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# History of Moldova
## Part of Greater Romania {#part_of_greater_romania}
After 1918 Bessarabia was under Romanian jurisdiction for the next 22 years. This fact was recognized in the 1920 Treaty of Paris which, however, has never come into force since it was not ratified by Japan. The newly communist Russia did not recognize the Romanian rule over Bessarabia. The Bessarabian Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed on May 5, 1919, in Odessa as a \"Provisional Workers\' and Peasants\' Government in exile\" and established on May 11, 1919, in Tiraspol as an autonomous part of Russian SFSR. Furthermore, Russia and later, the Soviet Union, considered the region to be Soviet territory under foreign occupation and conducted numerous diplomatic attempts to reclaim it. No diplomatic relations existed between the two states until 1934. During that time, both countries subscribed to the principle of non-violent resolution of territorial disputes in the Kellogg-Briand Treaty of 1928 and the Treaty of London of July 1933. Meanwhile, the neighboring region of Transnistria, part of the Ukrainian SSR at the time, was formed into the Moldavian ASSR after the failure of the Tatarbunary Uprising in 1924.
The land reform, implemented by *Sfatul Țării* in 1918--1919, resulted in a rise of a middle class, as 87% of the region\'s population lived in rural areas. The reform was however marred by the small size of the awarded plots, as well as by preferential allotment of land to politicians and administrative personnel who had supported the political goals of the Romanian government. Generally, urban development and industry were insignificant, and the region remained primarily an agrarian rural region throughout the interwar period. Certain improvements were achieved in the area of education, the literacy rate rising from 15.6% in 1897 to 37% by 1930; however, Bessarabia continued to lag behind the rest of the country, the national literacy rate being 60%. During the inter-war period, Romanian authorities also conducted a program of Romanianization that sought to assimilate ethnic minorities throughout the country. The enforcement of this policy was especially pervasive in Bessarabia due to its highly diverse population, and resulted in the closure of minority educational and cultural institutions.
On 1 January 1919 the Municipal Conservatory (the Academy of Music) was created in Chişinău, in 1927 -- the Faculty of Theology, in 1934 the subsidiary of the Romanian Institute of social sciences, in 1939 -- municipal picture gallery. The Agricultural State University of Moldova was founded in 1933 in Chișinău. The Museum of Fine Arts was founded in 1939 by the sculptor Alexandru Plămădeală. Gurie Grosu was the first Metropolitan of Bessarabia.
The first scheduled flights to Chișinău started on 24 June 1926, on the route Bucharest -- Galați -- Iași -- Chișinău. The flights were operated by Compagnie Franco-Roumaine de Navigation Aérienne -- CFRNA, later LARES.
The first society of the Romanian writers in Chișinău was formed in 1920, among the members were Mihail Sadoveanu, Ștefan Ciobanu, Tudor Pamfile, Nicolae Dunăreanu, N.N.Beldiceanu, Apostol D.Culea. *Writer and Journalist Bessarabian Society* took an institutionalized form in 1940. The First Congress of the Society elected as president Pan Halippa as Vice President Nicolae Spătaru, and as secretary general Nicolae Costenco.
Viața Basarabiei was founded in 1932 by Pan Halippa. Radio Basarabia was launched on 8 October 1939, as the second radio station of the Romanian Radio Broadcasting Company. The Capitoline Wolf was opened in 1926 and in 1928 the Stephen the Great Monument, by the sculptor Alexandru Plămădeală, was opened.
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# History of Moldova
## World War II and Soviet era {#world_war_ii_and_soviet_era}
After the establishment of the Soviet Union in December 1922, the Soviet government moved in 1924 to establish the Moldavian Autonomous Oblast on the lands to the east of the Dniester River in the Ukrainian SSR. The capital of the oblast was Balta, situated in present-day Ukraine. Seven months later, the oblast was upgraded to the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Moldavian ASSR or MASSR), even though its population was only 30% ethnic Romanian. The capital remained at Balta until 1929, when it was moved to Tiraspol.
In the secret protocol attached to the 1939 Molotov--Ribbentrop Pact defining the division of the spheres of influence in Eastern Europe, Nazi Germany declared it had no political interest in Bessarabia, in response to the Soviet Union\'s expression of interest, thereby consigning Bessarabia to the Soviet \"sphere\". On June 26, 1940, the Soviet government issued an ultimatum to the Romanian minister in Moscow, demanding Romania immediately cede Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. Italy and Germany, which needed a stable Romania and access to its oil fields, urged King Carol II to do so. On June 28, Soviet troops crossed the Dniester and occupied Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region.
The Soviet republic created following annexation did not follow Bessarabia\'s traditional border. The Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (Moldavian SSR), established on August 2, 1940, consisted of six and a half counties of Bessarabia joined with the westernmost part of the already extant MASSR (an autonomous entity within the Ukrainian SSR). Various changes were made to its borders, which were finally settled by November 1940. Territories where ethnic Ukrainians formed a large portion of the population (parts of Northern Bukovina and parts of Hotin, Akkerman, and Izmail) went to Ukraine, while a small strip of Transnistria east of the Dniester with a significant (49% of inhabitants) Moldovan population was joined to the MSSR. The transfer of Bessarabia\'s Black Sea and Danube frontage to Ukraine insured its control by a stable Soviet republic. This transfer, along with the division of Bessarabia, was also designed to discourage future Romanian claims and irredentism.
Under early Soviet rule, deportations of locals to the northern Urals, to Siberia, and Kazakhstan occurred regularly throughout the Stalinist period, with the largest ones on 12--13 June 1941, and 5--6 July 1949, accounting for 19,000 and 35,000 deportees respectively (from MSSR alone). In 1940--1941, ca. 90,000 inhabitants of the annexed territories were subject to political persecutions, such as arrests, deportations, or executions.
By participating in the 1941 Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, pro-German Romania seized the lost territories of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, as well as those of the former MASSR, and established its administration there. In occupied Transnistria, Romanian forces, working with the Germans, deported ca. 147,000 Jews from the territories of Bessarabia and Bukovina, of whom over 90,000 perished in ghettoes and concentration camps.
By April 1944, successful offensives of the Soviet Army occupied northern Moldavia and Transnistria, and by the end of August 1944 the entire territory was under Soviet control, with Soviet Army units entering Kishinev on 24 August 1944. The Paris peace treaty signed in February 1947 fixed the Romanian-Soviet border to the one established in June 1940.
The territory remained part of the Soviet Union after World War II as the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. Soviet Union created the universal educational system, brought high-tech industry and science. Most of these industries were built in Transnistria and around large cities, while in the rest of the republic agriculture was developed. By the late Soviet period, the urban intelligentsia and government officials were dominated mostly by ethnic Moldovans, while Russians and Ukrainians made up most of the technical and engineering specialists.
The conditions imposed during the reestablishment of Soviet rule became the basis of deep resentment toward Soviet authorities, manifested in numerous resistance movements to Soviet rule. In 1946, as a result of a severe drought and excessive delivery quota obligations and requisitions imposed by the Soviet government, the southwestern part of the USSR suffered from a major famine resulting in a minimum of 115,000 deaths among the peasants. During Leonid Brezhnev\'s 1950--1952 tenure as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Moldavia (CPM), he was ruthless compared to his predecessor Nicolae Coval in putting down numerous resistance groups, and issuing harsh sentences. During the Operation North, 723 families (2,617 persons) were deported from the Moldavian SSR, on the night of March 31 to April 1, 1951, members of Neoprotestant sects, mostly Jehovah\'s Witnesses, qualified as religious elements considered a potential danger for the communist regime.
Most political and academic positions were given to members of non-Romanian ethnic groups (only 17.5% of the Moldavian SSR\'s political leaders were ethnic Romanians in 1940).
Although Brezhnev and other CPM first secretaries were largely successful in suppressing Romanian irredentism in the 1950s--1980s, Mikhail Gorbachev\'s administration facilitated the revival of the movement in the region. His policies of glasnost and perestroika created conditions in which nationalistic feelings could be openly expressed and in which the Soviet republics could consider reforms.
In the 1970s and 1980s Moldova received substantial investment from the budget of the USSR to develop industrial, scientific facilities, as well as housing. In 1971 the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted a decision \"About the measures for further development of Kishinev city\" that secured more than one billion roubles of funds for Chisinau alone from the USSR budget. Subsequent decisions directed large amounts of funds and brought qualified specialists from all over the USSR to further develop the Moldavian SSR. Such an allocation of USSR assets was influenced by the fact that the-then leader of the Soviet Union, Leonid Brezhnev, was the First Secretary of the local Communist Party in the 1950s. These investments stopped in 1991 with the dissolution of the Soviet Union, when Moldova became independent.
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# History of Moldova
## Independent Republic of Moldova {#independent_republic_of_moldova}
### Perestroika and Glasnost {#perestroika_and_glasnost}
In the climate of Mikhail Gorbachev\'s perestroika and glasnost, national sentiment escalated in the Moldavian SSR in 1988. In 1989, the Popular Front of Moldova was formed as an association of independent cultural and political groups and gained official recognition. The Popular Front organized a number of large demonstrations, which led to the designation of Moldovan as the official language of the MSSR on August 31, 1989, and a return to the Latin alphabet.
However, opposition was growing to the increasingly exclusionary nationalist policies of the Popular Front, especially in Transnistria, where the Yedinstvo-Unitatea (Unity) Intermovement had been formed in 1988 by Slavic minorities, and in the south, where the organization Gagauz Halkı (*Gagauz People*), formed in November 1989, came to represent the Gagauz, a Turkic-speaking minority there.
The first democratic elections to the Moldavian SSR\'s Supreme Soviet were held on February 25, 1990. Runoff elections were held in March. The Popular Front won a majority of the votes. After the elections, Mircea Snegur, a reformed communist, was elected chairman of the Supreme Soviet; in September he became president of the republic.
### Priority over Soviet Union laws and negotiations on a new Treaty {#priority_over_soviet_union_laws_and_negotiations_on_a_new_treaty}
The reformist government that took over in May 1990 made many changes that did not please the minorities, including changing the republic\'s name in June from the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic to the Soviet Socialist Republic of Moldova and declaring it sovereign the following month. At the same time, Romanian tricolor with the Moldavian coat-of-arms was adopted as the state flag, and *Deșteaptă-te române!*, the Romanian anthem, became the anthem of the SSRM. During that period a Movement for unification of Romania and the Republic of Moldova became active in each country.
In August 1990, there was a refusal of the increasingly nationalist republican government to grant cultural and territorial autonomy to Gagauzia and Transnistria, two regions populated primarily by ethnic minorities. In response, the Gagauz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was declared in the south, in the city of Comrat. In September in Tiraspol, the main city on the east bank of the Dniester River, the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (commonly called Transnistria) followed suit. The parliament of Moldova immediately declared these declarations null and void.
By mid-October 1990, Moldovan nationalist volunteers had been mobilized to be sent to Gagauzia (approximately 30,000 volunteers participated there) and Transnistria. However, negotiations in Moscow between the Gagauz and Transnistrian leadership, and the government of the Soviet Socialist Republic of Moldova failed.
In May 1991, the country\'s official name was changed to the Republic of Moldova (Republica Moldova). The name of the Supreme Soviet also was changed, to the Moldovan Parliament.
### Soviet coup attempt, the Transition Period and the end of the Soviet Union {#soviet_coup_attempt_the_transition_period_and_the_end_of_the_soviet_union}
During the 1991 Soviet coup d\'état attempt in Moscow against Mikhail Gorbachev, commanders of the Soviet Union\'s Southwestern Theater of Military Operations attempted to impose a state of emergency in Moldova. They were overruled by the Moldovan government, which declared its support for Russian president Boris Yeltsin, who led the counter-coup in Moscow.
