).
```
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# Mercury (programming language)
## Release schedule {#release_schedule}
The stable release naming scheme was 0.1 up to 0.13 for the first thirteen stable releases. In February 2010 the Mercury project decided to name each stable release by using the year and month of the release. For example 10.04 is for a release made in April 2010
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# Midgard
In Germanic cosmology, **Midgard** (an anglicised form of Old Norse *Miðgarðr*; Old English *Middangeard*, Old Saxon *Middilgard*, Old High German *Mittilagart*, and Gothic *Midjun-gards*; \"middle yard\", \"middle enclosure\") is the name for Earth (equivalent in meaning to the Greek term *οἰκουμένη\]\]* : oikouménē, \"inhabited\") inhabited by and known to humans in early Germanic cosmology. The Old Norse form plays a notable role in Norse cosmology.
## Etymology
The Old Norse name *Miðgarðr* is cognate with Gothic *Midjungards* (attested in the Gospel of Luke as a translation of the Greek *οἰκουμένη\]\]*), Old Saxon *Middilgard* (in *Heliand*), Old High German *Mittilagart* (in *Muspilli*), and Old English *Middangeard*. The latter, which appears in both prose and poetry, was transformed to *Middellærd* or *Mittelerde* (\"Middle-earth\") in Middle English literature.
All these forms stem from Common Germanic *\*Meðjana-garðaz*, a compound of *\*meðjanaz\]\]* (\"middle\") and *\*garðaz\]\]* (\"yard, enclosure\"). In early Germanic cosmology, it stands alongside the term *world* (cf. Old English *weorold*, Old Saxon *werold*, Old High German *weralt*, Old Frisian *wrald*, Old Norse *verǫld*), itself from a Common Germanic compound *\*wira-alđiz* (\"man-age\"), which refers to the inhabited world, i.e. the realm of humankind.
## Old Norse {#old_norse}
In Norse mythology, *Miðgarðr* became applied to the wall around the world that the gods constructed from the eyebrows of the *\[\[jötunn\]\]* Ymir as a defense against the *jötnar* who lived in Jotunheim, east of *Manheimr*, the \"home of men\", a word used to refer to the entire world. The gods slew the *jötunn* Ymir, the first created being, and put his body into the central void of the universe, creating the world out of his body: his flesh constituting the land, his blood the oceans, his bones the mountains, his teeth the cliffs, his hairs the trees, and his brains the clouds. Ymir\'s skull was held by four dwarfs, Nordri, Sudri, Austri, and Vestri, who represent the four points on the compass and became the dome of heaven. The sun, moon, and stars were said to be scattered sparks in the skull.
According to the Eddas, Midgard will be destroyed at Ragnarök, the battle at the end of the world. Jörmungandr (also known as the Midgard Serpent or World Serpent) will arise from the ocean, poisoning the land and sea with his venom and causing the sea to rear up and lash against the land. The final battle will take place on the plain of Vígríðr, following which Midgard and almost all life on it will be destroyed, with the earth sinking into the sea only to rise again, fertile and green when the cycle repeats and the creation begins again.
Although most surviving instances of the word Midgard refer to spiritual matters, it was also used in more mundane situations, as in the Viking Age runestone poem from the inscription Sö 56 from Fyrby:
+-------------------------+--------------------------------+---+
| : Iak væit Hāstæin | : I know Hásteinn | |
| : þā Holmstæin brø̄ðr, | : (and) Holmstein, brothers, | |
| : mænnr rȳnasta | : the most rune-skilled men | |
| : ā Miðgarði, | : in Middle Earth, | |
| : sattu stæin | : placed the stone | |
| : auk stafa marga | : and many letters | |
| : æftiʀ Frøystæin, | : in memory of Freysteinn, | |
| : faður sinn. | : their father. | |
+-------------------------+--------------------------------+---+
The Danish and Swedish form *Midgård* or *Midgaard*, the Norwegian *Midgard* or *Midgård*, as well as the Icelandic and Faroese form *Miðgarður*, all derive from the Old Norse term.
## English
The name *middangeard* occurs six times in the Old English epic poem *Beowulf*, and is the same word as Midgard in Old Norse. The term is equivalent in meaning to the Greek term Oikoumene, as referring to the known and inhabited world.
The concept of Midgard occurs many times in Middle English. The association with *earth* (OE *eorðe*) in Middle English *middellærd*, *middelerde* is by popular etymology; the modern English cognate of *geard* \"enclosure\" is *yard*. An early example of this transformation is from the Ormulum:
:
: *þatt ure Drihhtin wollde / ben borenn i þiss middellærd*
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
:
: that our Lord wanted / be born in this Middle-earth.
The usage of \"Middle-earth\" as a name for a setting was popularized by Old English scholar J. R. R. Tolkien in his *The Lord of the Rings* and other fantasy works; he was originally inspired by the references to *middangeard* and *Éarendel* in the Old English poem *Crist A*.
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# Midgard
## Other languages {#other_languages}
*Mittilagart* is mentioned in the 9th-century Old High German *Muspilli* (v
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# Mage: The Ascension
***Mage: The Ascension*** is a supernatural fiction tabletop role-playing game first published on August 19, 1993, by White Wolf Publishing. It is set in the World of Darkness universe.
## History
Following the success of *Vampire: The Masquerade*, *Mage: The Ascension* was released as the third of four games within White Wolf\'s shared universe. The first chapter of the *Mage* series was launched by White Wolf Publishing at the Gen Con gaming convention on August 19, 1993. A second edition followed in December 1995, with a revised edition released in March 2000. In 2005, White Wolf Publishing merged with CCP Games. Following company layoffs in October 2011, White Wolf\'s Creative Director, Richard Thomas, founded Onyx Path Publishing to continue publishing Tabletop role-playing games. Onyx Path Publishing later introduced the 20th Anniversary Edition of *Mage: The Ascension* in September 2015, representing the game\'s fourth iteration.
## Game setting {#game_setting}
*Mage: The Ascension* is set in the fictional World of Darkness, a fictional modern Earth wherein supernatural entities clandestinely manipulate everyday life. Players and major characters are \"Mages\", normal people who \"Awaken\" to be able to manipulate reality, usually in an expression of gnosis. The metaplot of *Mage: the Ascension* involves a four-way struggle between an alliance of Mages called the Nine Mystical Traditions; the New World Order of the Technocracy, which relies on its technofantasical \"paradigms\" versus the Marauders, a disparate group of insane Mages; and the Nephandi, a coalition of Mages serving evil cosmic entities in the pursuit of cosmic oblivion. Later editions of *Mage: the Ascension* introduce non-aligned Mage factions such as the \"Hollow Ones\", a group of Goth chaos magic practitioners.
## Rules
A key feature of *Mage* is its unique magic system. A character\'s magical expertise is described by allocating points to nine different \"Spheres\" of magical knowledge and influence: Correspondence, Entropy, Forces, Life, Mind, Matter, Prime, Spirit, and Time. Magical effects are largely spontaneously proposed by players and adjudicated by the game master, informed by the level of \'expertise\' in the relevant Spheres of the effect; this is as opposed to the popular system of magic in Dungeons & Dragons, which relies upon predetermined descriptions of magical spells.
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# Mage: The Ascension
## Reception
Chris Kubasik reviewed *Mage: The Ascension* in *White Wolf* #38 (1993), rating it a 4 out of 5 and stated that \"*Mage* offers the jaded gamer something intriguing: creativity. The rules of the game, through both cleverness and sloppiness, challenge *all* the players to be imaginative, not just the Storyteller.\"
*Mage: The Ascension,* 2nd Edition was given an 8/10 by *Arcane*\'s Adam Tinworth, who called it \"good for those who enjoy involved and challenging games.\" He noted that while it could be difficult for new players to grasp the game\'s background, develop their style of magic, or figure out how the magic worked; the gameplay system itself would be easy to understand. *Mage: The Ascension* was ranked 16th out of 50 in *Arcane* magazine\'s 1996 reader poll of the most popular role-playing games of all time. The magazine\'s editor, Paul Pettengale, commented: \"Mage is perfect for those of a philosophical bent. It\'s a hard game to get right, requiring much thought from players and referees alike, but its underlying theme---the nature of reality -- makes it one of the most interesting and mature role-playing games available.\"
Mikael Sebag, in the journal *Games and Culture*, commented that \"the in-your-face postmodernity of *Mage: The Ascension*, subjectivity fuels and defines the mage\'s spellcraft\". He explained that \"the game is richly inspired by historical and living magical traditions (including many \[Antoine Faivre\] would identify as belonging to Western esotericism)\", noting the \"central theme\" is the search for Ascension. Sebag highlighted that *Mage: The Ascension* has a \"comprehensive and richly-designed game system\" except it does not include Ascension mechanics which \"communicates the postmodern slant of *Mage*{{\'s}} core philosophy; the nature of reality, like Ascension, is subjective\" and \"systems exist only to describe that which is universally agreed upon\". Sebag stated the magic system is one such universal system, \"which, however variously different approaches to spellcasting may be described in the fiction of the game, uses a standardized set of formulas and in-game statistics to resolve these effects. Ascension, by contrast, is an experience so divine that it can be reduced to neither textual description in the game\'s rules nor mathematization in its systems\".
### Awards
- In 1994, *Mage: The Ascension* was nominated for the *Casus Belli* Award the best role-playing game of 1993, finishing in fifth place.
- *Mage: The Ascension*, 2nd Edition won the Origins Award for *Best Role-playing Rules* in 1995
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# Metrizable space
In topology and related areas of mathematics, a **metrizable space** is a topological space that is homeomorphic to a metric space. That is, a topological space $(X, \tau)$ is said to be metrizable if there is a metric $d : X \times X \to [0, \infty)$ such that the topology induced by $d$ is $\tau.$ *Metrization theorems* are theorems that give sufficient conditions for a topological space to be metrizable.
## Properties
Metrizable spaces inherit all topological properties from metric spaces. For example, they are Hausdorff paracompact spaces (and hence normal and Tychonoff) and first-countable. However, some properties of the metric, such as completeness, cannot be said to be inherited. This is also true of other structures linked to the metric. A metrizable uniform space, for example, may have a different set of contraction maps than a metric space to which it is homeomorphic.
## Metrization theorems {#metrization_theorems}
One of the first widely recognized metrization theorems was *`{{visible anchor|Urysohn's metrization theorem}}`{=mediawiki}*. This states that every Hausdorff second-countable regular space is metrizable. So, for example, every second-countable manifold is metrizable. (Historical note: The form of the theorem shown here was in fact proved by Tikhonov in 1926. What Urysohn had shown, in a paper published posthumously in 1925, was that every second-countable *normal* Hausdorff space is metrizable.) The converse does not hold: there exist metric spaces that are not second countable, for example, an uncountable set endowed with the discrete metric. The Nagata--Smirnov metrization theorem, described below, provides a more specific theorem where the converse does hold.
Several other metrization theorems follow as simple corollaries to Urysohn\'s theorem. For example, a compact Hausdorff space is metrizable if and only if it is second-countable.
Urysohn\'s Theorem can be restated as: A topological space is separable and metrizable if and only if it is regular, Hausdorff and second-countable. The Nagata--Smirnov metrization theorem extends this to the non-separable case. It states that a topological space is metrizable if and only if it is regular, Hausdorff and has a σ-locally finite base. A σ-locally finite base is a base which is a union of countably many locally finite collections of open sets. For a closely related theorem see the Bing metrization theorem.
Separable metrizable spaces can also be characterized as those spaces which are homeomorphic to a subspace of the Hilbert cube $\lbrack 0, 1 \rbrack ^\N,$ that is, the countably infinite product of the unit interval (with its natural subspace topology from the reals) with itself, endowed with the product topology.
A space is said to be *locally metrizable* if every point has a metrizable neighbourhood. Smirnov proved that a locally metrizable space is metrizable if and only if it is Hausdorff and paracompact. In particular, a manifold is metrizable if and only if it is paracompact.
## Examples
The group of unitary operators $\mathbb{U}(\mathcal{H})$ on a separable Hilbert space $\mathcal{H}$ endowed with the strong operator topology is metrizable (see Proposition II.1 in ).
Non-normal spaces cannot be metrizable; important examples include
- the Zariski topology on an algebraic variety or on the spectrum of a ring, used in algebraic geometry,
- the topological vector space of all functions from the real line $\R$ to itself, with the topology of pointwise convergence.
The real line with the lower limit topology is not metrizable. The usual distance function is not a metric on this space because the topology it determines is the usual topology, not the lower limit topology. This space is Hausdorff, paracompact and first countable.
### Locally metrizable but not metrizable {#locally_metrizable_but_not_metrizable}
The Line with two origins, also called the *`{{dfn|bug-eyed line}}`{=mediawiki}* is a non-Hausdorff manifold (and thus cannot be metrizable). Like all manifolds, it is locally homeomorphic to Euclidean space and thus locally metrizable (but not metrizable) and locally Hausdorff (but not Hausdorff). It is also a T~1~ locally regular space but not a semiregular space.
The long line is locally metrizable but not metrizable; in a sense, it is \"too long\"
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# Martin Agricola
**Martin Agricola** (6 January 1486 -- 10 June 1556) was a German composer of Renaissance music and a music theorist.
## Biography
Agricola was born in Świebodzin, a town in Western Poland, and took the name Agricola later in life, a common practice among Lutherans often meant to emphasize humble, peasant origins. From 1524 until his death, he lived in the German city of Magdeburg, where he was a teacher or cantor in the Protestant school. Georg Rhau, a publisher and senator in Wittenberg, was Agricola\'s close friend and publisher.
Agricola\'s theoretical writing was valuable in expounding the change from the old to the new system of musical notation. His *Musica instrumentalis deudsch* (English: *German Instrumental Music*), published in 1528, 1530, 1532 and 1542, and then heavily revised in 1545, was one of the most important early works in organology and on the elements of music.
Agricola was the first to harmonize in four parts Martin Luther\'s famous chorale, \"Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott\" (English: \"A Mighty Fortress Is Our God\"
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# Max August Zorn
**Max August Zorn** (`{{IPA|de|tsɔʁn|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; June 6, 1906 -- March 9, 1993) was a German mathematician. He was an algebraist, group theorist, and numerical analyst. He is best known for Zorn\'s lemma, a method used in set theory that is applicable to a wide range of mathematical constructs such as vector spaces, and ordered sets amongst others. Zorn\'s lemma was first postulated by Kazimierz Kuratowski in 1922, and then independently by Zorn in 1935.
## Life and career {#life_and_career}
Zorn was born in Krefeld, Germany. He attended the University of Hamburg. He received his PhD in April 1930 for a thesis on alternative algebras. He published his findings in *Abhandlungen aus dem Mathematischen Seminar der Universität Hamburg*. Zorn showed that split-octonions could be represented by a mixed-style of matrices called Zorn\'s vector-matrix algebra.
Max Zorn was appointed to an assistant position at the University of Halle. However, he did not have the opportunity to work there for long as he was forced to leave Germany in 1933 because of policies enacted by the Nazis. According to grandson Eric, \"\[Max\] spoke with a raspy, airy voice most of his life. Few people knew why, because he only told the story after significant prodding, but he talked that way because pro-Hitler thugs who objected to his politics, had battered his throat in a 1933 street fight.\"
Zorn immigrated to the United States and was appointed a Sterling Fellow at Yale University. While at Yale, Zorn wrote his paper \"A Remark on Method in Transfinite Algebra\" that stated his Maximum Principle, later called Zorn\'s lemma. It requires a set that contains the union of any chain of subsets to have one chain not contained in any other, called the maximal element. He illustrated the principle with applications in ring theory and field extensions. Zorn\'s lemma is an alternative expression of the axiom of choice, and thus a subject of interest in axiomatic set theory.
In 1936 he moved to UCLA and remained until 1946. While at UCLA Zorn revisited his study of alternative rings and proved the existence of the nilradical of certain alternative rings. According to Angus E. Taylor, Max was his most stimulating colleague at UCLA.
In 1946 Zorn became a professor at Indiana University, where he taught until retiring in 1971. He was thesis advisor for Israel Nathan Herstein.
Zorn died in Bloomington, Indiana, in March 1993, of congestive heart failure.
## Family
Max Zorn married Alice Schlottau and they had one son, Jens, and one daughter, Liz. Jens (born June 19, 1931) is an emeritus professor of physics at the University of Michigan and an accomplished sculptor. Max Zorn\'s grandson Eric Zorn was a columnist for the *Chicago Tribune* from 1986 until 2021; after retirement Eric Zorn started a newsletter titled *The Picayune Sentinel,* named after the mathematics newsletter that Max Zorn had distributed during his years at Indiana University. Max\'s great grandson, Alexander Wolken Zorn, received a PhD in mathematics from the University of California Berkeley in 2018
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# Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa
**Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa** (`{{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|g|r|ɪ|p|ə}}`{=mediawiki}; c. 63 BC -- 12 BC) was a Roman general, statesman and architect who was a close friend, son-in-law and lieutenant to the Roman emperor Augustus. Agrippa is well known for his important military victories, notably the Battle of Actium in 31 BC against the forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. He was also responsible for the construction of some of the most notable buildings of his era, including the original Pantheon.
Born to a plebeian family c. 63 BC, in an uncertain location in Roman Italy, he met the future emperor Augustus, then known as Octavian, at Apollonia, in Illyria. Following the assassination of Octavian\'s great-uncle Julius Caesar in 44 BC, Octavian returned to Italy. Around this time, Agrippa was elected tribune of the plebs. He served as a military commander, fighting alongside Octavian and Caesar\'s former general and right-hand man Mark Antony in the Battle of Philippi. In 40 BC, he was *praetor urbanus* and played a major role in the Perusine war against Lucius Antonius and Fulvia, respectively the brother and wife of Mark Antony. In 39 or 38 BC, Agrippa was appointed governor of Transalpine Gaul. In 38 BC, he put down a rising of the Aquitanians and fought the Germanic tribes. He was made consul for 37 BC, despite being well below the usual minimum age of 43, in order to oversee the preparations for war against Sextus Pompey, who had cut off grain shipments to Rome.
Agrippa defeated Pompey in the battles of Mylae and Naulochus in 36 BC. In 33 BC, he served as *curule aedile*. Agrippa commanded the victorious Octavian\'s fleet at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. A few years after the victory at Actium, Octavian became emperor and took the title of Princeps, while Agrippa remained as his close friend and lieutenant. Agrippa assisted Augustus in making Rome \"a city of marble\". Agrippa renovated aqueducts to provide Roman citizens from every social class access to the highest quality public services, and was responsible for the creation of many baths, porticoes, and gardens. He was also awarded powers almost as great as those of Augustus. He had veto power over the acts of the Senate and the power to present laws for approval by the People. He died in 12 BC at the age of 50--51. Augustus honoured his memory with a magnificent funeral and spent over a month in mourning. His remains were placed in Augustus\' own mausoleum.
Agrippa was also known as a writer, especially on geography. Under his supervision, Julius Caesar\'s design of having a complete survey of the empire made was accomplished. From the materials at hand he constructed a circular chart, which was engraved on marble by Augustus and afterwards placed in the colonnade built by his sister Vipsania Polla. Agrippa was also husband to Julia the Elder (who had later married the second Emperor Tiberius), and was the maternal grandfather of Caligula and the maternal great-grandfather of the Emperor Nero.
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# Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa
## Early life, family, and early career {#early_life_family_and_early_career}
### Early life and family {#early_life_and_family}
Agrippa was born c. 63 BC, in an uncertain location. His father was called Lucius Vipsanius. His mother\'s name is not known and Pliny the Elder claimed that his cognomen \"Agrippa\" derived from him having been born breech so it is possible that she died in childbirth. Pliny also stated that he suffered from lameness as a child. He had an elder brother whose name was also Lucius Vipsanius, and a sister named Vipsania Polla. His family originated in the Italian countryside, and was of humbler and plebeian origins when compared to the highest families of the Roman aristocracy. They had not been prominent in Roman public life (but were nevertheless massively wealthy if compared to the average Roman family). According to some scholars, including Victor Gardthausen, R. E. A. Palmer, and David Ridgway, Agrippa\'s family was originally from Pisa in Etruria.
Agrippa\'s family most likely gained Roman citizenship after the Social War in 87 BC and, like many other Italians, immigrated to Rome to take advantage of the social mobility opportunities that arose at the war\'s end.
### Early career {#early_career}
Agrippa was the same age as Octavian (later Augustus), and the two were educated together and became close friends. Despite Agrippa\'s association with the family of Julius Caesar, his elder brother chose the opposing side in the civil wars of the 40s BC, fighting under Cato against Caesar in Africa. When Cato\'s forces were defeated, Agrippa\'s brother was taken prisoner but freed after Octavian interceded on his behalf.
It is not known whether Agrippa fought against his brother in Africa, but he probably served in Caesar\'s campaign of 46 to 45 BC against Gnaeus Pompeius, which culminated in the Battle of Munda. Caesar regarded him highly enough to send him with Octavian in 45 BC to study in Apollonia (on the Illyrian coast) with the Macedonian legions, while Caesar consolidated his power in Rome. In the fourth month of their stay in Apollonia the news of Julius Caesar\'s assassination in March 44 BC reached them. Agrippa and another friend, Quintus Salvidienus Rufus, advised Octavian to march on Rome with the troops from Macedonia, but Octavian decided to sail to Italy with a small retinue. After his arrival, he learned that Caesar had adopted him as his legal heir.
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# Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa
## Rise to power {#rise_to_power}
### Friend to Octavian {#friend_to_octavian}
After Octavian\'s return to Rome, he and his supporters realised they needed the support of legions. Agrippa helped Octavian to levy troops in Campania. Once Octavian had his legions, he made a pact with Mark Antony and Lepidus, legally established in 43 BC as the Second Triumvirate. Octavian and his consular colleague Quintus Pedius arranged for Caesar\'s assassins to be prosecuted in their absence, and Agrippa was entrusted with the case against Gaius Cassius Longinus. It may have been in the same year that Agrippa began his political career, holding the position of tribune of the plebs, which granted him entry to the Senate.
In 42 BC, Agrippa probably fought alongside Octavian and Antony in the Battle of Philippi. After their return to Rome, he played a major role in Octavian\'s war against Lucius Antonius and Fulvia, respectively the brother and wife of Mark Antony, which began in 41 BC and ended in the capture of Perusia in 40 BC. However, Salvidienus remained Octavian\'s main general at this time. After the Perusine war, Octavian departed for Gaul, leaving Agrippa as urban praetor in Rome with instructions to defend Italy against Sextus Pompeius, an opponent of the Triumvirate who was now occupying Sicily. In July 40 BC, while Agrippa was occupied with the Ludi Apollinares that were the praetor\'s responsibility, Sextus began a raid in southern Italy. Agrippa advanced on him, forcing him to withdraw. However, the Triumvirate proved unstable, and in August 40 BC both Sextus and Antony invaded Italy (but not in an organized alliance). Agrippa\'s success in retaking Sipontum from Antony helped bring an end to the conflict. Agrippa was among the intermediaries through whom Antony and Octavian agreed once more upon peace. During the discussions Octavian learned that Salvidienus had offered to betray him to Antony, with the result that Salvidienus was prosecuted and either executed or committed suicide. Agrippa was now Octavian\'s leading general.
### Governor of Transalpine Gaul {#governor_of_transalpine_gaul}
In 39 or 38 BC, Octavian appointed Agrippa governor of Transalpine Gaul, where in 38 BC he put down a rising of the Aquitanians. He also fought the Germanic tribes, becoming the next Roman general to cross the Rhine after Julius Caesar. He was summoned back to Rome by Octavian to assume the consulship for 37 BC. He was well below the usual minimum age of 43, but Octavian had suffered a humiliating naval defeat against Sextus Pompey and needed his friend to oversee the preparations for further warfare. Agrippa refused the offer of a triumph for his exploits in Gaul -- on the grounds, says Dio, that he thought it improper to celebrate during a time of trouble for Octavian.
Since Sextus Pompeius had command of the sea on the coasts of Italy, Agrippa\'s first care was to provide a safe harbour for Octavian\'s ships. He accomplished this by cutting through the strips of land which separated the Lacus Lucrinus from the sea, thus forming an outer harbour, while joining the lake Avernus to the Lucrinus to serve as an inner harbour. The new harbour complex was named Portus Julius in Octavian\'s honour. Agrippa was also responsible for technological improvements, including larger ships and an improved form of grappling hook. About this time, he married Caecilia Pomponia Attica, daughter of Cicero\'s friend Titus Pomponius Atticus.
### War with Sextus Pompeius {#war_with_sextus_pompeius}
In 36 BC, Octavian and Agrippa set sail against Sextus. The fleet was badly damaged by storms and had to withdraw; Agrippa was left in charge of the second attempt. Thanks to superior technology and training, Agrippa and his men won decisive victories at Mylae and Naulochus, destroying all but seventeen of Sextus\' ships and compelling most of his forces to surrender. Octavian, with his power increased, forced the triumvir Lepidus into retirement and entered Rome in triumph. Agrippa received the unprecedented honour of a *corona navalis* decorated with the beaks of ships; as Dio remarks, this was \"a decoration given to nobody before or since\".
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# Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa
## Public service {#public_service}
Agrippa participated in smaller military campaigns in 35 and 34 BC, but by the autumn of 34 BC he had returned to Rome. He rapidly set out on a campaign of public repairs and improvements, including renovation of the aqueduct known as the Aqua Marcia and an extension of its pipes to cover more of the city. He became the first Curator Aquarum of Rome in 33 BC. Through his actions after being elected in 33 BC as one of the aediles (officials responsible for Rome\'s buildings and festivals), the streets were repaired and the sewers were cleaned out, and lavish public spectacles were held. Agrippa signalled his tenure of office by effecting great improvements in the city of Rome, restoring and building aqueducts, enlarging and cleansing the Cloaca Maxima, constructing baths and porticos, and laying out gardens. He also gave a stimulus to the public exhibition of works of art. It was unusual for an ex-consul to hold the lower-ranking position of *aedile*, but Agrippa\'s success bore out that break with tradition. As emperor, Augustus would later boast that \"he had found the city of brick but left it of marble\" in part because of the great services provided by Agrippa under his reign.
### Battle of Actium {#battle_of_actium}
Agrippa was again called away to take command of the fleet when the war with Antony and Cleopatra broke out. He captured the strategically important city of Methone at the southwest of the Peloponnese, then sailed north, raiding the Greek coast and capturing Corcyra (modern Corfu). Octavian then brought his forces to Corcyra, occupying it as a naval base. Antony drew up his ships and troops at Actium, where Octavian moved to meet him. Agrippa meanwhile defeated Antony\'s supporter Quintus Nasidius in a naval battle at Patrae. Dio relates that as Agrippa moved to join Octavian near Actium, he encountered Gaius Sosius, one of Antony\'s lieutenants, who was making a surprise attack on the squadron of Lucius Tarius, a supporter of Octavian. Agrippa\'s unexpected arrival turned the battle around.
As the decisive battle approached, according to Dio, Octavian received intelligence that Antony and Cleopatra planned to break past his naval blockade and escape. At first he wished to allow the flagships past, arguing that he could overtake them with his lighter vessels and that the other opposing ships would surrender when they saw their leaders\' cowardice. Agrippa objected, saying that Antony\'s ships, although larger, could outrun Octavian\'s if they hoisted sails, and that Octavian ought to fight now because Antony\'s fleet had just been struck by storms. Octavian followed his friend\'s advice.
thumb\|upright=1.2\|The facade of the Pantheon with the inscription of Agrippa
On 2 September 31 BC, the Battle of Actium was fought. Octavian\'s victory, which gave him the mastery of Rome and the empire, was mainly due to Agrippa. Octavian then bestowed upon him the hand of his niece Claudia Marcella Major in 28 BC. He also served a second consulship with Octavian the same year. In 27 BC, Agrippa held a third consulship with Octavian, and in that year, the Senate also bestowed upon Octavian the imperial title of *Augustus*.
In commemoration of the Battle of Actium, Agrippa built and dedicated the building that served as the Roman Pantheon before its destruction in AD 80. Emperor Hadrian used Agrippa\'s design to build his own Pantheon, which survives in Rome. The inscription of the later building, which was built c. 125, preserves the text of the inscription from Agrippa\'s building during his third consulship. The years following his third consulship, Agrippa spent in Gaul, reforming the provincial administration and taxation system, along with building an effective road system and aqueducts.
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# Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa
## Later life {#later_life}
Agrippa\'s friendship with Augustus seems to have been clouded by the jealousy of Augustus\'s nephew and son-in-law Marcus Claudius Marcellus. Traditionally it is said that the result of such jealousy was that Agrippa left Rome, ostensibly to take over the governorship of eastern provinces -- a sort of honourable exile. He only sent his legate to Syria, while he remained at Lesbos and governed by proxy. He might have been on a secret mission to negotiate with the Parthians about the return of the Roman legions\' standards. On the death of Marcellus, which took place within a year of his exile, he was recalled to Rome by Augustus, who found he could not dispense with his services. If one places the events in the context of the crisis of 23 BC it seems unlikely that, when facing significant opposition and about to make a political climb down, the emperor Augustus would place a man in exile in charge of the largest body of Roman troops. What is far more likely is that Agrippa\'s \'exile\' was actually the careful political positioning of a loyal lieutenant in command of a significant army in case the settlement plans of 23 BC failed and Augustus needed military support.
After 23 BC, as part of what became known as Augustus\'s *Second Constitutional Settlement*, Agrippa\'s constitutional powers were greatly increased to provide the Principate of Augustus with greater constitutional stability by providing for a political heir or replacement for Augustus if he were to succumb to his habitual ill health or was assassinated. In the course of the year, proconsular imperium, similar to Augustus\'s power, was conferred upon Agrippa for five years. The exact nature of the grant is uncertain but it probably covered Augustus\'s imperial provinces, east and west, perhaps lacking authority over the provinces of the Senate. That was to come later, as was the jealously guarded *tribunicia potestas*, or powers of a tribune of the plebeians. These great powers of state are not usually heaped upon a former exile. A later source stated that Augustus was advised by his confidant Maecenas to attach Agrippa still more closely to him by making him his son-in-law. In 21 BC, he induced Agrippa to divorce Marcella and marry his daughter, Julia the Elder---the widow of Marcellus. In 19 BC, Agrippa was employed in putting down a rising of the Cantabrians in Hispania (Cantabrian Wars).
In 18 BC, Agrippa\'s powers were even further increased to almost match those of Augustus. That year his proconsular imperium was augmented to cover the senatorial provinces and was granted *tribunicia potestas*, or powers of a tribune of the plebeians. As was the case with Augustus, Agrippa\'s grant of tribunician powers was conferred without his having to hold the office. These powers were considerable, giving him veto power over the acts of the Senate or other magistracies, including those of other tribunes, and the power to present laws for approval by the People. Just as important, a tribune\'s person was sacred, meaning that any person who harmfully touched them or impeded their actions, including political acts, could lawfully be killed. After the grant of these powers Agrippa was, on paper, almost as powerful as Augustus was; there was no doubt that Augustus was the man in charge.
Agrippa was appointed governor of the eastern provinces a second time in 17 BC, where his just and prudent administration won him the respect and good-will of the provincials, especially from the Jewish population. Agrippa also restored Roman control over the Cimmerian Chersonnese (Crimean Peninsula).
### Death
Agrippa\'s last public service was his beginning of the conquest of the upper Danube River region, which would become the Roman province of Pannonia in 13 BC. He died at Campania in 12 BC at the age of 50--51. His posthumous son, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Postumus, was named in his honour. Augustus honoured his memory by a magnificent funeral and spent over a month in mourning. Augustus oversaw the education of Agrippa\'s children. Agrippa had built a tomb for himself but Augustus had Agrippa\'s remains placed in the Mausoleum of Augustus.
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# Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa
## Legacy
Agrippa was not only Augustus\' most skilled subordinate commander but also his closest companion, serving him faithfully for over three decades. Historian Glen Bowersock says of Agrippa:
> Agrippa deserved the honours Augustus heaped upon him. It is conceivable that without Agrippa, Octavian would never have become emperor. Rome would remember Agrippa for his generosity in attending to aqueducts, sewers, and baths.
Agrippa was also a writer, especially on the subject of geography. Under his supervision, Julius Caesar\'s dream of having a complete survey of the Empire made was carried out. Agrippa constructed a circular chart, which was later engraved on marble by Augustus, and afterwards placed in the colonnade built by his sister Polla. Amongst his writings, an autobiography, now lost, is referenced.
Agrippa established a standard for the Roman foot in 29 BC, and thus a definition of a pace as 5 feet. An imperial Roman mile denotes 5,000 Roman feet. The term Via Agrippa is used for any part of the network of roadways in Gaul built by Agrippa. Some of these still exist as paths or even as highways.