### Independent country and the Commonwealth {#independent_country_and_the_commonwealth}
On 27 August 1991, following the coup\'s collapse, Moldova declared its independence from the Soviet Union.
Post-Soviet countries have signed a series of treaties and agreements to settle the legacy of the former Soviet Union multilaterally and bilaterally.
The December elections of Stepan Topal and Igor Smirnov as presidents of Gagauzia and Transnistria respectively, and the official dissolution of the Soviet Union at the end of the year, had further increased tensions in Moldova.
### Transnistria
Transnistria is the region east of the Dniester River, which includes a large proportion of predominantly Russophone ethnic Russians and Ukrainians (51%, as of 1989, with ethnic Moldovans forming a 40% minority). The headquarters of the Soviet 14th Guards Army was located in the regional capital Tiraspol. There, on September 2, 1990, local authorities proclaimed an independent Pridnestrovian Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. The motives behind this move were fear of the rise of nationalism in Moldova and the country\'s expected reunification with Romania upon secession from the USSR. In the winter of 1991--1992 clashes occurred between Transnistrian forces and the Moldovan police. Between March 2 and July 26, 1992, the conflict escalated into a military engagement. Following Russian intervention of the 14th Guards Army into the conflict on the side of the separatists, the war was stopped and the Moscow Agreement on the principles of peace settlement of armed conflict in Trans-Dniester districts of the republic of Moldova was signed on 21 July 1992.
As of 2007, the Russian military remains in Transnistria, despite Russia having signed international agreements to withdraw, and against the will of Moldovan government. The government of Moldova continues to offer extensive autonomy to Transnistria, while the government of Transnistria demands independence. *De jure*, Transnistria is internationally recognized as part of Moldova, but *de facto*, the Moldovan government does not exercise any control over the territory.
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# History of Moldova
## Independent Republic of Moldova {#independent_republic_of_moldova}
### Early years of independence (1991--2001) {#early_years_of_independence_19912001}
On 8 December 1991, Mircea Snegur, an ex-communist reformer, ran an unopposed election for the presidency. On March 2, 1992, the country achieved formal recognition as an independent state at the United Nations.
In 1992, Moldova became involved in a brief conflict against local insurgents in Transnistria, who were aided by the Russian 14th Guards Army and Russian, Ukrainian and Don Cossack volunteers, which resulted in the failure of Moldova, supported by Romania, to regain control over the breakaway republic.
Starting 1993, Moldova began to distance itself from Romania. The 1994 Constitution of Moldova used the term \"Moldovan language\" instead of \"Romanian\" and changed the national anthem to \"Limba noastră\".
On January 2, 1992, Moldova introduced a market economy, liberalizing prices, which resulted in huge inflation. From 1992 to 2001, the young country suffered its worst economic crisis, leaving most of the population below the poverty line. In 1993, a national currency, the Moldovan leu, was introduced to replace the Soviet rouble. The end of the planned economy also meant that industrial enterprises would have to buy supplies and sell their goods by themselves, and most of the management was unprepared for such a change. Moldova\'s industry, especially machine building, became all but defunct, and unemployment skyrocketed. The economic fortunes of Moldova began to change in 2001; since then the country has seen a steady annual growth of between 5% and 10%. In the early 2000s, there was also a considerable growth of emigration of Moldovans looking for work (mostly illegally) in Italy, Portugal, Spain, Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, Russia and other countries. Remittances from Moldovans abroad account for almost 38% of Moldova\'s GDP, the second-highest percentage in the world. Officially, Moldova\'s annual GDP is on the order of \$1,000 per capita; however, a significant part of the economy goes unregistered as a result of corruption.
The pro-nationalist governments of prime ministers Mircea Druc (May 25, 1990 -- May 28, 1991), and Valeriu Muravschi (May 28, 1991 -- July 1, 1992), were followed by a more moderate government of Andrei Sangheli, during which there was a decline of the pro-Romanian nationalist sentiment. After the 1994 elections, Moldovan Parliament adopted measures that distanced Moldova from Romania. The new Moldovan Constitution also provided for autonomy for Transnistria and Gagauzia. On December 23, 1994, the Parliament of Moldova adopted a \"Law on the Special Legal Status of Gagauzia\", and in 1995 it was constituted.
After winning the presidential elections of 1996, on January 15, 1997, Petru Lucinschi, the former First Secretary of the Moldavian Communist Party in 1989--91, became the country\'s second president. After the legislative elections on March 22, 1998, the Alliance for Democracy and Reform was formed by non-Communist parties. However, the term of the new government of Prime Minister Ion Ciubuc (January 24, 1997-- February 1, 1999) was marked by chronic political instability, which prevented a coherent reform program. The 1998 financial crisis in Russia, Moldova\'s main economic partner at the time, produced an economic crisis in the country. The standard of living plunged, with 75% of population living below the poverty line, while the economic disaster caused 600,000 people to emigrate.
New governments were formed by Ion Sturza (February 19 -- November 9, 1999) and Dumitru Braghiş (December 21, 1999 -- April 19, 2001). On July 21, 2000, the Parliament adopted an amendment to the Constitution that transformed Moldova from a presidential to a parliamentary republic, in which the president is elected by three fifths of the votes in the parliament, and no longer directly by the people.
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# History of Moldova
## Independent Republic of Moldova {#independent_republic_of_moldova}
### Dominance of the Communists (2001--2009) {#dominance_of_the_communists_20012009}
Only 3 of the 31 political parties won more than the 6% of the popular vote required to win seats in parliament in the February 25, 2001 elections. Winning 49.9% of the vote, the Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova (reinstituted in 1993 after being outlawed in 1991), gained 71 of the 101 parliament seats, and elected Vladimir Voronin as the country\'s third president on April 4, 2001. A new government was formed on April 19, 2001, by Vasile Tarlev. The country became the first post-Soviet state where a non-reformed communist party returned to power. In March--April 2002, the opposition Christian-Democratic People\'s Party organized a mass protest in Chișinău against the plans of the government to fulfill its electoral promise and introduce Russian as the second state language along with its compulsory study in schools. The government annulled these plans.
The relationship between Moldova and Russia deteriorated in November 2003 over a Russian proposal for the solution of the Transnistria conflict, which Moldovan authorities refused to accept because it stipulated a 20-year Russian military presence in Moldova. The federalization plan for Moldova would have also turned Transnistria and Gagauzia into a blocking minority over all major policy matters of Moldova. As of 2006, approximately 1,200 of the 14th Army personnel remain stationed in Transnistria, guarding a large ammunitions depot at Colbasna. In recent years, negotiations between the Transnistrian and Moldovan leaders have been going on under the mediation of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), Russia, and Ukraine; lately observers from the European Union and the United States have become involved, creating a 5+2 format.
In the wake of the November 2003 deadlock with Russia, a series of shifts in the external policy of Moldova occurred, targeted at rapprochement with the European Union. In the context of the EU\'s expansion to the east, Moldova wants to sign the Stability and Association Agreement. It implemented its first three-year action plan within the framework of the European Neighborhood Policy (ENP) of the EU.
In the March 2005 elections, the Party of the Communists (PCRM) won 46% of the vote, (56 of the 101 seats in the Parliament), the Democratic Moldova Block (BMD) won 28.5% of the vote (34 MPs), and the Christian Democratic People Party (PPCD) won 9.1% (11 MPs). On April 4, 2005, Vladimir Voronin was re-elected as country\'s president, supported by a part of the opposition, and on April 8, Vasile Tarlev was again appointed head of government. On March 31, 2008, Vasile Tarlev was replaced by Zinaida Greceanîi as head of the government.
Following the parliamentary elections on April 5, 2009, the Communist Party won 49.48% of the votes, followed by the Liberal Party with 13.14% of the votes, the Liberal Democratic Party with 12.43% and the Alliance \"Moldova Noastră\" with 9.77%. The opposition leaders have protested against the outcome calling it fraudulent and demanded a repeated election. A preliminary report by OSCE observers called the vote generally free and fair. However, one member of the OSCE observation team expressed concerns over that conclusion and said that she and a number of other team members feel that there had been some manipulation, but they were unable to find any proof.
On April 6, 2009, several NGOs and opposition parties organized a protest in Chișinău, gathering a crowd of about 15,000 with the help of social network sites such as Twitter and Facebook. The protesters accused the Communist government of electoral fraud. Anti-communist and pro-Romanian slogans were widely used. The demonstration had spun out of control on April 7 and escalated into a riot when a part of the crowd attacked the presidential offices and broke into the parliament building, looting and setting its interior on fire. Police had regained control on the night of April 8, arresting and detaining several hundred protesters. Numerous detainees reported beatings by the police when released. The violence on both sides (demonstrators and police) was condemned by the OSCE and other international organizations. Three young people died during the day the protests took place. The opposition blamed police abuse for these deaths, while the government claimed they were either unrelated to the protests, or accidents. Government officials, including President Vladimir Voronin, called the rioting a coup d\'état attempt and accused Romania of organizing it. The opposition accused the government of organizing the riots by introducing agents provocateurs among the protesters. The political climate in Moldova remained unstable. The parliament failed to elect a new president. For this reason, the parliament was dissolved and new general elections were held on July 29, 2009, with the Communists losing power to the Alliance for European Integration, a pro-European coalition.
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# History of Moldova
## Independent Republic of Moldova {#independent_republic_of_moldova}
### Liberal Democrat and Socialist administrations {#liberal_democrat_and_socialist_administrations}
An attempt by the new ruling coalition to amend the constitution of Moldova via a referendum in 2010 in order to enable presidential election by popular vote failed due to lack of turnout. The parliamentary election in November 2010 had retained the status quo between the ruling coalition and the communist opposition. On 16 March 2012, parliament elected Nicolae Timofti as president by 62 votes out of 101, with the PCRM boycotting the election, putting an end to a political crisis that had lasted since April 2009. Moldova had no had full-time president, but three acting presidents, since Vladimir Voronin resigned in September 2009. In the November 2014 elections the pro-European parties maintained their majority in parliament.
In November 2016, pro-Russia candidate Igor Dodon won the presidential election, defeating his rival Maia Sandu. The 2019 parliamentary election resulted a vote split between pro-Western and pro-Russian forces. The opposition Socialists, who favor closer ties to Moscow, became the largest party with 35 out of 101 seats. The ruling Social Democratic Party, which wants closer integration with the EU, came second with 30 seats. Opposition bloc called ACUM, campaigning with anti-corruption agenda, was third with 26 seats. In 2019, from 7 June to 15 June, the Moldovan government went through a period of dual power in what is known as the 2019 Moldovan constitutional crisis. In November 2019, Ion Chicu became new Prime Minister, following the fall of the former government led by pro-Western Maia Sandu.
#### COVID-19 pandemic {#covid_19_pandemic}
In March 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the government called a \"national red code alert\" as the number of coronavirus cases in the country rose to six on 13 March 2020. Government \"banned all gatherings of over 50 people until 1 April 2020 and closed all schools and kindergartens in an attempt to curb the spread of the virus\". Flights were banned to Spain, Italy, France, Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Cyprus, Germany, Ireland, the U.K., Poland, Portugal and Romania. On 17 March, Parliament declared a state of emergency for at least 60 days, suspended all international flights and closed borders with neighbours Romania and Ukraine. Moldova reported 29 cases of the disease on 17 March 2020. The country reported its first death from the disease on 18 March 2020, when the total number of cases reached 30.
According to the World Health Organization, between 3 January 2020 and 28 June 2023, there have been 620,717 confirmed cases of COVID-19 with 12,124 deaths. `{{as of|2023|7|11|lc=n}}`{=mediawiki}, a total of 2,288,948 vaccine doses have been administered. Moldova is among the first countries in the WHO European Region to conduct a COVID-19 intra-action review (IAR) upon the request of Moldova\'s Ministry of Health, Labour and Social Protection.
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# History of Moldova
## Independent Republic of Moldova {#independent_republic_of_moldova}
### Presidency of Maia Sandu since 2020 {#presidency_of_maia_sandu_since_2020}
In the November 2020 presidential election, the pro-European opposition candidate Maia Sandu was elected as the new president of the republic, becoming the first female elected president of Moldova. Prime Minister Ion Chicu resigned a day before Sandu was sworn in. The parliament, dominated by pro-Russian Socialists, did not accept any Prime Minister candidate proposed by the new president.
On 28 April 2021, Sandu dissolved the Parliament of the Republic of Moldova after the Constitutional Court ended Moldova\'s state of emergency which had been brought about by the coronavirus pandemic. Parliamentary elections took place on 11 July 2021. The snap parliamentary elections resulted in a landslide win for the pro-European Party of Action and Solidarity (PAS).
Since Maia Sandu was elected, the country has pursued the goal of full membership of the European Union by 2030 as well as deeper co-operation with NATO. This resulted in Moldova signing the membership application to join the EU on 3 March 2022 and on 23 June 2022, Moldova was officially granted candidate status by EU leaders.
Fighting corruption has been a major government initiative, one also essential to EU membership. On 8 June 2021, Sandu signed off on the creation of an extra-governmental corruption monitoring body after declaring the state\'s own institutions \"too slow\". The six-member panel of the \'Anticorruption Independent Consultative Committee\' will be co-chaired by United States diplomat James Wasserstrom, includes economists, jurists and journalists and is partially funded by the European Union and United States. This was followed by the Moldovan government suspending the Prosecutor General Alexandru Stoianoglo in relation to charges of corruption, former Moldovan Prime Minister Iurie Leanca was charged with abuse of power, the former President Igor Dodon was arrested by the Moldovan authorities on charges of corruption for the receipt of bribes.
Russia\'s invasion of Ukraine caused significant economic turmoil in Moldova throughout 2022, in particular due to its reliance at that time on Russian oil and gas, with annual inflation surging to 22% and growth falling from a post-COVID surge of 14% to 0.3%. In response to these shockwaves, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) put a total of €2bn (£1.74bn) into the Moldovan economy and helped it secure gas supplies, a fivefold increase over 2021. `{{as of|2023|06|18|lc=n}}`{=mediawiki}, Moldovan Prime Minister Dorin Recean confirmed that the country is 100% independent of Russian oil and natural gas. He stated that \"Moldova no longer consumes Russian gas, it is integrated in the European energy network both technically and commercially.\"
On 19 June 2023 the pro-Russian Șor Party was banned by the Constitutional Court of Moldova after months of pro-Russian protests seeking to destabilise the Moldovan government. The court declared the party unconstitutional, with court chairman Nicolae Roșca citing \"an article in the constitution stating that parties must through their activities uphold political pluralism, the rule of law and the territorial integrity of Moldova.\" The party was led by Ilan Shor, a fugitive businessman who fled to Israel in 2019 after being convicted of fraud and money-laundering and sentenced to 15 years in prison *in absentia*. President Sandu welcomed the court\'s decision. On 26 June, Ilan Shor announced that he would create a new political party in order to contest the upcoming general election. On 31 July, the Moldovan parliament voted in favour of banning the leaders of the dissolved pro-Russian Șor Party -- including Ilan Shor -- from standing in elections for a period of five years. Leader and founder of the party, Ilan Șor, currently a fugitive of the state, has claimed he will contest the ban. A clone party, called \"ȘANSĂ\" or Chance party, led by journalist Alexei Lungu was established by Ilan Shor, however it was deregistered two days before the local elections amid claims of using illegal funds from Russia.
Moldovas\'s pro-Western and pro-Russian factions became increasingly divided following Russia\'s invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022. Moldova\'s application for European Union membership was submitted on 3 March 2022. President Sandu championed the 2024 European Union membership constitutional referendum which was passed by a narrow margin amid widespread interference by the Russian government. In the November 2024 presidential election, President Maia Sandu was re-elected with 55% of the vote in the run-off.
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# History of Moldova
## Independent Republic of Moldova {#independent_republic_of_moldova}
### Presidency of Maia Sandu since 2020 {#presidency_of_maia_sandu_since_2020}
#### Russia-related events since the invasion of neighbouring Ukraine {#russia_related_events_since_the_invasion_of_neighbouring_ukraine}
In February 2022 Sandu condemned the Russian invasion of Ukraine, calling it \"a blatant breach of international law and of Ukrainian sovereignty and territorial integrity.\" Prime Minister Natalia Gavrilita stated on 28 February 2022 that Moldova should rapidly move to become a member of the European Union despite Russian objections.
According to Bloomberg, as the Russian invasion of Ukraine took place, the Moldovan government\'s computer systems used for security operations along the Ukraine border came under attack from Russia. \"As the war progressed, pro-Russian social media accounts spread false claims designed to discredit the Moldovan government, and trolls bombarded Moldovan authorities with thousands of fake bomb threats. In August, hackers breached email servers used by the Moldovan president\'s office; in November, hackers also published thousands of private messages they claimed to have stolen from Ana Revenco, Moldova\'s minister of internal affairs, and Sergiu Litvinenco, who was then serving as minister of justice.\" A sustained campaign of cyberwarfare from Russia against Moldova has continued with the war, with \"denial-of-service attempts to flood Moldovan government websites with traffic and force them offline. There\'s also been a sustained campaign of phishing emails targeting government accounts, with more than 1,300 received in early 2023.\"
According to the UNHCR, since 24 February 2022, more than 780,000 Ukrainian refugees were permitted to cross the border into Moldova. Of that number, some 107,000 chose to remain in Moldova, the rest seeking asylum further afield.
The country has received praise from the United Nations for its efforts to protect Ukrainian refugees, despite being among the poorest nations in Europe. About 75% of the Ukrainian refugees in Moldova have been hosted by ordinary Moldovan families, sharing their homes with their new guests.
The government\'s own efforts have been aided by Moldovans for Peace, an NGO civic initiative to provide help to Ukrainian refugees. The World Health Organization has stated that \"The Republic of Moldova\'s authorities and humanitarian entities have demonstrated leadership in responding to the needs of refugees fleeing the war in Ukraine.\"
On 26 April 2022, authorities from the Transnistria region said two transmitting antennas broadcasting Russian radio programs at Grigoriopol transmitter broadcasting facility near the town of Maiac in the Grigoriopol District near the Ukrainian border had been blown up and the previous evening, the premises of the Transnistrian state security service had been attacked. The Russian army has a military base and a large ammunition dump in the region. Russia has about 1,500 soldiers stationed in breakaway Transnistria. They are supposed to serve there as peacekeepers. In March 2022, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe recognized Transnistria as \"a Moldovan territory occupied by Russia.\" On 24 February, the Russian Foreign Ministry claimed that an attack \"on Transnistria would be \"an attack on the Russian Federation.\" According to *The Kyiv Independent,* \"There is speculation that this is a facade for a Russian plan to invade or destabilize Moldova.\" President Sandu dismissed that Moldova intended to invade Transnistria and called for calm.
The Moldovan government expressed its alarm and concern in April 2023 when Russian soldiers stationed in Transnistria undertook military manoeuvres without seeking Chișinău\'s consent. The Security Zone is managed by the Joint Control Commission (JCC) which consists of representatives from Moldova, Russia, and the separatist regime in Tiraspol. \"Between February and April, Russian armoured military equipment moved outside the range of the Joint Peacekeeping Forces. The manoeuvre was not coordinated with the Unified Control Commission.\" On 8 May, Transnistria\'s envoy to Moscow, Leonid Manakov, publicly requested that Russia should send more Russian soldiers into Transnistria because of what it called \"growing security risks\" from Ukraine and Moldova. Manakov also stated that \"As long as Russia\'s peacekeeping mission continues, Moldova is constrained in any military plans and preparations against Trandsniestria\". Moldova\'s prime minister, Dorin Recean, said that Russian troops should be expelled from the region.
On 31 October 2022, Moldova\'s Interior Ministry said that debris from a Russian missile landed in the northern village of Naslavcea after a Russian fusillade was intercepted by air defenses in neighboring Ukraine. The Ministry reported no people were hurt but the windows of several residential homes were shattered. The Russian strike was targeting a Ukrainian dam on the Nistru river that runs through Moldova and Ukraine. On 5 December, another missile fell near the city of Briceni as Russia launched another wave of missile strikes against Ukraine. Yet another missile fell into Larga on 14 January 2023 as a result of another wave of missile strikes against Ukraine and again on the same village on 16 February of the same year. On 25 September, a missile crashed into Chițcani, for the first time in Moldovan territory controlled by Transnistria. On 11 February 2024, fragments of a Russian drone were found in the village of Etulia. This happened again on 17 February in Etulia Nouă and on 4 April again in Etulia.
Russia\'s \'10 year plan\', written in 2021, was leaked to the international press, involved supporting pro-Russian groups, utilizing the Orthodox Church and threatening to cut off supplies of natural gas with the aim to destabilise Moldova.
In February 2023 an attempted coup by a series of Russian-backed actors was uncovered involving saboteurs with military training dressed in civilian clothes to stage attacks (including on state buildings), and take hostages. The Moldovan government was to be overthrown and replaced with a puppet government. The plan allegedly involved an alliance between criminal groups and two exiled Moldovan oligarchs. President Sandu said Russian, Montenegrin, Belarusian, and Serbian citizens were to enter Moldova to incite protests as part of the coup plan; Moldovan intelligence believes foreign provocateurs would be used to foment violent unrest during the anti-government protests. Foreign citizens were also to be involved in violent actions. Sandu credited Ukrainian partners for uncovering locations and logistical aspects of the plot. In a 10 March briefing, United States National Security Council Coordinator for Strategic Communications John Kirby made public information about Russian efforts to destabilise Moldova obtained by the U.S. Kirby stated the U.S. government believes Russia to be pursuing destabilisation efforts in Moldova with the ultimate goal of replacing the existing Moldovan government with one that would be more friendly to Russian interests.
In July 2023, opposition politician Oleg Khorzhan, a pro-Russian critic of the Transnistrian government, and leader of the local Transnistrian Communist Party in the breakaway Transnistria region, was found dead in his home on the outskirts of Tiraspol. The Moldovan National Police has opened an active investigation into his presumed murder
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# Geography of Moldova
Located in Eastern Europe, Moldova is bordered on the west and southwest by Romania and on the north, south, and east by Ukraine. Most of its territory lies in Bessarabia region, between the area\'s two main rivers, the Nistru and the Prut. The Nistru forms a small part of Moldova\'s border with Ukraine in the northeast and southeast, but it mainly flows through the eastern part of the country, separating Bessarabia and Transnistria. The Prut River forms Moldova\'s entire western boundary with Romania. The Danube touches the Moldovan border at its southernmost tip, and forms the border for 200 m.
## Basic data {#basic_data}
+----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Location: | Eastern Europe, northeast of Romania |
+==================================+====================================================================================+
| Geographic coordinates: | |
+----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Map references: | Commonwealth of Independent States |
+----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Area: | - *total:* 33,851 km2.) |
| | - *land:* 32,891 km2.) |
| | - *water:* 960 km2.) |
+----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Area -- comparative: | - slightly larger than Maryland, United States |
| | - slightly larger than Vancouver Island, Canada |
| | - slightly less than `{{sfrac|1|2}}`{=mediawiki} the size of Tasmania, Australia |
| | - slightly smaller than Taiwan |
| | - slightly larger than Belgium, EU |
+----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Land boundaries: | - *total:* 1,390 km |
| | - *border countries:* Romania 450 km, Ukraine 940 km |
+----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Coastline: | (landlocked) |
+----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Maritime claims: | none (landlocked) |
+----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Natural resources: | lignite, phosphorites, gypsum, arable land, limestone |
+----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Land use: | - *arable land:* 53.47% |
| | - *permanent crops:* 8.77% |
| | - *other:* 37.75% (2011) |
+----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Irrigated land: | \(2011\) |
+----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Total renewable water resources: | 11.65 km ^3^ (2.8 cu. mi.) |
+----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Natural hazards: | landslides (57 cases in 1998) |
+----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
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# Geography of Moldova
## Climate
Moldova\'s proximity to the Black Sea gives it a mild and sunny climate.