The Roman tribe Agrippia was named in his honour.
### In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
#### Drama
- Agrippa is a character in William Shakespeare\'s play *Antony and Cleopatra*.
- A fictional version of Agrippa in his later life played a prominent role in the 1976 BBC Television series *I, Claudius*. Agrippa was portrayed as a much older man though he would have been only 39 years old at the time of the first episode (24/23 BC). He was played by John Paul.
- Agrippa is the main character in Paul Naschy\'s 1980 film *Los cántabros*, played by Naschy himself. It is a highly fictionalized version of the Cantabrian Wars in which Agrippa is depicted as the lover of the sister of Cantabrian leader Corocotta.
- Agrippa appears in several film versions of the life of Cleopatra. He is normally portrayed as an old man, rather than a young one. Among the actors to portray him are Philip Locke, Alan Rowe, and Andrew Keir, as well as Francis de Wolff in the 1964 film *Carry on Cleo*.
- Agrippa is also one of the principal characters in the British/Italian joint project *Imperium: Augustus* (2003) featuring flashbacks between Augustus and Julia about Agrippa, which shows him in his youth on serving in Caesar\'s army up until his victory at Actium and the defeat of Cleopatra. He is portrayed by Ken Duken.
- In the 2005 series *Empire* the young Agrippa (played by Christopher Egan) becomes Octavian\'s sidekick after saving him from an attempted poisoning.
- Marcus Agrippa, a highly fictional character based on Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa\'s early life, is part of the BBC-HBO-RAI television series *Rome*. He is played by Allen Leech. He describes himself as the grandson of a slave. The series creates a romantic relationship between Agrippa and Octavian\'s sister Octavia Minor, for which there is no historical evidence.
- In the TV series *Domina* (2021), Agrippa was played by Oliver Huntingdon and Ben Batt.
#### Literature
- Agrippa is mentioned by name in book VIII of Virgil\'s *The Aeneid*, where Aeneas sees an image of Agrippa leading ships in the Battle of Actium on the shield forged for him by Vulcan and given to him by his mother, Venus.
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- Agrippa is a main character in the early part of Robert Graves\' novel *I, Claudius*.
- He is a main character in the later two novels of Colleen McCullough\'s *Masters of Rome* series.
- He is a featured character of prominence and importance in the historical fiction novel *Cleopatra\'s Daughter* by Michelle Moran.
- He also features prominently in John Edward Williams\' historical novel *Augustus*.
- In the backstory of *Gunpowder Empire*, the first volume in Harry Turtledove\'s Crosstime Traffic alternate history series, Agrippa lived until AD 26, conquering all of Germania for the Empire and becoming the second Emperor when Augustus died in AD 14.
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# Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa
## Marriages and issue {#marriages_and_issue}
Agrippa married three times:
- Cecilia Pomponia Attica. They married in 37 BC and divorced before 28 BC. By her he had two daughters:
- Vipsania Agrippina. She was the first wife of Tiberius.
- Vipsania Attica. She married the orator Quintus Haterius.
- Claudia Marcella Maior. Daughter of Octavia Minor and niece of Augustus. They married in 28 BC and divorced in 21 BC. By her he had at least two daughters:
- Vipsania Marcella. She married the general Publius Quinctilius Varus.
- Vipsania Marcellina. She married Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, consul in 6.
- Julia the Elder. Daughter of Augustus. They married in 21 BC. By her he had three sons and two daughters:
- Gaius Caesar. He was adopted by Augustus as heir, but died prematurely.
- Julia the Younger. She married Lucius Aemilius Paullus, consul in 1.
- Lucius Caesar. He was adopted by Augustus as heir, but died prematurely.
- Vipsania Agrippina Maior. She married Germanicus Julius Caesar and was the mother of emperor Caligula and grandmother of Nero.
- Agrippa Postumus. Born after his father\'s death, he was killed soon after the death of Augustus. The motive and instigator of his killing are disputed.
Through his numerous children, Agrippa would become ancestor to many subsequent members of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, whose position he helped to attain, as well as many other distinguished Romans
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# Mariotto Albertinelli
**Mariotto di Bindo di Biagio Albertinelli** (13 October 1474 -- 5 November 1515) was an Italian Renaissance painter active in Florence. He was a close friend and collaborator of Fra Bartolomeo.
Some of his works have been described as \"archaic\" or \"conservative\"; others are considered exemplary of the grandiose classicism of High Renaissance art.
## Life and work {#life_and_work}
Albertinelli was born in Florence to a local gold beater. He was a pupil of Cosimo Rosselli, in whose workshop he met Baccio della Porta, later known as Fra Bartolomeo. The two were so close that in 1494 they formed a \"compagnia,\" or partnership, in which they operating a joint studio and divided the profits of anything produced within it. The partnership lasted until 1500, when Baccio joined the Dominican order and spent two years in cloister.
At the beginning of his career Albertinelli was placed on retainer by Alfonsina Orsini, the wife of Piero II de' Medici and mother of Lorenzo II de\' Medici. His works from this period all small-scale works executed in a minute, delicate technique and a style derived from the works of Rosselli\'s main pupil Piero di Cosimo as well as Lorenzo di Credi and Perugino. Like many Florentine painters, Albertinelli was also receptive to the influence of contemporary Flemish painting.
Albertinelli\'s earliest works include a small triptych of the *Madonna and Child with Saints Catherine and Barbara* (1500) at the Museo Poldi Pezzoli, Milan, and another triptych of the Madonna and Child with Saints, Angels and Various Religious Scenes at the Musée des Beaux-Arts in Chartres. The several panels with *Scenes from Genesis,* at the Courtauld Institute in London, Strossmayer Gallery in Zagreb, Accademia Carrara in Bergamo and Harvard Art Museums in Cambridge, probably also date from this period.
In 1503 Albertinelli signed and dated his best-known work, an altarpiece for the chapel of Sant\'Elisabetta della congrega dei Preti in San Michele alle Trombe, Florence (now in the Uffizi). The central panel of this work depicts the Visitation and the predella the Annunciation, Nativity, and Circumcision of Christ. The pyramidal composition, classical background architecture and pronounced contrasts of light and dark make the painting a quintessential example of High Renaissance art.
Also in 1503 Albertinelli entered a new partnership with Giuliano Bugiardini, which lasted until 1509, when Albertinelli resumed his partnership with Fra Bartolomeo. At this point Fra Bartolomeo and Albertinelli practiced similar styles and occasionally collaborated. For example, the *Kress Tondo*, now in the Columbia Museum of Art, was previously attributed to Fra Bartolomeo but is now thought to be the work of Albertinelli using Fra Bartolomeo\'s cartoon, or scaled-preparatory drawing. The *Annunciation* at the Musée d\'Art et d\'Histoire in Geneva is signed and dated (1511) by both artists. The partnership was terminated in January 1513, as reported in a document stipulating the division of the workshop\'s properties. According to Giorgio Vasari\'s *Life* of Albertinelli, the painter lived as a libertine and was fond of good living and women. Albertinelli reportedly had experienced financial problems and operated a tavern to supplement his income as a painter. At the end of his life he was unable to repay some of his debts, including one to Raphael. His wife Antonia, whom he married in 1506, repaid some of his loans. Among his many students were Franciabigio, Jacopo da Pontormo, and Innocenzo da Imola
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# Beijing cuisine
**Beijing cuisine**, also known as **Jing cuisine**, **Mandarin cuisine** and **Peking cuisine** and formerly as **Beiping cuisine**, is the local cuisine of Beijing, the national capital of China.
## Background
As Beijing has been the capital of China for centuries, its cuisine is influenced by culinary traditions from all over China, but the style that has the greatest influence on Beijing cuisine is that of the eastern coastal province of Shandong. Beijing cuisine has itself, in turn, also greatly influenced other Chinese cuisines, particularly the cuisine of Liaoning, the Chinese imperial cuisine and the Chinese aristocrat cuisine.
Another tradition that influenced Beijing cuisine (as well as influenced by the latter itself) is the Chinese imperial cuisine that originated from the \"Emperor\'s Kitchen\" (`{{zh|c=御膳房|p=yùshànfáng|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}), which referred to the cooking facilities inside the Forbidden City, where thousands of cooks from different parts of China showed their best culinary skills to please the imperial family and officials. Therefore, it is sometimes difficult to determine the actual origin of a dish as the term \"Mandarin\" is generalised and refers not only to Beijing, but other provinces as well. However, some generalisation of Beijing cuisine can be characterised as follows: Foods that originated in Beijing are often snacks rather than main courses, and they are typically sold by small shops or street vendors. There is emphasis on dark soy paste, sesame paste, sesame oil and scallions, and fermented tofu is often served as a condiment. In terms of cooking techniques, methods relating to different ways of frying are often used. There is less emphasis on rice as an accompaniment as compared to many other regions in China, as local rice production in Beijing is limited by the relatively dry climate.
Many dishes in Beijing cuisine that are served as main courses are derived from a variety of Chinese Halal foods, particularly lamb and beef dishes, as well as from Huaiyang cuisine.
Huaiyang cuisine has been praised since ancient times in China and it was a general practice for an official travelling to Beijing to take up a new post to bring along with him a chef specialising in Huaiyang cuisine. When these officials had completed their terms in the capital and returned to their native provinces, most of the chefs they brought along often remained in Beijing. They opened their own restaurants or were hired by wealthy locals. The imperial clan of the Ming dynasty, the House of Zhu, who had ancestry from Jiangsu Province, also contributed greatly in introducing Huaiyang cuisine to Beijing when the capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing in the 15th century, because the imperial kitchen was mainly Huaiyang style. The element of traditional Beijing culinary and gastronomical cultures of enjoying artistic performances such as Beijing opera while dining directly developed from the similar practice in the culture of Jiangsu and Huaiyang cuisines.
Chinese Islamic cuisine is another important component of Beijing cuisine and was first prominently introduced when Beijing became the capital of the Yuan dynasty. However, the most significant contribution to the formation of Beijing cuisine came from Shandong cuisine, as most chefs from Shandong Province came to Beijing en masse during the Qing dynasty. Unlike the earlier two cuisines, which were brought by the ruling class such as nobles, aristocrats and bureaucrats and then spread to the general populace, the introduction of Shandong cuisine begun with serving the general populace, with much wider market segment, from wealthy merchants to the working class.
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# Beijing cuisine
## History
The Qing dynasty was a major period in the formation of Beijing cuisine. Before the Boxer Rebellion, the foodservice establishments in Beijing were strictly stratified by the foodservice guild. Each category of the establishment was specifically based on its ability to provide for a particular segment of the market. The top ranking establishments served nobles, aristocrats, and wealthy merchants and landlords, while lower ranking establishments served the populace of lower financial and social status. It was during this period when Beijing cuisine gained fame and became recognised by the Chinese culinary society, and the stratification of the foodservice was one of its most obvious characteristics as part of its culinary and gastronomic cultures during this first peak of its formation.
The official stratification was an integral part of the local culture of Beijing and it was not finally abolished officially after the end of the Qing dynasty, which resulted in the second peak in the formation of Beijing cuisine. Meals previously offered to nobles and aristocrats were made available to anyone who could afford them instead of being restricted only to the upper class. As chefs freely switched between jobs offered by different establishments, they brought their skills that further enriched and developed Beijing cuisine. Though the stratification of food services in Beijing was no longer effected by imperial laws, the structure more or less remained despite continuous weakening due to the financial background of the local clientele. The different classes are listed in the following subsections.
### Zhuang
*Zhuang* (`{{zh|s=庄|t=莊|p=zhuāng|l=village|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}), or *zhuang zihao* (`{{zh|s=庄字号|t=莊字號|p=zhuāng zìhào|l=village brand|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}) were the top-ranking foodservice establishments, not only in providing foods, but entertainment as well. The form of entertainment provided was usually Beijing opera, and establishments of this class always had long-term contracts with an opera troupe to perform onsite or contracts with famous performers, such as national-treasure-class performers, to perform onsite, though not on a daily basis. Establishments of this category only accepted customers who came as a group and ordered banquets by appointment, and the banquets provided by establishments of this category often included most, if not all tables, at the site. The bulk foodservice business was catering at customers\' homes or other locations, often for birthdays, marriages, funerals, promotions and other important celebrations and festivals. When catering, these establishments not only provided what was on the menu, but fulfilled customers\' requests.
*Leng zhuangzi* (`{{zh|s=冷庄子|t=冷莊子|p=lěng zhuāngzǐ|l=cold village|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}) lacked any rooms to host banquets, and thus their business was purely catering.
### Tang
*Tang* (`{{zh|c=堂|p=táng|l=auditorium|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}), or *tang zihao* (`{{zh|s=堂字号|t=堂字號|p=táng zìhào|l=auditorium brand|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}), are similar to *zhuang* establishments, but the business of these second-class establishments were generally evenly divided among onsite banquet hosting and catering (at customers\' homes). Establishments of this class would also have long-term contracts with Beijing opera troupes to perform onsite, but they did not have long-term contracts with famous performers, such as national-treasure-class performers, to perform onsite on regular basis; however these top performers would still perform at establishments of this category occasionally. In terms of catering at the customers\' sites, establishments of this category often only provided dishes strictly according to their menu.
### Ting
*Ting* (`{{zh|s=厅|t=廳|p=tīng|l=foyer|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}), or *ting zihao* (`{{zh|s=厅字号|t=廳字號|p=tīng zìhào|l=foyer brand|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}) are foodservice establishments which had more business in onsite banquet hosting than catering at customers\' homes. For onsite banquet hosting, entertainment was still provided, but establishments of this category did not have long-term contracts with Beijing opera troupes, so that performers varied from time to time, and top performers usually did not perform here or at any lower-ranking establishments. For catering, different establishments of this category were incapable of handling significant catering on their own, but generally had to combine resources with other establishments of the same ranking (or lower) to do the job.
### Yuan
*Yuan* (`{{zh|s=园|t=園|p=yuán|l=garden|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}), or *yuan zihao* (`{{zh|s=园字号|t=園字號|p=yuán zìhào|l=garden brand|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}) did nearly all their business in hosting banquets onsite. Entertainment was not provided on a regular basis, but there were stages built onsite for Beijing opera performers. Instead of being hired by the establishments like in the previous three categories, performers at establishments of this category were usually contractors who paid the establishment to perform and split the earnings according to a certain percentage. Occasionally, establishments of this category would be called upon to help cater at customers\' homes, but had to work with others, never taking the lead as establishments like the *ting*.
### Lou
*Lou* (`{{zh|s=楼|t=樓|p=lóu|l=story, floor|labels=no|c=}}`{=mediawiki}), or *lou zihao* (`{{zh|s=楼字号|t=樓字號|p=lóu zìhào|l=story brand|labels=no|c=}}`{=mediawiki}) did the bulk of their business hosting banquets onsite by appointment. In addition, a smaller portion of the business was in serving different customers onsite on a walk-in basis. Occasionally, when catering at customers\' homes, establishments of this category would only provide the few specialty dishes they were famous for.
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# Beijing cuisine
## History
### Ju
*Ju* (`{{zh|c=居|p=jū|l=residence|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}), or *ju zihao* (`{{zh|s=居字号|t=居字號|p=jū zìhào|l=residence brand|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}) generally divided their business evenly into two areas: serving different customers onsite on a walk-in basis, and hosting banquets by appointment for customers who came as one group. Occasionally, when catering at the customers\' homes, establishments of this category would only provide the few specialty dishes they were famous for, just like the *lou*. However, unlike those establishments, which always cooked their specialty dishes on location, establishment of this category would either cook on location or simply bring the already-cooked food to the location.
### Zhai
*Zhai* (`{{zh|s=斋|t=齋|p=zhāi|l=study|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}), or *zhai zihao* (`{{zh|s=斋字号|t=齋字號|p=zhāi zìhào|l=study brand|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}) were mainly in the business of serving different customers onsite on a walk-in basis, but a small portion of their income did come from hosting banquets by appointment for customers who came as one group. Similar to the *ju*, when catering at customers' homes, establishments of this category would also only provide the few specialty dishes they are famous for, but they would mostly bring the already-cooked dishes to the location, and would only cook on location occasionally.
### Fang
*Fang* (`{{zh|c=坊|p=fǎng|l=workshop|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}), or *fang zihao* (`{{zh|s=坊字号|t=坊字號|p=fǎng zìhào|l=workshop brand|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}). Foodservice establishments of this category generally did not offer the service of hosting banquets made by appointment for customers who came as one group, but instead, often only offered to serve different customers onsite on a walk-in basis. Establishments of this category or lower would not be called upon to perform catering at the customers\' homes for special events.
### Guan
*Guan* (`{{zh|s=馆|t=館|p=guǎn|l=restaurant|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}), or *guan zihao* (`{{zh|s=馆字号|t=館字號|p=guǎn zìhào|l=restaurant brand|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}). Foodservice establishments of this category mainly served different customers onsite on a walk-in basis, and in addition, a portion of the income would be earned from selling to-goes.
### Dian
*Dian* (`{{zh|c=店|p=diàn|l=shop|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}), or *dian zihao* (`{{zh|s=店字号|t=店字號|p=diàn zìhào|l=shop brand|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}). Foodservice establishments of this category had their own place, like all previous categories, but serving different customers to dine onsite on a walk-in basis only provided half of the overall income, while the other half came from selling to-goes.
### Pu
*Pu* (`{{zh|s=铺|t=鋪|p=pù|l=store|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}), or *pu zihao* (`{{zh|s=铺字号|t=鋪字號|p=pù zìhào|l=store brand|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}). Foodservice establishments of this category ranked next to the last, and they were often named after the owners\' last names. Establishments of this category had fixed spots of business for having their own places, but smaller than *dian*, and thus did not have tables, but only seats for customers. As a result, the bulk of the income of establishments of this category was from selling to-goes, while income earned from customers dining onsite only provided a small portion of the overall income.
### Tan
*Tan* (`{{zh|s=摊|t=攤|p=tān|l=stand|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}), or *tan zihao* (`{{zh|s=摊字号|t=攤字號|p=tān zìhào|l=stand brand|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}). The lowest ranking foodservice establishments without any tables, and selling to-goes was the only form of business. In addition to name the food stand after the owners\' last name or the food sold, these food stands were also often named after the owners\' nicknames.
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# Beijing cuisine
## Notable dishes and street foods {#notable_dishes_and_street_foods}
### Meat and poultry dishes {#meat_and_poultry_dishes}
English Image Traditional Chinese Simplified Chinese Pinyin Notes
------------------------------------------------------------- ------- --------------------- -------------------- -------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Beef wrapped in pancake
Beggar\'s Chicken The dish\'s name literally means \"rich chicken\" or \"wealthy chicken\". It is also known as **jiaohua ji** (`{{zh|s=叫化鸡|t=叫化雞|p=jiàohuā jī|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}).
Cold pig\'s ears in sauce
Dried soy milk cream in tight roll with beef fillings
Fried dry soybean cream with diced meat filling
Fried meatballs
Fried pig\'s liver wrapped in Chinese small iris
Fried triangle
Fried wheaten pancake with meat and sea cucumber fillings
Glazed fried egg cake
Goat/sheep\'s intestine filled with blood
Hot and sour soup
Instant-boiled mutton A variant of hot pot which usually features boiled water as base (no additional spices) and mutton as the main type of meat.
Lard with flour wrapping glazed in honey
Lotus ham
Lotus-shaped cake with chicken
Meatball soup
Meat in sauce
Meat wrapped in thin mung bean flour pancake
Moo shu pork Literally \"wood shavings meat\"
Napa Cabbage Hot pot A variant of hot pot of Northeast China origin. Its main ingredients are pickled Napa cabbage, cooked pork belly and other meats, and other typical dishes include leaf vegetables, mushrooms, wontons, egg dumplings, tofu, and seafood. The cooked food is usually eaten with a dipping sauce.
Peking barbecue
Peking duck Usually served with pancakes
Peking dumpling
Peking wonton
Pickled Chinese cabbage with blood-filled pig\'s intestines
Pickled meat in sauce
Plain boiled pork
Pork in broth
Pork shoulder
Quick-fried tripe
Roasted meat Could be either beef, pork or mutton
Shredded mung bean skin salad
Soft fried tenderloin
Stewed pig\'s organs
Stir-fried tomato and scrambled eggs
Sweet and sour spare ribs
Sweet stir-fried mutton / lamb
Wheaten cake boiled in meat broth
### Fish and seafood dishes {#fish_and_seafood_dishes}
English Traditional Chinese Simplified Chinese Pinyin Notes
------------------------------------------------- --------------------- -------------------- -------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Abalone with peas and fish paste The dish\'s name literally means \"toad abalone\".
Boiled fish in household-style
Braised fish
Egg and shrimp wrapped in corn flour pancake
Fish cooked with five kinds of sliced vegetable
Fish cooked with five-spice powder
Fish in vinegar and pepper
Fish soaked in soup
Sea cucumber with quail egg The dish\'s name literally means \"the black dragon spits out pearls\".
Shrimp chips with egg The dish\'s name literally means \"the goldfish playing with the lotus\".
Soft fried fish
### Noodles (both vegetarian and non-vegetarian) {#noodles_both_vegetarian_and_non_vegetarian}
English Image Traditional Chinese Simplified Chinese Pinyin Notes
-------------------------- ------- --------------------- -------------------- -------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Naked oats noodle
Noodles with thick gravy
Sesame Sauce Noodles A popular noodle dish in Northern China. The sesame sauce is mainly made of sesame paste and sesame oil. In American cooking, the sesame paste is often substituted by peanut butter.
Zhajiangmian
### Pastries
English Image Traditional Chinese Simplified Chinese Pinyin Notes
------------------------------ ------- --------------------- -------------------- -------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Fried butter cake
Fried cake with fillings
Fried sesame egg cake The dish\'s name literally means \"open mouth and laugh/smile\".
Fried tofu with egg wrapping
*Jiaoquan* Shaped like a fried doughnut, but has a crispier texture
Steamed egg cake
Sachima 沙琪瑪 沙琪玛 Chinese pastry of Manchu origin similar looking to Rice Krispies Treats but different in taste
Yellow pea cake 豌豆黃 豌豆黄 made from sweetened pea puree
### Vegetarian
English Traditional Chinese Simplified Chinese Pinyin Notes
---------------------------------------------------------- --------------------- -------------------- -------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Baked sesame seed cake
Baked wheaten cake
Bean jelly
Bean paste cake
Beijing yoghurt
Buckwheat cake
Cake with bean paste filling
Candied fruit
Chatang / Miancha / Youcha
Chestnut broth
Chestnut cake with bean paste
Chinese cabbage in mustard
Crisp fritter
Crisp fritter with sesame
Crisp noodle
Crisp thin fritter twist
Deep-fried dough cake
Dried fermented mung bean juice
Dried soy milk cream in tight rolls
Fermented mung bean juice
Freshwater snail-shaped cake
Fried cake
Fried cake glazed in malt sugar
Fried dough twist
Fried ring
Fried sugar cake
Fuling pancake sandwich
Glazed / candied Chinese yam
Glazed steamed glutinous rice cake
Glazed thin pancake with Chinese yam and jujube stuffing
Glutinous rice ball
Glutinous rice cake
Glutinous rice cake roll
Hawthorn cake
Honeycomb cake
Iced fruit
Jellied beancurd
Kidney bean roll
Lama cake
Millet zongzi
Mung bean cake
Noodle roll
Pancake
Pease pudding
Preserved fruit
Purple vine cake
Rice and jujube cake
Rice and white kidney bean cake with jujube
Rice cake with bean paste
Shortening cake
Soybean flour cake
Stir fried hawthorn
Stir-fried starch knots
Suncake Not to be confused with Taiwanese suncake, whose name in Chinese is (`{{zh|t=太陽餅|s=太阳饼|p=tàiyáng bǐng|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}) translates more literally as \"sun cookie\".
Sweet flour cake
Sweet hard flour cake
Sweet potato starch jelly
Sweetened baked wheaten cake
Tanghulu
Tangyuan
Thin millet flour pancake
Thin pancake
Thin pancake of lard
Thousand-layered cake
Veggie roll Not to be confused with spring rolls.
Watermelon jelly
Wotou
Xing ren cha
Xingren doufu
Yellow cake
### Beijing delicacies {#beijing_delicacies}
- Deep-fried pie
- Soy bean curd
## Restaurants known for Beijing cuisine {#restaurants_known_for_beijing_cuisine}
Numerous traditional restaurants in Beijing are credited with great contributions in the formation of Beijing cuisine, but many of them have gone out of business. However, some of them managed to survive until today, and some of them are:
- Bai Kui (白魁): established in 1780
- Bao Du Feng (爆肚冯): established in 1881, also known as Ji Sheng Long (金生隆)
- Bianyifang: established in 1416, the oldest surviving restaurant in Beijing
- Cha Tang Li (茶汤李), established in 1858
- Dao Xiang Chun (稻香春): established in 1916
- Dao Xian Cun (稻香村): established in 1895
- De Shun Zhai (大顺斋): established in the early 1870s
- Dong Lai Shun (东来顺): established in 1903
- Dong Xin Shun (东兴顺): also known as Bao Du Zhang (爆肚张), established in 1883
- Du Yi Chu (都一处): established in 1738
- Dou Fu Nao Bai (豆腐脑白): established in 1877, also known as Xi Yu Zhai (西域斋)
- En Yuan Ju (恩元居), established in 1929
- Fang Sheng Zhai (芳生斋), also known as Nai Lao Wei (奶酪魏), established in 1857
- Hong Bin Lou (鸿宾楼): established in 1853 in Tianjin, relocated to Beijing in 1955
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# List of governors of Michigan
The **governor of Michigan**, is the head of government of the U.S. state of Michigan as well as the commander-in-chief of the state\'s military forces. The governor has a duty to enforce state laws; the power to either approve or veto appropriation bills passed by the Michigan Legislature; the power to convene the legislature; and the power to grant pardons, except in cases of impeachment. The governor is also empowered to reorganize the executive branch of the state government.
In the 17th and 18th century, Michigan was part of French and then British holdings, and administered by their colonial governors. After becoming part of the United States, areas of what is today Michigan were part of the Northwest Territory, Indiana Territory and Illinois Territory, and administered by territorial governors. In 1805, the Michigan Territory was created, and five men served as territorial governors, until Michigan was granted statehood in 1837. Forty-seven individuals have held the position of state governor. The first female governor, Jennifer Granholm, served from 2003 to 2011.
After Michigan gained statehood, governors held the office for a 2-year term, until the 1963 Michigan Constitution changed the term to 4 years. The number of times an individual could hold the office was unlimited until a 1992 constitutional amendment imposed a lifetime term limit of two 4-year governorships. The longest-serving governor in Michigan\'s history was William Milliken, who was promoted from lieutenant governor after Governor George W. Romney resigned to become Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, then was elected to three further successive terms. The only governors to serve non-consecutive terms were John S. Barry and Frank Fitzgerald.
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# List of governors of Michigan
## List of governors {#list_of_governors}
### Territory of Michigan {#territory_of_michigan}
Michigan Territory was organized on June 30, 1805, from the north half of Indiana Territory. It had three governors appointed by the president of the United States, including the longest-serving governor of any territory, Lewis Cass, who served for 18 years.
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| scope=\"col\" data-sort-type=\"number\"\|`{{abbr|No.|Number}}`{=mediawiki} | Governor | | Term in office |
+============================================================================+===================================================+======================================+===============================================+
| 1 | rowspan=\"2\" data-sort-value=\"Hull, William\"\| | **William Hull**\ | \ |
| | | `{{Small|(1753–1825)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ |
| | | | October 29, 1813\ |
| | | | `{{small|(successor appointed)}}`{=mediawiki} |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| 2 | rowspan=\"3\" data-sort-value=\"Cass, Lewis\"\| | **Lewis Cass**\ | \ |
| | | `{{Small|(1782–1866)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ |
| | | | August 1, 1831\ |
| | | | `{{small|(resigned)}}`{=mediawiki} |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| 3 | data-sort-value=\"Porter, George\"\| | **George Bryan Porter**\ | \ |
| | | `{{Small|(1791–1834)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ |
| | | | July 6, 1834\ |
| | | | `{{small|(died in office)}}`{=mediawiki} |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| --- | data-sort-value=\"Mason, Stevens\"\| | **Stevens T. Mason**\ | \ |
| | | `{{Small|(1811–1843)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ |
| | | | September 21, 1835\ |
| | | | `{{small|(successor appointed)}}`{=mediawiki} |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| --- | data-sort-value=\"Horner, John\"\| | **John S. Horner**\ | \ |
| | | `{{Small|(1802–1883)}}`{=mediawiki} | --\ |
| | | | July 3, 1836\ |
| | | | `{{small|(resigned)}}`{=mediawiki} |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
: Governors of Michigan Territory
### State of Michigan {#state_of_michigan}
Michigan was admitted to the Union on January 26, 1837. The original 1835 Constitution of Michigan provided for the election of a governor and a lieutenant governor every 2 years. The current constitution of 1963 increased this term to four years. There was no term limit on governors until a 1993 constitutional amendment limited governors to two terms.
Should the office of governor become vacant, the lieutenant governor becomes governor, followed in order of succession by the secretary of state and the attorney general. Prior to the current constitution, the duties of the office would devolve upon the lieutenant governor, without that person actually becoming governor. Beginning in 1850, the term begins at noon on January 1 of the year following the election; before, it had no set start date, and terms would last until when their successor was inaugurated, which would be at least the first Monday in January following their election. Prior to the modern 1963 constitution, the governor and lieutenant governor were elected through separate votes, allowing them to be from different political parties. In 1963, this was changed, so that votes are cast jointly for a governor and lieutenant governor of the same political party.