Moldova\'s climate is moderately continental: the summers are warm and long, with temperatures averaging about 20 °C, and the winters are relatively mild and dry, with January temperatures averaging −2 °C. Annual rainfall, which ranges from around 600 mm in the north to 400 mm in the south, can vary greatly; long dry spells are not unusual. The heaviest rainfall occurs in early summer and again in October; heavy showers and thunderstorms are common. Because of the irregular terrain, heavy summer rains often cause erosion and river silting.
**Weather records**: The highest temperature ever recorded was 42.4 °C at Fălești on 7 August 2012. The lowest temperature ever recorded was -35.5 °C on January 20, 1963, at Brătușeni.
Chișinău\'s climate. (Central Moldova)
Bălți\'s climate. (Northern Moldova) `{{Weather box|width=100%
|location = Bălți
|metric first = Yes
|single line = Yes
|Jan high C = -0.5
|Feb high C = 1.3
|Mar high C = 7.0
|Apr high C = 15.9
|May high C = 22.0
|Jun high C = 24.9
|Jul high C = 26.2
|Aug high C = 26.0
|Sep high C = 21.8
|Oct high C = 15.2
|Nov high C = 7.6
|Dec high C = 2.1
|year high C = 14.1
|Jan low C = -7.5
|Feb low C = -5.4
|Mar low C = -1.6
|Apr low C = 4.5
|May low C = 9.9
|Jun low C = 13.1
|Jul low C = 14.5
|Aug low C = 13.5
|Sep low C = 9.5
|Oct low C = 4.3
|Nov low C = 0.3
|Dec low C = -4.0
|year low C = 4.2
|Jan precipitation mm = 31
|Feb precipitation mm = 28
|Mar precipitation mm = 28
|Apr precipitation mm = 44
|May precipitation mm = 55
|Jun precipitation mm = 86
|Jul precipitation mm = 79
|Aug precipitation mm = 49
|Sep precipitation mm = 43
|Oct precipitation mm = 22
|Nov precipitation mm = 34
|Dec precipitation mm = 30
|year precipitation mm = 529
|Jan precipitation days = 11
|Feb precipitation days = 11
|Mar precipitation days = 9
|Apr precipitation days = 11
|May precipitation days = 12
|Jun precipitation days = 13
|Jul precipitation days = 11
|Aug precipitation days = 8
|Sep precipitation days = 8
|Oct precipitation days = 6
|Nov precipitation days = 9
|Dec precipitation days = 11
|year precipitation days = 120
|source 1 = World Weather Information Service<ref name=weather1>{{cite web
|url = http://www.worldweather.org/108/c01423.htm|title =Weather Information for Bălți|access-date = 6 January 2008
|publisher =World Weather Information Service}}</ref>
|date=August 2010
}}`{=mediawiki}
Tiraspol\'s climate. (Central Moldova) `{{Weather box|width=100%
|location = Tiraspol
|metric first = Yes
|single line = Yes
|Jan high C = 0.7
|Feb high C = 2.3
|Mar high C = 7.8
|Apr high C = 16.5
|May high C = 22.5
|Jun high C = 25.8
|Jul high C = 27.4
|Aug high C = 27.3
|Sep high C = 23.0
|Oct high C = 16.1
|Nov high C = 8.6
|Dec high C = 3.3
|year high C = 15.1
|Jan low C = -6.1
|Feb low C = -4.3
|Mar low C = -0.7
|Apr low C = 5.1
|May low C = 10.3
|Jun low C = 13.8
|Jul low C = 15.5
|Aug low C = 14.7
|Sep low C = 10.3
|Oct low C = 5.3
|Nov low C = 1.3
|Dec low C = -2.8
|year low C = 5.2
|Jan precipitation mm = 33
|Feb precipitation mm = 35
|Mar precipitation mm = 28
|Apr precipitation mm = 35
|May precipitation mm = 52
|Jun precipitation mm = 72
|Jul precipitation mm = 63
|Aug precipitation mm = 49
|Sep precipitation mm = 38
|Oct precipitation mm = 26
|Nov precipitation mm = 36
|Dec precipitation mm = 38
|year precipitation mm = 495
|Jan precipitation days = 11
|Feb precipitation days = 11
|Mar precipitation days = 9
|Apr precipitation days = 10
|May precipitation days = 11
|Jun precipitation days = 11
|Jul precipitation days = 10
|Aug precipitation days = 7
|Sep precipitation days = 7
|Oct precipitation days = 7
|Nov precipitation days = 11
|Dec precipitation days = 11
|year precipitation days = 116
|source 1 = World Weather Information Service<ref name=weather2>{{cite web
| url =http://www.worldweather.org/108/c01425.htm| title =Weather Information for Tiraspol | access-date = 6 January 2008
| publisher =World Weather Information Service }}</ref>
|date=August 2010
}}`{=mediawiki}
Cahul\'s climate. (Southern Moldova) `{{Weather box|width=100%
|location = Cahul, Moldova
|metric first = Yes
|single line = Yes
|Jan high C = 0.2
|Feb high C = 1.8
|Mar high C = 7.9
|Apr high C = 15.9
|May high C = 21.6
|Jun high C = 25.0
|Jul high C = 26.8
|Aug high C = 26.5
|Sep high C = 22.6
|Oct high C = 15.9
|Nov high C = 8.5
|Dec high C = 2.6
|year high C = 14.6
|Jan low C = -5.7
|Feb low C = -3.7
|Mar low C = -0.2
|Apr low C = 5.6
|May low C = 11.1
|Jun low C = 14.5
|Jul low C = 16.0
|Aug low C = 15.7
|Sep low C = 11.9
|Oct low C = 6.6
|Nov low C = 1.9
|Dec low C = -2.7
|year low C = 5.9
|Jan precipitation mm = 36
|Feb precipitation mm = 39
|Mar precipitation mm = 33
|Apr precipitation mm = 41
|May precipitation mm = 56
|Jun precipitation mm = 76
|Jul precipitation mm = 66
|Aug precipitation mm = 56
|Sep precipitation mm = 48
|Oct precipitation mm = 28
|Nov precipitation mm = 38
|Dec precipitation mm = 40
|year precipitation mm = 557
|Jan precipitation days = 12
|Feb precipitation days = 13
|Mar precipitation days = 10
|Apr precipitation days = 10
|May precipitation days = 11
|Jun precipitation days = 11
|Jul precipitation days = 10
|Aug precipitation days = 8
|Sep precipitation days = 7
|Oct precipitation days = 7
|Nov precipitation days = 11
|Dec precipitation days = 12
|year precipitation days = 122
|source 1 = World Weather Information Service<ref name=weather3>{{cite web
| url =http://www.worldweather.org/108/c01424.htm | title =Weather Information for Cahul | access-date = 6 January 2008
| publisher =World Weather Information Service }}</ref>
|date=August 2010
}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Geography of Moldova
## Topography
Most of Moldova\'s territory is a moderate hilly plateau cut deeply by many streams and rivers. Geologically, Moldova lies primarily on the deep sedimentary rock that gives way to harder crystalline outcroppings only in the north. Moldova\'s hills are part of the larger Moldavian Plateau.
The northern landscape of Moldova is characterized by gently rolling uplands (up to 300 m, in elevation) interlaced with small flat plains in the valleys of the numerous creeks (at 150 m elevation). These hills, which have an average altitude of 240 m and a maximum altitude of 320 m, are divided into the Northern Moldovan Plateau and the Dniester Plateau, and continue further occupying the northern part of the Chernivtsi oblast in Ukraine. The eastern slopes of the Dniester Ridge (average 250 m, max 347 m), form the high right bank of the Dniester River.
To the south are located the Bălți Plain and the Middle Prut Plain, with an average of 200 m and a maximum altitude of 250 m. Originally forested, it has been extensively de-forested for agriculture during the 19th and 20th centuries. In contrast to the region to the north and south, which is more slant, this area is referred to as *plain*, although it has relief very different from that of flatland, and vegetation different from that of the steppe.
The hills of central Moldova are divided into the Ciulucuri Hills and the Codri Plateau, at an average elevation of about 350 to, are ridges interlaced by deep, flat valleys, ravines, and landslide-scoured depressions. Steep forest-clad slopes account for much of the terrain, where the most common trees are hornbeam, oak, linden, maple, wild pear, and wild cherry. The term *codri* refers more generally to forests, yet since in Moldova most of them were preserved in the central part, Codri sometimes can colloquially refer to the remaining forests in the hills west and north of Chișinău. The Dniester Hills border the Ciulucuri Hills to the north along the river Răut.
The country\'s highest point, Bălănești Hill, which reaches 1407 or, depending on the source, is situated in the Corneşti Hills, the western part of the Codri Plateau. Northwest of it are the Ciulucului Hills (average 250 m, max 388 m). In the south, the Tigheci Hills (average 200 m, max 301 m) are a prolongation, and run to the south parallel to the Lower Prut Valley.
To the south-east, the southern part of the Codri Plateau, which averages 150 -, max 250 m, and has numerous ravines and gullies, gradually merges into the Southern Moldovan Plain, continued by in Ukraine by the Budjak Plain. Most of Gagauzia resides on the Ialpug Plain.
Transnistria (the left bank of the Dniester) has spurs of the Podolian Plateau (*Podişul Podoliei*, *Volyno-Podil\'s\'ka vysochyna*), (average 180 m, max 275 m), which are cut into by tributaries of the Dniester River. The southern half of Transnistria, the *Lower Dniester Plain*, can be regarded as the western end of the Eurasian steppe**,** and has an average elevation of 100 m, with a maximum of 170 m. The high right bank and low left bank of the Dniester are in sharp contrast here, where visibility is not impeded by forests.
About 75 percent of Moldova is covered by a soil type called black earth or chernozem. In the northern hills, more clay textured soils are found; in the south, red-earth soil is predominant. The soil becomes less fertile toward the south but can still support grape and sunflower production. The hills have woodland soils, while a small portion in southern Moldova is in the steppe zone, although most steppe areas today are cultivated. The lower reaches of the Prut and Dniester rivers and the southern river valleys are saline marshes.
Drainage in Moldova is to the south, toward the Black Sea lowlands, and eventually into the Black Sea, but only eight rivers and creeks extend more than 100 km. Moldova\'s main river, the Dniester, is navigable throughout almost the entire country, and in warmer winters it does not freeze over. The Prut river is a tributary of the Danube, which it joins at the far southwestern tip of the country. Over 95% of the water circulation in Moldova flows into one of the two rivers -- the Prut or Dniester. Of Moldova\'s well-developed network of about 3,000 creeks and streams, all draining south to the Black Sea, only 246 exceed 6 mi in length, and only 8 exceed 60 mi.
Underground water, extensively used for the country\'s water supply, includes about 2,200 natural springs. The terrain favors the construction of reservoirs of various sizes.
### Extreme points {#extreme_points}
- The lowest point: An unnamed point on the bank of the Dniester River 2 m
- The highest point: Dealul Bălănești 430 m
- North extreme: Naslavcea
- South extreme: Giurgiulești
- West extreme: Criva
- East extreme: Palanca
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# Geography of Moldova
## Natural habitat {#natural_habitat}
Moldova\'s natural habitat is characterized by forest steppes, a temperate-climate habitat type composed of grassland interspersed with areas of woodland or forest. A belt of forest steppes cross Eurasia from eastern Europe to Eastern Siberia, forming a transition between temperate broadleaf and mixed forests and temperate grasslands. In the 19th century, Moldova witnessed a sharp decrease in the forested areas, sacrificed for agriculture due to rich soil.
\| land formation \| area, km^2^ \| of which currently forests, km^2^ \| % forests \| habitat type
-------------------------- ---------------- -------------------------------------- -------------- -------------------
Northern Moldavian Hills 4,630 476 10.3% forest steppe
Dniester--Răut Ridge 2,480 363 14.6% forest steppe
Middle Prut Valley 2,930 312 10.6% forest steppe
Bălți Steppe 1,920 51 2.7% steppe
Ciuluc-Soloneț Hills 1,690 169 10.0% forest steppe
Cornești Hills (Codru) 4,740 1,300 27.5% forest
Lower Dniester Hills 3,040 371 12.2% forest steppe
Lower Prut Valley 1,810 144 8.0% forest steppe
Tigheci Hills 3,550 533 15.0% forest steppe
Bugeac Plain 3,210 195 6.1% steppe
part of Podolian Plateau 1,920 175 9.1% forest steppe
part of Eurasian Steppe 1,920 140 7.3% steppe
**Total** **33,840** **4,228** **12,5%** **forest steppe**
## Environment
### Historical references {#historical_references}
- In the 5th century BC, Herodotus visited the countryside between the rivers Dnister and Prut and described the place as \"a plain with deep black earth, rich in grass and well-irrigated\".
- Lithuanian Prince Jogaila spoke of Moldavia as \"a rich and fructiferous country\".
- According to the testimony of Venetian Mateus de Murano, \"the country was very well located, reach with cattle and all kinds of fruits, pastures are perfect\".
- Rich natural resources of Moldavia always attracted nomads. Fleeing their devastating incursions, inhabitants of Moldavia left the brooded places and hid in forests. French knight Guillebert de Lannoy, who visited these places in 1421, has mentioned an insignificant population of the region: \"We moved through large deserts\".
- Counsellor of Hungarian King George Reihersdorf (middle of 16th century) was complaining of travel through \"empty, uninhabited lands\". In 1541, he produced the first geographical map (preserved to this day) of the Principality of Moldavia, with rivers Dnister and Prut shown, as well as cities and other localities, but also highlighted large steppes.
- A map of Moldavia was drawn by the German diplomat Sigismund von Herberstein. On his map one can see woodless spaces -- Bălți Steppe in the north, and Bugeac Steppe in the south.
- In the 17th century, pilgrims Pavel Aleppskii (a Syrian deacon) and Ioan Lukianov (a Russian priest) traveled on their way to the Holy Land through Moldavia. These two travelers were struck by the disastrous state of the land that used to blossom: \"It better be not ravaged, as no other such can be found, it may yield any kind\".
- English traveler John Bell, who also visited Moldavia, and wrote about fecund soils and \"small nice towns\" situated next to Răut.
- Russian geographer K. Laksman described Bălți steppe at the beginning of the 19th century: \"To the north is located a steppe with almost no trees at all. To the north-west the steppe is not as woodless\".
- Scientist K. Arseniev mentioned that the north of Bessarabia is \"a genuine mix of arid steppes with most fertile pastures, rich meadows, and gardens\".
- Travelers and scholars were amazed by the contrast between rich natural resources of Moldavia/Bălți steppe and its low population in the war-torn 18th century, the pitiful state of agriculture, as well as the poverty of the local population.
- \"Desert, waste, naked steppe\... The settling among limitless expanses of Bălți steppe happened not \"in accordance\" with logic, but \"against\" it. The life of remote ancestors of Bălțiers was full of difficulties and crosses, but they managed to resist.\"
- \"Moldavian fields, as described by both ancient and contemporary writers, are great in their fertility, by far surpassing the richness of the mountains\" (Dimitrie Cantemir, *Descriptio Moldaviae*)
- \"Will someone describes Bessarabian steppes, indeed, they do merit a description. However for this, one needs the talent of unforgettable Gogol, who has so beautifully depicted us the steppes of his homeland. And Bessarabian steppes are not less beautiful.\" (Constantin Stamati-Ciurea)
### Current issues {#current_issues}
Moldova\'s communist-era environmental legacy, like that of many other former Soviet republics, is one of environmental degradation. Agricultural practices such as overuse of pesticides and artificial fertilizers were intended to increase agricultural output at all costs, without regard for the consequences. As a result, Moldova\'s soil and groundwater were contaminated by lingering chemicals, some of which (including DDT) have been banned in the West.
Such practices continue in Moldova to the present day. In the early 1990s, use of pesticides in Moldova averaged approximately twenty times that of other former Soviet republics and Western nations. Also, poor farming methods, such as destroying forests to plant vineyards, have contributed to the extensive soil erosion to which the country\'s rugged topography is already prone
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# Politics of Moldova
The **politics of Moldova** take place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, wherein the prime minister is the head of the Government of Moldova, and a multi-party system. The President of Moldova has no important powers. The government exercises executive power while the legislative power is vested in the Parliament. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The position of the breakaway region of Transnistria (a self-proclaimed autonomous region, on the left side of the river Nistru), relations with Romania and with Russia, and integration into the EU dominate political discussions.
Scholars have characterized Moldova as an unstable democracy with systemic corruption and a deep cleavage regarding national identity. `{{Democracy Index rating|Moldova|flawed democracy|2022}}`{=mediawiki}
During the presidency of Maia Sandu the institutional framework has been orienting (although not officially) towards a semi-presidential system, where the President plays an important role in foreign affairs and setting the domestic agenda along with the prime minister.
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
The Moldovan Parliament (*Parlamentul*) has 101 members, elected for a four-year term by proportional representation.
The seat of the legislature is known simply as the `{{Interlanguage link multi|Parliament Building (Chișinău)|ro|3=Clădirea Parlamentului Republicii Moldova|lt=Parliament Building}}`{=mediawiki}.
### Parliamentary election results {#parliamentary_election_results}
## Executive branch {#executive_branch}
*Main article: Cabinet of Moldova*
The president is elected by popular vote for a four-year term. According to the Moldovan constitution, the president, on consulting with the Parliament, will designate a candidate for the office of prime minister; within 15 days from designation, the prime minister-designate will request a vote of confidence from the Parliament regarding his/her work program and entire cabinet. The cabinet is selected by prime minister-designate, subject to approval of Parliament. The cabinet meets at the Government House on Stephen the Great Boulevard in Central Chișinău.
## Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
## Administrative divisions {#administrative_divisions}
Moldova is divided into 32 raions, or *raioane*, three municipalities (Chișinău, Bălți, and Bender), one autonomous region (Gagauzia), and the breakaway region of Transnistria, the status of which is disputed.
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# Politics of Moldova
## Issues
### Ethnic identity and unification with Romania {#ethnic_identity_and_unification_with_romania}
The underlying issue in the Republic of Moldova revolves around ethnicity and whether the country should re-unite with Romania, with which it shares a common ethnicity, language, culture and history. The Republic of Moldova represents roughly the eastern half of what is historically known as the Principality of Moldova. As a result of the Treaty of Bucharest (1812), ending the Russo-Turkish War of 1806, it was separated from the western part of the principality along the Prut river and annexed by the Russian Empire, which named it Bessarabia (Basarabia). The western half of the former Principality of Moldova, which was not annexed by Russia, united with Wallachia (Țara Românească) in 1859 to form the basis for modern day Romania. The eastern half united with Romania in 1918, but was re-annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940 as a result of the Molotov--Ribbentrop Pact.
Russian and Soviet-era identity politics focused on Russification in the colonial sense as well as on stressing artificial differences between the Moldovans and the Romanians in an attempt to create a uniquely \"Moldovan\" identity, including indoctrination against Romania and Romanians. As a result, Moldovan ethnic identity is complicated and divided between those who consider themselves Moldovan and those who consider themselves Romanian. Although Moldovans comprise a sizeable ethnic majority of the population, they are fragmented in terms of degree of Russification and cultural indoctrination. The more pro-Russian the Moldovan, the more likely it is that s/he will call his/her language and ethnicity Moldovan rather than Romanian. Today, Moldova is effectively bilingual, with a Romanian-speaking majority and a sizable and influential, multi-ethnic, Russian-speaking minority, and with the Russian language still dominating the media. The Russophile population is generally hostile to the idea of unification with Romania and typically votes for left-wing parties. The Moldovan majority is divided between pro-Russian nostalgia and growing pro-Romanian and pro-EU sympathies, with a growing number of people supporting the idea of re-unification with Romania, especially among the youth.
Moldovas\'s pro-Western and pro-Russian factions became increasingly divided since Russia\'s invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022. In the November 2024 presidential election, Moldova\'s pro-EU President Maia Sandu was re-elected with 55% of the vote in the run-off.
### Transnistria
*Main article: Transnistria*
Transnistria is a strip of land running along Moldova\'s eastern border with Ukraine, named after the Dniester river. The Transnistrian region is majority Slavic (Ukrainian and Russian) and Russian-speaking, in contrast with the rest of the country, and it was heavily industrialized during USSR rule. The Moldovan Declaration of Independence claims continuity of Moldovan sovereignty over the territory of Transnistria as it is \"a component part of the historical and ethnic territory of our people\". However, the Moldovan Declaration of Independence is itself used as an argument against Moldovan sovereignty over Transnistria as it denounces the Ribbentrop-Molotov agreement of 23 August 1939 between the government of the Soviet Union and the government of Nazi Germany \"null and void\" being the only formal union between the two territories.
After failing to establish control over the breakaway region in the War of Transnistria, Moldova offered a broad cultural and political autonomy to the region. The dispute has strained Moldova\'s relations with Russia. The July 1992 ceasefire agreement established a tripartite peacekeeping force composed of Moldovan, Russian, and Transnistrian units. Negotiations to resolve the conflict continue, and the ceasefire is still in effect. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) is trying to facilitate a negotiated settlement and has had an observer mission in place for several years.
The country remains divided, with the Transnistrian region controlled by separatist forces, supported *de facto* by a contingency of Russian troops posing as a peacekeeping mission.
### Human trafficking {#human_trafficking}
Due to the high rate of poverty, Moldova remains a large source-country of illegal sex workers that are exported to Western Europe, Russia and the Middle East. Because of pervasive corruption and a general lack of awareness, many victims of human trafficking are lured into the business with offers of high-salary jobs abroad, and are often trapped once out of the country. The US government urged Moldova to pass an anti-trafficking law in 2005, but due to a lack of enforcement, low regard of legal institutions, and unequal benchmark requirements, clear progress is difficult to ascertain. Organizations such as the International Organization for Migration provide non-governmental support integral to helping victims. However, NGOs are often subject to domestic constraints and government interference in their work, complicating their operations.
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# Politics of Moldova
## Issues
### Other issues {#other_issues}
There is disagreement as to whether elections and politics in Moldova are carried out in a free and democratic climate on the part of certain organizations. The United States Senate has held committee hearings on irregularities that marred elections in Moldova, including arrests and harassment of opposition candidates, intimidation and suppression of independent media, and state-run media bias in favor of candidates backed by the Communist-led Moldovan Government. Other critics have also referred to the Communist Party government as being authoritarian. Nevertheless, then-U.S. President George W. Bush stated that: \"We note and welcome Moldova\'s positive record since independence in conducting free and fair elections and in implementing democratic reforms.\"
There were also reports of politically motivated arrests and arrests without valid legal grounds in 2005. Such arrests were allegedly carried out against opponents of the Communist Party government of President Vladimir Voronin. In one case which was criticized by various Western organizations and individuals, opposition politician Valeriu Pasat was sentenced to ten years imprisonment on dubious grounds.