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| scope=\"col\" data-sort-type=\"number\"\|`{{abbr|No.|Number}}`{=mediawiki} | Governor | | | Term in office | Party |
+============================================================================+=========================================================+===+=====================================================+==============================================+============+
| 1 | rowspan=\"2\" data-sort-value=\"Mason, Stevens\"\| | | **Stevens T. Mason**\ | \ | Democratic |
| | | | `{{small|(1811–1843)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 7, 1840\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(retired)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1837 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 2 | data-sort-value=\"Woodbridge, William\"\| | | **William Woodbridge**\ | \ | Whig |
| | | | `{{small|(1780–1861)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | February 24, 1841\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(resigned)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 3 | data-sort-value=\"Gordon, James\"\| | | **James Wright Gordon**\ | \ | Whig |
| | | | `{{small|(1809–1853)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 3, 1842\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(retired)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 4 | rowspan=\"2\" data-sort-value=\"Barry, John\"\| | | **John S. Barry**\ | \ | Democratic |
| | | | `{{small|(1802–1870)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 5, 1846\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(retired)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1843 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 5 | data-sort-value=\"Felch, Alpheus\"\| | | **Alpheus Felch**\ | \ | Democratic |
| | | | `{{small|(1804–1896)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | March 3, 1847\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(resigned)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 6 | data-sort-value=\"Greenly, William\"\| | | **William L. Greenly**\ | \ | Democratic |
| | | | `{{small|(1813–1883)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 3, 1848\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(retired)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 7 | data-sort-value=\"Ransom, Epaphroditus\"\| | | **Epaphroditus Ransom**\ | \ | Democratic |
| | | | `{{small|(1798–1859)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 7, 1850\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(lost re-nomination)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 8 | data-sort-value=\"Barry, John\"\| | | **John S. Barry**\ | \ | Democratic |
| | | | `{{small|(1802–1870)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1852\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(retired)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 9 | rowspan=\"2\" data-sort-value=\"McClelland, Robert\"\| | | **Robert McClelland**\ | \ | Democratic |
| | | | `{{small|(1807–1880)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | March 7, 1853\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(resigned)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1852 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 10 | data-sort-value=\"Parsons, Andrew\"\| | | **Andrew Parsons**\ | \ | Democratic |
| | | | `{{small|(1817–1855)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 3, 1855\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(retired)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 11 | rowspan=\"2\" data-sort-value=\"Bingham, Kinsley\"\| | | **Kinsley S. Bingham**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1808–1861)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 5, 1859\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(retired)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1856 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 12 | data-sort-value=\"Wisner, Moses\"\| | | **Moses Wisner**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1815–1863)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 2, 1861\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(retired)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 13 | rowspan=\"4\" data-sort-value=\"Blair, Austin\"\| | | **Austin Blair**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1818–1894)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 4, 1865\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(retired)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | \ | | | | |
| | `{{small|(died June 15, 1861)}}`{=mediawiki} | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1862 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 14 | rowspan=\"2\" data-sort-value=\"Crapo, Henry\"\| | | **Henry H. Crapo**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1804–1869)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1869\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(retired)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1866 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 15 | rowspan=\"2\" data-sort-value=\"Baldwin, Henry\"\| | | **Henry P. Baldwin**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1814–1892)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1873\ | |
| | | | | (retired) | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1870 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 16 | rowspan=\"2\" data-sort-value=\"Bagley, John\"\| | | **John J. Bagley**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1832–1881)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 3, 1877\ | |
| | | | | (retired) | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1874 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 17 | rowspan=\"2\" data-sort-value=\"Croswell, Charles\"\| | | **Charles Croswell**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1825–1886)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1881\ | |
| | | | | (retired) | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1878 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 18 | data-sort-value=\"Jerome, David\"\| | | **David Jerome**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1829–1896)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1883\ | |
| | | | | (lost re-election) | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 19 | data-sort-value=\"Begole, Josiah\"\| | | **Josiah Begole**\ | \ | Democratic |
| | | | `{{small|(1815–1896)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1885\ | |
| | | | | (lost re-election) | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 20 | data-sort-value=\"Alger, Russell\"\| | | **Russell A. Alger**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1836–1907)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1887\ | |
| | | | | (retired) | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 21 | rowspan=\"2\" data-sort-value=\"Luce, Cyrus\"\| | | **Cyrus G. Luce**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1824–1905)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1891\ | |
| | | | | (retired) | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1888 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 22 | data-sort-value=\"Winans, Edwin\"\| | | **Edwin B. Winans**\ | \ | Democratic |
| | | | `{{small|(1826–1894)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1893\ | |
| | | | | (retired) | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 23 | rowspan=\"3\" data-sort-value=\"Rich, John\"\| | | **John Treadway Rich**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1841–1926)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1897\ | |
| | | | | (retired) | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1894 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 24 | rowspan=\"2\" data-sort-value=\"Pingree, Hazen\"\| | | **Hazen S. Pingree**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1840–1901)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1901\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(retired)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1898 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 25 | rowspan=\"2\" data-sort-value=\"Bliss, Aaron\"\| | | **Aaron T. Bliss**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1837–1906)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 2, 1905\ | |
| | | | | (retired) | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1902 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 26 | rowspan=\"3\" data-sort-value=\"Warner, Fred\"\| | | **Fred M. Warner**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1865–1923)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1911\ | |
| | | | | (retired) | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1906 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1908 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 27 | data-sort-value=\"Osborn, Chase\"\| | | **Chase Osborn**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1860–1949)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1913\ | |
| | | | | (retired) | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 28 | rowspan=\"2\" data-sort-value=\"Ferris, Woodbridge\"\| | | **Woodbridge N. Ferris**\ | \ | Democratic |
| | | | `{{small|(1853–1928)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1917\ | |
| | | | | (retired) | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1914 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 29 | rowspan=\"2\" data-sort-value=\"Sleeper, Albert\"\| | | **Albert Sleeper**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1862–1934)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1921\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(retired)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1918 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 30 | rowspan=\"3\" data-sort-value=\"Groesbeck, Alex\"\| | | **Alex J. Groesbeck**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1873–1953)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1927\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(retired)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1922 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1924 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 31 | rowspan=\"2\" data-sort-value=\"Green, Fred\"\| | | **Fred W. Green**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1871–1936)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1931\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(retired)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1928 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 32 | data-sort-value=\"Brucker, Wilber\"\| | | **Wilber M. Brucker**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1894–1968)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1933\ | |
| | | | | (lost re-election) | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 33 | data-sort-value=\"Comstock, William\"\| | | **William Comstock**\ | \ | Democratic |
| | | | `{{small|(1877–1949)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1935\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(lost re-nomination)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 34 | data-sort-value=\"Fitzgerald, Frank\"\| | | **Frank Fitzgerald**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1885–1939)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1937\ | |
| | | | | (lost re-election) | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 35 | data-sort-value=\"Murphy, Frank\"\| | | **Frank Murphy**\ | \ | Democratic |
| | | | `{{small|(1890–1949)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1939\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(lost re-election)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 36 | data-sort-value=\"Fitzgerald, Frank\"\| | | **Frank Fitzgerald**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1885–1939)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | March 16, 1939\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(died in office)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 37 | data-sort-value=\"Dickinson, Luren\"\| | | **Luren Dickinson**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1859–1943)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1941\ | |
| | | | | (lost election) | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 38 | data-sort-value=\"Van Wagoner, Murray\"\| | | **Murray Van Wagoner**\ | \ | Democratic |
| | | | `{{small|(1898–1986)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1943\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(lost re-election)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 39 | rowspan=\"2\" data-sort-value=\"Kelly, Harry\"\| | | **Harry Kelly**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1895–1971)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1947\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(retired)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1944 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 40 | data-sort-value=\"Sigler, Kim\"\| | | **Kim Sigler**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1894–1953)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1949\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(lost re-election)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 41 | rowspan=\"6\" data-sort-value=\"Williams, G. Mennen\"\| | | **G. Mennen Williams**\ | \ | Democratic |
| | | | `{{small|(1911–1988)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1961\ | |
| | | | | (retired) | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1950 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1952 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1954 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1956 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1958 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 42 | data-sort-value=\"Swainson, John\"\| | | **John Swainson**\ | \ | Democratic |
| | | | `{{small|(1925–1994)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1963\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(lost re-election)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 43 | rowspan=\"3\" data-sort-value=\"Romney, George\"\| | | **George W. Romney**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1907–1995)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 22, 1969\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(resigned)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1964 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1966 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 44 | rowspan=\"4\" data-sort-value=\"Milliken, William\"\| | | **William Milliken**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|(1922–2019)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1983\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(retired)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1970 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1974 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1978 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 45 | rowspan=\"2\" data-sort-value=\"Blanchard, James\"\| | | **James Blanchard**\ | \ | Democratic |
| | | | `{{small|({{Abbr|b.|born in}} 1942)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 1991\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(lost re-election)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1986 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 46 | rowspan=\"3\" data-sort-value=\"Engler, John\"\| | | **John Engler**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|({{Abbr|b.|born in}} 1948)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 2003\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(term-limited)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1994 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 1998 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 47 | rowspan=\"2\" data-sort-value=\"Granholm, Jennifer\"\| | | **Jennifer Granholm**\ | \ | Democratic |
| | | | `{{small|({{Abbr|b.|born in}} 1959)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 2011\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(term-limited)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 2006 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 48 | rowspan=\"2\" data-sort-value=\"Snyder, Rick\"\| | | **Rick Snyder**\ | \ | Republican |
| | | | `{{small|({{Abbr|b.|born in}} 1958)}}`{=mediawiki}\ | --\ | |
| | | | | January 1, 2019\ | |
| | | | | `{{small|(term-limited)}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| | 2014 | | | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+------------+
| 49 | rowspan=\"2\" data-sort-value=\"Whitmer, Gretchen\"\| | | **Gretchen Whitmer**\ | \ | Democratic |
| | | | `{{small|({{Abbr|b
| 2,956 |
List of governors of Michigan
| 1 |
19,809 |
# Moses Amyraut
**Moïse Amyraut** (Latin: **Moyses Amyraldus**; September 1596 -- 8 January 1664), in English texts often **Moses Amyraut**, was a French Huguenot, Reformed theologian and metaphysician. He was the architect of Amyraldism, a Calvinist doctrine that made modifications to Calvinist theology regarding the nature of Christ\'s atonement and covenant theology.
## Life
Amyraut was born in Bourgueil, in the valley of the Changeon in the province of Anjou. His father was a lawyer, and, preparing Moses for the same profession, sent him, on the completion of his study of the humanities at Orléans, to the university of Poitiers.
At the university he took the degree of licentiate (BA) of laws. On his way home from the university he passed through Saumur, and, having visited the pastor of the Protestant church there, was introduced by him to Philippe de Mornay, governor of the city. Struck with young Amyraut\'s ability and culture, they both urged him to change from law to theology. His father advised him to revise his philological and philosophical studies, and read over Calvin\'s *Institutions,* before finally determining a course. He did so, and decided on theology.
He moved to the Academy of Saumur and studied under John Cameron, who ultimately regarded him as his greatest scholar. He had a brilliant course, and was in due time licensed as a minister of the French Protestant Church. The contemporary civil wars and excitements hindered his advancement. His first church was in Saint-Aignan, in the province of Maine. There he remained two years. Jean Daillé, who moved to Paris, advised the church at Saumur to secure Amyraut as his successor, praising him \"as above himself.\" The university of Saumur at the same time had fixed its eyes on him as professor of theology. The great churches of Paris and Rouen also contended for him, and to win him sent their deputies to the provincial synod of Anjou.
Amyraut had left the choice to the synod. He was appointed to Saumur in 1633, and to the professor\'s chair along with the pastorate. On the occasion of his inauguration he maintained for thesis *De Sacerdotio Christi*. His co-professors were Louis Cappel and Josué de la Place, who also were Cameron\'s pupils and lifelong friends, who collaborated in the *Theses Salmurienses*, a collection of theses propounded by candidates in theology prefaced by the inaugural addresses of the three professors. Amyraut soon gave to French Protestantism a new direction.
In 1631 he published his *Traité des religions*; and from this year onward he was a foremost man in the church. Chosen to represent the provincial synod of Anjou, Touraine and Maine at the 1631 `{{Interlanguage link multi|National Synod of Charenton|fr|3=Synode national de Charenton (1631)}}`{=mediawiki}, he was appointed as orator to present to the king *The Copy of their Complaints and Grievances for the Infractions and Violations of the Edict of Nantes*.
Previous deputies had addressed the king on their bent knees, whereas the representatives of the Catholics had been permitted to stand. Amyraut consented to be orator only if the assembly authorized him to stand. There was intense resistance. Cardinal Richelieu himself, preceded by lesser dignitaries, condescended to visit Amyraut privately, to persuade him to kneel; but Amyraut held resolutely to his point and carried it. His \"oration\" on this occasion, which was immediately published in the French *Mercure*, remains a striking landmark in the history of French Protestantism. During his absence on this matter the assembly debated \"whether the Lutherans who desired it, might be admitted into communion with the Reformed Churches of France at the Lord\'s Table.\" It was decided in the affirmative previous to his return; but he approved with astonishing eloquence, and thereafter was ever in the front rank in maintaining intercommunion between all churches holding the main doctrines of the Reformation.
Pierre Bayle recounts the title-pages of no fewer than thirty-two books of which Amyraut was the author. These show that he took part in all the great controversies on predestination and Arminianism which then so agitated and harassed all Europe. Substantially he held fast the Calvinism of his preceptor Cameron; but, like Richard Baxter in England, by his breadth and charity he exposed himself to all manner of misconstruction. In 1634 he published his *Traité de la predestination*, in which he tried to mitigate the harsh features of predestination by his *Universalismus hypotheticus*. God, he taught, predestines all men to happiness on condition of their having faith. This gave rise to a charge of heresy, of which he was acquitted at the national synod held at Alençon in 1637, and presided over by Benjamin Basnage (1580--1652). The charge was brought up again at the national synod of Charenton in 1644, when he was again acquitted. A third attack at the synod of Loudun in 1659 met with no better success. The university of Saumur became the university of French Protestantism.
Amyraut had as many as a hundred students in attendance upon his lectures. One of these was William Penn, who would later go on to found the Province of Pennsylvania in America based in part on Amyraut\'s notions of religious freedom [1](http://www.quaker.org/wmpenn.html). Another historic part filled by Amyraut was in the negotiations originated by Pierre le Gouz de la Berchère (1600--1653), first president of the *parlement* of Grenoble, when exiled to Saumur, for a reconciliation and reunion of the Catholics of France with the French Protestants. Very large were the concessions made by Richelieu in his personal interviews with Amyraut; but, as with the Worcester House negotiations in England between the Church of England and nonconformists, they inevitably fell through. On all sides the statesmanship and eloquence of Amyraut were conceded. His *De l\'elevation de la foy et de l\'abaissement de la raison en la creance des mysteres de la religion* (1641) gave him early a high place as a metaphysician. Exclusive of his controversial writings, he left behind him a very voluminous series of practical evangelical books, which have long remained the \"fireside\" favourites of the peasantry of French Protestantism. Amongst these are *Estat des fideles apres la mort*; *Sur l\'oraison dominicale*; *Du merite des oeuvres*; *Traité de la justification*; and paraphrases of books of the Old and New Testament. His closing years were weakened by a severe fall he met with in 1657. He died on 18 January 1664 in Saumur.
## Seventeenth century opponents {#seventeenth_century_opponents}
There were a number of theologians who defended Calvinistic orthodoxy against Amyraut and Saumur, including Friedrich Spanheim (1600--1649) and Francis Turretin (1623--1687). Ultimately, the Helvetic Consensus was drafted to counteract the theology of Saumur and Amyraldism
| 1,097 |
Moses Amyraut
| 0 |
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# Tacitus (emperor)
**Marcus Claudius Tacitus** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|t|æ|s|ɪ|t|ə|s}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|TAS|it|əs}}`{=mediawiki}; died June 276) was Roman emperor from 275 to 276. During his short reign he campaigned against the Goths and the Heruli, for which he received the title *Gothicus Maximus*.
## Early life {#early_life}
\[\[<File:Tacitus> Ant.jpg\|right\|thumb\|Antoninianus of Tacitus. Legend: IMPerator
Caesar Marcus CLavdius TACITVS AVGustus.\]\] His early life is largely unknown. An origin story circulated after his coronation claimed Tacitus to be the heir of an old Umbrian family and one of the wealthiest men of the empire, with a total wealth of 280 million sestertii. His faction distributed copies of the historian Publius Cornelius Tacitus\' work, which was barely read at the time, perhaps contributing to its partial survival. Modern historiography rejects his alleged descent from the historian as a fabrication. It is more likely that he emerged from the Illyrian military, which made him a representative of the army in imperial politics.
In the course of his long life he held various civil offices, including the consulship twice, once under Valerian and again in 273, earning universal respect.
## Emperor
After the assassination of Aurelian, the army, apparently showing remorse towards its role in the death of the beloved emperor, relinquished the right of choosing his successor to the Senate. After a few weeks, the throne was offered to the aged *Princeps Senatus*, Tacitus.
According to the *Historia Augusta*, Tacitus, after ascertaining the sincerity of the Senate\'s regard for him, accepted their nomination on 25 September 275, and the choice was cordially ratified by the army. If true, Tacitus would have been the last emperor elected by the Senate. However, it\'s possible that much of this narrative is fictitious, as Zosimus and Zonaras report that Tacitus was actually proclaimed by the army without any intervention of the Senate. His proclamation as emperor should have happened in late November or early December.
In older historiography, it was generally accepted that Aurelian\'s wife, Ulpia Severina, ruled in her own right before the election of Tacitus which could indicate an interregnum which lasted as long as six months. Contemporary bibliography considers that no interregnum may have existed between Aurelian\'s death and the coronation of the new Emperor. Tacitus had been living in Campania before his election, and returned only reluctantly to the assembly of the Senate in Rome, where he was elected. He immediately asked the Senators to deify Aurelian, before arresting and executing Aurelian\'s murderers. In ancient sources, he was described as very old at that time, but in reality he was possibly in his fifties.
Amongst the highest concerns of the new reign was the restoration of the ancient Senatorial powers. He granted substantial prerogatives to the Senate, securing to them by law the appointment of the emperor, of the consuls, and the provincial governors, as well as supreme right of appeal from every court in the empire in its judicial function, and the direction of certain branches of the revenue in its long-abeyant administrative capacity. Probus respected these changes, but after the reforms of Diocletian in the succeeding decades not a vestige would be left of them.
### Fighting barbarians {#fighting_barbarians}
Next he moved against the barbarian mercenaries that had been gathered by Aurelian to supplement Roman forces for his Eastern campaign. These mercenaries had plundered several towns in the Eastern Roman provinces after Aurelian had been murdered and the campaign cancelled. His half-brother, the Praetorian Prefect Florian, and Tacitus himself won a victory against these tribes, among which were the Heruli, gaining the emperor the title *Gothicus Maximus*.
### Death
On his way back to the west to deal with a Frankish and Alamannic invasion of Gaul, according to Aurelius Victor, Eutropius and the Historia Augusta, Tacitus died of fever at Tyana in Cappadocia around June 276, after a rule of just over 6 months. In a contrary account, Zosimus claims he was assassinated, after appointing one of his relatives to an important command in Syria
| 657 |
Tacitus (emperor)
| 0 |
19,822 |
# MV Tampa
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unexpected '{'
{{Infobox ship image
^
``
| 19 |
MV Tampa
| 0 |
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# May Day
**May Day** is a European festival of ancient origins marking the beginning of summer, usually celebrated on 1 May, around halfway between the Northern Hemisphere\'s spring equinox and midsummer solstice. Festivities may also be held the night before, known as **May Eve**. Traditions include gathering green branches and wildflowers (\"bringing in the May\"), which are used to decorate buildings and made into wreaths; crowning a May Queen, sometimes with a male companion decked in greenery; setting up a Maypole, May Tree, or May Bush, around which people dance and sing; as well as parades and processions involving these. Bonfires are also a major part of the festival in some regions. Regional varieties and related traditions include Walpurgis Night in central and northern Europe, the Gaelic festival Beltane, the Welsh festival Calan Mai, and May devotions to the Blessed Virgin Mary. It has also been associated with the ancient Roman festival Floralia.
International Workers\' Day observed on 1 May is also called \"May Day\", but the two have different histories.
## Origins and celebrations {#origins_and_celebrations}
The earliest known May celebrations appeared with the *Floralia*, festival of Flora, the Roman goddess of flowers, held from 27 April to 3 May during the Roman Republic era, and the *Maiouma* or *Maiuma*, a festival celebrating Dionysus and Aphrodite held every three years during the month of May. The *Floralia* opened with theatrical performances. In the *Floralia*, Ovid says that hares and goats were released as part of the festivities. Persius writes that crowds were pelted with vetches, beans, and lupins. A ritual called the *Florifertum* was performed on either 27 April or 3 May, during which a bundle of wheat ears was carried into a shrine, though it is not clear if this devotion was made to Flora or Ceres. *Floralia* concluded with competitive events and spectacles, and a sacrifice to Flora.
*Maiouma* was celebrated at least as early as the 2nd century AD, when records show expenses for the month-long festival were appropriated by Emperor Commodus. According to the 6th-century chronicles of John Malalas, the *Maiouma* was a \"nocturnal dramatic festival, held every three years and known as Orgies, that is, the Mysteries of Dionysus and Aphrodite\" and that it was \"known as the *Maioumas* because it is celebrated in the month of May-Artemisios\". During this time, enough money was set aside by the government for torches, lights, and other expenses to cover a 30-day festival of \"all-night revels.\" The *Maiouma* was celebrated with splendorous banquets and offerings. Its reputation for licentiousness caused it to be suppressed during the reign of Emperor Constantine, though a less debauched version of it was briefly restored during the reigns of Arcadius and Honorius, only to be suppressed again during the same period.
During the Middle Ages, May Eve was celebrated in much of northern Europe with the lighting of bonfires at night. In the Germanic countries, this became Walpurgis Night, commemorating the official canonization of Saint Walpurga on 1 May 870. It continued the tradition of lighting bonfires. Folklorist Jack Santino says \"Her day and its traditions almost certainly are traceable to pre-Christian celebrations that took place at this time\". In Gaelic culture, 1 May was the celebration of *Beltaine* or *Cétshamhain*, while for the Welsh it was *Calan Mai* or *Cyntefin*. First attested in 900 AD, the celebration mainly focused on the symbolic use of fire to bless cattle and other livestock as they were moved to summer pastures. This custom continued into the early 19th century, during which time cattle would be made to jump over fires to protect their milk from being stolen by fairies. People would also leap over the fires for luck.
Since the 18th century, many Roman Catholics have observed May -- and May Day -- with various May devotions to the Blessed Virgin Mary. In works of art, school skits, and so forth, Mary\'s head will often be adorned with flowers in a May crowning. 1 May is also one of two feast days of the Catholic patron saint of workers St Joseph the Worker, a carpenter, husband to Mother Mary, and foster father of Jesus. Replacing another feast to St. Joseph, this date was chosen by Pope Pius XII in 1955 as a counterpoint to the communist International Workers\' Day celebrations on May Day.
The best known modern May Day traditions, observed both in Europe and North America, include dancing around the maypole and crowning the Queen of May. Fading in popularity since the late 20th century is the tradition of giving of \"May baskets\", small baskets of sweets or flowers, usually left anonymously on neighbours\' doorsteps.
In the late 20th century, many neopagans began reconstructing some of the older pagan festivals and combining them with more recently developed European secular and Catholic traditions, and celebrating May Day as a pagan religious festival.
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## Germanic regions {#germanic_regions}
### Germany
In rural regions of Germany, especially the Harz Mountains, *Walpurgisnacht* celebrations are traditionally held on the night before May Day, including bonfires and the wrapping of a *Maibaum* (maypole). Young people use this opportunity to party, while the day itself is used by many families to get some fresh air. Motto: \"Tanz in den Mai\" (*\"Dance into May\"*).
In the Rhineland, 1 May is also celebrated by the delivery of a maypole, a tree covered in streamers to the house of a girl the night before. The tree is typically from a love interest, though a tree wrapped only in white streamers is a sign of dislike. Women usually place roses or rice in the form of a heart at the house of their beloved one. It is common to stick the heart to a window or place it in front of the doormat. In leap years, it is the responsibility of the women to place the maypole. All the action is usually done secretly and it is an individual\'s choice whether to give a hint of their identity or stay anonymous.
### Tyrol
In *The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion*, Sir James George Frazer reported May Day customs in Tyrol during the 19th century. It was a time for banishing evil powers from the community. On the last three days of April, all houses were fumigated with juniper and rue incense. At sunset on May Day, the people held a ceremony they called \"burning out the witches\". The church bells were rung and people made as much noise as possible by shouting, banging pots and pans, ringing bells and cracking whips. Men carried lighted bundles of herbs fasted on poles, while women carried censers. Then would run seven times round the houses and the village, so that the witches would be \"smoked out of their lurking-places and driven away\".
### Sweden
In Sweden, there are bonfires and outdoor celebrations on May Eve or Walpurgis Night (\"Valborgsmässoafton\") in the evening of 30 April. Most of the traditions associated elsewhere with May Day are held at Midsummer instead; such as Maypole dancing.
Up until the 19th century, on May Day itself, there were mock battles between Summer and Winter. Sir James George Frazer wrote in *The Golden Bough* (1911):
> on May Day two troops of young men on horseback used to meet as if for mortal combat. One of them was led by a representative of Winter clad in furs, who threw snowballs and ice in order to prolong the cold weather. The other troop was commanded by a representative of Summer covered with fresh leaves and flowers. In the sham fight which followed the party of Summer came off victorious, and the ceremony ended with a feast
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# May Day
## Celtic regions {#celtic_regions}
### Ireland
*Main article: Beltane* In Ireland, May Day has long been celebrated as the festival of *Bealtaine*. It marks the beginning of summer and historically was when cattle were driven out to the summer pastures. Rituals were performed to protect cattle, people and crops, and to encourage growth. Special bonfires were kindled, whose flames, smoke and ashes were deemed to have protective powers. The people and their cattle would walk around or between bonfires, and sometimes leap over the flames or embers. All household fires would be doused and then re-lit from the Bealtaine bonfire. These gatherings would be accompanied by a feast, and some of the food and drink would be offered to the *\[\[aos sí\]\]*, the \'spirits\' or \'fairies\'. Doors, windows, byres and cattle would be decorated with yellow May flowers, perhaps because they evoked fire. In parts of Ireland, people would make a May Bush: typically a thorn bush or branch decorated with flowers, ribbons, bright shells and rushlights. Holy wells were also visited, while Bealtaine dew was thought to bring beauty and maintain youthfulness.
For almost two centuries, the Dublin suburb of Finglas was well known for its \"May Games\" and its maypole \"was one of the last to survive in Dublin\", according to historian Michael J. Tutty. Throughout the eighteenth century, the Finglas maypole was at the centre of a week of festivity which included \"the playing of games, various competitions, and, according to one account the crowning of \'Queen of the May\'.\" In a letter written by Major Sirr on 2 May 1803 (shortly after the turbulent 1798 Rebellion), he writes:
> Godfrey and I went to Finglass and found everything in order. Major Wilkinson, who resides, there, waited upon me\... and told me there was not the smallest occasion for military aid nor was there the least possibility of any disturbance\... I ordered the guard to return to Dublin and these gentlemen and their families seemed quite rejoiced that the old custom of Maying was not to be interrupted in Finglass where that amusement has been kept up for a century past without ever being curbed before.
Public celebrations of Bealtaine fell out of popularity by the 20th century and many old traditions are no longer widely observed. The tradition of a May Bush was reported as being suppressed by law and the magistrates in Dublin in the 18th century. The tradition of lighting bonfires has survived in parts of the country, and other traditions continue to be revived as local cultural events.
### Scotland
May Day has been celebrated in Scotland for centuries. It was previously closely associated with the Beltane festival. Reference to this earlier celebration is found in poem \'Peblis to the Play\', contained in the Maitland Manuscripts of 15th- and 16th-century Scots poetry:
At Beltane, quhen ilk bodie bownis To Peblis to the Play, To heir the singin and the soundis; The solace, suth to say, Be firth and forrest furth they found Thay graythis tham full gay; God wait that wald they do that stound, For it was their feast day the day they celebrate May Day, Thay said, \[\...\]
The poem describes the celebration in the town of Peebles in the Scottish Borders, which continues to stage a parade and pageant each year, including the annual \'Common Riding\', which takes place in many towns throughout the Borders. As well as the crowning of a Beltane Queen each year, it is custom to sing \'The Beltane Song\'.
John Jamieson, in his *Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language* (1808) describes some of the May Day/Beltane customs which persisted in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries in parts of Scotland, which he noted were beginning to die out. In the nineteenth century, folklorist Alexander Carmichael (1832--1912), collected the song *Am Beannachadh Bealltain* (*The Beltane Blessing*) in his *Carmina Gadelica*, which he heard from a crofter in South Uist.
Scottish May Day/Beltane celebrations have been somewhat revived since the late twentieth century. Both Edinburgh and Glasgow organise May Day festivals and rallies. In Edinburgh, the Beltane Fire Festival is held on the evening of May eve and into the early hours of May Day on the city\'s Calton Hill. An older Edinburgh tradition has it that young women who climb Arthur\'s Seat and wash their faces in the morning dew will have lifelong beauty. At the University of St Andrews, some of the students gather on the beach late on 30 April and run into the North Sea at sunrise on May Day, occasionally naked. This is accompanied by torchlit processions and much elated celebration.
### Wales
In Wales, the first day of May is known as *Calan Mai* or *Calan Haf*, and parallels the festival of Beltane and other May Day traditions in Europe.
Traditions would start the night before (*Nos Galan Haf*) with bonfires, and is considered a *Ysbrydnos* or *spirit night* when people would gather hawthorn (*draenen wen*) and flowers to decorate their houses, celebrating new growth and fertility. While on May Day celebrations would include summer dancing (*dawnsio haf*) and May carols (*carolau mai* or *carolau haf*) othertimes referred to as \"singing under the wall\" (*canu dan y pared),* May Day was also a time for officially opening a village green (twmpath chwarae).
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## England
Traditional English May Day rites and celebrations include crowning a May Queen and celebrations involving a maypole, around which dancers often circle with ribbons. Morris dancing is also often performed as part of May Day celebrations. The earliest records of maypole celebrations date to the 14th century, and by the 15th century the maypole tradition was well established in southern Britain.
On 1 May 1515, Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon rode from Greenwich Palace to have breakfast in an arbour constructed in a wood at Shooter\'s Hill. Catherine and her ladies were dressed in Spanish-style riding gear, Henry was in green velvet. The royal guard appeared in disguise as Robin Hood and his men. There was a pageant chariot or car with Lady May and Lady Flora, followed by a masque and dancing. The chronicle writer Edward Hall recorded the event as a \"Maying\".
Writer Philip Stubbs described English May Day celebrations in the 1580s, involving a particularly large Maypole:
> \"They have twenty or forty yoke of oxen, every ox having a sweet nosegay of flowers tied to the tip of its horns, and these oxen draw home this maypole \... which is covered all over with flowers and herbs, bound about with strings, from the top to the bottom, and sometimes painted with variable colours, with two or three hundred men, women and children following it with great devotion. And thus being reared up, with handkerchiefs and flags streaming at the top, they strew the ground around about, bind green boughs about it, set up summer halls, bowers and arbours hard by it. And then they fall to banquet and feast, to leap and dance about it\".
Another prominent English May Day custom is Jack in the Green, an English folkloric figure who parades through the streets on May Day, accompanied by musicians, beggars, and various other characters.
May Day was abolished and its celebration banned by Puritan parliaments during the Interregnum, but reinstated with the restoration of Charles II in 1660.
Traditional celebrations continue in some places, some with unbroken records (with some known breaks for world wars and COVID-19) for over a century, including:
- Ickwell May Day - records from 1872, but involving a bequest to continue a tradition still in operation.
- Knutsford Royal May Day - revived in 1864.
- Lustleigh May Day, revived 1905.
- Brentham May Day Festival, revived 1906.
- London\'s May Queen, held at Hayes Common in Bromley, running since 1912 or 1913.
- Hayfield May Day - revived in 1928.
In Cambridgeshire villages, young girls went May Dolling (going around the villages with dressed dolls and collecting pennies). This dressing of dolls and singing was said to have persisted into the 1960s in Swaffham Prior `{{blockquote|
Sing a song of May-time.<br/>
Sing a song of Spring.<br/>
Flowers are in their beauty.<br/>
Birds are on the wing.<br/>
May time, play time.<br/>
God has given us May time.<br/>
Thank Him for His gifts of love.<br/>
Sing a song of Spring.<ref>{{cite web|title= May Day Traditions|url= http://www.enidporterproject.org.uk/content/cambridgeshire-traditions/annual-events/may-1st/may-1st|website= enidporterproject.org.uk|access-date= 14 January 2021}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} In Oxford, it is a centuries-old tradition for May Morning revellers to gather below the Great Tower of Magdalen College at 6 am to listen to the college choir sing traditional madrigals as a conclusion to the previous night\'s celebrations. Since the 1980s some people then jump off Magdalen Bridge into the River Cherwell. For some years, the bridge has been closed on 1 May to prevent people from jumping, as the water under the bridge is only 2 ft deep and jumping from the bridge has resulted in serious injury in the past. There are still people who climb the barriers and leap into the water, causing themselves injury.
Padstow in Cornwall holds its annual \'Obby-\'Oss (Hobby Horse) day of festivities. This is believed to be one of the oldest fertility rites in the UK; revellers dance with the Oss through the streets of the town and even though the private gardens of the citizens, accompanied by accordion players and followers dressed in white with red or blue sashes who sing traditional May Day songs. The whole town is decorated with springtime greenery, and every year thousands of onlookers attend. Before the 19th century, distinctive May Day celebrations were widespread throughout West Cornwall, and are being revived in St Ives and Penzance. A similar \'Obby \'Oss festival is also held in the Somerset town of Minehead, dating back to at least the 19th century.
Kingsand, Cawsand and Millbrook in Cornwall celebrate Flower Boat Ritual on the May Day bank holiday. A model of the ship *The Black Prince* is covered in flowers and is taken in a procession from the Quay at Millbrook to the beach at Cawsand where it is cast adrift. The houses in the villages are decorated with flowers and people traditionally wear red and white clothes. There are further celebrations in Cawsand Square with Morris dancing and May pole dancing.
\'Dancing the sun up\' is a tradition among Morris dancers to dance at sunrise on May Day, to welcome in the sun and the summer season. It began in Oxford in 1923, and includes dances, traditional May Day songs, and sometimes other activities such as mummers\' plays or bonfires. This tradition has since spread across the world, with Morris dance teams dancing the sun up in Asia, Australia, Canada, France, New Zealand, and the USA.
The early May bank holiday on the first Monday in May was created in 1978; May Day itself`{{spaced ndash}}`{=mediawiki}1 May`{{spaced ndash}}`{=mediawiki}is not a public holiday in England (unless it falls on a Monday).
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# May Day
## France
In Provence, \'May trees\' decked with flowers and ribbons were traditionally set up on May Day in every village. It was also a tradition for young girls to be dressed in white, decked with crowns and wreaths of roses, and set on seats or platforms strewn with flowers in the streets. Their companions would go about asking for money from passers-by.
On 1 May 1561, King Charles IX of France received a lily of the valley as a lucky charm. He decided to offer a lily of the valley each year to the ladies of the court. At the beginning of the 20th century, it became custom to give a sprig of lily of the valley, a symbol of springtime, on 1 May. The government permits individuals and workers\' organisations to sell them tax-free on that single day. Nowadays, people may present loved ones either with bunches of lily of the valley or dog rose flowers.