Moldova joined the World Trade Organization and the Southeast European Stability Pact in 2001. Of primary importance have been the Moldovan Government\'s efforts to improve relations with the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank and to comply with agreements negotiated in 2000 by the former government. Agreement in these areas was critical, because large government debts that were due in 2002 had to be rescheduled. The government has made concerted efforts to find ways to pay for Moldova\'s energy supplies.
Political parties and other groups publish newspapers, which often criticize government policies. There are several independent news services, radio stations, and an independent television station. Peaceful assembly is allowed, though permits for demonstrations must be obtained; private organizations, including political parties, are required to register with the government. Legislation passed in 1992 codified freedom of religion but required that religious groups be recognized by the government.
A 1990 Soviet law and a 1991 Parliamentary decision authorizing formation of social organizations provide for independent trade unions. However, the Federation of Independent Trade Unions of Moldova, successor to the former organizations of the Soviet trade union system, is the sole structure. It has tried to influence government policy in labour issues and has been critical of many economic policies. Moldovan labour law, which is based on former Soviet legislation, provides for collective bargaining rights
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# Telecommunications in Moldova
**Telecommunications in Moldova** are maintained at a relatively high performance level. Because Moldova is a small country, telecommunications companies managed to achieve good coverage in both wired and wireless communications infrastructure. Landline is available in most settlements, however mobile phone popularity has vastly increased in recent years. Mobile communications infrastructures are fairly well developed but suffer from high prices, nonetheless the amount of mobile subscriptions is growing very fast compared to the landline. As far as the Internet is concerned, Moldova has one of the best wired Internet connections in the world as well as one of the cheapest in \$ per Mbit.
## Landline
After the break of the Soviet Union Moldova\'s telecommunications facilities were in a very poor condition. In 1990 Moldova had an average of 11 telephones per 100 inhabitants and there were more than 200,000 unfilled orders for telephone installations. The situation didn\'t progress much as only around 24,000 new lines were installed by 1994. Only after 1995 the state owned Moldtelecom began to upgrade their lines and stations. When in 1999 Moldtelecom became a JSC the company began a rapid upgrade process of all of their equipment and installations across the country. In 2000 around 440,000 new lines were installed and the overall power of telephone stations was increased to 645,000 numbers, at that time the average number of telephones per 100 inh. was around 16. The upgrade process to digital has also sped up and in 2008 around 83% of all stations were digital, for example in 1993 only 4% of all stations were digital. Currently all stations in the country are digital and the number of installed lines is 1,171,300 with around 33 telephones per 100 inh. In recent years however the general trend was the decrease in total number of landline subscriptions, after reaching its peak of 1,222,400 subscriptions in Q1 2014.\
Currently Moldtelecom is the dominant provider in this industry holding around 89% of the market share, the rest are shared between some ISP\'s who provide triple play options to their customers, however most if not all of them rent lines from Moldtelecom.\
Until recently an open dialing plan was used but as of April 1, 2012 Moldova has implemented a closed dialing plan on all of its territory.
***Landline Subscriptions and Penetration level. (2020)***
- Number of Landline Subscriptions - 1,027,689
- Penetration Level - 38.9%
***Market Structure by Number of Users. (2020)***
- Moldtelecom - 89.5%
- Other Providers - 10.5%
*\*Statistics do not include data from Transnistria.*
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# Telecommunications in Moldova
## Mobile telephony {#mobile_telephony}
The mobile telephone market of Moldova is divided between two GSM carriers - Orange Moldova and Moldcell, and two CDMA carriers - Unité and Interdnestrcom. Orange Moldova launched its network in October 1998 under the brand of Voxtel and was the first and only carrier at the time. In April 2000 TeliaSonera entered the market with its own network under the brand of Moldcell and thus became the second carrier in the country. Moldtelecom became the third carrier when it launched its own network in March 2007 under the brand of Unité. In December 2007 another carrier named Eventis entered the market but three previous carriers have already saturated it so much that on February 5, 2010 Eventis declared bankruptcy and shut down its network.\
After the War of Transnistria in early 1990s Transnistrian government denied access of operation for many Moldavian based companies on its territory including telecommunications companies. As such the only major carrier on its territory is Interdnestrcom or IDC who began its operation in 1998.\
Unlike Internet market the state of the mobile market in the country is very poor, while coverage is not really an issue all carriers practice archaic methods that carriers in many developed countries have long since abolished, general prices are very high compared to other CIS and even EU countries with no change in this segment in many years in fact in some cases the prices have even increased, mobile Internet access is in no better condition with very high prices and very low monthly caps compared to extremely well developed and cheap wired Internet access.\
The first millionth subscription was registered in September 2005 since then the number of subscriptions has quadrupled and now amounts to around 4,323,500 which is almost 25% more than the estimated population of the country (without Transnistria), this means that the penetration level has exceeded 100%.\
In October 2008 Moldcell became the first carrier in Moldova to launch a 3G network, currently, all carriers provide 3G services throughout the country. In September 2009 Moldova became the first country in the world to launch high-definition voice services (HD voice) for mobile phones, and the first country in Europe to launch 14.4 Mbit/s mobile broadband at a national scale, with over 40% population coverage. On April 26, 2012, Interdnestrcom becomes the first carrier in the country to launch a commercial LTE network. On November 20, 2012, Orange became the second carrier in the country and first in official Moldova to successfully launch commercial LTE network. On December 24, 2012, Moldcell became the third carrier in the country to successfully launch a commercial LTE network. On October 22, 2015, Unité became the last carrier to launch a commercial LTE network.
***Mobile Subscriptions and Penetration level. (2020)***
- Total Number of Mobile Subscriptions - 4,108,207
- Number of Active Mobile Subscriptions - 3,420,383
- Penetration Level of Active Users - 129.5%
***Market Structure by Number of Users. (2020)***
- Orange Moldova - 55.7%
- Moldcell - 33.1%
- Moldtelecom (Unité) - 11.2%
*\*Statistics do not include data from Transnistria.*
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# Telecommunications in Moldova
## Internet
Moldova has one of the best wired Internet connections in the world as well as one of the cheapest in terms of \$ per Mbit. The overall infrastructure is well developed which allows many users to experience good quality services throughout the country. However, despite high speed availability and cheap prices the penetration level is quite low compared to many EU or CIS countries. At the end of 2015 there were 80 registered ISP\'s in the country with the majority being local or regional only with only few offering their services throughout the country. Moldtelecom and StarNet are country\'s leading providers sharing around 86% of the market. The remaining 14% are shared between other ISP\'s like SunCommunications, Arax Communications and others. All ISP\'s that offer their services across the country have their headquarters located in the capital city of Chişinău.\
Moldtelecom is the only ISP that offers its services throughout the country on a wide scale, StarNet follows offering its services in several large towns and regional centers. Other ISP\'s are limited to their town or region.\
Since 2008 all mobile carriers offer 3G HSDPA Internet access throughout the country. LTE is also available in Chişinău and select regions and is provided by all carriers. While Moldtelecom and StarNet are major players on the \"wired Internet access\" market, Orange Moldova, Moldcell and Unité are major players on \"mobile Internet access\" market. However, because the general state of the mobile market in the country is rather poor the gap between prices and quality for wired and mobile Internet is extremely high.\
After the War of Transnistria in early 1990s Transnistrian government denied access of operation for many Moldavian based companies on its territory including telecommunications companies. As such the only major ISP\'s in that area are local IDC or Interdnestrcom (*Интерднестрком*) and LinkService, both operate only on Transnistrian territory.\
The most popular wired Internet access technology is FTTx with about 72% of the market share as of 2020, xDSL comes second with about 19% of the market share. Average download speed throughout the country is estimated to be around 120 Mbit/s according to Ookla Net Metrics. In Chişinău and some regional centers speeds as high as 1 Gbit/s are easily available through FTTx.
***Number of Broadband Subscriptions. (2020)***
- **Wired:**
- Number of Wired Subscriptions - 719,001
- Penetration level - 27.2%
- **Mobile:**
- Number of Mobile Subscriptions - 2,371,108
- Penetration level - 89.8%
***Structure of Wired Broadband Service Market, by Access Technology. (2020)***
- FTTx - 72.3%
- xDSL - 19.2%
- Cable - 8.2%
- Other - 0.3%
*Top Level Domain: **MD***
*\*Statistics do not include data from Transnistria.*
***Internet hosting service***
Moldova has numerous internet hosting services:
- [Alexhost](https://alexhost.com/) (Alexhost S.R.L)
- [MangoHost](https://mangohost.net/) (IT FRUIT S.R.L)
- [HOST.md](https://www.host.md/) (Molddata Î.S)
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# Telecommunications in Moldova
## Television
Television industry in Moldova began in 1956 with the construction of the country\'s first dedicated television tower in Chişinău which took a little over a year to complete, the finished tower was 196 meters tall and could broadcast within a 60 km radius. The first television transmission was sent on 30 April 1958 at 19:00 and included amongst other things cheers from all the parties that participated in the project\'s development as well as some local celebrities.
At first programs were broadcast only two times a week on Friday and Sunday but by the end of 1958 broadcasts became daily. The first live broadcast in the country also happened in 1958.
In 1961 the coverage area was expanded after several relay masts were constructed in Bălți, Cahul and Comrat. Since 1974 all broadcasts were made in color and in 1977 the first dedicated television studio was built which is still in use to this day. In the early 1980s there were more than a million citizens with access to television sets. During the Soviet era there weren\'t all that many channels available with most of them being news and general purpose channels which were all state owned. The industry didn\'t really change much and only after the fall of the USSR was when the television industry in the country really started to gain momentum. One of the first cable companies to begin their operation in the country was EuroCable which began its operation shortly after the collapse of the Soviet Union, the company offered cable television to its customers with multiple local and foreign channels. EuroCable remained the dominant cable television provider until the mid 1990s when it was bought by SunCommunications which merged it with its own service and re-branded it into SunTV. Because EuroCable and later SunTV began very early they gathered a large subscription base and remain the dominant cable television provider to this day offering their services in several large towns in the country, although this might soon change as Moldtelecom is rapidly gaining momentum. During the 2000s many other Chişinău based cable television providers such as Satellit, Delta and Alfa emerged offering similar services as SunTV. In 2015 there were 83 registered television providers. In 2007 Arax Communications launched its own cable television network called Zebra TV which became the first digital network in the country, SunTV followed launching its own digital network later that year. Until recently accessing television was only possible via cable but in 2011 StarNet and Moldtelecom launched their separate IPTV services in Chişinău and other towns offering multiple channels in both SD and HD qualities. Local broadcasting has remained fairly undeveloped since the time it was first launched although progress towards better quality is quite rapid with most local channels hoping to go fully digital in the near future.
***Subscriptions and Penetration level. (2020)***
- Number of multichannel TV subscriptions - 360,932
- Household Penetration level - 41.0%
***Structure of multichannel TV subscriptions, by reception technology. (2020)***
- IPTV - 58.4%
- Cable - 41.6%
*of which:*
- Digital - 78.9%
- Analog - 21.1%
*\*Statistics do not include data from Transnistria.*
## Printed media {#printed_media}
The main daily newspaper in the republic, Moldova Suverană, is published by the government. Sfatul Țării is published by Parliament, which also publishes the daily Nezavisimaya Moldova in Russian. Other principal newspapers include Rabochiy Tiraspol\' (in Russian, the main newspaper of the Slavs in Transnistria), Ţara, Tineretul Moldovei/Molodezh Moldovy (in Romanian and Russian), and Viaţa satului (published by the government).
The main cultural publication in Moldova is the weekly journal Literatura şi arta, published by the Union of Writers of Moldova. Other principal periodicals include Basarabia (also published by the Writers\' Union), Chipăruş, Alunelul, Femeia Moldovei, Lanterna Magică, Moldova, Noi, and SudEst.
Kishinëvskiye novosti, Kodry, and Russkoye Slovo are Russian-language periodicals. Other minority-language periodicals include Prosvita and Homin in Ukrainian, Ana sözu and Cîrlangaci in Gagauz, Rodno slovo in Bulgarian, and Undzer kol/Nash golos in Yiddish and Russian. In all, 240 newspapers (ninety-seven in Romanian) and sixty-eight magazines (thirty-five in Romanian) were being published in the republic in 1990. Basa Press, an independent news service, was established in November 1992.
## General Information {#general_information}
- Fixed telephony subscriptions - 1,143,900 (2017)
- Fixed telephony penetration - 32.2% (2017)
- Mobile telephony subscriptions - 4,460,000 (2017)
- Mobile telephony penetration - 125.6% (2017)
- Wired Broadband subscriptions - 584,300 (2017)
- Wired Broadband penetration - 16
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# History of Monaco
The early **history of Monaco** is primarily concerned with the protective and strategic value of the Rock of Monaco, the area\'s chief geological landmark, which served first as a shelter for ancient peoples and later as a fortress. Part of Liguria\'s history since the fall of the Roman Empire, from the 14th to the early 15th century the area was contested for primarily political reasons. Since that point, excepting a brief period of French occupation, it has remained steadily under the control of the House of Grimaldi.
The early history of Monaco as a state has its origins in the Republic of Genoa. The Holy Roman Empire granted Monaco to the Genoese. Later, the Genoese family of Grimaldi held it throughout the 13th century and later purchased it to rule as a principality. Over its history, it has enjoyed differing levels of autonomy from a parent state, which at times included the Republic of Genoa, the Crown of Aragon, Spain, and France. It was incorporated into France after the French Revolution, but later regained some autonomy as a protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia in the 19th Century. In 1848, the two cities of Menton and Roquebrune (Mentone and Roccabruna) seceded and were later lost to France, but Monaco remained independent. France bought Mentone and Roccabruna, and agreed to respect Monaco\'s sovereignty. Despite the loss of the two towns, from the 1860s onward its economy was focused on tourism and the country enjoyed stability until its territory was occupied by the Axis powers during World War II. After liberation, Monaco worked to secure further independence from France, and was recognized by the UN in 1993. It is not part of the European Union but uses the Euro currency.
## Early history and Ligurian settlement {#early_history_and_ligurian_settlement}
Grimaldi man lived here about 30,000 years ago.
According to the accounts of historian Diodorus Siculus and geographer Strabo, the area\'s first permanent settlers were the mountain-dwelling Ligures, who emigrated from their native city of Genoa, in what is now northern Italy. However, the ancient Ligurian language is not directly connected to the Gallo-Italic language spoken by the modern inhabitants of Liguria, of which Monegasque is a dialect.
## Phoenician colonization and Melqart {#phoenician_colonization_and_melqart}
\"According to some authorities, the Egyptians of the Eighteenth Dynasty, according to others, the early Phoenicians were the first commercial navigators,\" who found refuge in the Port of Monaco from the mistral of the sea. The Port and Rock of Monaco were consecrated by the Phoenicians in the name of their deity Melqart. The colony was called *Monoike*. After the Phoenicians, the Greeks wrote about the progress and conquests of the journeys and labors of Heracles. The native Ligurian people asserted that Hercules passed through the area.
## Greek colonization and Herculean legend {#greek_colonization_and_herculean_legend}
During the 6th-century BC, Phocaeans from Massalia (modern day Marseille) founded the colony of Monoikos. The name of the colony derives from the local veneration of the Greek demigod Heracles, also later adopted by the Romans, who was said to have constructed the ancient path that passed through the region from Spain to Italy. The Roman emperor Julian also wrote of Hercules\'s construction of Monaco\'s port and a coastal road. The road was dotted with altars to Heracles, and a temple dedicated to him was established on the Rock of Monaco. The name Port Hercules was subsequently used for the ancient port. *Monoeci* meaning \"Single One\" or *Monoikos* meaning \"Single House\" could be a reference to Hercules or his temple, or the isolated community inhabiting the area around the rock.
According to the \"travels of Heracles\" theme, also documented by Diodorus Siculus and Strabo, both Greeks and native Ligurian people asserted that Heracles passed through the area.
## Roman rule {#roman_rule}
After the Gallic Wars, *Monoecus*, which served as a stopping-point for Julius Caesar on his way to campaign in Greece, fell under Roman control as part of the Maritime Alps province (Gallia Transalpina).
The Roman poet Virgil called it \"that castled cliff, Monoecus by the sea\". The commentator Servius\'s use of the passage asserts, under the entry *portus*, that the epithet was derived: `{{Blockquote|either because Hercules drove off everyone else and lived there alone, or because in his temple no other of the gods is worshipped at the same time.}}`{=mediawiki}
No temple to Hercules has been found at Monaco.
The port is mentioned in Pliny the Elder\'s *Natural History* and in Tacitus\'s *Histories*, when Fabius Valens was forced to put into the port.
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# History of Monaco
## Dark ages to the Genoese {#dark_ages_to_the_genoese}
Monaco remained under Roman control until the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476. The city was then under the domain of Odoacer until his fall at the hands of the Ostrogoths in the late 5th century. Monaco was recaptured by the Romans during the reign of Justinian in the mid-6th century and was held until its capture by the Lombards in the 7th century. Monaco then passed hands between the Lombards and Franks. After having been damaged by the Saracens in the 8th century, it was rebuilt by the monks of Saint-Pons in Nice, who held it territorially starting from 1075. The city was further damaged and nearly abandoned as Saracen raids continued after they had put under their control a part of Provence with a base at Fraxinetum. Monaco is again mentioned in the 11th century, when the church of St. Mary was built and a borough rose around it.
In 1191, Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI granted suzerainty over the area to the city of Genoa. On 10 June 1215, a detachment of Genoese Ghibellines led by Fulco del Cassello began the construction of a fortress atop the Rock of Monaco. This date is often cited as the beginning of Monaco\'s modern history.
As the Ghibellines intended their fortress to be a strategic military stronghold and center of control for the area, they set about creating a settlement around the base of the Rock to support the garrison; in an attempt to lure residents from Genoa and the surrounding cities, they offered land grants and tax exemption to new settlers.
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# History of Monaco
## Middle Ages: Rise of the Grimaldis {#middle_ages_rise_of_the_grimaldis}
The Grimaldis, descended from Otto Canella and taking their name from his son Grimaldo, were an ancient and prominent Guelphic Genoese family. Members of this family, in the course of the civil strife in Genoa between the Guelphs and Ghibellines, took refuge in Monaco, accompanied by various other Guelphic families, most notably the Fieschis.
Francesco Grimaldi seized the Rock of Monaco in 1297, starting the Grimaldi dynasty, under the sovereignty of the Republic of Genoa. The Grimaldis acquired Menton in 1346 and Roquebrune in 1355, enlarging their possessions. In 1338 Monegasque ships under the command of Carlo Grimaldi participated, along with those of France and Genoa, in the English Channel naval campaign. Plunder from the sack of Southampton was brought back to Monaco, contributing to the principality\'s prosperity.
The Treaty of Burgos in 1524 (or the treaty of Tordesilla of 1524), saw Monaco under the authority of Spain as an autonomous state for about a century, and there was a Spanish garrison at the fortress.
Honoré II, Prince of Monaco secured recognition of his independent sovereignty from Spain in 1633, and then from Louis XIII of France by the Treaty of Péronne (1641). Since then the area has remained under the control of the Grimaldi family to the present day, except when under French control during the French Revolution from 1793 to May 17, 1814, as part of the *département* of Alpes-Maritimes.
It was a protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia from 1815 to 1860. However, the towns of Mentone and Roccabruna ceded in 1848, and these were annexed by France in 1861. Monaco managed to avoid incorporation into France or Italy, but at the cost of most its territory at that time.
## Fall and rise, 1789--1815 {#fall_and_rise_17891815}
From 1793 to 1814 Monaco was taken over by France.
In 1789, the French seized all the Princely financial assets. The French Revolution progressed, and in 1793 Monaco was seized by the French. The Princely family was put in prison (later freed), the art collections and assets were seized and sold off, and the palace was used as hospital and poor house. In 1814 Napoleon abdicated, and Honore IV was restored to power. However in the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Monaco was made a protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia.
## Protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia {#protectorate_of_the_kingdom_of_sardinia}
The principality was re-established in 1814, only to be designated a protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and the Treaty of Stupinigi in 1817. Monaco remained in this position until 1860, when by the Treaty of Turin, Sardinia ceded to France the surrounding county of Nice (as well as Savoy). In 1848 the towns of Mentone and Roccabruna ceded from Monaco, and in 1849 became a separate protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia. (see also Free Cities of Menton and Roquebrune)
With the protectorate, that lasted nearly half a century, Italian was the official language of Monaco. The Monégasque dialect is closer to Ligurian than French, but influenced by both.
During this time there was unrest in the towns of Menton and Roquebrune, which declared independence, hoping for annexation by Sardinia and participation in the Italian Risorgimento. The unrest continued until the ruling prince gave up his claim to the two towns (some 95% of the country), and they were ceded to France in return for four million francs. This transfer and Monaco\'s sovereignty was recognised by the Franco-Monegasque Treaty of 1861.
## After 1860 {#after_1860}
Designated as a protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna after Napoleon\'s defeat, Monaco\'s sovereignty was confirmed by the Franco-Monegasque Treaty of 1861. France accepted the existence of the Principality of Monaco, but annexed 95% of its former territory (the areas of Menton and Roquebrune). Monaco\'s military defense since then has been the responsibility of France.
In 1848 the towns of Menton and Roquebrune ceded from Monaco and became protectorates of the Kingdom of Sardinia; this was to the Free Cities of Menton and Roquebrune. However when Nice County was ceded to France, they were annexed from Monaco, which still had ownership.
Monaco became surrounded by France, when the Kingdom of Sardinia ceded the County of Nice to France in the Treaty of Turin (1860). The next year, in 1861 The Kingdom of Sardinia became a part of the Kingdom of Italy. Monaco had been a Protectorate of Sardinia, and managed to survive these changes, avoiding integration with France or Italy. By the early 1860s it had secured its independence but was now surrounded by France and without Menton or Roquebrune. To make ends meet Monaco would focus on tourism, and built the now famous Monte Carlo casino.
The Casino of Monte Carlo opened in 1863, organized by the Société des bains de mer de Monaco, which also ran the Hotel de Paris. Taxes paid by the S.B.M. have been plowed into Monaco\'s infrastructure. Economic development was spurred in the late 19th century with a railway link to France.
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# History of Monaco
## 20th century {#th_century}
The Prince of Monaco was an absolute ruler until the Monegasque Revolution of 1910 forced him to proclaim a constitution in 1911.
In July 1918, a treaty was signed providing for limited French protection over Monaco. The treaty, written into the Treaty of Versailles, established that Monegasque policy would be aligned with French political, military, and economic interests. One of the motivations for the treaty was the upcoming Monaco Succession Crisis of 1918. `{{Main article|Invasion and occupation of Monaco during World War II}}`{=mediawiki}
While Prince Louis II\'s sympathies were strongly pro-French, he tried to keep Monaco neutral during World War II but supported the Vichy French government of his old army colleague, Marshal Philippe Pétain.
Nonetheless, his tiny principality was tormented by domestic conflict partly as a result of Louis\'s indecisiveness, and also because the majority of the population was of Italian descent; many of them supported the fascist regime of Italy\'s Benito Mussolini.