## Czechia
In the Czech Republic, May Day is traditionally considered a holiday of love and May as a month of love. The celebrations of spring are held on 30 April when a maypole (*májka*) is erected---a tradition possibly connected to Beltane, since bonfires are also lit on the same day. The event is similar to German Walpurgisnacht, its public holiday on 30 April. On 31 May, the maypole is taken down in an event called Maypole Felling.
On 1 May, couples in love kiss under a blooming tree. According to the ethnographer Klára Posekaná, this is not an old habit. It most likely originated around the beginning of the 20th century in an urban environment, perhaps in connection with Karel Hynek Mácha\'s poem Máj (which is often recited during these days) and Petřín. This is usually done under a cherry, an apple or a birch tree.
## Finnic regions {#finnic_regions}
### Estonia
May Day or \"Spring Day\" (*Kevadpüha*) is a national holiday in Estonia celebrating the arrival of spring.
More traditional festivities take place throughout the night before and into the early hours of 1 May, on the Walpurgis Night (*Volbriöö*).
The tradition of erecting maypoles (meiupuu) exists also in West-Estonia, but instead on 1 May, celebrations take place in Jaanipäev.
### Finland
In Finland, Walpurgis night (**Vappu**) (\"*Vappen*\") is one of the five biggest holidays along with Christmas Eve, New Year\'s Eve, Easter (**Pääsiäinen**), and Midsummer (**Juhannus - Midsommar**). Walpurgis witnesses the biggest carnival-style festival held in Finland\'s cities and towns. The celebrations, which begin on the evening of 30 April and continue on 1 May, typically centre on the consumption of sima, sparkling wine and other alcoholic beverages. Student traditions, particularly those of engineering students, are one of the main characteristics of **Vappu**. Since the end of the 19th century, this traditional upper-class feast has been appropriated by university students. Many **\[\[lukio\]\]** (university-preparatory high school) alumni wear the black and white student cap and many higher education students wear student coveralls. One tradition is to drink sima, a home-made low-alcohol mead, along with freshly cooked funnel cakes.
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# May Day
## Iberia
### Portugal
\"Maias\" is a superstition throughout Portugal, with special focus on the northern territories and rarely elsewhere. Maias is the dominant naming in Northern Portugal, but it may be referred to by other names, including Dia das Bruxas (Witches\' day), O Burro (the Donkey, referring to an evil spirit) or the last of April, as the local traditions preserved to this day occur on that evening only. People put the yellow flowers of broom, the bushes are known as giestas. The flowers of the bush are known as Maias, which are placed on doors or gates and every doorway of houses, windows, granaries, currently also cars, which the populace collect on the evening of 30 April when the Portuguese brooms are blooming, to defend those places from bad spirits, witches and the evil eye. The placement of the May flower or bush in the doorway must be done before midnight.
These festivities are a continuum of the \"Os Maios\" of Galiza. In ancient times, this was done while playing traditional night-music. In some places, children were dressed in these flowers and went from place to place begging for money or bread. On 1 May, people also used to sing \"Cantigas de Maio\", traditional songs related to this day and the whole month of May.
The origin of this tradition can be traced to the Catholic Church story of Mary and Joseph fleeing to Egypt to protect Jesus from Herod. It was said that brooms could be found at the door of the house holding Jesus, but when Herod\'s soldiers arrived to the place they found every door decorated with brooms.
### Spain
May Day is celebrated throughout the country as *Los Mayos* (lit. \"the Mays\") often in a similar way to \"Fiesta de las Cruces\" in many parts of Hispanic America. One such example, in Galicia, is the festival \"Fiesta de los Mayos\" (or \"Festa dos Maios\" in Galician, the local language). It has a Celtic origin (from the festivity of Beltane) and consists of different traditions, such as representations around a decorated tree or sculpture. People sing popular songs (also called *maios*,) making mentions of social and political events during the past year, sometimes under the form of a converse, while they walk around the sculpture with the percussion of two sticks. In Lugo and in the village of Vilagarcía de Arousa it was usual to ask a tip to the attendees, which used to be a handful of dry chestnuts (*castañas maiolas*), walnuts or hazelnuts. Today the tradition became a competition where the best sculptures and songs receive a prize.
In the Galician city of Ourense, this day is celebrated traditionally on 3 May, the day of the Holy Cross, that in the Christian tradition replaced the tree \"where the health, life and resurrection are,\" according to the introit of that day\'s mass.
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# May Day
## Italy
In Italy it is called *Calendimaggio* or *cantar maggio* a seasonal feast held to celebrate the arrival of spring. The event takes its name from the period in which it takes place, that is, the beginning of May, from the Latin *kalendae maiae*. The Calendimaggio is a tradition still alive today in many regions of Italy as an allegory of the return to life and rebirth: among these Piedmont, Liguria, Lombardy, Emilia-Romagna (for example, is celebrated in the area of the *Quattro Province* or Piacenza, Pavia, Alessandria and Genoa), Tuscany and Umbria. This magical-propitiatory ritual is often performed during an almsgiving in which, in exchange for gifts (traditionally eggs, wine, food or sweets), the Maggi (or maggerini) sing auspicious verses to the inhabitants of the houses they visit. Throughout the Italian peninsula these *Il Maggio* couplets are very diverse---most are love songs with a strong romantic theme, that young people sang to celebrate the arrival of spring. Roman families traditionally eat pecorino with fresh fava beans during an excursion in the Roman Campagna. Symbols of spring revival are the trees (alder, golden rain) and flowers (violets, roses), mentioned in the verses of the songs, and with which the maggerini adorn themselves. In particular the plant alder, which grows along the rivers, is considered the symbol of life and that\'s why it is often present in the ritual.
Calendimaggio can be historically noted in Tuscany as a mythical character who had a predominant role and met many of the attributes of the god Belenus. In Lucania, the \'Maggi\' have a clear auspicious character of pagan origin. In Syracuse, Sicily, the *Albero della Cuccagna* (cf. \"Greasy pole\") is held during the month of May, a feast celebrated to commemorate the victory over the Athenians led by Nicias. However, Angelo de Gubernatis, in his work *Mythology of Plants*, believes that without doubt the festival was previous to that of said victory.
It is a celebration that dates back to ancient peoples, and is very integrated with the rhythms of nature, such as the Celts (celebrating Beltane), Etruscans and Ligures, in which the arrival of summer was of great importance.
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# May Day
## Southeastern Europe {#southeastern_europe}
### Bulgaria
On May Day, Bulgarians celebrate Irminden (or Yeremiya, Eremiya, Irima, Zamski den). The holiday is associated with snakes and lizards and rituals are made in order to protect people from them. The name of the holiday comes from the prophet Jeremiah, but its origins are most probably pagan.
It is said that on the days of the Holy Forty or Annunciation snakes come out of their burrows, and on Irminden their king comes out. Old people believe that those working in the fields on this day will be bitten by a snake in summer.
Western Bulgarians light fires, jump over them and make noises to scare snakes. Another custom is to prepare \"podnici\" (special clay pots made for baking bread).
This day is especially observed by pregnant women so that their offspring do not catch \"yeremiya\"---an illness due to evil powers.
### Greece
1 May is a day that celebrates Spring.
Maios (Latin Maius), the month of May, took its name from the goddess Maia (Gr *Μαία, the nurse*), a Greek and Roman goddess of fertility. The day of Maios (Modern Greek Πρωτομαγιά) celebrates the final victory of the summer against winter as the victory of life against death. The celebration is similar to an ancient ritual associated with another minor demi-god Adonis which also celebrated the revival of nature. There is today some conflation with yet another tradition, the revival or marriage of Dionysus (the Greek God of theatre and wine-making). This event, however, was celebrated in ancient times not in May but in association with the Anthesteria, a festival held in February and dedicated to the goddess of agriculture Demeter and her daughter Persephone. Persephone emerged every year at the end of winter from the Underworld. The Anthesteria was a festival of souls, plants and flowers, and Persephone\'s coming to earth from Hades marked the rebirth of nature, a common theme in all these traditions.
What remains of the customs today, echoes these traditions of antiquity. A common, until recently, May Day custom involved the annual revival of a youth called Adonis, or alternatively of Dionysus, or of Maios (in Modern Greek Μαγιόπουλο, the Son of Maia). In a simple theatrical ritual, the significance of which has long been forgotten, a chorus of young girls sang a song over a youth lying on the ground, representing Adonis, Dionysus or Maios. At the end of the song, the youth rose up and a flower wreath was placed on his head.
The most common aspect of modern May Day celebrations is the preparation of a flower wreath from wild flowers, although as a result of urbanisation there is an increasing trend to buy wreaths from flower shops. The flowers are placed on the wreath against a background of green leaves and the wreath is hung either on the entrance to the family house/apartment or on a balcony. It remains there until midsummer night. On that night, the flower wreaths are set alight in bonfires known as Saint John\'s fires. Youths leap over the flames consuming the flower wreaths. This custom has also practically disappeared, like the theatrical revival of Adonis/Dionysus/Maios, as a result of rising urban traffic and with no alternative public grounds in most Greek city neighbourhoods.
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## Southeastern Europe {#southeastern_europe}
### Hungary
In Hungary it is called St. Philip and Jacob\'s day or sometimes Zöldfarsang. However, contrary to the name, the ecclesiastical explanation of the feast actually refers to the miracle of St. Walpurga. In contrast, the Hexennacht tradition has survived in only a few places, with witchcraft traditions usually taking place on other days.
The Majális, a merry folk festival, was usually held in a nearby forest, with the food and drink being taken along, which was usually attended by the whole town. There were sack-races, tree climbing, wrestling, strength tests, horse races, singing, dancing and military songs. It was a day of relaxing and walking in nature. The Majális has a rich tradition in the country, celebrated with dance festivals, concert series and funfairs, set up all throughout the country. There is also an *utcabál* (\"street bal\"), when the streets are often filled with dancing residents.
In smaller settlements like (in e.g. Pilisszentkereszt) together with their neighbouring municipalities, set up a May Pole.
In Hungary it was customary to set up May Poles (májfa or májusfa) in several places in the town. It was usually set on May Day or Pentecost. Sometimes they were just tied to the fence, but most of the time they were planted in the ground. The trees were carved and erected in secret, usually in the dead of night. The aim was always to go out with the girls. the boys set them up (usually one for every unmarried girl) and it was danced around together. For the night the tree was usually guarded, so that it would not be taken away by rivals, or toppled by a rival\'s courting team.
\"Drink water on an empty stomach: the lungs will be renewed\" - they used to say in Transylvania, where it was customary for girls to go to the spring or river on this day to wash their faces in water, which was believed to have magical powers to make them beautiful and healthy. Other superstitions include decorating the house with elderberries to ward off witches, and that the butter spat out on this day, called Philip-Jacob butter, can be used to treat earache.
### Romania
On May Day, the Romanians celebrate the *arminden* (or *armindeni*), the beginning of summer, symbolically tied with the protection of crops and farm animals. The name comes from Slavonic *Jeremiinŭ dĭnĭ*, meaning prophet Jeremiah\'s day, but the celebration rites and habits of this day are apotropaic and pagan (possibly originating in the cult of the god Pan).
The day is also called *ziua pelinului* (\"mugwort day\") or *ziua bețivilor* (\"drunkards\' day\") and it is celebrated to ensure good wine in autumn and, for people and farm animals alike, good health and protection from the elements of nature (storms, hail, illness, pests). People would have parties in natural surroundings, with *lăutari* (fiddlers) for those who could afford it. Then it is customary to roast and eat lamb, along with new mutton cheese, and to drink mugwort-flavoured wine, or just red wine, to refresh the blood and get protection from diseases. On the way back, the men wear lilac or mugwort flowers on their hats.
Other apotropaic rites include, in some areas of the country, people washing their faces with the morning dew (for good health) and adorning the gates for good luck and abundance with green branches or with birch saplings (for the houses with maiden girls). The entries to the animals\' shelters are also adorned with green branches. All branches are left in place until the wheat harvest when they are used in the fire which will bake the first bread from the new wheat.
On May Day eve, country women do not work in the field as well as in the house to avoid devastating storms and hail coming down on the village.
*Arminden* is also *ziua boilor* (oxen day) and thus the animals are not to be used for work, or else they could die or their owners could get ill.
It is said that the weather is always good on May Day to allow people to celebrate.
### Serbia
\"Prvomajski uranak\" (Reveille on 1 May) is a folk tradition and feast that consists of the fact that on 1 May, people go in the nature or even leave the day before and spend the night with a camp fire. Most of the time, a dish is cooked in a kettle or in a barbecue. Among Serbs this holiday is widespread. Almost every town in Serbia has its own traditional first-of-may excursion sites, and most often these are green areas outside the city.
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# May Day
## North America {#north_america}
### Canada
May Day is celebrated in some parts of the provinces of British Columbia, Quebec, New Brunswick and Ontario.
**Toronto**
In Toronto, on the morning of 1 May, various Morris Dancing troops from Toronto and Hamilton gather on the road by Grenadier Cafe, in High Park to \"dance in the May\". The dancers and crowd then gather together and sing traditional May Day songs such as Hal-An-Tow and Padstow.
**British Columbia**
Celebrations often take place not on 1 May but during the Victoria Day long weekend, later in the month and when the weather is likely to be better. The longest continually observed May Day in the British Commonwealth is held in the city of New Westminster, BC. There, the first May Day celebration was held on 4 May 1870.
### United States {#united_states}
Early European settlers of the Americas brought their May Day traditions with them, and May Day is still celebrated in many parts of the United States, with customs that vary from region to region. In some parts of the United States, May baskets are made. These are small baskets usually filled with flowers or treats and left at someone\'s doorstep. The giver rings the bell and runs away. May Day celebrations were common at women\'s colleges and academic institutions in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, a tradition that continues at Bryn Mawr College and Brenau University to this day.
In Minneapolis, the May Day Parade and Festival is presented annually on the first Sunday in May, and draws around 50,000 people to Powderhorn Park. The festival was originated by In the Heart of the Beast Puppet and Mask Theatre and is now decentralized and community-run. On 1 May itself, local Morris Dance sides converge on an overlook of the Mississippi River at dawn, and then spend the remainder of the day dancing around the metro area.
Morris dancers in the US have continued the English custom of \'dancing the sun up\' on May Day, dancing at sunrise to welcome in the sun and the summer season. In 2024, Morris dancers danced the sun up in Colorado, Connecticut, Illinois, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Washington, and Wisconsin.
**Hawaii**
In Hawaii, May Day is also known as Lei Day, and it is normally set aside as a day to celebrate island culture in general and the culture of the Native Hawaiians in particular. Invented by poet and local newspaper columnist Don Blanding, the first Lei Day was celebrated on 1 May 1927 in Honolulu. Leonard \"Red\" and Ruth Hawk composed \"May Day Is Lei Day in Hawai\'i\", the traditional holiday song
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# Molecular mass
The **molecular mass** (`{{mvar|m}}`{=mediawiki}) is the mass of a given molecule, often expressed in units of daltons (Da). Different molecules of the same compound may have different molecular masses because they contain different isotopes of an element. The derived quantity **relative molecular mass** is the unitless ratio of the mass of a molecule to the atomic mass constant (which is equal to one dalton).
The molecular mass and relative molecular mass are distinct from but related to the *molar mass*. The **molar mass** is defined as the mass of a given substance divided by the amount of the substance, and is expressed in grams per mole (g/mol). That makes the molar mass an *average* of many particles or molecules (weighted by abundance of the isotopes), and the molecular mass the mass of one specific particle or molecule. The molar mass is usually the more appropriate quantity when dealing with macroscopic (weigh-able) quantities of a substance.
The definition of **molecular weight** is most authoritatively synonymous with *relative molecular mass*, which is dimensionless; however, in common practice, use of this terminology is highly variable. When the molecular weight is given with the unit Da, it is frequently as a weighted average (by abundance) similar to the molar mass but with different units. In molecular biology and biochemistry, the mass of macromolecules is referred to as their molecular weight and is expressed in kilodaltons (kDa), although the numerical value is often approximate and representative of an average.
The terms \"molecular mass\", \"molecular weight\", and \"molar mass\" may be used interchangeably in less formal contexts where unit- and quantity-correctness is not needed. The molecular mass is more commonly used when referring to the mass of a single or specific well-defined molecule and less commonly than molecular weight when referring to a weighted average of a sample. Prior to the 2019 revision of the SI, quantities expressed in daltons (Da) were by definition numerically equivalent to molar mass expressed in the units g/mol and were thus strictly numerically interchangeable. After the 2019 revision, this relationship is only approximate, but the equivalence may still be assumed for all practical purposes.
The molecular mass of small to medium size molecules, measured by mass spectrometry, can be used to determine the composition of elements in the molecule. The molecular masses of macromolecules, such as proteins, can also be determined by mass spectrometry; however, methods based on viscosity and light-scattering are also used to determine molecular mass when crystallographic or mass spectrometric data are not available.
## Calculation
Molecular masses are calculated from the atomic masses of each nuclide present in the molecule, while molar masses and relative molecular masses (molecular weights) are calculated from the standard atomic weights of each element. The standard atomic weight takes into account the isotopic distribution of the element in a given sample (usually assumed to be \"normal\"). For example, water has a molar mass of 18.0153(3) g/mol, but individual water molecules have molecular masses which range between 18.010 564 6863(15) Da (^1^H`{{su|b=2}}`{=mediawiki}^16^O) and 22.027 7364(9) Da (^2^H`{{su|b=2}}`{=mediawiki}^18^O).
Atomic and molecular masses are usually reported in daltons, which is defined in terms of the mass of the isotope ^12^C (carbon-12). However, the name *unified atomic mass unit* (u) is still used in common practice. Relative atomic and molecular masses as defined are dimensionless. Molar masses when expressed in g/mol have almost identical numerical values as relative atomic and molecular masses. For example, the molar mass and molecular mass of methane, whose molecular formula is CH~4~, are calculated respectively as follows:
Molar mass of CH~4~
--------------------------------
C
H
CH~4~
Molecular mass of ^12^C^1^H~4~
^12^C
^1^H
CH~4~
The uncertainty in molecular mass reflects variance (error) in measurement not the natural variance in isotopic abundances across the globe. In high-resolution mass spectrometry the mass isotopomers ^12^C^1^H~4~ and ^13^C^1^H~4~ are observed as distinct molecules, with molecular masses of approximately 16.031 Da and 17.035 Da, respectively. The intensity of the mass-spectrometry peaks is proportional to the isotopic abundances in the molecular species. ^12^C ^2^H ^1^H~3~ can also be observed with molecular mass of 17 Da.
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# Molecular mass
## Determination
### Mass spectrometry {#mass_spectrometry}
In mass spectrometry, the molecular mass of a small molecule is usually reported as the monoisotopic mass: that is, the mass of the molecule containing only the most common isotope of each element. This also differs subtly from the molecular mass in that the choice of isotopes is defined and thus is a single specific molecular mass out of the (perhaps many) possibilities. The masses used to compute the monoisotopic molecular mass are found in a table of isotopic masses and are not found in a typical periodic table. The average molecular mass is often used for larger molecules, since molecules with many atoms are often unlikely to be composed exclusively of the most abundant isotope of each element. A theoretical average molecular mass can be calculated using the standard atomic weights found in a typical periodic table. The average molecular mass of a very small sample, however, might differ substantially from this since a single sample average is not the same as the average of many geographically distributed samples.
### Mass photometry {#mass_photometry}
Mass photometry (MP) is a rapid, in-solution, label-free method of obtaining the molecular mass of proteins, lipids, sugars and nucleic acids at the single-molecule level. The technique is based on interferometric scattered light microscopy. Contrast from scattered light by a single binding event at the interface between the protein solution and glass slide is detected and is linearly proportional to the mass of the molecule. This technique can also be used to measure sample homogeneity, to detect protein oligomerisation states, and to identify complex macromolecular assemblies (ribosomes, GroEL, AAV) and protein interactions such as protein-protein interactions. Mass photometry can accurately measure molecular mass over a wide range of molecular masses (40 kDa -- 5 MDa).
### Hydrodynamic methods {#hydrodynamic_methods}
To a first approximation, the basis for determination of molecular mass according to Mark--Houwink relations is the fact that the intrinsic viscosity of solutions (or suspensions) of macromolecules depends on volumetric proportion of the dispersed particles in a particular solvent. Specifically, the hydrodynamic size as related to molecular mass depends on a conversion factor, describing the shape of a particular molecule. This allows the apparent molecular mass to be described from a range of techniques sensitive to hydrodynamic effects, including DLS, SEC (also known as GPC when the eluent is an organic solvent), viscometry, and diffusion ordered nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (DOSY). The apparent hydrodynamic size can then be used to approximate molecular mass using a series of macromolecule-specific standards. As this requires calibration, it\'s frequently described as a \"relative\" molecular mass determination method.
### Static light scattering {#static_light_scattering}
It is also possible to determine absolute molecular mass directly from light scattering, traditionally using the Zimm method. This can be accomplished either via classical static light scattering or via multi-angle light scattering detectors. Molecular masses determined by this method do not require calibration, hence the term \"absolute\". The only external measurement required is refractive index increment, which describes the change in refractive index with concentration
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# Mild ale
**Mild ale** is a type of ale. Modern milds are mostly dark-coloured, with an alcohol by volume (ABV) of 3% to 3.6%, although there are lighter-hued as well as stronger milds, reaching 6% abv and higher. Mild originated in Britain in the 17th century or earlier, and originally meant a young ale, as opposed to a \"stale\" aged or old ale.
Mild experienced a sharp decline in popularity in the 1960s, and was in danger of completely disappearing, but the increase of microbreweries has led to a modest renaissance and an increasing number of milds (sometimes labelled \"dark\") being brewed.
The Campaign for Real Ale has designated May as Mild Month. In the United States, a group of beer bloggers organised the first American Mild Month for May 2015, with forty-five participating breweries across the country.
## History
\"Mild\" was originally used to designate any beer which was young, fresh or unaged and did not refer to a specific style of beer. Thus there was Mild Ale but also Mild Porter and even Mild Bitter Beer. These young beers were often blended with aged \"stale\" beer to improve their flavour. As the 19th century progressed public taste moved away from the aged taste; unblended young beer, mostly in the form of Mild Ale or Light Bitter Beer, began to dominate the market.
In the 19th century a typical brewery produced three or four mild ales, usually designated by a number of X marks, the weakest being X, the strongest XXXX. They were considerably stronger than the milds of today, with the gravity ranging from around 1.055 to 1.072 (about 5.5% to 7% abv). Gravities dropped throughout the late 19th century and by 1914 the weakest milds were down to about 1.045, still considerably stronger than modern versions.
The draconian measures applied to the brewing industry during the First World War had a particularly dramatic effect upon mild. As the biggest-selling beer, it suffered the largest cut in gravity when breweries had to limit the average OG of their beer to 1.030. In order to be able to produce some stronger beer - which was exempt from price controls and thus more profitable - mild was reduced to 1.025 or lower.
Modern dark mild varies from dark amber to near-black in colour and is very light-bodied. Its flavour is dominated by malt, sometimes with roasty notes derived from the use of black malt, with a subdued hop character, though there are some quite bitter examples. Most are in the range 1.030--1.036 (3--3.6% abv).
Light mild is generally similar, but paler in colour. Some dark milds are created by the addition of caramel to a pale beer.
Until the 1960s mild was the most popular beer style in England. Pockets of demand remain, particularly in the West Midlands and North West England, but it has been largely ousted by bitter and lager elsewhere. In 2002, only 1.3% of beer sold in pubs was Mild. Some brewers have found it sells better under a different name. Outside Britain, mild is virtually unknown, with the exception of New South Wales and microbreweries in North America and Scandinavia. Some notable examples are Bank\'s Mild, Cain\'s Dark Mild, Highgate Dark Mild, Brain\'s Dark, Moorhouse\'s Black Cat and Theakston Traditional Mild.
## Brown and mild {#brown_and_mild}
A popular drink in the West Midlands, \"brown and mild\" (also known as a \"boilermaker\") is a half pint of draught mild served mixed with a half pint of bottled brown ale in a pint glass. In North West England, a mixture of half a pint of mild and half a pint of bitter is known as a \"mixed\". In Norfolk, the same mixture was called a pint of \"twos\", while the same drink in the West Midlands was called a \"Mickey Mouse\".
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# Mild ale
## Brewing
Mild ales are generally based on mild malt or pale malt. Most milds contain, in addition, a quantity of crystal malt; dark milds, meanwhile, make use of chocolate malt, black malt or dark brewing sugars. Milds tend to be lightly hopped compared to pale ale and are usually low in alcohol; strong mild ales used to reach six or seven per cent abv, but very few such beers are still brewed. Sarah Hughes Dark Ruby Mild, brewed to a pre-World War I recipe, is a rare example of a strong Mild (6.0% ABV).
As part of the first American Mild Month, the project organizers challenged participating breweries to create a new variation on the mild ale style by brewing with American malts and hops. They defined American Mild as \"a restrained, darkish ale, with gentle hopping and a clean finish so that the malt and what hops are present, shine through\"
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# Mars Direct
**Mars Direct** is a proposal for a human mission to Mars which purports to be both cost-effective and possible with current technology. It was originally detailed in a research paper by Martin Marietta engineers Robert Zubrin and David Baker in 1990, and later expanded upon in Zubrin\'s 1996 book *The Case for Mars*. It now serves as a staple of Zubrin\'s speaking engagements and general advocacy as head of the Mars Society, an organization devoted to the colonization of Mars.
`{{Toclimit|3}}`{=mediawiki}
## History
### Space Exploration Initiative {#space_exploration_initiative}
On July 20, 1989, US President George H. W. Bush announced plans for what came to be known as the Space Exploration Initiative (SEI). In a speech on the steps of the National Air and Space Museum he described long-term plans which would culminate in a human mission to the surface of Mars.
By December 1990, a study to estimate the project\'s cost determined that long-term expenditure would total approximately 450 billion dollars spread over 20 to 30 years. The \"90 Day Study\" as it came to be known (also "90 Day Report" from people such as Zubrin), evoked a hostile Congressional reaction towards SEI given that it would have required the largest single government expenditure since World War II. Within a year, all funding requests for SEI had been denied.
Dan Goldin became NASA Administrator on April 1, 1992, officially abandoning plans for near-term human exploration beyond Earth orbit with the shift towards a \"faster, better, cheaper\" strategy for robotic exploration.
### Development
While working at Martin Marietta designing interplanetary mission architectures, Robert Zubrin perceived a fundamental flaw in the SEI program. Zubrin came to understand that if NASA\'s plan was to fully utilize as many technologies as possible in support of sending the mission to Mars, it would become politically untenable. In his own words:
> The exact opposite of the correct way to do engineering.
Zubrin\'s alternative to this \"Battlestar Galactica\" mission strategy (dubbed so by its detractors for the large, nuclear powered spaceships that supposedly resembled the science-fiction spaceship of the same name) involved a longer surface stay, a faster flight-path in the form of a conjunction class mission, in situ resource utilization and craft launched directly from the surface of Earth to Mars as opposed to be being assembled in orbit or by a space-based drydock. After receiving approval from management at Marietta, a 12-man team within the company began to work out the details of the mission. While they focused primarily on more traditional mission architectures, Zubrin began to collaborate with colleague David Baker\'s extremely simple, stripped-down and robust strategy. Their goal to \"use local resources, travel light, and live off the land\" became the hallmark of Mars Direct.
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# Mars Direct
## Mission scenario {#mission_scenario}
### First launch {#first_launch}
The first flight of the Ares rocket (not to be confused with the similarly named rocket of the now defunct Constellation program) would take an uncrewed **Earth Return Vehicle** to Mars after a 6-month cruise phase, with a supply of hydrogen, a chemical plant and a small nuclear reactor. Once there, a series of chemical reactions (the Sabatier reaction coupled with electrolysis) would be used to combine a small amount of hydrogen (8 tons) carried by the *Earth Return Vehicle* with the carbon dioxide of the Martian atmosphere to create up to 112 tonnes of methane and oxygen. This relatively simple chemical-engineering procedure was used regularly in the 19th and 20th centuries, and would ensure that only 7% of the return propellant would need to be carried to the surface of Mars.
96 tonnes of methane and oxygen would be needed to send the *Earth Return Vehicle* on a trajectory back home at the conclusion of the surface stay; the rest would be available for Mars rovers. The process of generating fuel is expected to require approximately ten months to complete.
### Second launch {#second_launch}
Some 26 months after the *Earth Return Vehicle* is originally launched from Earth, a second vehicle, the **Mars Habitat Unit**, would be launched on a 6-month long low-energy transfer trajectory to Mars, and would carry a crew of four astronauts (the minimum number required so that the team can be split in two without leaving anyone alone). The Habitat Unit would not be launched until the automated factory aboard the ERV had signaled the successful production of chemicals required for operation on the planet and the return trip to Earth. During the trip, artificial gravity would be generated by tethering the Habitat Unit to the spent upper stage of the booster, and setting them rotating about a common axis. This rotation would produce a comfortable 1 *g* working environment for the astronauts, freeing them of the debilitating effects of long-term exposure to weightlessness.
#### Landing and surface operations {#landing_and_surface_operations}
Upon reaching Mars, the upper stage would be jettisoned, with the Habitat Unit aerobraking into Mars orbit before soft-landing in proximity to the *Earth Return Vehicle*. Precise landing would be supported by a radar beacon started by the first lander. Once on Mars, the crew would spend 18 months on the surface, carrying out a range of scientific research, aided by a small rover vehicle carried aboard their Mars Habitat Unit, and powered by the methane produced by the Earth Return Vehicle.
#### Return and follow-up missions {#return_and_follow_up_missions}
To return, the crew would use the *Earth Return Vehicle*, leaving the Mars Habitat Unit for the possible use of subsequent explorers. On the return trip to Earth, the propulsion stage of the Earth Return Vehicle would be used as a counterweight to generate artificial gravity for the trip back.
Follow-up missions would be dispatched at 2 year intervals to Mars to ensure that a redundant ERV would be on the surface at all times, waiting to be used by the next crewed mission or the current crew in an emergency. In such an emergency scenario, the crew would trek hundreds of kilometers to the other ERV in their long-range vehicle.
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# Mars Direct
## Components
The Mars Direct proposal includes a component for a Launch Vehicle \"Ares\", an Earth Return Vehicle (ERV) and a Mars Habitat Unit (MHU).
### Launch Vehicle {#launch_vehicle}
The plan involves several launches making use of heavy-lift boosters of similar size to the Saturn V used for the Apollo missions, which would potentially be derived from Space Shuttle components. This proposed rocket is dubbed \"Ares\", which would use space shuttle Advanced Solid Rocket Boosters, a modified shuttle external tank, and a new Lox/LH2 third stage for the trans-Mars injection of the payload. Ares would put 121 tonnes into a 300 km circular orbit, and boost 47 tonnes toward Mars.
### Earth Return Vehicle {#earth_return_vehicle}
The Earth Return Vehicle is a two-stage vehicle. The upper stage comprises the living accommodation for the crew during their six-month return trip to Earth from Mars. The lower stage contains the vehicle\'s rocket engines and a small chemical production plant.
### Mars Habitat Unit {#mars_habitat_unit}
The Mars Habitat Unit is a 2- or 3-deck vehicle providing a comprehensive living and working environment for a Mars crew. In addition to individual sleeping quarters which provide a degree of privacy for each of the crew and a place for personal effects, the Mars Habitat Unit includes a communal living area, a small galley, exercise area, and hygiene facilities with closed-cycle water purification. The lower deck of the Mars Habitat Unit provides the primary working space for the crew: small laboratory areas for carrying out geology and life science research; storage space for samples, airlocks for reaching the surface of Mars, and a suiting-up area where crew members prepare for surface operations. Protection from harmful radiation while in space and on the surface of Mars (e.g. from solar flares) would be provided by a dedicated \"storm shelter\" in the core of the vehicle.
The Mars Habitat Unit would also include a small pressurized rover that is stored in the lower deck area and assembled on the surface of Mars. Powered by a methane engine, it is designed to extend the range over which astronauts can explore the surface of Mars out to 320 km.
Since it was first proposed as a part of Mars Direct, the Mars Habitat Unit has been adopted by NASA as a part of their Mars Design Reference Mission, which uses two Mars Habitat Units -- one of which flies to Mars uncrewed, providing a dedicated laboratory facility on Mars, together with the capacity to carry a larger rover vehicle. The second Mars Habitat Unit flies to Mars with the crew, its interior given over completely to living and storage space.
To prove the viability of the Mars Habitat Unit, the Mars Society has implemented the Mars Analogue Research Station Program (MARS), which has established a number of prototype Mars Habitat Units around the world.
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# Mars Direct
## Reception
Baker pitched Mars Direct at the Marshall Spaceflight Center in April 1990, where reception was very positive. The engineers flew around the country to present their plan, which generated significant interest. When their tour culminated in a demonstration at the National Space Society they received a standing ovation. The plan gained rapid media attention shortly afterwards.
Resistance to the plan came from teams within NASA working on the Space Station and advanced propulsion concepts. The NASA administration rejected Mars Direct. Zubrin remained committed to the strategy, and after parting with David Baker attempted to convince the new NASA administration of Mars Direct\'s merits in 1992.
After being granted a small research fund at Martin Marietta, Zubrin and his colleagues successfully demonstrated an in-situ propellant generator which achieved an efficiency of 94%. No chemical engineers partook in the development of the demonstration hardware. After showing the positive results to the Johnson Space Center, the NASA administration still held several reservations about the plan.
In November 2003, Zubrin was invited to speak to the U.S. Senate committee on the future of space exploration. Two months later the Bush administration announced the creation of the Constellation program, a human spaceflight initiative with the goal of sending humans to the Moon by 2020. While a Mars mission was not specifically detailed, a plan to reach Mars based on utilizing the Orion spacecraft was tentatively developed for implementation in the 2030s. In 2009 the Obama administration began a review of the Constellation program, and after budgetary concerns the program was cancelled in 2010.
There are a variety of psychological and sociological issues that could affect long-duration expeditionary space missions. Early human spaceflight missions to Mars are expected by some to have significant psycho-social problems to overcome, as well as provide considerable data for refining mission design, mission planning, and crew selection for future missions.
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# Mars Direct
## Revisions
Since Mars Direct was initially conceived, it has undergone regular review and development by Zubrin himself, the Mars Society, NASA, Stanford University and others.
### Mars Semi-Direct {#mars_semi_direct}
Zubrin and Weaver developed a modified version of Mars Direct, called Mars Semi-Direct, in response to some specific criticisms. This mission consists of three spacecraft and includes a \"Mars Ascent Vehicle\" (MAV). The ERV remains in Mars orbit for the return journey, while the uncrewed MAV lands and manufactures propellants for the ascent back up to Mars orbit. The Mars Semi-Direct architecture has been used as the basis of a number of studies, including the NASA Design Reference Missions.
When subjected to the same cost-analysis as the 90-day report, Mars Semi-Direct was predicted to cost 55 billion dollars over 10 years, capable of fitting into the existing NASA budget.
Mars Semi-Direct became the basis of the Design Reference Mission 1.0 of NASA, replacing the Space Exploration Initiative.
### Design Reference Mission {#design_reference_mission}
The NASA model, referred to as the Design Reference Mission, on version 5.0 as of September 1, 2012, calls for a significant upgrade in hardware (at least three launches per mission, rather than two), and sends the ERV to Mars fully fueled, parking it in orbit above the planet for subsequent rendezvous with the MAV.
### Mars Direct and SpaceX {#mars_direct_and_spacex}
With the potentially imminent advent of low-cost heavy lift capability, Zubrin has posited a dramatically lower cost human Mars mission using hardware developed by space transport company SpaceX. In this simpler plan, a crew of two would be sent to Mars by a single Falcon Heavy launch, the Dragon spacecraft acting as their interplanetary cruise habitat. Additional living space for the journey would be enabled through the use of inflatable add-on modules if required. The problems associated with long-term weightlessness would be addressed in the same manner as the baseline Mars Direct plan, a tether between the Dragon habitat and the TMI (Trans-Mars Injection) stage acting to allow rotation of the craft.
The Dragon\'s heatshield characteristics could allow for a safe descent if landing rockets of sufficient power were made available. Research at NASA\'s Ames Research Center has demonstrated that a robotic Dragon would be capable of a fully propulsive landing on the Martian surface. On the surface, the crew would have at their disposal two Dragon spacecraft with inflatable modules as habitats, two ERVs, two Mars ascent vehicles and 8 tonnes of cargo.
### Other Studies {#other_studies}
The Mars Society and Stanford studies retain the original two-vehicle mission profile of Mars Direct, but increase the crew size to six.
Mars Society Australia developed their own four-person *Mars Oz* reference mission, based on Mars Semi-Direct. This study uses horizontally landing, bent biconic shaped modules, and relies on solar power and chemical propulsion throughout, where Mars Direct and the DRMs used nuclear reactors for surface power and, in the case of the DRMs for propulsion as well. The Mars Oz reference mission also differs in assuming, based on space station experience, that spin gravity will not be required.
## Mars Analogue Research Stations {#mars_analogue_research_stations}
The Mars Society has argued the viability of the Mars Habitat Unit concept through their Mars Analogue Research Station program. These are two or three decked vertical cylinders \~8 m in diameter and 8 m high. Mars Society Australia plans to build its own station based on the Mars Oz design. The Mars Oz design features a horizontal cylinder 4.7 m in diameter and 18 m long, with a tapered nose. A second similar module will function as a garage and power and logistics module.
Mars Direct was featured on a Discovery Channel programs *Mars: The Next Frontier* in which issues were discussed surrounding NASA funding of the project, and on *Mars Underground*, where the plan is discussed more in-depth.
## Alternatives
\"Mars to Stay\" proposals involve not returning the first immigrant/explorers immediately, or ever. It has been suggested the cost of sending a four or six person team could be one fifth to one tenth the cost of returning that same four or six person team. Depending on the specific approach taken, a quite complete lab could be sent and landed for less than the cost of sending back even 50 kilos of Martian rocks. Twenty or more persons could be sent for the cost of returning four.
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# Mars Direct
## In fiction {#in_fiction}
- Mars Direct is the mission mode used in Gregory Benford\'s novel *The Martian Race*, Geoffrey A. Landis\'s novel *Mars Crossing*, Larry Niven\'s novel *Rainbow Mars*, Robert M. Blevins\' novel *The 13th Day of Christmas*, as well as Zubrin\'s own novel, *First Landing*.
- Mars Direct forms the basis for the 2000 film *Mission to Mars*.
- In the *Futurama* episode \"The Luck of the Fryrish\", a short clip shows the first man on Mars with a spacecraft that resembles the Mars Habitat Unit.
- In the *West Wing* episode \"The Warfare of Genghis Khan\", a NASA staffer describes Mars Direct to the skeptical White House Deputy Chief of Staff Josh Lyman and is able to convince him of its merit.
- Both Mars Direct and Mars for Less concepts figure prominently in Brian Enke\'s 2005 novel, *Shadows of Medusa*
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# March 30
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# Mars Attacks
*Mars Attacks!*}} `{{Infobox toy
| name = ''Mars Attacks''
| image = Mars attacks card wrapper.jpg
| image_size = 200
| image_upright =
| alt =
| caption = Card wrapper for the original 1962 release of the series
| othernames = ''Attack from Space''
| type = [[Trading card]]s
| inventor = [[Len Brown (comics)|Len Brown]]<ref name=len/>
| company = [[Topps]]
| country = [[United States]]
| from = 1962
| materials =
| features = [[Mars in fiction]]
| slogan =
| website =
}}`{=mediawiki} ***Mars Attacks*** is a science fiction-themed trading card series released in 1962 by Topps. The cards feature artwork by science fiction artists Wally Wood and Norman Saunders. The cards form a story arc, which tells of the invasion of Earth by cruel, hideous Martians under the command of a corrupt Martian government who conceal the fact from the Martian populace that Mars is doomed to explode and, therefore, proposes colonization of Earth to turn it into their new homeworld. The cards depict futuristic battle scenes and bizarre methods of Martian attack, torture and slaughter of humans, as well as various Earth nations being attacked. The story concludes with an expeditionary force of humans volunteering to embark on a counterattack on Mars, in which the Earth force attacks the Martians in their manner (bayoneting and bullets). The Earth attack forces, after destroying the Martian cities and killing the Martians, depart just before Mars is destroyed in the predicted cataclysm, thus ensuring the peace and safety of Earth as the Martian race is seemingly doomed to extinction. Backstories included how the invading Martians used growth rays to transform insects into monsters to attack cities, differing geographic regions dealing with the Martian invasion, Earth factions such as rival urban gangs and national differences having to be cast aside for the sake of repelling the invasion, or the sociology of Mars, in this case a small tribe of peaceful Martians who hoped to find a way to escape the destruction of Mars without attacking Earth, but their voice being overruled by the corrupt Martian government.
The cards proved popular with children, but depictions of explicit gore and implied sexual content caused an outcry, leading the company to halt production. The cards have since become collectors\' items, with certain cards commanding over \$3,500 at auction.
In the 1980s, Topps began developing merchandise based on the *Mars Attacks* storyline, including mini-comic books and card reprints. An expanded set of 100 cards called *Mars Attacks Archives* was issued in 1994 by Topps and spawned a second round of merchandising. Director Tim Burton released a feature film called *Mars Attacks!* in 1996 based on the series, spawning a third round of merchandising, including an intercompany crossover with the Image Universe, titled *Mars Attacks Image* and published by Image Comics. In 2012, Topps released a 50th anniversary expanded set of 75 cards called *Mars Attacks Heritage*, leading to a fourth round of merchandising that continued into 2017 with the release of an official sequel series, *Mars Attacks: The Revenge!*
## Trading cards {#trading_cards}
The *Mars Attacks* trading card series was created by Topps in 1962. Product developer Len Brown, inspired by Wally Wood\'s cover for EC Comics\' *Weird Science* #16, pitched the idea to Woody Gelman. Gelman and Brown created the story --- with Brown writing the copy --- and created rough sketches. They enlisted Wood to flesh out the sketches and Bob Powell to finish them. Norman Saunders painted most of the 55-card set (Maurice Blumenfeld painted 10 - 20% of them, but Saunders provided the finishing touches to all of the images).
The cards, which sold for five cents per pack of five, were test marketed by Topps through the dummy corporation Bubbles, Inc. under the name *Attack from Space*. Sales were sufficient to expand the marketing and the name was changed to *Mars Attacks*. The cards sparked parental and community outrage over their graphic violence and implied sexuality. Topps responded initially by repainting 13 of the 55 cards to reduce the gore and sexuality. However, inquiries from a Connecticut district attorney caused Topps to halt production of the series altogether before the replacements could even be printed.
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# Mars Attacks
## Adaptations and merchandising {#adaptations_and_merchandising}
In 1984, the first official item was released since the original series appeared: a direct copy of the original series of 55 cards, plus a 56th card that reprinted the wrapper graphics, was released by Renata Galasso Inc. through an agreement with Topps.
In 1994, Topps re-released the cards as an expanded version titled *Mars Attacks Archives*, with the original 55 cards and 45 \"New Visions\" cards. The 45 new cards are further divided into a #0 card, three subsets (\"The Unpublished 11\" (with 11 cards)), \"Mars Attacks: The Comics\" (with 10 cards) and \"Visions: New and Original\" a.k.a. \"New Visions\" (with 22 cards)) and one card titled \"Norm Saunders: A Self-Portrait\". Twenty-one artists collaborated on the new cards, including Zina Saunders, the daughter of the original artist Norman Saunders. Topps Comics, in conjunction with the trading cards, issued a five-issue comic book miniseries based on the original 55 cards written by Keith Giffen and drawn by Charles Adlard. Topps Comics continued the story in an ongoing series that lasted seven issues, a one-shot special and three more miniseries. *Wizard* magazine and Topps Comics also published a #1/2 issue and an Ace Edition issue (#65).
In 1995, one year after the *Archives* series, Screamin\' Productions and Topps released a tie-in set of eight *Mars Attacks* vinyl model kits with an accompanying series of eight new trading cards, each one inside one of the kits. Bonus items that could be acquired by sending in proof-of-purchase certificates from all eight of the kits were two new nearly identical bonus cards (one oversized card with the *Mars Attacks* logo on the top of it and one regular-sized card without it) and a limited edition ninth vinyl model kit.
In 1996, Warner Bros. released Tim Burton\'s feature film adaptation *Mars Attacks!*. In conjunction, two hardcover novels were released: *Mars Attacks: Martian Deathtrap* by Nathan Archer; and *Mars Attacks: War Dogs of the Golden Horde* by Ray W. Murrill. Each contained two new trading cards inside the middle of each book (the paperback editions, however, did not have the trading cards inside them). A paperback movie tie-in novelization by the film\'s screenwriter was also published, in addition to two comic book intercompany crossovers with Image Comics that continued the Topps Comics run titled *Mars Attacks the Savage Dragon* and *Mars Attacks Image*, both of which respectively depicted the Martians battling the Image Comics superhero the Savage Dragon and the Martians battling other characters from the wider Image Universe. Trendmasters also produced a series of toy figures based on the film.
In 2012, to commemorate the franchise\'s 50th anniversary, Topps partnered with a variety of companies on comic books (via IDW Publishing), bobbleheads and vinyl figures (Funko Pop!), action figures and plush toys (Mezco Toyz), costumes (Incogneato), statues and busts (Quarantine Studio), electronics skins (Gelaskins) and a commemorative hardcover book and 2013 wall calendar, both with nearly identical sets of four new trading cards (the only difference being that the book\'s cards had white borders on the front of the cards and the calendar\'s cards had green borders) (Abrams Books). Topps also re-released the original 55-card series again as a second expanded version titled *Mars Attacks Heritage*, including two subsets (\"Deleted Scenes\" (with 10 cards) and \"Guide to the New Universe\" (with 15 cards)).
In 2013, Topps issued *Mars Attacks: Invasion*, a reboot series of 95 trading cards featuring a new story (*Mars Attacks: Invasion* (cards #1--58, plus a #0 promo card from the 2013 San Diego Comic-Con)) with new artwork cards (divided into \"Mars Invades IDW\" (cards #59--77 and #91--92) and \"Art of Mars Attacks\" (cards #78--90 and #93--95)) and including four new subsets (\"Mars Attacks: Early Missions\" (with six cards), \"Mars Attacks Masterpieces\" (with five cards), \"Join the Fight!\" (with four cards) and \"Anatomy of a Martian\" (also with six cards)). This was the last *Mars Attacks* trading card series to be sold in retail stores as of this date; all other such series have been sold online ever since.
A second series of trading cards, *Mars Attacks: Occupation*, also featuring a second reboot series of 81 trading cards that picked up where *Mars Attacks: Invasion* left off (*Mars Attacks: Occupation* (cards #1--45) with new artwork cards (divided into \"Art of Mars Attacks\" (cards #46--63), \"Factions\" (cards #64--72), \"Occupation Profiles\" (cards #73--78) and \"The Kickstarter Video\" (cards #79--81)) and including six new subsets (\"Mars Attacks Superstars\", Mars Attacks: Then and Now!\", \"Mars Attacks All-Star Art\" and \"Dinosaurs Attack! vs. Mars Attacks\" (each with nine cards (the last one of which was also available as a foil card set)), \"Attacky Packages\" (a hybrid subset between *Mars Attacks* and *Wacky Packages* with 13 cards; the last three cards in this subset were titled \"Attacky Packages Old School\" (like \"Dinosaurs Attack! vs. Mars Attacks\", this one, too, was also available as a foil card set)) and \"Mars Attacks/Judge Dredd\" (with 18 cards)) was funded by Topps on Kickstarter in 2015 and released in 2016.
A licensed sourcebook written by David Levine appeared for the fourth edition of the tabletop roleplaying game system *GURPS*. This included artwork taken from the cards and comics.
In 2017, to commemorate the franchise\'s 55th anniversary, Topps released an official sequel series to the original 1962 55-card series called *Mars Attacks: The Revenge!*, which takes place five years after the events in the original series and chronicles a second invasion of Earth by the surviving Martians that were off-world and on Earth during the destruction of Mars. It contained 110 cards - the story itself (cards #1--55) and rough pencil art for the story cards (cards #P-1--P-55). No subsets were made for this series. It was sold as a complete box set that contained only the unwrapped 110 cards.
A third series of trading cards, *Mars Attacks: Uprising*, was released in 2020 exclusively through a Kickstarter campaign, with cards sent to those who donated to the campaign. Multiple artists were tapped to create multiple storylines, which generally depict counterattacking humans beginning to turn the tide against the Martian invasion
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# Marañón River
The **Marañón River** (*Río Marañón*, `{{IPA|es|ˈri.o maɾaˈɲon|IPA}}`{=mediawiki}, *Awriq mayu*) is the principal or mainstem source of the Amazon River, arising about 160 km (100 miles) to the northeast of Lima, Peru, and flowing northwest across plateaus 3,650 m (12,000 feet) high, it runs through a deeply eroded Andean valley, along the eastern base of the Cordillera of the Andes, as far as 5° 36′ southern latitude; from where it makes a great bend to the northeast, and cuts through the jungle Ande in its midcourse, until at the Pongo de Manseriche it flows into the flat Amazon basin. Although historically, the term \"Marañón River\" often was applied to the river all the way to the Atlantic Ocean, nowadays the Marañón River is generally thought to end at the confluence with the Ucayali River, after which most cartographers label the ensuing waterway the Amazon River.
As the Marañón passes through high jungle in its midcourse, it is marked by a series of unnavigable rapids and falls.
The Marañón was the subject of a landmark legal ruling related to the rights of nature. In March 2024, a Peruvian court ruled that the river itself has fundamental rights, including the right to ecological flows and to be free from pollution.
## Geography
The Marañón River is Peru\'s second-longest river, according to a 2005 statistical publication by the Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática.
## Source of the Amazon {#source_of_the_amazon}
The Marañón River was considered the source of the Amazon River starting with the 1707 map published by Padre Samuel Fritz, who indicated the great river \"has its source on the southern shore of a lake that is called Lauriocha, near Huánuco.\" Fritz believed that the Marañón contributed the most water of all the Amazon\'s tributaries, making it the most important headstream.
For most of the 18th--19th centuries and into the 20th century, the Marañón River was generally considered the source of the Amazon. Later explorations have proposed two headwaters rivers of the Marañón in the high Andes as sources of the Amazon: the Lauricocha and Nupe Rivers. The Lauricocha and Nupe unite near the village of Rondos to form from their confluence downstream the river that is called the Marañón.
Although the Apurimac and Mantaro rivers also have claims to being the source of the Amazon, the Marañón River continues to claim the title of the \"mainstem source\" or \"hydrological source\" of the Amazon due to its contribution of the highest annual discharge rates.
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# Marañón River
## Description
The initial section of the Marañón contains a plethora of *pongos*, which are gorges in the jungle areas often with difficult rapids. The Pongo de Manseriche is the final*pongo* on the Marañón located just before the river enters the flat Amazon basin. It is 5 km long and located between the confluence with the Rio Santiago and the village of Borja. According to Captain Carbajal, who attempted ascent through the Pongo de Manseriche in the little steamer *Napo*, in 1868, it is a vast rent in the Andes about 600 m (2000 ft) deep, narrowing in places to a width of only 30 m (100 ft), the precipices \"seeming to close in at the top.\" Through this canyon, the Marañón leaps along, at times, at the rate of 20 km/h (12 mi/h). The *pongo* is known for wrecking many ships and many drownings.
Downstream of the Pongo de Manseriche, the river often has islands, and usually nothing is visible from its low banks, but an immense forest-covered plain known as the *selva baja* (low jungle) or Peruvian Amazonia. It is home to indigenous peoples such as the Urarina of the Chambira Basin [2](http://www.upf.com/book.asp?id=DEANXS07), the Candoshi, and the Cocama-Cocamilla peoples.
A 552-km (343-mi) section of the Marañón River between Puente Copuma (Puchka confluence) and Corral Quemado is a class IV raftable river that is similar in many ways to the Grand Canyon of the United States, and has been labeled the \"Grand Canyon of the Amazon\". Most of this section of the river is in a canyon that is up to 3000 m deep on both sides -- over twice the depth of the Colorado\'s Grand Canyon. It is in dry, desert-like terrain, much of which receives only 250--350 mm/rain per year (10--14 in/yr) with parts such as from Balsas to Jaén known as the hottest *infierno* area of Peru. The Marañón Grand Canyon section flows by the village of Calemar, where Peruvian writer Ciro Alegría based one of his most important novels, *La serpiente de oro* (1935).
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# Marañón River
## Historical journeys {#historical_journeys}
### La Condamine, 1743 {#la_condamine_1743}
One of the first popular descents of the Marañón River occurred in 1743, when Frenchman Charles Marie de La Condamine journeyed from the Chinchipe confluence all the way to the Atlantic Ocean. La Condamine did not descend the initial section of the Marañón by boat due to the *pongos*. From where he began his boating descent at the Chiriaco confluence, La Condamine still had to confront several *pongos*, including the Pongo de Huaracayo (or Guaracayo) and the Pongo de Manseriche.
### Flornoy, 1941-1942 {#flornoy_1941_1942}
In 1936, Bertrand Flornoy was appointed chargé de mission at the National Museum of Natural History of France, which sent him on study and exploration missions in Amazonia and the Andes. He specialised in the Peruvian Upper Amazon, and in 1941 and 1942 discovered the sources of the Río Marañón, one of the tributaries of the Amazon.
### The Grand Canyon of the Amazon {#the_grand_canyon_of_the_amazon}
The upper Marañón River has seen a number of descents. An attempt to paddle the river was made by Herbert Rittlinger in 1936. Sebastian Snow was an adventurer who journeyed down most of the river by trekking to Chiriaco River starting at the source near Lake Niñacocha.`{{page needed|date=May 2016}}`{=mediawiki}
In 1976 and/or 1977, Laszlo Berty descended the section from Chagual to the jungle in a raft. In 1977, a group composed of Tom Fisher, Steve Gaskill, Ellen Toll, and John Wasson spent over a month descending the river from Rondos to Nazareth with kayaks and a raft. In 2004, Tim Biggs and companions kayaked the entire river from the Nupe River to Iquitos. In 2012, Rocky Contos descended the entire river with various companions along the way.
## Hydroelectric dams {#hydroelectric_dams}
The Marañón River may supply 20 hydroelectric mega-dams planned in the Andes, and most of the power is thought to be destined for export to Brazil, Chile, or Ecuador. Dam survey crews have drafted construction blueprints, and the environmental impact statements have been available since November 2009 for the Veracruz dam, and since November 2011, the Chadin2 dam. A 2011 law stated \"national demand\" for the hydroelectric energy, while in 2013, Peruvian President Ollanta Humala explicitly made a connection with mining; the energy is to supply mines in the Cajamarca Region, La Libertad, Ancash Region, and Piura Region. Construction of the 406 MW dam in Chaglla District started in 2012.
### Concerns
Opposition arose because the dams are expected to disrupt the major source of the Amazon, alter normal silt deposition into the lower river, damage habitat and migration patterns for fish and other aquatic life, displace thousands of residents along the river, and damage a national treasure \"at least as nice as the Grand Canyon in the USA\". Residents have launched efforts to halt the dams along the river with conservation groups such as SierraRios and International Rivers.
Potential ecological impacts of 151 new dams greater than 2 MW on five of the six major Andean tributaries of the Amazon over the next 20 years are estimated to be high, including the first major break in connectivity between Andean headwaters and lowland Amazon and deforestation due to infrastructure.
## Water Pollution {#water_pollution}
The Marañón River has been polluted by oil pipelines and mining activities in its watershed. Between 1970 and 2019, over 60 spills have been documented from the Norperuano oil pipeline. Mercury and other toxic chemicals have been released from illegal mining
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# March 6
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# Morona River
The **Morona** River is a tributary to the Marañón River in Peru and Ecuador, and flows parallel to the Pastaza River and immediately to the west of it, and is the last stream of any importance on the northern side of the Amazon before reaching the Pongo de Manseriche.
It is formed from a multitude of water-courses which descend the slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes south of the gigantic volcano of Sangay; but it soon reaches the plain, which commences where it receives its Cusulima branch. The Morona is navigable for small craft for about 300 miles above its mouth, but it is extremely tortuous. Canoes may ascend many of its branches, especially the Cusuhma and the Miazal, the latter almost to the base of Sangay. The Morona has been the scene of many rude explorations, with the hope of finding it serviceable as a commercial route between the inter-Andean tableland of Ecuador and the Amazon river.
In 2016, a large oil spill from Petroperú\'s pipeline contaminated the Morona and Chiriaco rivers
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# Meson
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# Marvel Super Heroes (role-playing game)
***Marvel Super Heroes*** (*MSH*) is a licensed role playing game set in the Marvel Universe, first published by TSR in 1984. The game lets players assume the roles of Marvel superheroes such as Spider-Man, Daredevil, Hulk, Captain America, the Fantastic Four, and the X-Men. The game was designed to be easily understood, and this approach proved popular. TSR published an expanded edition, *Marvel Superheroes Advanced Game* in 1986.
## System
### Attributes
Players resolve most game situations by rolling percentile dice and comparing the results against a column of the colorful \"Universal Results Table\". The attribute used determines which column to use; different tasks map to different attributes.
All characters have seven basic attributes:
Fighting determines hit probability in and defense against hand-to-hand attacks.
Agility determines hit probability in and defense against ranged attacks, feats of agility vs. the environment, and acrobatics.
Strength determines damage inflicted by hand-to-hand attacks, grappling, or lifting and breaking heavy objects.
Endurance determines resistance to physical damage (e.g., poison, disease, death). It also determines how long a character can fight and how fast a character can move at top speed.
Reason determines the success of tasks relating to knowledge, puzzle-solving, and advanced technology.
Intuition determines the success of tasks relating to awareness, perception, and instinct.
Psyche determines the success of tasks relating to willpower, psionics, and magic.
Players sometimes refer to this set of attributes and the game system as a whole by the acronym \"FASERIP\". Attribute scores for most characters range from 1 to 100, where normal human ability is Typical (6), and peak (non-superheroic) human ability is Excellent (20). The designers minimize use of the numerical figures, instead preferring adjectives like \"Incredible\" (36-45) and \"Amazing\" (46-62). A \"Typical\" (5-7) attribute has a 50% base chance for success at most tasks relating to that attribute. As an attribute increases, the chance of success increases about 5% per 10 points. Thus a character with an \"Amazing\" (50) attribute has a 75% chance of success at tasks relating to that attribute.
### Superpowers and origins {#superpowers_and_origins}
Beyond the seven attributes, characters have superpowers that function on a mostly *ad hoc* basis, and each character\'s description gives considerable space to a description of how their powers work in the game.
Each character has an origin which puts ceilings on a character\'s abilities and superpowers. The origins include:
Altered humans, normal people who acquire powers, such as Spider-Man or the Fantastic Four.
High-tech wonders, normal people whose powers come from devices, such as Iron Man.
Mutants, persons born with superpowers, such as the X-Men.
Robots, created beings, such as the Vision and Ultron.
Aliens, non-humans, including extra-dimensional beings such as Thor and Hercules.
### Talents
The game also features a simple skill system referred to as Talents. Talents must be learned and cover areas of knowledge from Archery to Zoology. A Talent raises a character\'s ability by one rank when attempting actions related to that Talent. The GM is free to determine if a character would be unable to attempt an action without the appropriate Talent (such as a character with no medical background attempting to make a pill that can cure a rare disease).
## Game mechanics {#game_mechanics}
Two primary game mechanics drive the game: column shifts and colored results. Both influence the difficulty of an action.
A column shift is used when a character is trying a hard or easy action. A column shift to the left indicates a penalty, while a shift to the right indicates a bonus.
The column for each ability is divided into four colors: white, green, yellow, and red. A white result is always a failure or unfavorable outcome. In most cases, getting a green result is all that is needed to succeed at a particular action. Yellow and red results usually indicate more favorable results that could knock back, stun, or even kill an opponent. However, the GM can determine that succeeding at a hard task might require a yellow or red result.
Additional rules in the \"Campaign Book\" of the basic and advanced sets use the same game mechanic to resolve non-violent tasks.
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# Marvel Super Heroes (role-playing game)
## Publication history {#publication_history}
The first super hero role-playing games appeared in the early 1980s with *Champions* (1981) by Hero Games and *Villains and Vigilantes* (1983) by Fantasy Games Unlimited. Both of these were \"generic\" systems, not tied to any particular line of comics, and players had to create their own super heroes. TSR scored a coup in 1984 when it acquired the game license from Marvel Comics, allowing it to create a role-playing game and characters based on the popular line of comics. The result was *Marvel Super Heroes*, a boxed set designed by Jeff Grubb and written by Steve Winter. Grubb designed the game to be easily understood, including a bare-bones combat system sufficient to resolve comic book style superhero fights. The game proved popular, and two years later Grubb and Winter created an expanded edition, the *Marvel Superheroes Advanced Game*.
### TSR game supplements {#tsr_game_supplements}
The original *Marvel Super Heroes* game received extensive support from TSR, covering a variety of Marvel Comics characters and settings, including a *Gamer\'s Handbook of the Marvel Universe* patterned after Marvel\'s *Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe*. *MSH* also got its own column, \"The Marvel-phile\", in TSR\'s house magazine *Dragon*; the column usually spotlighted a character or group of characters that hadn\'t yet appeared in a published game product.
### SAGA System {#saga_system}
In the late 1990s, TSR published *Marvel Super Heroes Adventure Game*, a card-based game that used their SAGA System game engine. This version, written by Mike Selinker, included a method of converting characters from the old role-playing game to the SAGA System. Though critically praised in various reviews at the time, it never reached a large market. Shortly afterwards, the Marvel Comics game license reverted to Marvel Comics.
### Other games {#other_games}
In 2003, Marvel Comics published their own game, *Marvel Universe Roleplaying Game*. This game uses a diceless game mechanic that incorporates a Karma-based resolution system of \"stones\" (or tokens) to represent character effort. Subsequently Marvel Comics published a few additional supplements, but stopped supporting the game a little over a year after its initial release, despite going through several printings of the core rulebook.
In August 2011, Margaret Weis Productions acquired the licence to publish an RPG based on Marvel superheroes, and *Marvel Heroic Roleplaying* was released beginning in 2012. However, the company found that despite critical acclaim and two Origins Awards, *Marvel Heroic Roleplaying: Civil War* \"didn\'t garner the level of sales necessary to sustain the rest of the line.\" so they brought the game to a close at the end of April 2013.
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# Marvel Super Heroes (role-playing game)
## Reception
In the July--August 1984 edition of *Space Gamer* (No. 70), Allen Varney wrote that the game was only suited to younger players and Marvel fanatics, saying, \"this is a respectable effort, and an excellent introductory game for a devoted Marvel fan aged 10 to 12; older, more experienced, or less devoted buyers will probably be disappointed. \'Nuff said.\"
Seven years later, Varney revisited the game in the August 1991 edition of *Dragon* (Issue #172), reviewing the new basic set edition that had just been released. While Varney appreciated that the game was designed for younger players, he felt that it failed to recreate the excitement of the comics. \"This is the gravest flaw of this system and support line: its apathy about recreating the spirit of Marvel stories. In this new Basic Set edition\... you couldn't find a miracle if you used microscopic vision. Look at this set's few elementary mini-scenarios: all fight scenes. The four-color grandeur and narrative magic in the best Marvel stories are absent. Is this a good introduction to role-playing?\" Varney instead suggested *Toon* by Steve Jackson Games or *Ghostbusters* by West End Games as better role-playing alternatives for new and beginning young players.
Pete Tamlyn reviewed *Marvel Super Heroes* for *Imagine* magazine and stated that \"this game has been produced in collaboration with Marvel and that opportunity itself is probably worth a new game release. However, *Marvel Superheroes* is not just another Superhero game. In many ways it is substantially different from other SHrpgs.\"
In the January--February 1985 edition of *Different Worlds* (Issue #38), Troy Christensen gave it an average rating of 2.5 stars out of 4, saying, \"The *Marvel Super Heroes* roleplaying game overall is a basic and simple system which I would recommend for beginning and novice players \[\...\] People who enjoy a fast and uncomplicated game and like a system which is conservative and to the point will like this game.\"
Marcus L. Rowland reviewed *Marvel Super Heroes* for *White Dwarf* #62, giving it an overall rating of 8 out of 10, and stated that \"All in all, a useful system which is suitable for beginning players and referees, but should still suit experienced gamers.\"
In his 1990 book *The Complete Guide to Role-Playing Games*, game critic Rick Swan called this \"a snap to learn, loaded with action, and nearly captures the anything-goes lunacy that\'s been a hallmark of Marvel Comics since the early 1960s.\" Swan did note that familiarity with Marvel heroes was a necessity \"and players who\'ve never heard of Captain America or the Fantastic Four (are there any?) won\'t find much to like.\" Swan concluded by giving the game superior rating of 3.5 out of 4, saying, \"I believe it\'s more difficult to design a simple game than a complicated one, so *Marvel Super Heroes* strikes me as a triumph.\"
*Marvel Super Heroes* was chosen for inclusion in the 2007 book *Hobby Games: The 100 Best*. Writer and game designer Steve Kenson commented that \"it\'s a testament to the game\'s longevity that it still has enthusiastic fan support on the Internet and an active play community more than a decade after its last product was published. Even more so that it continues to set a standard by which new superhero roleplaying games are measured. Like modern comic book writers and artists following the greats of the Silver Age, modern RPG designers have a tough act to follow.\"
In a retrospective review of *Marvel Super Heroes* in *Black Gate*, Matthew David Surridge said \"you couldn\'t help but read comics differently when you were helping create super-hero adventures yourself. Which, so often, seemed superior to what was being published by the major publishers, especially in the early 1990s.\" Ty Johnston for *Black Gate* later said \"I had the pleasure of playing the game a fair amount in my teen years and even a little later in my twenties, and more recently I lucked into a few online games with friends, and I have to say this game is not only enjoyable, but it\'s something of a bit of fresh air, mainly because of its relative simplicity and its willingness to be fun. It\'s worth checking out.\"
In his 2023 book *Monsters, Aliens, and Holes in the Ground*, RPG historian Stu Horvath noted, \"It\'s interesting to see the gulf of quality between *Marvel Super Heroes* and *Conan Unchained* \[published the same year by TSR.\] Where *Conan* feels like the work of a good designer trying desperately to salvage a corporate cash grab, *Marvel Super Heroes* is a fun and functional reflection of the source material in roleplaying game form
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# Mineralogy
thumb\|upright=1.5\|Mineralogy applies principles of chemistry, geology, physics and materials science to the study of minerals
**Mineralogy** is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of the chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals and mineralized artifacts. Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes of mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, as well as their utilization.
## History
`{{Main article|History of mineralogy}}`{=mediawiki} Early writing on mineralogy, especially on gemstones, comes from ancient Babylonia, the ancient Greco-Roman world, ancient and medieval China, and Sanskrit texts from ancient India and the ancient Islamic world. Books on the subject included the *Natural History* of Pliny the Elder, which not only described many different minerals but also explained many of their properties, and Kitab al Jawahir (Book of Precious Stones) by Persian scientist Al-Biruni. The German Renaissance specialist Georgius Agricola wrote works such as *De re metallica* (*On Metals*, 1556) and *De Natura Fossilium* (*On the Nature of Rocks*, 1546) which began the scientific approach to the subject. Systematic scientific studies of minerals and rocks developed in post-Renaissance Europe. The modern study of mineralogy was founded on the principles of crystallography (the origins of geometric crystallography, itself, can be traced back to the mineralogy practiced in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries) and to the microscopic study of rock sections with the invention of the microscope in the 17th century.
Nicholas Steno first observed the law of constancy of interfacial angles (also known as the first law of crystallography) in quartz crystals in 1669. This was later generalized and established experimentally by Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l\'Islee in 1783. René Just Haüy, the \"father of modern crystallography\", showed that crystals are periodic and established that the orientations of crystal faces can be expressed in terms of rational numbers (law of rational indices), as later encoded in the Miller indices. In 1814, Jöns Jacob Berzelius introduced a classification of minerals based on their chemistry rather than their crystal structure. William Nicol developed the Nicol prism, which polarizes light, in 1827--1828 while studying fossilized wood; Henry Clifton Sorby showed that thin sections of minerals could be identified by their optical properties using a polarizing microscope. James D. Dana published his first edition of *A System of Mineralogy* in 1837, and in a later edition introduced a chemical classification that is still the standard. X-ray diffraction was demonstrated by Max von Laue in 1912, and developed into a tool for analyzing the crystal structure of minerals by the father/son team of William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg.
More recently, driven by advances in experimental technique (such as neutron diffraction) and available computational power, the latter of which has enabled extremely accurate atomic-scale simulations of the behaviour of crystals, the science has branched out to consider more general problems in the fields of inorganic chemistry and solid-state physics. It, however, retains a focus on the crystal structures commonly encountered in rock-forming minerals (such as the perovskites, clay minerals and framework silicates). In particular, the field has made great advances in the understanding of the relationship between the atomic-scale structure of minerals and their function; in nature, prominent examples would be accurate measurement and prediction of the elastic properties of minerals, which has led to new insight into seismological behaviour of rocks and depth-related discontinuities in seismograms of the Earth\'s mantle. To this end, in their focus on the connection between atomic-scale phenomena and macroscopic properties, the *mineral sciences* (as they are now commonly known) display perhaps more of an overlap with materials science than any other discipline.
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# Mineralogy
## Physical properties {#physical_properties}
An initial step in identifying a mineral is to examine its physical properties, many of which can be measured on a hand sample. These can be classified into density (often given as specific gravity); measures of mechanical cohesion (hardness, tenacity, cleavage, fracture, parting); macroscopic visual properties (luster, color, streak, luminescence, diaphaneity); magnetic and electric properties; radioactivity and solubility in hydrogen chloride (`{{chem2|auto=1|HCl}}`{=mediawiki}).
*Hardness* is determined by comparison with other minerals. In the Mohs scale, a standard set of minerals are numbered in order of increasing hardness from 1 (talc) to 10 (diamond). A harder mineral will scratch a softer, so an unknown mineral can be placed in this scale, by which minerals; it scratches and which scratch it. A few minerals such as calcite and kyanite have a hardness that depends significantly on direction. Hardness can also be measured on an absolute scale using a sclerometer; compared to the absolute scale, the Mohs scale is nonlinear.
*Tenacity* refers to the way a mineral behaves, when it is broken, crushed, bent or torn. A mineral can be brittle, malleable, sectile, ductile, flexible or elastic. An important influence on tenacity is the type of chemical bond (*e.g.,* ionic or metallic).
Of the other measures of mechanical cohesion, *cleavage* is the tendency to break along certain crystallographic planes. It is described by the quality (*e.g.*, perfect or fair) and the orientation of the plane in crystallographic nomenclature.
*Parting* is the tendency to break along planes of weakness due to pressure, twinning or exsolution. Where these two kinds of break do not occur, *fracture* is a less orderly form that may be *conchoidal* (having smooth curves resembling the interior of a shell), *fibrous*, *splintery*, *hackly* (jagged with sharp edges), or *uneven*.
If the mineral is well crystallized, it will also have a distinctive crystal habit (for example, hexagonal, columnar, botryoidal) that reflects the crystal structure or internal arrangement of atoms. It is also affected by crystal defects and twinning. Many crystals are polymorphic, having more than one possible crystal structure depending on factors such as pressure and temperature.
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# Mineralogy
## Crystal structure {#crystal_structure}
`{{main article|Crystal structure}}`{=mediawiki} `{{See also|Crystallography}}`{=mediawiki} The crystal structure is the arrangement of atoms in a crystal. It is represented by a lattice of points which repeats a basic pattern, called a unit cell, in three dimensions. The lattice can be characterized by its symmetries and by the dimensions of the unit cell. These dimensions are represented by three *Miller indices*. The lattice remains unchanged by certain symmetry operations about any given point in the lattice: reflection, rotation, inversion, and rotary inversion, a combination of rotation and reflection. Together, they make up a mathematical object called a *crystallographic point group* or *crystal class*. There are 32 possible crystal classes. In addition, there are operations that displace all the points: translation, screw axis, and glide plane. In combination with the point symmetries, they form 230 possible space groups.
Most geology departments have X-ray powder diffraction equipment to analyze the crystal structures of minerals. X-rays have wavelengths that are the same order of magnitude as the distances between atoms. Diffraction, the constructive and destructive interference between waves scattered at different atoms, leads to distinctive patterns of high and low intensity that depend on the geometry of the crystal. In a sample that is ground to a powder, the X-rays sample a random distribution of all crystal orientations. Powder diffraction can distinguish between minerals that may appear the same in a hand sample, for example quartz and its polymorphs tridymite and cristobalite.
Isomorphous minerals of different compositions have similar powder diffraction patterns, the main difference being in spacing and intensity of lines. For example, the `{{chem2|auto=1|NaCl}}`{=mediawiki} (halite) crystal structure is space group *Fm3m*; this structure is shared by sylvite (`{{chem2|auto=1|KCl}}`{=mediawiki}), periclase (`{{chem2|auto=1|MgO}}`{=mediawiki}), bunsenite (`{{chem2|auto=1|NiO}}`{=mediawiki}), galena (`{{chem2|auto=1|PbS}}`{=mediawiki}), alabandite (`{{chem2|auto=1|MnS}}`{=mediawiki}), chlorargyrite (`{{chem2|auto=1|AgCl}}`{=mediawiki}), and osbornite (`{{chem2|auto=1|TiN}}`{=mediawiki}).
## Chemical elements {#chemical_elements}
A few minerals are chemical elements, including sulfur, copper, silver, and gold, but the vast majority are compounds. The classical method for identifying composition is *wet chemical analysis*, which involves dissolving a mineral in an acid such as hydrochloric acid (HCl). The elements in solution are then identified using colorimetry, volumetric analysis or gravimetric analysis.
Since 1960, most chemistry analysis is done using instruments. One of these, atomic absorption spectroscopy, is similar to wet chemistry in that the sample must still be dissolved, but it is much faster and cheaper. The solution is vaporized and its absorption spectrum is measured in the visible and ultraviolet range. Other techniques are X-ray fluorescence, electron microprobe analysis atom probe tomography and optical emission spectrography.
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# Mineralogy
## Optical
`{{main article|Optical mineralogy}}`{=mediawiki}
In addition to macroscopic properties such as colour or lustre, minerals have properties that require a polarizing microscope to observe.
### Transmitted light {#transmitted_light}
When light passes from air or a vacuum into a transparent crystal, some of it is reflected at the surface and some refracted. The latter is a bending of the light path that occurs because the speed of light changes as it goes into the crystal; Snell\'s law relates the bending angle to the Refractive index, the ratio of speed in a vacuum to speed in the crystal. Crystals whose point symmetry group falls in the cubic system are *isotropic*: the index does not depend on direction. All other crystals are *anisotropic*: light passing through them is broken up into two plane polarized rays that travel at different speeds and refract at different angles.
A polarizing microscope is similar to an ordinary microscope, but it has two plane-polarized filters, a (*polarizer*) below the sample and an analyzer above it, polarized perpendicular to each other. Light passes successively through the polarizer, the sample and the analyzer. If there is no sample, the analyzer blocks all the light from the polarizer. However, an anisotropic sample will generally change the polarization so some of the light can pass through. Thin sections and powders can be used as samples.
When an isotropic crystal is viewed, it appears dark because it does not change the polarization of the light. However, when it is immersed in a calibrated liquid with a lower index of refraction and the microscope is thrown out of focus, a bright line called a *Becke line* appears around the perimeter of the crystal. By observing the presence or absence of such lines in liquids with different indices, the index of the crystal can be estimated, usually to within `{{math|± 0.003}}`{=mediawiki}.
## Systematic
`{{See also|Mineral#Mineral classes}}`{=mediawiki} Systematic mineralogy is the identification and classification of minerals by their properties. Historically, mineralogy was heavily concerned with taxonomy of the rock-forming minerals. In 1959, the International Mineralogical Association formed the Commission of New Minerals and Mineral Names to rationalize the nomenclature and regulate the introduction of new names. In July 2006, it was merged with the Commission on Classification of Minerals to form the Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature, and Classification. There are over 6,000 named and unnamed minerals, and about 100 are discovered each year. The *Manual of Mineralogy* places minerals in the following classes: native elements, sulfides, sulfosalts, oxides and hydroxides, halides, carbonates, nitrates and borates, sulfates, chromates, molybdates and tungstates, phosphates, arsenates and vanadates, and silicates.
## Formation environments {#formation_environments}
The environments of mineral formation and growth are highly varied, ranging from slow crystallization at the high temperatures and pressures of igneous melts deep within the Earth\'s crust to the low temperature precipitation from a saline brine at the Earth\'s surface.
Various possible methods of formation include:
- sublimation from volcanic gases
- deposition from aqueous solutions and hydrothermal brines
- crystallization from an igneous magma or lava
- recrystallization due to metamorphic processes and metasomatism
- crystallization during diagenesis of sediments
- formation by oxidation and weathering of rocks exposed to the atmosphere or within the soil environment.
## Biomineralogy
Biomineralogy is a cross-over field between mineralogy, paleontology and biology. It is the study of how plants and animals stabilize minerals under biological control, and the sequencing of mineral replacement of those minerals after deposition. It uses techniques from chemical mineralogy, especially isotopic studies, to determine such things as growth forms in living plants and animals as well as things like the original mineral content of fossils.
A new approach to mineralogy called mineral evolution explores the co-evolution of the geosphere and biosphere, including the role of minerals in the origin of life and processes as mineral-catalyzed organic synthesis and the selective adsorption of organic molecules on mineral surfaces.
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# Mineralogy
## Mineral ecology {#mineral_ecology}
In 2011, several researchers began to develop a Mineral Evolution Database. This database integrates the crowd-sourced site Mindat.org, which has over 690,000 mineral-locality pairs, with the official IMA list of approved minerals and age data from geological publications.
This database makes it possible to apply statistics to answer new questions, an approach that has been called *mineral ecology*. One such question is how much of mineral evolution is deterministic and how much the result of chance. Some factors are deterministic, such as the chemical nature of a mineral and conditions for its stability; but mineralogy can also be affected by the processes that determine a planet\'s composition. In a 2015 paper, Robert Hazen and others analyzed the number of minerals involving each element as a function of its abundance. They found that Earth, with over 4800 known minerals and 72 elements, has a power law relationship. The Moon, with only 63 minerals and 24 elements (based on a much smaller sample) has essentially the same relationship. This implies that, given the chemical composition of the planet, one could predict the more common minerals. However, the distribution has a long tail, with 34% of the minerals having been found at only one or two locations. The model predicts that thousands more mineral species may await discovery or have formed and then been lost to erosion, burial or other processes. This implies a role of chance in the formation of rare minerals occur.
In another use of big data sets, network theory was applied to a dataset of carbon minerals, revealing new patterns in their diversity and distribution. The analysis can show which minerals tend to coexist and what conditions (geological, physical, chemical and biological) are associated with them. This information can be used to predict where to look for new deposits and even new mineral species.
## Uses
Minerals are essential to various needs within human society, such as minerals used as ores for essential components of metal products used in various commercial products and machinery, essential components to building materials such as limestone, marble, granite, gravel, glass, plaster, cement, etc. Minerals are also used in fertilizers to enrich the growth of agricultural crops.
### Collecting
Mineral collecting is also a recreational study and collection hobby, with clubs and societies representing the field. Museums, such as the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History Hall of Geology, Gems, and Minerals, the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, the Carnegie Museum of Natural History, the Natural History Museum, London, and the private Mim Mineral Museum in Beirut, Lebanon, have popular collections of mineral specimens on permanent display
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# Mosque
`{{Islam}}`{=mediawiki} A **mosque** (`{{IPAc-en|m|ɒ|s|k}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|MOSK}}`{=mediawiki}), also called a **masjid** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|æ|s|dʒ|ɪ|d|,_|ˈ|m|ʌ|s|-}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|MASS|jid|,_|MUSS|-}}`{=mediawiki}), is a place of worship for Muslims. The term usually refers to a covered building, but can be any place where Islamic prayers are performed; such as an outdoor courtyard.
Originally, mosques were simple places of prayer for the early Muslims, and may have been open spaces rather than elaborate buildings. In the first stage of Islamic architecture (650--750 CE), early mosques comprised open and closed covered spaces enclosed by walls, often with minarets, from which the Islamic call to prayer was issued on a daily basis. It is typical of mosque buildings to have a special ornamental niche (a *mihrab*) set into the wall in the direction of the city of Mecca (the *qibla*), which Muslims must face during prayer, as well as a facility for ritual cleansing (*wudu*). The pulpit (*minbar*), from which public sermons (*khutbah*) are delivered on the event of Friday prayer, was, in earlier times, characteristic of the central city mosque, but has since become common in smaller mosques. To varying degrees, mosque buildings are designed so that there are segregated spaces for men and women. This basic pattern of organization has assumed different forms depending on the region, period, and Islamic denomination.
In addition to being places of worship in Islam, mosques also serve as locations for funeral services and funeral prayers, marriages (nikah), vigils during Ramadan, business agreements, collection and distribution of alms, and homeless shelters. To this end, mosques have historically been multi-purpose buildings functioning as community centres, courts of law, and religious schools. In modern times, they have also preserved their role as places of religious instruction and debate. Special importance is accorded to, in descending order of importance: al-Masjid al-Haram in the city of Mecca, where Hajj and Umrah are performed; the Prophet\'s Mosque in the city of Medina, where Muhammad is buried; and al-Aqsa Mosque in the city of Jerusalem, where Muslims believe that Muhammad ascended to heaven to meet God around 621 CE. There\'s a growing realization among scholars that the present-day perception of mosques doesn\'t fully align with their original concept. Early Islamic texts and practices highlight mosques as vibrant centers integral to Muslim communities, supporting religious, social, economic, and political affairs.
During and after the early Muslim conquests, mosques were established outside of Arabia in the hundreds; many synagogues, churches, and temples were converted into mosques and thus influenced Islamic architectural styles over the centuries. While most pre-modern mosques were funded by charitable endowments (*waqf*), the modern-day trend of government regulation of large mosques has been countered by the rise of privately funded mosques, many of which serve as bases for different streams of Islamic revivalism and social activism.
## Etymology
The word \'mosque\' entered the English language from the French word *mosquée*, probably derived from Italian *moschea* (a variant of Italian *moscheta*), from either Middle Armenian մզկիթ (*mzkit*), Medieval *μασγίδιον* (*masgídion*), or Spanish *mezquita*, from *masjid* (meaning \"site of prostration (in prayer)\" and hence a place of worship), either from Nabataean *masg^ĕ^dhā́* or from *sajada\]\]* (meaning \"to prostrate\"), probably ultimately from Nabataean Arabic *masg^ĕ^dhā́* or Aramaic *s^ĕ^ghēdh*.
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# Mosque
## History
### Origins
Islam was established in Arabia during the lifetime of Muhammad in the 7th century CE. The first mosque in history could be either the sanctuary built around the *Ka\'bah* in Mecca, known today as *Al-Masjid al-Haram* (\'The Sacred Mosque\'), or the Quba Mosque in Medina, the first structure built by Muhammad upon his emigration from Mecca in 622 CE, both located in the Hejaz region in present-day Saudi Arabia.
Other scholars reference Islamic tradition and passages of the Quran, according to which Islam as a religion precedes Muhammad, and includes previous prophets such as Abraham. In Islamic tradition, Abraham is credited with having built the *Ka\'bah* in Mecca, and consequently its sanctuary, *Al-Masjid al-Haram*, which is seen by Muslims as the first mosque that existed. A hadith in Sahih al-Bukhari states that the sanctuary of the *Ka\'bah* was the first mosque on Earth, with the second mosque being Al-Aqsa in Jerusalem, which is also associated with Abraham. Since as early as 638 CE, the Sacred Mosque of Mecca has been expanded on several occasions to accommodate the increasing number of Muslims who either live in the area or make the annual pilgrimage known as *Hajj* to the city.
Either way, after the Quba Mosque, Muhammad went on to establish another mosque in Medina, which is now known as *Al-Masjid an-Nabawi* (\'The Prophet\'s Mosque\'). Built on the site of his home, Muhammad participated in the construction of the mosque himself and helped pioneer the concept of the mosque as the focal point of the Islamic city. The Prophet\'s Mosque is considered by some scholars of Islamic architecture to be the first mosque. The mosque had a roof supported by columns made of palm tree trunks and it included a large courtyard, a motif common among mosques built since then. Rebuilt and expanded over time, it soon became a larger hypostyle structure. It probably served as a model for the construction of early mosques elsewhere. It introduced some of the features still common in today\'s mosques, including the niche at the front of the prayer space known as the *mihrab* (first added in the Umayyad period) and the tiered pulpit called the *minbar*.
<File:After> their time in Mina has passed, pilgrims head back to Mecca. - Flickr - Al Jazeera English.jpg\|2010 Aerial view of the largest mosque in the world, The Sacred Mosque (*Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām*) of Mecca in the Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia, with the Kaaba in the center <File:Madinah>, Al haram at night (2512058060).jpg\|Islam\'s second holiest site Al-Masjid an-Nabawi (The Prophet\'s Mosque) in Medina <File:Jerusalem-2013-Temple> Mount-Al-Aqsa Mosque (NE exposure).jpg\|Islam\'s third holiest site Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem <File:Umayyad> Mosque (2020-01-07).jpg\|Inside view of another holy site, the Umayyad Mosque built by the Umayyad Caliphate <File:Quba> Mosque (2).jpg\|The Quba Mosque in Medina, Hejaz, Saudi Arabia <File:Al> Sahaba Mosque, Massawa.jpg\|The Mosque of the Companions (*Masjid As-Sahabah*) in Massawa, Eritrea, Horn of Africa <File:Main> entrance of Masjid al-Qiblatayn.jpg\|*Masjid al-Qiblatayn* (Mosque of the two Qiblahs) in Medina <File:Kerbela> Hussein Moschee.jpg\|One of the holiest sites in Shia Islam, the Imam Hussayn Mosque in Karbala
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# Mosque
## History
### Diffusion and evolution {#diffusion_and_evolution}
The Umayyad Caliphate was particularly instrumental in spreading Islam and establishing mosques within the Levant, as the Umayyads constructed among the most revered mosques in the region --- Al-Aqsa Mosque and Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, and the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus. The designs of the Dome of the Rock and the Umayyad Mosque were influenced by Byzantine architecture, a trend that continued much later with the rise of the Ottoman Empire.
The Great Mosque of Kairouan in present-day Tunisia was the first mosque built in the Maghreb (northwest Africa), with its present form (dating from the ninth century) serving as a model for other Islamic places of worship in the Maghreb. It was the first in the region to incorporate a square minaret, which was characteristic of later Maghrebi mosques, and includes naves akin to a basilica. Those features can also be found in Andalusi mosques, including the Great Mosque of Cordoba, as they tended to reflect the architecture of the Moors instead of their Visigoth predecessors. Still, some elements of Visigothic architecture, like horseshoe arches, were infused into the mosque architecture of Spain and the Maghreb.
Muslim empires were instrumental in the evolution and spread of mosques. Although mosques were first established in India during the seventh century, they were not commonplace across the subcontinent until the arrival of the Mughals in the 16th and 17th centuries. Reflecting their Timurid origins, Mughal-style mosques included onion domes, pointed arches, and elaborate circular minarets, features common in the Persian and Central Asian styles. The Jama Masjid in Delhi and the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore, built in a similar manner in the mid-17th century, remain two of the largest mosques on the Indian subcontinent.
The first mosque in East Asia was established in the eighth century in Xi\'an. The Great Mosque of Xi\'an, whose current building dates from the 18th century, does not replicate the features often associated with mosques elsewhere. Minarets were initially prohibited by the state. Following traditional Chinese architecture, the Great Mosque of Xi\'an, like many other mosques in eastern China, resembles a pagoda, with a green roof instead of the yellow roof common on imperial structures in China. Mosques in western China were more likely to incorporate elements, like domes and minarets, traditionally seen in mosques elsewhere.A similar integration of foreign and local influences could be seen on the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java, where mosques, including the Demak Great Mosque, were first established in the 15th century. Early Javanese mosques took design cues from Hindu, Buddhist, and Chinese architectural influences, with tall timber, multi-level roofs similar to the pagodas of Balinese Hindu temples; the ubiquitous Islamic dome did not appear in Indonesia until the 19th century. In turn, the Javanese style influenced the styles of mosques in Indonesia\'s Austronesian neighbors---Malaysia, Brunei, and the Philippines.
Several of the early mosques in the Ottoman Empire were originally churches or cathedrals from the Byzantine Empire, with the Hagia Sophia (one of those converted cathedrals) informing the architecture of mosques from after the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople. The Ottomans developed their own architectural style characterized by large central domes (sometimes surrounded by multiple smaller domes), pencil-shaped minarets, and open façades.
Mosques from the Ottoman period are still scattered across Eastern Europe, but the most rapid growth in the number of mosques in Europe has occurred within the past century as more Muslims have migrated to the continent. Many major European cities are home to mosques, like the Grand Mosque of Paris, that incorporate domes, minarets, and other features often found with mosques in Muslim-majority countries. The first mosque in North America was founded by Albanian Americans in 1915, but the continent\'s oldest surviving mosque, the Mother Mosque of America, was built in 1934. As in Europe, the number of American mosques has rapidly increased in recent decades as Muslim immigrants, particularly from South Asia, have come in the United States. Greater than forty percent of mosques in the United States were constructed after 2000.
### Inter-religious conversion {#inter_religious_conversion}
According to early Muslim historians, towns that surrendered without resistance and made treaties with the Muslims were allowed to retain their churches and the towns captured by Muslims had many of their churches converted to mosques. One of the earliest examples of these kinds of conversions was in Damascus, Syria, where in 705 Umayyad caliph Al-Walid I bought the church of St. John from the Christians and had it rebuilt as a mosque in exchange for building a number of new churches for the Christians in Damascus. Overall, Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (Al-Waleed\'s father) is said to have transformed 10 churches in Damascus into mosques.
The process of turning churches into mosques were especially intensive in the villages where most of the inhabitants converted to Islam. The Abbasid caliph al-Ma\'mun turned many churches into mosques. Ottoman Turks converted nearly all churches, monasteries, and chapels in Constantinople, including the famous Hagia Sophia, into mosques immediately after capturing the city in 1453. In some instances mosques have been established on the places of Jewish or Christian sanctuaries associated with Biblical personalities who were also recognized by Islam.
Mosques have also been converted for use by other religions, notably in southern Spain, following the conquest of the Moors in 1492. The most prominent of them is the Great Mosque of Cordoba, itself constructed on the site of a church demolished during the period of Muslim rule. Outside of the Iberian Peninsula, such instances also occurred in southeastern Europe once regions were no longer under Muslim rule.
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# Mosque
## Religious functions {#religious_functions}
### Prayers
There are two holidays (*Eids*) in the Islamic calendar: *ʿĪd al-Fiṭr* and *ʿĪd al-Aḍḥā*, during which there are special prayers held at mosques in the morning. These Eid prayers are supposed to be offered in large groups, and so, in the absence of an outdoor *Eidgah*, a large mosque will normally host them for their congregants as well as the congregants of smaller local mosques. Some mosques will even rent convention centers or other large public buildings to hold the large number of Muslims who attend. Mosques, especially those in countries where Muslims are the majority, will also host Eid prayers outside in courtyards, town squares or on the outskirts of town in an *Eidgah*.
### Ramadan
Islam\'s holiest month, *Ramaḍān*, is observed through many events. As Muslims must fast during the day during Ramadan, mosques will host *Ifṭār* dinners after sunset and the fourth required prayer of the day, that is *Maghrib*. Food is provided, at least in part, by members of the community, thereby creating daily potluck dinners. Because of the community contribution necessary to serve *iftar* dinners, mosques with smaller congregations may not be able to host the *iftar* dinners daily. Some mosques will also hold *Suḥūr* meals before dawn to congregants attending the first required prayer of the day, *Fajr*. As with iftar dinners, congregants usually provide the food for suhoor, although able mosques may provide food instead. Mosques will often invite poorer members of the Muslim community to share in beginning and breaking the fasts, as providing charity during Ramadan is regarded in Islam as especially honorable.
Following the last obligatory daily prayer (*ʿIshāʾ*) special, optional *Tarāwīḥ* prayers are offered in larger mosques. During each night of prayers, which can last for up to two hours each night, usually one member of the community who has memorized the entire Quran (a Hafiz) will recite a segment of the book. Sometimes, several such people (not necessarily of the local community) take turns to do this. During the last ten days of Ramadan, larger mosques will host all-night programs to observe *Laylat al-Qadr*, the night Muslims believe that Muhammad first received Quranic revelations. On that night, between sunset and sunrise, mosques employ speakers to educate congregants in attendance about Islam. Mosques or the community usually provide meals periodically throughout the night
During the last ten days of Ramadan, larger mosques within the Muslim community will host *Iʿtikāf*, a practice in which at least one Muslim man from the community must participate. Muslims performing itikaf are required to stay within the mosque for ten consecutive days, often in worship or learning about Islam. As a result, the rest of the Muslim community is responsible for providing the participants with food, drinks, and whatever else they need during their stay.
### Charity
The third of the Five Pillars of Islam states that Muslims are required to give approximately one-fortieth of their wealth to charity as *Zakat*. Since mosques form the center of Muslim communities, they are where Muslims go to both give *zakat* and, if necessary, collect it. Before the holiday of *Eid ul-Fitr*, mosques also collect a special *zakat* that is supposed to assist in helping poor Muslims attend the prayers and celebrations associated with the holiday.
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# Mosque
## Religious functions {#religious_functions}
### Frequency of attendance {#frequency_of_attendance}
The frequency by which Muslims attend mosque services vary greatly around the world. In some countries, weekly attendance at religious services is common among Muslims while in others, attendance is rare. A study of American Muslims did not find differences in mosque attendance by gender or age. `{{Bar box
| title=Percentage of Muslims who attend mosque at least once a week, 2009–2012<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-2-religious-commitment/|title=Chapter 2: Religious Commitment|date=August 9, 2012|access-date=August 5, 2022|archive-date=August 5, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220805191834/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-2-religious-commitment/|url-status=live}}</ref>
| titlebar=#ddd
| left1=Countries
| right1=Percentage
| width=500px
| bars=
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Ghana}} [[Ghana]]|limegreen|99}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Liberia}} [[Liberia]]|limegreen|94}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Ethiopia}} [[Ethiopia]]|limegreen|93}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Uganda}} [[Uganda]]|limegreen|93}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Guinea-Bissau}} [[Guinea-Bissau]]|limegreen|92}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Mozambique}} [[Mozambique]]|limegreen|92}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Kenya}} [[Kenya]]|limegreen|91}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Niger}} [[Niger]]|limegreen|88}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Nigeria}} [[Nigeria]]|limegreen|87}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]|limegreen|85}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Cameroon}} [[Cameroon]]|limegreen|84}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Djibouti}} [[Djibouti]]|limegreen|84}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Tanzania}} [[Tanzania]]|limegreen|82}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Chad}} [[Chad]]|limegreen|81}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Mali}} [[Mali]]|limegreen|79}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Indonesia]]|limegreen|72}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Jordan}} [[Jordan]]|limegreen|65}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Senegal}} [[Senegal]]|limegreen|65}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Afghanistan}} [[Afghanistan]]|limegreen|61}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Egypt}} [[Egypt]]|limegreen|61}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Pakistan]]|limegreen|59}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Malaysia}} [[Malaysia]]|limegreen|57}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom]]{{refn|group=note|name=United Kingdom|Survey was conducted in 2016, not 2009–2012.}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.icmunlimited.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/Policy-Exchange-ICM-Muslims-Survey-web.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206104600/https://www.icmunlimited.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/Policy-Exchange-ICM-Muslims-Survey-web.pdf |url-status=live |title='What Muslims Want': A survey of British Muslims by ICM on behalf of Policy Exchange |archive-date=2017-02-06}}</ref>|limegreen|56}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Palestine}} [[Palestine]]|limegreen|55}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Iraq}} [[Iraq]]|limegreen|54}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Spain}} [[Spain]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.interior.gob.es/documents/642317/1201485/Valores%2C%20actitudes+y+opiniones+de+los+inmigrantes+de+religi%C3%B3n+musulmana+%28NIPO+126-11-022-1%29.pdf/0bf98a9b-bd97-490f-8e53-0e6885a34e0a|title=Valores, Actitudes y Opiniones de los Inmigrantes de Religión Musulmana|access-date=2017-02-02|archive-date=2020-10-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003080926/http://www.interior.gob.es/documents/642317/1201485/Valores,%20actitudes+y+opiniones+de+los+inmigrantes+de+religi%C3%B3n+musulmana+(NIPO+126-11-022-1).pdf/0bf98a9b-bd97-490f-8e53-0e6885a34e0a}}</ref>|limegreen|54}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Bangladesh}} [[Bangladesh]]|limegreen|53}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Thailand}} [[Thailand]]{{refn|group=note|name=Thailand|Survey was only conducted in the southern five provinces.}}|limegreen|52}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Yemen}} [[Yemen]]{{refn|group=note|name=Yemen|Survey was conducted in 2013, not 2009–2012. Sample was taken from entire population of Yemen, which is approximately 99% Muslim.}}<ref name=World>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSDocumentationWV6.jsp|title=WVS Database|website=www.worldvaluessurvey.org|access-date=2022-08-05|archive-date=2021-03-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331011026/https://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSDocumentationWV6.jsp|url-status=live}}</ref>|limegreen|51}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Israel}} [[Israel]]{{refn|group=note|name=Israel|Survey was conducted in 2015, not 2009–2012.}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2016/03/08/israels-religiously-divided-society/|title=Israel's Religiously Divided Society|date=March 8, 2016|access-date=August 5, 2022|archive-date=July 14, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230714160916/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2016/03/08/israels-religiously-divided-society/|url-status=live}}</ref>|limegreen|49}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Italy}} [[Italy]]<ref name=Sonage/>|limegreen|49}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Canada}} [[Canada]]{{refn|group=note|name=Canada|Survey was conducted in 2016, not 2009–2012.}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.environicsinstitute.org/uploads/institute-projects/survey%20of%20muslims%20in%20canada%202016%20-%20final%20report.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501155148/http://www.environicsinstitute.org/uploads/institute-projects/survey%20of%20muslims%20in%20canada%202016%20-%20final%20report.pdf|title=Survey of Muslims in Canada 2016|archive-date=2016-05-01}}</ref>|limegreen|48}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Algeria}} [[Algeria]]{{refn|group=note|name=Algeria|Survey was conducted in 2008, not 2009–2012.}}<ref name="regime">{{Cite web |url=http://www.psc.isr.umich.edu/pubs/pdf/rr08-641.pdf |title=Religious Regimes and Prospects for Liberal Politics: Futures of Iran, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia |access-date=2017-02-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513202651/http://www.psc.isr.umich.edu/pubs/pdf/rr08-641.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 }}</ref>|limegreen|47}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Tunisia}} [[Tunisia]]|limegreen|47}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|United States of America}} [[United States|United States of America]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2011/08/30/section-2-religious-beliefs-and-practices/|title=Section 2: Religious Beliefs and Practices|date=August 30, 2011|access-date=August 5, 2022|archive-date=September 1, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901050905/https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2011/08/30/section-2-religious-beliefs-and-practices/|url-status=live}}</ref>|limegreen|47}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Turkey}} [[Turkey]]|limegreen|44}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Australia}} [[Australia]]{{refn|group=note|name=Australia|Survey was conducted in 2015, not 2009–2012.}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.westernsydney.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/988793/12441_text_challenging_racism_WEB.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160329043851/https://www.westernsydney.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/988793/12441_text_challenging_racism_WEB.pdf |url-status=live |title=The resilience and ordinariness of Australian Muslims: Attitudes and experiences of Muslims Report |archive-date=2016-03-29}}</ref>|limegreen|40}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Morocco}} [[Morocco]]|limegreen|40}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Germany}} [[Germany]]{{refn|group=note|name=Germany|Survey was conducted in 2008, not 2009–2012.}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.npdata.be/Data/Godsdienst/Duitsland/fb6-muslimisches-leben-englisch.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611060146/http://www.npdata.be/Data/Godsdienst/Duitsland/fb6-muslimisches-leben-englisch.pdf |url-status=live |title=Muslim Life in Germany: A study conducted on behalf of the German Conference on Islam |archive-date=2014-06-11}}</ref>|limegreen|35}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Lebanon}} [[Lebanon]]|limegreen|35}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Libya}} [[Libya]]{{refn|group=note|name=Libya|Survey was conducted in 2013, not 2009–2012. Sample was taken from entire population of Libya, which is approximately 97% Muslim.}}<ref name=World/>|limegreen|35}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Bosnia and Herzegovina}} [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]|limegreen|30}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|France}} [[France]]{{refn|group=note|name=France|Survey was conducted in 2016, not 2009–2012.}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.institutmontaigne.org/res/files/publications/a-french-islam-is-possible-report.pdf |title=A French Islam is possible |access-date=2017-03-29 |archive-date=2017-09-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170915201551/http://www.institutmontaigne.org/res/files/publications/a-french-islam-is-possible-report.pdf }}</ref>|limegreen|30}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Tajikistan}} [[Tajikistan]]|limegreen|30}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Belgium|state}} [[Belgium]]<ref name=Sonage>{{Cite web|url=http://www.yabiladi.com/img/content/docs/sondage_bva_ccme_07-2010.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130195612/http://www.yabiladi.com/img/content/docs/sondage_bva_ccme_07-2010.pdf|url-status=live|title=Sondage auprès des jeunes Marocains résidant en Europe|archive-date=2012-01-30}}</ref>|limegreen|28}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Iran}} [[Iran]]{{refn|group=note|name=Iran|Survey was conducted in 2008, not 2009–2012.}}<ref name="regime"/>|limegreen|27}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Saudi Arabia}} [[Saudi Arabia]]{{refn|group=note|name=Saudi Arabia|Survey was conducted in 2008, not 2009–2012.}}<ref name=regime/>|limegreen|27}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Denmark}} [[Denmark]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=srQ0F6mAiVoC|title=Islamic Education in Europe|last=Aslan|first=Ednan|publisher=Böhlau Verlag Wien|page=82|isbn=978-3-205-78310-7|year=2009}}</ref>|limegreen|25}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Netherlands]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/publicatie/2009/31/religie-aan-het-begin-van-de-21ste-eeuw|title=Religie aan het begin van de 21ste eeuw|first=Centraal Bureau voor de|last=Statistiek|website=Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek|date=29 July 2009|access-date=2 February 2017|archive-date=2 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202234607/https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/publicatie/2009/31/religie-aan-het-begin-van-de-21ste-eeuw|url-status=live}}</ref>|limegreen|24}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Kyrgyzstan}} [[Kyrgyzstan]]|limegreen|23}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Kosovo}} [[Kosovo]] |limegreen|22}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Bulgaria}} [[Bulgaria]]{{refn|group=note|name=Bulgaria|Survey was conducted in 2017, not 2009–2012.}}<ref name=ReligiousTopline>{{Cite web|title=Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe: Final Topline|url=http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2017/05/09154356/Central-and-Eastern-Europe-Topline_FINAL-FOR-PUBLICATION.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170524170634/https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2017/05/09154356/Central-and-Eastern-Europe-Topline_FINAL-FOR-PUBLICATION.pdf|archive-date=24 May 2017|website=[[Pew Research Center]]|access-date=22 October 2017|page=118|date=10 May 2017}}</ref>|limegreen|21}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Russia}} [[Russia|Russian Federation]]|limegreen|19}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Georgia}} [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]{{refn|group=note|name=Georgia|Survey was conducted in 2017, not 2009–2012.}}<ref name=ReligiousTopline/>|limegreen|14}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Kazakhstan}} [[Kazakhstan]]|limegreen|10}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Uzbekistan}} [[Uzbekistan]]|limegreen|9}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Albania}} [[Albania]]|limegreen|5}}
{{Bar percent|{{Flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan]]|limegreen|1}}
}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Mosque
## Architecture
### Styles
*Arab-plan* or hypostyle mosques are the earliest type of mosques, pioneered under the Umayyad Dynasty. These mosques have square or rectangular plans with an enclosed courtyard (*sahn*) and covered prayer hall. Historically, in the warm Middle Eastern and Mediterranean climates, the courtyard served to accommodate the large number of worshippers during Friday prayers. Most early hypostyle mosques had flat roofs on prayer halls, which required the use of numerous columns and supports. One of the most notable hypostyle mosques is the Great Mosque of Cordoba in Spain, the building being supported by over 850 columns. Frequently, hypostyle mosques have outer arcades (*riwaq*) so that visitors can enjoy the shade. Arab-plan mosques were constructed mostly under the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. The simplicity of the Arab plan limited the opportunities for further development, the mosques consequently losing popularity.
The first departure within mosque design started in Persia (Iran). The Persians had inherited a rich architectural legacy from the earlier Persian dynasties, and they began incorporating elements from earlier Parthian and Sassanid designs into their mosques, influenced by buildings such as the Palace of Ardashir and the Sarvestan Palace. Thus, Islamic architecture witnessed the introduction of such structures as domes and large, arched entrances, referred to as *iwans*. During Seljuq rule, as Islamic mysticism was on the rise, the four-iwan arrangement took form. The four-iwan format, finalized by the Seljuqs, and later inherited by the Safavids, firmly established the courtyard façade of such mosques, with the towering gateways at every side, as more important than the actual buildings themselves. They typically took the form of a square-shaped central courtyard with large entrances at each side, giving the impression of gateways to the spiritual world. The Persians also introduced Persian gardens into mosque designs. Soon, a distinctly Persian style of mosques started appearing that would significantly influence the designs of later Timurid, and also Mughal, mosque designs.
The Ottomans introduced central dome mosques in the 15th century. These mosques have a large dome centered over the prayer hall. In addition to having a large central dome, a common feature is smaller domes that exist off-center over the prayer hall or throughout the rest of the mosque, where prayer is not performed. This style was heavily influenced by Byzantine architecture with its use of large central domes.
Islam forbids figurative art, on the grounds that the artist must not imitate God\'s creation. Mosques are, therefore, decorated with abstract patterns and beautiful inscriptions. Decoration is often concentrated around doorways and the *miḥrāb*. Tiles are used widely in mosques. They lend themselves to pattern-making, can be made with beautiful subtle colors, and can create a cool atmosphere, an advantage in the hot Arab countries. Quotations from the Quran often adorn mosque interiors. These texts are meant to inspire people by their beauty, while also reminding them of the words of Allah.
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# Mosque
## Architecture
### Prayer hall {#prayer_hall}
The prayer hall, also known as the *muṣallá* (*مُصَلَّى*), rarely has furniture; chairs and pews are generally absent from the prayer hall so as to allow as many worshipers as possible to line the room. Some mosques have Islamic calligraphy and Quranic verses on the walls to create a more religious atmosphere for worshippers.
Often, a limited part of the prayer hall is sanctified formally as a *masjid* in the *sharīʿah* sense (although the term *masjid* is also used for the larger mosque complex as well). Once designated, there are onerous limitations on the use of this formally designated *masjid*, and it may not be used for any purpose other than worship; restrictions that do not necessarily apply to the rest of the prayer area, and to the rest of the mosque complex (although such uses may be restricted by the conditions of the *waqf* that owns the mosque).
In many mosques, especially the early congregational mosques, the prayer hall is built in the hypostyle form (the roof held up by a multitude of columns). One of the finest examples of the hypostyle-plan mosques is the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia.
Usually opposite the entrance to the prayer hall is the *qibla* wall (the direction of Mecca, and thus the direction towards which Muslims should face for prayer), the visually emphasized area inside the prayer hall. The *qibla* wall should, in a properly oriented mosque, be set perpendicular to a line leading to Mecca, where the Kaaba is located. Congregants pray in rows parallel to the qiblah wall and thus arrange themselves so they face Mecca. In the *qibla* wall, usually at its center, is the *miḥrāb*, a niche or depression indicating the direction of Mecca. Usually the *mihrab* is not occupied by furniture either. A raised *minbar* (pulpit) is located to the right side of the *mihrab* for a *khaṭīb* (preacher), or some other speaker, to offer a *khuṭbah* (sermon) during the ritual Friday prayers.
The *mihrab* serves as the location where the imam or mullah leads the five daily prayers on a regular basis. Left to the *mihrab*, in the front left corner of the mosque, sometimes there is a *kursu* (Turkish: *kürsü\]\]*, Bosnian: **ćurs/ћурс**), a small elevated plateau (rarely with a chair or other type of seat) used for less formal preaching and speeches.
<File:Great> Mosque of Kairouan, prayer hall.jpg\|Main prayer hall with hypostyle in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia <File:İstanbul> 5736.jpg\|Ottoman-style prayer hall of the Yıldız Hamidiye Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey <File:Wooden> Village, Nishapur 1395-09-02 2281911.jpg\|Wooden prayer hall of the Wooden Mosque, a building which is concentrated with wood, in Nishapur, Iran <File:GD-FR-Paris-Mosquée018> (2-3 size).JPG\|Moorish Revival prayer hall of the Grand Mosque of Paris in Paris, France <File:A> picture from China every day 144.jpg\|Chinese Islamic-style prayer hall of the Songjiang Mosque in Shanghai, China <File:Mihrab> of the Istiqlal Mosque Jakarta.jpg\|International and New Formalism-style prayer hall of the Istiqlal Mosque in Jakarta, Indonesia
#### Women\'s prayer hall {#womens_prayer_hall}
Women who pray in mosques are separated from men. Their part for prayer is called *maqfil* (Bosnian: **makfil/макфил**). It is located above the main prayer hall, elevated in the background as stairs-separated gallery or plateau (surface-shortened to the back relative to the bottom main part). It usually has a perforated fence at the front, through which the imam or mullah and the other male worshippers in the main hall can be partially seen.
### Mihrab
A *miḥrāb*, also spelled as *mehrab* is a semicircular niche in the wall of a mosque that faces the *qiblah* (i.e. the \"front\" of the mosque); the imam stands in this niche and leads prayer. Given that the imam typically stands alone in the frontmost row, this niche\'s practical effect is to save unused space. The *minbar* is a pulpit from which the Friday sermon is delivered. While the *minbar* of Muhammad was a simple chair, later it became larger and attracted artistic attention. Some remained made of wood, albeit exquisitely carved, while others were made of marble and featured friezes.
### Minarets
A common feature in mosques is the minaret, the tall, slender tower that usually is situated at one of the corners of the mosque structure. The top of the minaret is always the highest point in mosques that have one, and often the highest point in the immediate area. The origin of the minaret and its initial functions are not clearly known and have long been a topic of scholarly discussion. The earliest mosques lacked minarets, and the call to prayer was often performed from smaller structures or elevated platforms. The early Muslim community of Medina gave the call to prayer from the doorway or the roof of the house of Muhammad, which doubled as a place for prayer. The first confirmed minarets in the form of towers date from the early 9th century under Abbasid rule and they did not become a standard feature of mosques until the 11th century. These first minaret towers were placed in the middle of the wall opposite the qibla wall. Among them, the minaret of the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia, dating from 836, is well-preserved and is one of the oldest surviving minarets in the world today.
Before the five required daily prayers, a *Mu\'adhdhin* (*links=no*) calls the worshippers to prayer from the minaret. In many countries like Singapore where Muslims are not the majority, mosques are prohibited from loudly broadcasting the *Adhān* (*links=no*, Call to Prayer), although it is supposed to be said loudly to the surrounding community. The *adhan* is required before every prayer. Nearly every mosque assigns a *muezzin* for each prayer to say the *adhan* as it is a recommended practice or *Sunnah* (*سُـنَّـة*) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. At mosques that do not have minarets, the *adhan* is called instead from inside the mosque or somewhere else on the ground. The *Iqâmah* (*links=no*), which is similar to the *adhan* and proclaimed right before the commencement of prayers, is usually not proclaimed from the minaret even if a mosque has one.
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19,894 |
# Mosque
## Architecture
### Domes
Domes have been a prominent feature in mosque architecture for centuries, evolving both in form and function. Traditionally placed above the main prayer hall, they symbolize the connection between the earthly and divine, often representing the vaults of heaven and sky. Initially, domes were small structures above the mihrab, but over time, they expanded to cover the entire roof of the prayer hall. The shape of the dome evolved from simple hemispherical forms to more complex designs, with the Mughals in India popularizing the onion-shaped dome, which became a hallmark of South Asian and Arabic mosque architecture. The design and function of domes have been influenced by various cultures, including Persian, Byzantine, and Central Asian traditions, each contributing to the techniques and aesthetics used in their construction. Today, domes continue to serve both structural and spiritual purposes, with modern innovations further enhancing their functionality and sustainability.
**Structural and functional roles**
Domes not only serve as architectural focal points but also enhance mosque acoustics, amplifying the sound of the prayer and the sermon. Structurally, they allow vast interior spaces with minimal internal supports and they make the mosque appear bigger on the inside. Their placement above the prayer hall symbolizes the connection between the earthly and the divine, reinforcing the mosque\'s spiritual purpose.
**Origin of mosque domes**
The origin of domes in mosque architecture can be traced back to the early Islamic period, particularly under the Umayyad Caliphate (661--750 AD). The Umayyads, played a key role in incorporating domes into mosque architecture, drawing heavily from pre-Islamic Byzantine and Sassanian traditions. One of the earliest and most significant examples is the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, constructed in 691 AD by the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik. This structure was not a mosque but a shrine, yet it set a precedent for the use of domes in Islamic architecture, symbolizing the vault of heaven and the connection between the divine and earthly realms.
Initially, domes in mosques were modest in size and positioned above the mihrab, emphasizing their symbolic function as markers of spiritual focus. As the Islamic empire expanded, architects incorporated techniques from different regions.
**Persian and Byzantine influences**
Whilst squinches and pendentives were not first used in mosques, they were later incorporated in dome design and were essential in transitioning from square rooms to circular domes. Squinches, which originated in Persian and Roman architecture, fill the corners of a square space to support a dome, while pendentives, a Byzantine innovation, allowed smooth transitions from a square base to a circular dome. These techniques are exemplified by the Dome of Soltaniyeh.
**Domes in South Asian mosque architecture**
Domes became a defining feature of South Asian mosque architecture during the Delhi Sultanate and reached their peak under the Mughal Empire. Influenced by Persian and Central Asian traditions, the Mughals introduced the iconic onion-shaped domes, seen in landmarks like the Jama Masjid in Delhi and the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore. These domes were not only visually striking but also represented remarkable engineering, using techniques such as iron dowels for strength and timber centering for precision. The Mughal architectural style still influences mosque design today.
**Modern innovations**
One prime example of modern innovation is the Masjid Raja Haji Fi Sabilillah in Malaysia, which features a Low-E (low emissivity) glass dome. The use of Low-E glass allows for significant energy efficiency by reducing heat gain while still allowing natural light to illuminate the interior space. This technique helps to maintain a comfortable temperature inside the mosque, minimizing reliance on air conditioning, and promoting sustainability.
| 595 |
Mosque
| 7 |
19,894 |
# Mosque
## Architecture
### Ablution facilities {#ablution_facilities}
As ritual purification precedes all prayers, mosques often have ablution fountains or other facilities for washing in their entryways or courtyards. Worshippers at much smaller mosques often have to use restrooms to perform their ablutions. In traditional mosques, this function is often elaborated into a freestanding building in the center of a courtyard. This desire for cleanliness extends to the prayer halls where shoes are disallowed to be worn anywhere other than the cloakroom. Thus, foyers with shelves to put shoes and racks to hold coats are commonplace among mosques.
### Contemporary features {#contemporary_features}
Modern mosques have a variety of amenities available to their congregants. As mosques are supposed to appeal to the community, they may also have additional facilities, from health clinics and clubs (gyms) to libraries to gymnasiums, to serve the community.
### Symbols
Certain symbols are represented in a mosque\'s architecture to allude to different aspects of the Islamic religion. One of these feature symbols is the spiral. The \"cosmic spiral\" found in designs and on minarets is a references to heaven as it has \"no beginning and no end\". Mosques also often have floral patterns or images of fruit and vegetables. These are allusions to the paradise after death.
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# Mosque
## Rules and etiquette {#rules_and_etiquette}
### Prayer leading {#prayer_leading}
Appointment of a prayer leader is considered desirable, but not always obligatory. The permanent prayer leader (imam) must be a free honest individual and is authoritative in religious matters. In mosques constructed and maintained by the government, the prayer leader is appointed by the ruler; in private mosques, appointment is made by members of the congregation through majority voting. According to the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence, the individual who built the mosque has a stronger claim to the title of imam, but this view is not shared by the other schools.
Leadership at prayer falls into three categories, depending on the type of prayer: five daily prayers, Friday prayer, or optional prayers. According to the Hanafi and Maliki school of Islamic jurisprudence, appointment of a prayer leader for Friday service is mandatory because otherwise the prayer is invalid. The Shafi\'i and Hanbali schools argue that the appointment is not necessary and the prayer is valid as long as it is performed in a congregation. A slave may lead a Friday prayer, but Muslim authorities disagree over whether the job can be done by a minor. An imam appointed to lead Friday prayers may also lead at the five daily prayers; Muslim scholars agree to the leader appointed for five daily services may lead the Friday service as well.
All Muslim authorities hold the consensus opinion that only men may lead prayer for men. Nevertheless, women prayer leaders are allowed to lead prayer in front of all-female congregations.
### Cleanliness
All mosques have rules regarding cleanliness, as it is an essential part of the worshippers\' experience. Muslims before prayer are required to cleanse themselves in an ablution process known as *wudu*. Shoes must not be worn inside the carpeted prayer hall. Some mosques will also extend that rule to include other parts of the facility even if those other locations are not devoted to prayer. Congregants and visitors to mosques are supposed to be clean themselves. It is also undesirable to come to the mosque after eating something that smells, such as garlic.
### Dress
Islam requires that its adherents wear clothes that portray modesty. Men are supposed to come to the mosque wearing loose and clean clothes that do not reveal the shape of the body. Likewise, it is recommended that women at a mosque wear loose clothing that covers to the wrists and ankles, and cover their heads with a *Ḥijāb* (*حِجاب*), or other covering. Many Muslims, regardless of their ethnic background, wear Middle Eastern clothing associated with Arabic Islam to special occasions and prayers at mosques.
### Concentration
As mosques are places of worship, those within the mosque are required to remain respectful to those in prayer. Loud talking within the mosque, as well as discussion of topics deemed disrespectful, is forbidden in areas where people are praying. In addition, it is disrespectful to walk in front of or otherwise disturb Muslims in prayer. The walls within the mosque have few items, except for possibly Islamic calligraphy, so Muslims in prayer are not distracted. Muslims are also discouraged from wearing clothing with distracting images and symbols so as not to divert the attention of those standing behind them during prayer. In many mosques, even the carpeted prayer area has no designs, its plainness helping worshippers to focus.
### Gender separation {#gender_separation}
There is nothing written in the Qur\'an about the issue of space in mosques and gender separation. Traditional rules have segregated women and men. By traditional rules, women are most often told to occupy the rows behind the men. In part, this was a practical matter as the traditional posture for prayer`{{spaced ndash}}`{=mediawiki}kneeling on the floor, head to the ground`{{spaced ndash}}`{=mediawiki}made mixed-gender prayer uncomfortably revealing for many women and distracting for some men. Traditionalists try to argue that Muhammad preferred women to pray at home rather than at a mosque, and they cite a *ḥadīth* in which Muhammad supposedly said: \"The best mosques for women are the inner parts of their houses,\" although women were active participants in the mosque started by Muhammad. Muhammad told Muslims not to forbid women from entering mosques. They are allowed to go in. The second Sunni caliph \'Umar at one time prohibited women from attending mosques especially at night because he feared they might be sexually harassed or assaulted by men, so he required them to pray at home. Sometimes a special part of the mosque was railed off for women; for example, the governor of Mecca in 870 had ropes tied between the columns to make a separate place for women.
Many mosques today will put the women behind a barrier or partition or in another room. Mosques in South and Southeast Asia put men and women in separate rooms, as the divisions were built into them centuries ago. In nearly two-thirds of American mosques, women pray behind partitions or in separate areas, not in the main prayer hall; some mosques do not admit women at all due to the lack of space and the fact that some prayers, such as the Friday Jumuʻah, are mandatory for men but optional for women. Although there are sections exclusively for women and children, the Grand Mosque in Mecca is desegregated.
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# Mosque
## Rules and etiquette {#rules_and_etiquette}
### Non-Muslim inclusion {#non_muslim_inclusion}
Under most interpretations of *sharia*, non-Muslims are permitted to enter mosques provided that they respect the place and the people inside it.`{{additional citation needed|date=June 2017}}`{=mediawiki} A dissenting opinion and minority view is presented by followers of the Maliki school of Islamic jurisprudence, who argue that non-Muslims may not be allowed into mosques under any circumstances.
The Quran addresses the subject of non-Muslims, and particularly polytheists, in mosques in two verses in its ninth chapter, Sura At-Tawba. The seventeenth verse of the chapter prohibits those who *join gods with Allah*---polytheists---from maintaining mosques: `{{Blockquote|It is not for the polytheists to maintain the mosques of Allah while they openly profess disbelief. Their deeds are void, and they will be in the Fire forever.|{{qref|9|17|c=y}}}}`{=mediawiki}
The twenty-eighth verse of the same chapter is more specific as it only considers polytheists in the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca: `{{Blockquote|O believers! Indeed, the polytheists are ˹spiritually˺ impure, so they should not approach the Sacred Mosque after this year. If you fear poverty, Allah will enrich you out of His bounty, if He wills. Surely, Allah is All-Knowing, All-Wise.|{{qref|9|28|c=y}}}}`{=mediawiki}
According to Ahmad ibn Hanbal, these verses were followed to the letter at the times of Muhammad, when Jews and Christians, considered monotheists, were still allowed to *Al-Masjid Al-Haram*. The Umayyad caliph Umar II later forbade non-Muslims from entering mosques, and his ruling remains in practice in present-day Saudi Arabia. Today, the decision on whether non-Muslims should be allowed to enter mosques varies. With few exceptions, mosques in the Arabian Peninsula as well as Morocco do not allow entry to non-Muslims. For example, the Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca is one of only two mosques in Morocco currently open to non-Muslims.
There are many other mosques in the West and Islamic world which non-Muslims are welcome to enter. Most mosques in the United States, for example, report receiving non-Muslim visitors every month. Many mosques throughout the United States welcome non-Muslims as a sign of openness to the rest of the community as well as to encourage conversions to Islam.
In modern-day Saudi Arabia, the Grand Mosque and all of Mecca are open only to Muslims. Likewise, Al-Masjid Al-Nabawi and the city of Medina that surrounds it are also off-limits to those who do not practice Islam. For mosques in other areas, it has most commonly been taken that non-Muslims may only enter mosques if granted permission to do so by Muslims, and if they have a legitimate reason. All entrants regardless of religious affiliation are expected to respect the rules and decorum for mosques.
In modern Turkey, non-Muslim tourists are allowed to enter any mosque, but there are some strict rules. Visiting a mosque is allowed only between prayers; visitors are required to wear long trousers and not to wear shoes, women must cover their heads; visitors are not allowed to interrupt praying Muslims, especially by taking photos of them; no loud talk is allowed; and no references to other religions are allowed (no crosses on necklaces, no cross gestures, etc.) Similar rules apply to mosques in Malaysia, where larger mosques that are also tourist attractions (such as the Masjid Negara) provide robes and headscarves for visitors who are deemed inappropriately attired.
In certain times and places, non-Muslims were expected to behave a certain way in the vicinity of a mosque: in some Moroccan cities, Jews were required to remove their shoes when passing by a mosque; in 18th-century Egypt, Jews and Christians had to dismount before several mosques in veneration of their sanctity.`{{better source needed|date=December 2022}}`{=mediawiki}
The association of the mosque with education remained one of its main characteristics throughout history, and the school became an indispensable appendage to the mosque. From the earliest days of Islam, the mosque was the center of the Muslim community, a place for prayer, meditation, religious instruction, political discussion, and a school. Anywhere Islam took hold, mosques were established, and basic religious and educational instruction began.
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# Mosque
## Role in contemporary society {#role_in_contemporary_society}
### Political mobilization {#political_mobilization}
The late 20th century saw an increase in the number of mosques used for political purposes. While some governments in the Muslim world have attempted to limit the content of Friday sermons to strictly religious topics, there are also independent preachers who deliver *khutbas* that address social and political issues, often in emotionally charged terms. Common themes include social inequalities, necessity of jihad in the face of injustice, and the universal struggle between good and evil. In Islamic countries like Bangladesh, Pakistan, Iran, and Saudi Arabia, political subjects are preached by imams at Friday congregations on a regular basis. Mosques often serve as meeting points for political opposition in times of crisis.
Countries with a minority Muslim population are more likely than Muslim-majority countries of the Greater Middle East to use mosques as a way to promote civic participation. Studies of US Muslims have consistently shown a positive correlation between mosque attendance and political involvement. Some of the research connects civic engagement specifically with mosque attendance for social and religious activities other than prayer. American mosques host voter registration and civic participation drives that promote involving Muslims, who are often first- or second-generation immigrants, in the political process. As a result of these efforts as well as attempts at mosques to keep Muslims informed about the issues facing the Muslim community, regular mosque attendants are more likely to participate in protests, sign petitions, and otherwise be involved in politics. Research on Muslim civic engagement in other Western countries \"is less conclusive but seems to indicate similar trends\".
### Political controversy {#political_controversy}
In the western world, and in the United States in particular, anti-Muslim sentiment and targeted domestic policy has created challenges for mosques and those looking to build them. There has been government and police surveillance of mosques in the US and local attempts to ban mosques and block constructions, despite data showing that in fact, most Americans oppose banning the building of mosques (79%) and the surveillance of U.S. mosques (63%) as shown in a 2018 study done by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding.`{{Clarify|reason=The sentence does not make sense|date=April 2022}}`{=mediawiki}
Since 2017, Chinese authorities have destroyed or damaged two-thirds of the mosques in China\'s Xinjiang province. Ningxia officials were notified on 3 August 2018 that the Weizhou Grand Mosque would be forcibly demolished because it had not received the proper permits before construction. Officials in the town said that the mosque had not been given proper building permits, because it is built in a Middle Eastern style and includes numerous domes and minarets. The residents of Weizhou alarmed each other through social media and finally stopped the mosque destruction by public demonstrations.
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# Mosque
## Role in contemporary society {#role_in_contemporary_society}
### Role in violent conflicts {#role_in_violent_conflicts}
As they are considered important to the Muslim community, mosques, like other places of worship, can be at the heart of social conflicts. The Babri Mosque in India was the subject of such a conflict up until the early 1990s when it was demolished. Before a mutual solution could be devised, the mosque was destroyed on December 6, 1992, as the mosque was built by Babur allegedly on the site of a previous Hindu temple marking the birthplace of Rama. The controversy surrounded the mosque was directly linked to rioting in Bombay (present-day Mumbai) as well as bombings in 1993 that killed 257 people.
Bombings in February 2006 and June 2007 seriously damaged Iraq\'s al-Askari Mosque and exacerbated existing tensions. Other mosque bombings in Iraq, both before and after the February 2006 bombing, have been part of the conflict between the country\'s groups of Muslims. In June 2005, a suicide bombing killed at least 19 people at an Afghan Shia mosque near Jade Maivand. In April 2006, two explosions occurred at India\'s Jama Masjid. Following the al-Askari Mosque bombing in Iraq, imams and other Islamic leaders used mosques and Friday prayers as vehicles to call for calm and peace in the midst of widespread violence.
A study 2005 indicated that while support for suicide bombings is not correlated with personal devotion to Islam among Palestinian Muslims, it is correlated with mosque attendance because \"participating in communal religious rituals of any kind likely encourages support for self-sacrificing behaviors that are done for the collective good.\"
Following the September 11 attacks, several American mosques were targeted in attacks ranging from simple vandalism to arson. Furthermore, the Jewish Defense League was suspected of plotting to bomb the King Fahd Mosque in Culver City, California. Similar attacks occurred throughout the United Kingdom following the 7 July 2005 London bombings. Outside the Western world, in June 2001, the Hassan Bek Mosque was the target of vandalism and attacks by hundreds of Israelis after a suicide bomber killed 19 people in a night club in Tel Aviv. Although mosquegoing is highly encouraged for men, it is permitted to stay at home when one feels at risk from Islamophobic persecution.
### Saudi influence {#saudi_influence}
Although the Saudi involvement in Sunni mosques around the world can be traced back to the 1960s, it was not until later in the 20th century that the government of Saudi Arabia became a large influence in foreign Sunni mosques. Beginning in the 1980s, the Saudi Arabian government began to finance the construction of Sunni mosques in countries around the world. An estimated US\$45 billion has been spent by the Saudi Arabian government financing mosques and Sunni Islamic schools in foreign countries. *Ain al-Yaqeen*, a Saudi newspaper, reported in 2002 that Saudi funds may have contributed to building as many as 1,500 mosques and 2,000 other Islamic centers.
Saudi citizens have also contributed significantly to mosques in the Islamic world, especially in countries where they see Muslims as poor and oppressed. Following the fall of the Soviet Union, in 1992, mosques in war-torn Afghanistan saw many contributions from Saudi citizens. The King Fahd Mosque in Culver City, California and the Islamic Cultural Center of Italy in Rome represent two of Saudi Arabia\'s largest investments in foreign mosques as former Saudi king Fahd bin Abdul Aziz al-Saud contributed US\$8 million and US\$50 million to the two mosques, respectively
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# Mimeograph
`{{History of printing}}`{=mediawiki}
A **mimeograph machine** (often abbreviated to **mimeo**, sometimes called a **stencil duplicator** or **stencil machine**) is a low-cost duplicating machine that works by forcing ink through a stencil onto paper. The process is called **mimeography**, and a copy made by the process is a **mimeograph**.
Mimeographs, along with spirit duplicators and hectographs, were common technologies for printing small quantities of a document, as in office work, classroom materials, and church bulletins. For even smaller quantities, up to about five, a typist would use carbon paper. Early fanzines were printed by mimeograph because the machines and supplies were widely available and inexpensive. Beginning in the late 1960s and continuing into the 1970s, photocopying gradually displaced mimeographs, spirit duplicators, and hectographs.
## Origins
Use of stencils is an ancient art, but`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}through chemistry, papers, and presses`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}techniques advanced rapidly in the late nineteenth century:
### Papyrograph
A description of the Papyrograph method of duplication was published by David Owen:
> A major beneficiary of the invention of synthetic dyes was a document reproduction technique known as stencil duplicating. Its earliest form was invented in 1874 by Eugenio de Zuccato, a young Italian studying law in London, who called his device the Papyrograph. Zuccato\'s system involved writing on a sheet of varnished paper with caustic ink, which ate through the varnish and paper fibers, leaving holes where the writing had been. This sheet -- which had now become a stencil -- was placed on a blank sheet of paper, and ink rolled over it so that the ink oozed through the holes, creating a duplicate on the second sheet.
The process was commercialized and Zuccato applied for a patent in 1895 having stencils prepared by typewriting.
### Electric pen {#electric_pen}
Thomas Edison received US patent 180,857 for Autographic Printing on August 8, 1876. The patent covered the electric pen, used for making the stencil, and the flatbed duplicating press. In 1880, Edison obtained a further patent, US 224,665: \"Method of Preparing Autographic Stencils for Printing,\" which covered the making of stencils using a file plate, a grooved metal plate on which the stencil was placed which perforated the stencil when written on with a blunt metal stylus.
The word *mimeograph* was first used by Albert Blake Dick when he licensed Edison\'s patents in 1887.
Dick received Trademark Registration no. 0356815 for the term *mimeograph* in the US Patent Office. It is currently`{{As of?|date=September 2022}}`{=mediawiki} listed as a dead entry, but shows the A.B. Dick Company of Chicago as the owner of the name.
Over time, the term became generic and is now an example of a genericized trademark. (*Roneograph*, also *Roneo machine*, was another trademark used for mimeograph machines, the name being a contraction of *Rotary Neostyle*.)
### Cyclostyle
In 1891, David Gestetner patented his Automatic Cyclostyle. This was one of the first rotary machines that retained the flatbed, which passed back and forth under inked rollers. This invention provided for more automated, faster reproductions since the pages were produced and moved by rollers instead of pressing one single sheet at a time.
By 1900, two primary types of mimeographs had come into use: a single-drum machine and a dual-drum machine. The single-drum machine used a single drum for ink transfer to the stencil, and the dual-drum machine used two drums and silk-screens to transfer the ink to the stencils. The single drum (example Roneo) machine could be easily used for multi-color work by changing the drum -- each of which contained ink of a different color. This was spot color for mastheads. Colors could not be mixed.
The mimeograph became popular because it was much cheaper than traditional print -- there was neither typesetting nor skilled labor involved. One individual with a typewriter and the necessary equipment became their own printing factory, allowing for greater circulation of printed material.
<File:1889> Edison Mimeograph.jpg\|Advertisement from 1889 for the Edison Mimeograph <File:Edison's>\* mimeograph box.jpg\|A wooden Edison\'s mimeograph size 12\" <File:Mimeograph>, 1918.png\|1918 illustration of a mimeograph machine <File:Mimeograph> - The National Duplicator.JPG\|Jackson & O\'Sullivan\'s \"The National\" Duplicator. Produced in Brisbane, Queensland during World War II. <File:Resistance> mimeograph machines.JPG\|Mimeograph machines used by the Belgian resistance during World War II to produce underground newspapers and pamphlets
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# Mimeograph
## Mimeography process {#mimeography_process}
The image transfer medium was originally a stencil made from waxed mulberry paper. Later this became an immersion-coated long-fiber paper, with the coating being a plasticized nitrocellulose. This flexible waxed or coated sheet is backed by a sheet of stiff card stock, with the two sheets bound at the top.
Once prepared, the stencil is wrapped around the ink-filled drum of the rotary machine. When a blank sheet of paper is drawn between the rotating drum and a pressure roller, ink is forced through the holes on the stencil onto the paper. Early flatbed machines used a kind of squeegee.
The ink originally had a lanolin base and later became an oil in water emulsion. This emulsion commonly uses turkey-red oil (sulfated castor oil) which gives it a distinctive and heavy scent.
### Preparing stencils {#preparing_stencils}
One uses a regular typewriter, with a stencil setting, to create a stencil. The operator loads a stencil assemblage into the typewriter like paper and uses a switch on the typewriter to put it in stencil mode. In this mode, the part of the mechanism which lifts the ribbon between the type element and the paper is disabled so that the bare, sharp type element strikes the stencil directly. The impact of the type element displaces the coating, making the tissue paper permeable to the oil-based ink. This is called \"cutting a stencil\".
A variety of specialized styluses were used on the stencil to render lettering, illustrations, or other artistic features by hand against a textured plastic backing plate.
Mistakes were corrected by brushing them out with a specially formulated correction fluid, and retyping once it has dried. (Obliterine was a popular brand of correction fluid in Australia and the United Kingdom.)
Stencils were also made with a thermal process, an infrared method similar to that used by early photocopiers. The common machine was a Thermofax.
Another device, called an electrostencil machine, sometimes was used to make mimeo stencils from a typed or printed original. It worked by scanning the original on a rotating drum with a moving optical head and burning through the blank stencil with an electric spark in the places where the optical head detected ink. It was slow and produced ozone. Text from electrostencils had lower resolution than that from typed stencils, although the process was good for reproducing illustrations. A skilled mimeo operator using an electrostencil and a very coarse halftone screen could make acceptable printed copies of a photograph.
During the declining years of the mimeograph, some people made stencils with early computers and dot-matrix impact printers.
### Limitations
Unlike spirit duplicators (where the only ink available is depleted from the master image), mimeograph technology works by forcing a replenishable supply of ink through the stencil master. In theory, the mimeography process could be continued indefinitely, especially if a durable stencil master were used (e.g. a thin metal foil). In practice, most low-cost mimeo stencils gradually wear out over the course of producing several hundred copies. Typically the stencil deteriorates gradually, producing a characteristic degraded image quality until the stencil tears, abruptly ending the print run. If further copies are desired at this point, another stencil must be made.
Often, the stencil material covering the interiors of closed letterforms (e.g. *a*, *b*, *d*, *e*, *g*, etc.) would fall away during continued printing, causing ink-filled letters in the copies. The stencil would gradually stretch, starting near the top where the mechanical forces were greatest, causing a characteristic \"mid-line sag\" in the textual lines of the copies, that would progress until the stencil failed completely.
The Gestetner Company (and others) devised various methods to make mimeo stencils more durable.
Compared to spirit duplication, mimeography produced a darker, more legible image. Spirit duplicated images were usually tinted a light purple or lavender, which gradually became lighter over the course of some dozens of copies. Mimeography was often considered \"the next step up\" in quality, capable of producing hundreds of copies. Print runs beyond that level were usually produced by professional printers or, as the technology became available, xerographic copiers.
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# Mimeograph
## Durability
Mimeographed images generally have much better durability than spirit-duplicated images, since the inks are more resistant to ultraviolet light. The primary preservation challenge is the low-quality paper often used, which would yellow and degrade due to residual acid in the treated pulp from which the paper was made. In the worst case, old copies can crumble into small particles when handled. Mimeographed copies have moderate durability when acid-free paper is used.
## Contemporary use {#contemporary_use}
Gestetner, Risograph, and other companies still make and sell highly automated mimeograph-like machines that are externally similar to photocopiers. The modern version of a mimeograph, called a digital duplicator, or copyprinter, contains a scanner, a thermal head for stencil cutting, and a large roll of stencil material entirely inside the unit. The stencil material consists of a very thin polymer film laminated to a long-fiber non-woven tissue. It makes the stencils and mounts and unmounts them from the print drum automatically, making it almost as easy to operate as a photocopier. The Risograph is the best known of these machines.`{{fact|date=July 2023}}`{=mediawiki}
Although mimeographs remain more economical and energy-efficient in mid-range quantities, easier-to-use photocopying and offset printing have replaced mimeography almost entirely in developed countries.`{{fact|date=July 2023}}`{=mediawiki} Mimeography continues to be used in some developing countries because it is a simple, cheap, and robust technology. Many mimeographs can be hand-cranked, requiring no electricity.
## Uses and art {#uses_and_art}
Mimeographs and the closely related but distinctly different spirit duplicator process were both used extensively in schools to copy homework assignments and tests. They were also commonly used for low-budget amateur publishing, including club newsletters and church bulletins. They were especially popular with science fiction fans, who used them extensively in the production of fanzines in the middle 20th century, before photocopying became inexpensive.
Letters and typographical symbols were sometimes used to create illustrations, in a precursor to ASCII art. Because changing ink color in a mimeograph could be a laborious process, involving extensively cleaning the machine or, on newer models, replacing the drum or rollers, and then running the paper through the machine a second time, some fanzine publishers experimented with techniques for painting several colors on the pad.
In addition, mimeographs were used by many resistance groups during World War Two as a way to print illegal newspapers and publications in countries such as Belgium.
In the NCIS Season 7 episode, \"*Power Down*\", agents McGee and DiNozzo bring a mimeograph up from the basement. McGee derisively comments, \"Yeah, now all we need is a dinosaur who knows how to use it.\" before Agent Gibbs simply uses the device to make a number of replicants of a composite sketch. As the rest of the team looks on in amazement, Gibbs angrily shoulders past McGee
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# Mega-
Mega}} `{{Wiktionary|mega-}}`{=mediawiki} **Mega** is a unit prefix in metric systems of units denoting a factor of one million (10^6^ or `{{gaps|1|000|000}}`{=mediawiki}). It has the unit symbol **M**. It was confirmed for use in the International System of Units (SI) in 1960. *Mega* comes from *great*.
## Common examples of usage {#common_examples_of_usage}
- Megapixel: 1 million pixels in a digital camera
- One megatonne of TNT equivalent amounts to approx. 4 petajoules and is the approximate energy released on igniting one million tonnes of TNT. The unit is often used in measuring the explosive power of nuclear weapons.
- Megahertz: frequency of electromagnetic radiation for radio and television broadcasting, GSM, etc. 1 MHz = 1,000,000 Hz.
- Megabyte: unit of information equal to one million bytes (SI standard).
- Megawatt: equal to one million watts of power. It is commonly used to measure the output of power plants, as well as the power consumption of electric locomotives, data centers, and other entities that heavily consume electricity.
- Megadeath: (or megacorpse) is one million human deaths, usually used in reference to projected number of deaths from a nuclear explosion. The term was used by scientists and thinkers who strategized likely outcomes of all-out nuclear warfare.
## Exponentiation
When units occur in exponentiation, such as in square and cubic forms, any multiples-prefix is considered part of the unit, and thus included in the exponentiation.
- 1 Mm^2^ means one square megametre or the size of a square of `{{gaps|1|000|000|m}}`{=mediawiki} by `{{gaps|1|000|000|m}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{gaps|10<sup>12</sup>|m<sup>2</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}, and not `{{gaps|1|000|000|[[square metre]]s}}`{=mediawiki} (10^6^ m^2^).
- 1 Mm^3^ means one cubic megametre or the size of a cube of `{{gaps|1|000|000|m}}`{=mediawiki} by `{{gaps|1|000|000|m}}`{=mediawiki} by `{{gaps|1|000|000|m}}`{=mediawiki} or 10^18^ m^3^, and not `{{gaps|1|000|000|[[cubic metre]]s}}`{=mediawiki} (10^6^ m^3^)
## Computing
In some fields of computing, *mega* may sometimes denote `{{gaps|1|048|576}}`{=mediawiki} (2^20^) information units, for example, a megabyte, a megaword, but denotes `{{gaps|1|000|000}}`{=mediawiki} (10^6^) units of other quantities, for example, transfer rates: `{{gaps|1|megabit/s}}`{=mediawiki} = `{{gaps|1|000|000|[[bit/s]]}}`{=mediawiki}. In the case of 3½-inch floppy disks, sizes were given in megabytes of 1000KB or `{{gaps|1|024|000}}`{=mediawiki} bytes. The prefix *mebi-* has been suggested as a prefix for 2^20^ to avoid ambiguity
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# Maciej Płażyński
**Maciej Płażyński** (`{{IPA|pl|ˈmatɕɛj pwaˈʐɨɲskʲi}}`{=mediawiki}; 10 February 1958 -- 10 April 2010) was a Polish liberal-conservative politician.
## Biography
Płażyński was born in Młynary. He began his political career in 1980 / 1981 as one of the leaders of the Students\' Solidarity; he was governor of the Gdańsk Voivodship from August 1990 to July 1996, and was elected to the Sejm (the lower house of the Polish parliament) in September 1997. To date he is longest serving Marshal of the Sejm of the Third Republic of Poland.
In January 2001, he founded the Civic Platform political party with Donald Tusk and Andrzej Olechowski. He left Civic Platform for personal reasons and at the time of his death was an independent MP. He was member of Kashubian-Pomeranian Association. He was later chosen as a chairman of the Association \"Polish Community\".
Maciej Płażyński was married to Elżbieta Płażyńska and together they had three children: Jakub, Katarzyna, and Kacper.
Płażyński died in the plane crash which occurred while landing at Smolensk-North airport near Smolensk, Russia, on 10 April 2010. The crash also involved President Lech Kaczyński and 94 others.
## Honours and awards {#honours_and_awards}
In 2000, Płażyński was awarded the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic, First Class. He received the titles of honorary citizen of Młynary, Puck, Pionki and Lidzbark Warmiński.
On 16 April 2010 he was posthumously awarded the Grand Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta. He was also awarded a Gold Medal of Gloria Artis
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# Manner of articulation
In articulatory phonetics, the **manner of articulation** is the configuration and interaction of the articulators (speech organs such as the tongue, lips, and palate) when making a speech sound. One parameter of manner is *stricture,* that is, how closely the speech organs approach one another. Others include those involved in the r-like sounds (taps and trills), and the sibilancy of fricatives.
The concept of manner is mainly used in the discussion of consonants, although the movement of the articulators will also greatly alter the resonant properties of the vocal tract, thereby changing the formant structure of speech sounds that is crucial for the identification of vowels. For consonants, the place of articulation and the degree of phonation or voicing are considered separately from manner, as being independent parameters. Homorganic consonants, which have the same place of articulation, may have different manners of articulation. Often nasality and laterality are included in manner, but some phoneticians, such as Peter Ladefoged, consider them to be independent.
## Broad classifications {#broad_classifications}
Manners of articulation with substantial obstruction of the airflow (stops, fricatives, affricates) are called **obstruents**. These are prototypically`{{Clarify|reason=|date=December 2018}}`{=mediawiki} voiceless, but voiced obstruents are extremely common as well. Manners without such obstruction (nasals, liquids, approximants, and also vowels) are called **sonorants** because they are nearly always voiced. Voiceless sonorants are uncommon, but are found in Welsh and Classical Greek (the spelling \"rh\"), in Standard Tibetan (the \"lh\" of Lhasa), and the \"wh\" in those dialects of English that distinguish \"which\" from \"witch\".
Sonorants may also be called **resonants**, and some linguists prefer that term, restricting the word \'sonorant\' to non-vocoid resonants (that is, nasals and liquids, but not vowels or semi-vowels). Another common distinction is between **occlusives** (stops, nasals and affricates) and **continuants** (all else).
## Stricture
From greatest to least stricture, speech sounds may be classified along a cline as stop consonants (with *occlusion*, or blocked airflow), fricative consonants (with partially blocked and therefore strongly turbulent airflow), approximants (with only slight turbulence), tense vowels, and finally lax vowels (with full unimpeded airflow). Affricates often behave as if they were intermediate between stops and fricatives, but phonetically they are sequences of a stop and fricative.
Over time, sounds in a language may move along the cline toward less stricture in a process called lenition or towards more stricture in a process called fortition.
## Other parameters {#other_parameters}
Sibilants are distinguished from other fricatives by the shape of the tongue and how the airflow is directed over the teeth. Fricatives at coronal places of articulation may be sibilant or non-sibilant, sibilants being the more common.
Flaps (also called taps) are similar to very brief stops. However, their articulation and behavior are distinct enough to be considered a separate manner, rather than just length. The main articulatory difference between flaps and stops is that, due to the greater length of stops compared to flaps, a build-up of air pressure occurs behind a stop which does not occur behind a flap. This means that when the stop is released, there is a burst of air as the pressure is relieved, while for flaps there is no such burst.
Trills involve the vibration of one of the speech organs. Since trilling is a separate parameter from stricture, the two may be combined. Increasing the stricture of a typical trill results in a trilled fricative. Trilled affricates are also known.
Nasal airflow may be added as an independent parameter to any speech sound. It is most commonly found in nasal occlusives and nasal vowels, but nasalized fricatives, taps, and approximants are also found. When a sound is not nasal, it is called *oral.*
Laterality is the release of airflow at the side of the tongue. This can be combined with other manners, resulting in lateral approximants (such as the pronunciation of the letter L in the English word \"let\"), lateral flaps, and lateral fricatives and affricates.
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# Manner of articulation
## Individual manners {#individual_manners}
- **Plosive**, often called **stop**, is an oral occlusive, where there is *occlusion* (blocking) of the oral vocal tract, and no nasal air flow, so the air flow stops completely. Examples include English `{{IPA|/p t k/}}`{=mediawiki} (voiceless) and `{{IPA|/b d ɡ/}}`{=mediawiki} (voiced). If the consonant is voiced, the voicing is the only sound made during occlusion; if it is voiceless, a stop is completely silent. What we hear as a /p/ or /k/ is the effect that the *onset* of the occlusion has on the preceding vowel, as well as the release burst and its effect on the following vowel. The shape and position of the tongue (the *place* of articulation) determine the resonant cavity that gives different stops their characteristic sounds. All languages have stops.
- **Nasal**, a nasal occlusive, where there is occlusion of the oral tract, but air passes through the nose. The shape and position of the tongue determine the resonant cavity that gives different nasals their characteristic sounds. Examples include English `{{IPA|/m, n/}}`{=mediawiki}. Nearly all languages have nasals, the only exceptions being in the area of Puget Sound and a single language on Bougainville Island.
- **Fricative**, sometimes called **spirant**, where there is continuous *frication* (turbulent and noisy airflow) at the place of articulation. Examples include English `{{IPA|/f, s/}}`{=mediawiki} (voiceless), `{{IPA|/v, z/}}`{=mediawiki} (voiced), etc. Most languages have fricatives, though many have only an `{{IPA|/s/}}`{=mediawiki}. However, the Indigenous Australian languages are almost completely devoid of fricatives of any kind.
- **Sibilants** are a type of fricative where the airflow is guided by a groove in the tongue toward the teeth, creating a high-pitched and very distinctive sound. These are by far the most common fricatives. Fricatives at coronal (front of tongue) places of articulation are usually, though not always, sibilants. English sibilants include `{{IPA|/s/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/z/}}`{=mediawiki}.
- **Lateral fricatives** are a rare type of fricative, where the frication occurs on one or both sides of the edge of the tongue. The \"ll\" of Welsh and the \"hl\" of Zulu are lateral fricatives.
- **Affricate**, which begins like a stop, but this releases into a fricative rather than having a separate release of its own. The English letters \"ch\" `{{IPA|[t͡ʃ]}}`{=mediawiki} and \"j\" `{{IPA|[d͡ʒ]}}`{=mediawiki} represent affricates. Affricates are quite common around the world, though less common than fricatives.
- **Vibrant,** where there are one or more brief occlusions, are a class of consonants that comprises trills and flaps.
- **Flap**, often called a **tap**, is a momentary closure of the oral cavity. The \"tt\" of \"utter\" and the \"dd\" of \"udder\" are pronounced as a flap `{{IPA|[ɾ]}}`{=mediawiki} in North American and Australian English. Many linguists distinguish *taps* from *flaps*, but there is no consensus on what the difference might be. No language relies on such a difference. There are also **lateral flaps**.
- **Trill**, in which the articulator (usually the tip of the tongue) is held in place, and the airstream causes it to vibrate. The double \"r\" of Spanish \"perro\" is a trill.
- **Approximant**, where there is very little obstruction. Examples include English `{{IPA|/w/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/r/}}`{=mediawiki}. In some languages, such as Spanish, there are sounds that seem to fall between *fricative* and *approximant*.
- One use of the word **semivowel**, sometimes called a **glide**, is a type of approximant, pronounced like a vowel but with the tongue closer to the roof of the mouth, so that there is slight turbulence. In English, `{{IPA|/w/}}`{=mediawiki} is the semivowel equivalent of the vowel `{{IPA|/u/}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{IPA|/j/}}`{=mediawiki} (spelled \"y\") is the semivowel equivalent of the vowel `{{IPA|/i/}}`{=mediawiki} in this usage. Other descriptions use *semivowel* for vowel-like sounds that are not syllabic, but do not have the increased stricture of approximants. These are found as elements in diphthongs. The word may also be used to cover both concepts. The term **glide** is newer than **semivowel**, being used to indicate an essential quality of sounds such as `{{IPA|/w/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/j/}}`{=mediawiki}, which is the movement (or **glide**) from their initial position (`{{IPA|/u/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/i/}}`{=mediawiki}, respectively) to a following vowel.
- **Lateral approximants**, usually shortened to **lateral**, are a type of approximant pronounced with the side of the tongue. English `{{IPA|/l/}}`{=mediawiki} is a lateral. Together with the *rhotics*, which have similar behavior in many languages, these form a class of consonant called **liquids**.
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# Manner of articulation
## Other airstream initiations {#other_airstream_initiations}
All of these manners of articulation are pronounced with an airstream mechanism called pulmonic egressive, meaning that the air flows outward, and is powered by the lungs (actually the ribs and diaphragm). Other airstream mechanisms are possible. Sounds that rely on some of these include:
- **Ejectives**, which are *glottalic egressive*. That is, the airstream is powered by an upward movement of the glottis rather than by the lungs or diaphragm. Stops, affricates, and occasionally fricatives may occur as ejectives. All ejectives are voiceless, or at least transition from voiced to voiceless.
- **Implosives**, which are *glottalic ingressive*. Here the glottis moves downward, but the lungs may be used simultaneously (to provide voicing), and in some languages no air may actually flow into the mouth. Implosive stops are not uncommon, but implosive affricates and fricatives are rare. Voiceless implosives are also rare.
- **Clicks**, which are *lingual ingressive*. Here the back of the tongue is used to create a vacuum in the mouth, causing air to rush in when the forward occlusion (tongue or lips) is released. Clicks may be oral or nasal, stop or affricate, central or lateral, voiced or voiceless. They are extremely rare in normal words outside Southern Africa. However, English has a click in its \"tsk tsk\" (or \"tut tut\") sound, and another is often used to say \"giddy up\" to a horse.
- **Percussives** are generated by striking one organ against another. No standalone percussive occurs in any language, but alveolar clicks may have a sublingual percussive release in Sandawe, where after the click is pronounced, the tongue strikes the floor of the mouth.
- Combinations of these, in some analyses, in a single consonant: *linguo-pulmonic* and *linguo-glottalic (ejective)* consonants, which are clicks released into either a pulmonic or ejective stop/fricative
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# Mostaganem Province
**Mostaganem** (*ولاية مستغانم*) is a province (*wilaya*) of Algeria, with a population of 892165 inhabitants in 2019, with a density of 393/square kilometers. Its capital is Mostaganem.
## Geography
The land relief in Mostaganem Province can be divided into four regions: the Dahra Range to the east, the Mostaganem Plateau to the south, the Chelif River valley which separates the two highland regions, and the plains on the province\'s southern border which lie next to the marshes of the Macta.
The Mostaganem Plateau covers eleven municipalities in the southern part of the province: Mostaganem, Ain Tedles, Sour, Bouguirat, Sirat, Souaflia, Mesra, Ain Sidi Cherif, Mansourah, Touahria and Sayada. It is a semi-arid and sandy plateau, in the shape of a triangle and bounded to the north by the Chelif River. It receives 350 mm of rainfall per year.
During French colonization, viticulture was introduced on the plateau. After the country\'s independence, it was replaced by irrigated market gardening and the culture of citrus fruits and cereals. However, in certain sectors east of Mostaganem, the replacement of the vineyards caused the appearance of small dunes as a consequence of the resumption of soil movement.
## History
In 1984 Relizane Province was carved out of its territory.
## Administrative divisions {#administrative_divisions}
The province is divided into 10 districts (*daïras*), which are further divided into 32 *communes* or municipalities.
### Districts
1. Achacha
2. Aïn Nouïssy
3. Aïn Tédelès
4. Bouguirat
5. Hassi Mamèche
6. Kheïr Eddine
7. Mesra
8. **Mostaganem**
9. Sidi Ali
10. Sidi Lakhdar
### Communes
1. Achacha (Achaacha)
2. Aïn Boudinar
3. Aïn Nouïssy
4. Aïn Sidi Chérif
5. Aïn Tédelès (Ain Tedles)
6. Benabdelmalek Ramdane (Abdelmalek Ramdane)
7. Bouguirat
8. El Hassaine
9. Fornaka
10. Hadjadj
11. Hassi Mamèche (Hasi Mameche)
12. Khadra
13. Kheïr Eddine (Kheiredine)
14. Mansourah
15. Mazagran (Mazagrain, Mezghrane)
16. Mesra
17. Mostaganem
18. Nékmaria
19. Oued El Kheïr
20. Ouled Boughalem
21. Ouled Malah (Ouled Maalef)
22. Safsaf (Saf Saf)
23. Sayada
24. Sidi Ali
25. Sidi Bellater (Sidi Belatar)
26. Sidi Lakhdar (Sidi Lakhdaara)
27. Sirat
28. Souaflia
29. Sour
30. Stidia
31. Tazgait
32
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# Pressure measurement
**Pressure measurement** is the measurement of an applied force by a fluid (liquid or gas) on a surface. Pressure is typically measured in units of force per unit of surface area. Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and vacuum. Instruments used to measure and display pressure mechanically are called **pressure gauges,** **vacuum gauges** or **compound gauges** (vacuum & pressure). The widely used Bourdon gauge is a mechanical device, which both measures and indicates and is probably the best known type of gauge.
A vacuum gauge is used to measure pressures lower than the ambient atmospheric pressure, which is set as the zero point, in negative values (for instance, −1 bar or −760 mmHg equals total vacuum). Most gauges measure pressure relative to atmospheric pressure as the zero point, so this form of reading is simply referred to as \"gauge pressure\". However, anything greater than total vacuum is technically a form of pressure. For very low pressures, a gauge that uses total vacuum as the zero point reference must be used, giving pressure reading as an absolute pressure.
Other methods of pressure measurement involve sensors that can transmit the pressure reading to a remote indicator or control system (telemetry).
## Absolute, gauge and differential pressures --- zero reference {#absolute_gauge_and_differential_pressures_zero_reference}
Everyday pressure measurements, such as for vehicle tire pressure, are usually made relative to ambient air pressure. In other cases measurements are made relative to a vacuum or to some other specific reference. When distinguishing between these zero references, the following terms are used:
- **`{{visible anchor|Absolute pressure}}`{=mediawiki}** is zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum, using an absolute scale, so it is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure. Absolute pressure sensors are used in applications where a constant reference is required, like for example, high-performance industrial applications such as monitoring vacuum pumps, liquid pressure measurement, industrial packaging, industrial process control and aviation inspection.
- **`{{visible anchor|Gauge pressure}}`{=mediawiki}** is zero-referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to absolute pressure minus atmospheric pressure. A tire pressure gauge is an example of gauge pressure measurement; when it indicates zero, then the pressure it is measuring is the same as the ambient pressure. Most sensors for measuring up to 50 bar are manufactured in this way, since otherwise the atmospheric pressure fluctuation (weather) is reflected as an error in the measurement result.
- **`{{visible anchor|Differential pressure}}`{=mediawiki}** is the difference in pressure between two points. Differential pressure sensors are used to measure many properties, such as pressure drops across oil filters or air filters, fluid levels (by comparing the pressure above and below the liquid) or flow rates (by measuring the change in pressure across a restriction). Technically speaking, most pressure sensors are really differential pressure sensors; for example a gauge pressure sensor is merely a differential pressure sensor in which one side is open to the ambient atmosphere. A DP cell is a device that measures the differential pressure between two inputs.
The zero reference in use is usually implied by context, and these words are added only when clarification is needed. Tire pressure and blood pressure are gauge pressures by convention, while atmospheric pressures, deep vacuum pressures, and altimeter pressures must be absolute.
For most working fluids where a fluid exists in a closed system, gauge pressure measurement prevails. Pressure instruments connected to the system will indicate pressures relative to the current atmospheric pressure. The situation changes when extreme vacuum pressures are measured, then absolute pressures are typically used instead and measuring instruments used will be different.
Differential pressures are commonly used in industrial process systems. Differential pressure gauges have two inlet ports, each connected to one of the volumes whose pressure is to be monitored. In effect, such a gauge performs the mathematical operation of subtraction through mechanical means, obviating the need for an operator or control system to watch two separate gauges and determine the difference in readings.
Moderate *vacuum pressure* readings can be ambiguous without the proper context, as they may represent absolute pressure or gauge pressure without a negative sign. Thus a vacuum of 26 inHg gauge is equivalent to an absolute pressure of 4 inHg, calculated as 30 inHg (typical atmospheric pressure) − 26 inHg (gauge pressure).
Atmospheric pressure is typically about 100 kPa at sea level, but is variable with altitude and weather. If the absolute pressure of a fluid stays constant, the gauge pressure of the same fluid will vary as atmospheric pressure changes. For example, when a car drives up a mountain, the (gauge) tire pressure goes up because atmospheric pressure goes down. The absolute pressure in the tire is essentially unchanged.
Using atmospheric pressure as reference is usually signified by a \"g\" for gauge after the pressure unit, e.g. 70 psig, which means that the pressure measured is the total pressure minus atmospheric pressure. There are two types of gauge reference pressure: vented gauge (vg) and sealed gauge (sg).
A vented-gauge pressure transmitter, for example, allows the outside air pressure to be exposed to the negative side of the pressure-sensing diaphragm, through a vented cable or a hole on the side of the device, so that it always measures the pressure referred to ambient barometric pressure. Thus a vented-gauge reference pressure sensor should always read zero pressure when the process pressure connection is held open to the air.
A sealed gauge reference is very similar, except that atmospheric pressure is sealed on the negative side of the diaphragm. This is usually adopted on high pressure ranges, such as hydraulics, where atmospheric pressure changes will have a negligible effect on the accuracy of the reading, so venting is not necessary. This also allows some manufacturers to provide secondary pressure containment as an extra precaution for pressure equipment safety if the burst pressure of the primary pressure sensing diaphragm is exceeded.
There is another way of creating a sealed gauge reference, and this is to seal a high vacuum on the reverse side of the sensing diaphragm. Then the output signal is offset, so the pressure sensor reads close to zero when measuring atmospheric pressure.
A sealed gauge reference pressure transducer will never read exactly zero because atmospheric pressure is always changing and the reference in this case is fixed at 1 bar.
To produce an absolute pressure sensor, the manufacturer seals a high vacuum behind the sensing diaphragm. If the process-pressure connection of an absolute-pressure transmitter is open to the air, it will read the actual barometric pressure.
A **sealed pressure sensor** is similar to a gauge pressure sensor except that it measures pressure relative to some fixed pressure rather than the ambient atmospheric pressure (which varies according to the location and the weather).
## History
For much of human history, the pressure of gases like air was ignored, denied, or taken for granted, but as early as the 6th century BC, Greek philosopher Anaximenes of Miletus claimed that all things are made of air that is simply changed by varying levels of pressure. He could observe water evaporating, changing to a gas, and felt that this applied even to solid matter. More condensed air made colder, heavier objects, and expanded air made lighter, hotter objects. This was akin to how gases really do become less dense when warmer, more dense when cooler.
In the 17th century, Evangelista Torricelli conducted experiments with mercury that allowed him to measure the presence of air. He would dip a glass tube, closed at one end, into a bowl of mercury and raise the closed end up out of it, keeping the open end submerged. The weight of the mercury would pull it down, leaving a partial vacuum at the far end. This validated his belief that air/gas has mass, creating pressure on things around it. Previously, the more popular conclusion, even for Galileo, was that air was weightless and it is vacuum that provided force, as in a siphon. The discovery helped bring Torricelli to the conclusion:
This test, known as Torricelli\'s experiment, was essentially the first documented pressure gauge.
Blaise Pascal went further, having his brother-in-law try the experiment at different altitudes on a mountain, and finding indeed that the farther down in the ocean of atmosphere, the higher the pressure.
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