On 11 November 1942, the Italian Army invaded and occupied Monaco. Soon after in September 1943, following Mussolini\'s fall in Italy, the German Army occupied Monaco and began the deportation of the Jewish population. Among them was René Blum, the French Jew who founded the Ballet de l\'Opera in Monte Carlo, was arrested in his Paris home and held in the Drancy deportation camp outside the French capital before being transported to the Auschwitz concentration camp, where he was later killed. Blum\'s colleague Raoul Gunsbourg, the director of the Opéra de Monte-Carlo, helped by the French Resistance, escaped arrest and fled to Switzerland. In August 1944, the Germans executed René Borghini, Joseph-Henri Lajoux and Esther Poggio, who were Resistance leaders. Under Prince Louis\'s secret orders, the Monaco police, often at great risk to themselves, warned in advance those people whom the Gestapo planned to arrest. The country was liberated on 3 September 1944 by Allied forces.
Prince Rainier III ascended to the throne following the death of his grandfather, Prince Louis II, in 1949.
The revised Constitution of Monaco, proclaimed in 1962, abolished capital punishment, provided for female suffrage, established a Supreme Court to guarantee fundamental liberties and made it difficult for a French national to transfer his or her residence there.
In 1993, Monaco became a member of the United Nations with full voting rights.
## 21st century {#st_century}
In 2002, a new treaty between France and Monaco clarified that if there are no heirs to carry on the dynasty, the Principality will remain an independent nation, rather than be annexed by France. Monaco\'s military defence, however, is still the responsibility of France.
Prince Albert II succeeded his father Prince Rainier III in 2005.
Monaco\'s mild climate with historical sites and modern gambling casinos, make Monaco a popular tourism and recreation centre in the 21st century, with 4.1 tourists per resident as of 2020. On 29 February 2020, Monaco announced its first case of COVID-19, a man who was admitted to the Princess Grace Hospital Centre then transferred to Nice University Hospital in France. The virus was confirmed to have reached Monaco on 29 February 2020.
In the early 2020s there was international news about concerns over government financial accountability in Monaco
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# Demographics of Monaco
/ sq. km.
`| growth = 2.25% (2012–13)`\
`| birth = 13.1 (2015)`\
`| death = 10.4 (2015)`\
`| life = 84.7 (2011–13)`\
`| life_male = `\
`| life_female = `\
`| infant_mortality =`\
`| fertility = 1.52 (2018)`
`| age_0–14_years = `\
`| age_15–64_years = `\
`| age_65_years =`
`| total_mf_ratio = `\
`| sr_at_birth = `\
`| sr_under_15 = `\
`| sr_15–64_years = `\
`| sr_65_years_over =`
`| nation = `\
`| major_ethnic = `\
`| minor_ethnic =`
`| official = `\
`| spoken = `
}}
This is a demography of the population of Monaco, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
In 1995, Monaco\'s population was estimated at 30,744, with an estimated average growth rate of 0.59%. Monaco-Ville has a population of 1,151.
French is the official language; Italian, English, and Monégasque also are spoken. The literacy rate is 99%. Roman Catholicism is the official religion, with freedom of other religions guaranteed by the constitution.
## Demographic statistics {#demographic_statistics}
Average population Live births Deaths Natural change Crude birth rate (per 1000) Crude death rate (per 1000) Natural change (per 1000)
------ --------------------- ------------- -------- ---------------- ----------------------------- ----------------------------- ---------------------------
1991 729 621 108 \|
1992 802 579 223 \|
1993 760 556 204 \|
1994 831 599 232 \|
1995 830 560 270 \|
1996 788 531 257 \|
1997 713 485 228 \|
1998 681 538 143 \|
1999 733 559 174 \|
2000 32,020 760 547 213 23.7 17.1 6.7
2001 748 636 112 \|
2002 771 564 207 \|
2003 842 617 225 \|
2004 825 525 300 \|
2005 894 601 293 \|
2006 880 535 345 \|
2007 927 502 425 \|
2008 35,352 970 545 425 27.4 15.4 12.0
2009 35,400 1,008 554 454 28.5 15.6 12.8
2010 35,400 961 535 426 27.1 15.1 12.0
2011 35,650 1,028 499 529 28.8 14.0 14.8
2012 36,100 979 529 450 27.1 14.7 12.5
2013 36,900 992 567 425 26.9 15.4 11.5
2014 37,600 974 524 450 25.9 13.9 12.0
2015 38,200 1,067 595 472 27.9 15.6 12.4
2016 37,550 943 503 440 25.1 13.4 11.7
2017 38,350 950 494 456 24.8 12.9 11.9
2018 38,300 980 522 458 25.6 13.6 12.0
2019 38,150 939 528 411 24.6 13.8 10.8
2020 38,350 912 534 378 23.8 13.9 9.9
2021 39,100 978 607 371 25.0 15.5 9.5
2022 39,050 855 528 327 21.9 13.5 8.4
2023 38,367 805 536 269 21.0 14.0 7.0
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# Demographics of Monaco
## Demographic statistics {#demographic_statistics}
### Structure of the population {#structure_of_the_population}
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- -------- -------- -------- ---------
Total 15 076 15 914 31 109 100
0--4 577 557 1 134 3.65
5--9 706 724 1 430 4.60
10--14 727 674 1 401 4.50
15--19 724 674 1 398 4.49
20--24 647 601 1 248 4.01
25--29 638 667 1 305 4.19
30--34 751 766 1 514 4.87
35--39 1 003 1 119 2 122 6.82
40--44 1 163 1 179 2 342 7.53
45--49 1 194 1 165 2 359 7.58
50--54 1 128 1 090 2 218 7.13
55--59 1 120 1 097 2 217 7.13
60--64 1 134 1 203 2 337 7.51
65-69 945 1 015 1 960 6.30
70-74 801 847 1 648 5.30
75+ 1 530 2 228 3 758 12.08
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 2 010 1 955 3 965 12.75
15--64 9 502 9 561 19 063 61.28
65+ 3 276 4 090 7 366 23.68
unknown 288 308 715 2.30
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- -------- -------- -------- ---------
Total 18 240 19 068 37 308 100
0--4 785 786 1 571 4.21
5--9 699 682 1 381 3.70
10--14 719 687 1 406 3.77
15--19 834 781 1 615 4.33
20--24 768 718 1 486 3.98
25--29 761 704 1 465 3.93
30--34 771 756 1 526 4.09
35--39 752 883 1 635 4.38
40--44 811 918 1 730 4.64
45--49 1 030 1 095 2 125 5.70
50--54 1 245 1 268 2 513 6.74
55--59 1 383 1 392 2 775 7.44
60--64 1 247 1 176 2 423 6.49
65-69 1 241 1 203 2 445 6.55
70-74 1 126 1 158 2 284 6.12
75-79 1 119 1 111 2 230 5.98
80-84 957 1 086 2 043 5.48
85-89 760 909 1 668 4.47
90-94 551 713 1 264 3.39
95-99 368 523 891 2.39
100+ 314 518 832 2.23
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 2 203 2 155 4 358 11.68
15--64 9 601 9 692 19 293 51.71
65+ 6 436 7 221 13 657 36.61
The following demographic statistics are from the *CIA World Factbook*, unless otherwise indicated. `{{CIA World Factbook only}}`{=mediawiki} **Age structure:**\
*0-14 years:* 12.3% (male 1,930/ female 1,841)\
*15-64 years:* 60.8% (male 9,317/ female 9,249)\
*65 years and over:* 26.9% (male 3,640/ female 4,562) (2012 estimate), 36% (2022 World Population Data Sheet estimate)
**Population growth rate:** −0.066% (2012 estimate)
**Birth rate:** 6.85 births/1,000 population (2012 estimate)
**Death rate:** 8.52 deaths/1,000 population (2007 estimate)
**Net migration rate:** 1.02 migrants/1,000 population (2007 estimate)
**Sex ratio:**\
*at birth:* 1.04 male(s)/female\
*under 15 years:* 1.05 male(s)/female\
*15-64 years:* 1 male(s)/female\
*65 years and over:* 0.81 male(s)/female\
*total population:* 0.95 male(s)/female (2012 estimate)
**Infant mortality rate:** 1.8 deaths/1,000 live births (2012 estimate)
**Life expectancy at birth (2023 estimate)****:**\
*total:* 89.6 years (highest in the world)\
*male:* 85.8 years (highest in the world)\
*female:* 93.6 years (highest in the world)
**Total fertility rate:** 1
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# Politics of Monaco
The **politics of Monaco** take place within the framework of a semi-constitutional monarchy, with the Prince of Monaco as head of state, with some powers devolved to several advisory and legislative bodies.
## Constitution
Historically, the princes of the ruling House of Grimaldi were autocrats of an absolute monarchy until the first Constitution of Monaco was adopted in 1911. A second constitution was granted by Prince Rainier III on December 17, 1962, outlining legislative, judicial, and executive branches of government, which consist of several administrative offices and a number of councils. The Prince as head of state retains most of the country\'s governing power; however, the principality\'s judicial and legislative bodies may operate independently of his control.
## Government of Monaco {#government_of_monaco}
### Executive branch {#executive_branch}
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Sovereign Prince\ |
| Term start`{{smalldiv|(Term length)}}`{=mediawiki} |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **Albert II**\ |
| 6 April 2005`{{smalldiv|({{Age in years and days nts|2005|4|6}})}}`{=mediawiki} |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
The Council of Government is under the authority of the prince. The title and position of prince is hereditary, the minister of state was appointed by the monarch from a list of three French or Monegasque national candidates presented by the French government, but is now chosen by the monarch. Until the 2002 amendment to the Monegasque constitution, only French nationals were eligible for the post. The prince is advised by the Crown Council of Monaco.
### Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| President`{{smalldiv|Party}}`{=mediawiki}Term start`{{smalldiv|(Term length)}}`{=mediawiki} |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **Thomas Brezzo**`{{smalldiv|[[Priorité Monaco]]}}`{=mediawiki}3 April 2024`{{smalldiv|({{Age in years and days nts|2024|4|3}})}}`{=mediawiki} |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| \ |
| National Council |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
The unicameral National Council (*Conseil National*) has 24 seats. The members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms. The Council can be disbanded by the Prince of Monaco provided that he hosts elections within 3 months. Uniquely, Monegasque legislators can be members of multiple political parties. Currently the administrative coalition, Monegasque National Union, holds all 24 seats after winning nearly 90% of the vote in the 2023 general election. The coalition consists of the three largest parties in Monaco: Priorité Monaco (centre-right), which won 21 seats in the 2018 general election; Horizon Monaco (right-wing) which won 2 seats in 2018; and Union Monégasque, (centre), which won 1 seat in 2018. The centre-left coalition, New Ideas for Monaco, holds no seats after running candidates in just 13 seats and winning only 10% of the vote.
### Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
The supreme courts are the Judicial Court of Revision (*Cour de révision judiciaire*), which hears civil and criminal cases (as well as some administrative cases), and the Supreme tribunal (*tribunal suprême*), which performs judicial review. Both courts are staffed by French judges (appointed among judges of French courts, members of the Conseil d\'État and university professors).
### Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
Party Votes \% Seats +/-- \|-POYA Monegasque National Union 72,602 89.63 24 +1
--------------------------- ------------ --------- -------- -------------- --------------------------- -------- ------- ---- ----
New Ideas for Monaco 8,401 10.37 0 --1
Invalid/blank votes 400 -- -- --
**Total** **81,403** **100** **24** **0**
Registered voters/turnout 7,594 57.26 -- --
Source: Mairie de Monaco
### Political spectrum {#political_spectrum}
Monegasque tend to be more conservative due to their alignment with the Catholic Church. There are no official left-wing parties although Union Monégasque is considered the \"most liberal\" of the three main parties that formed the Monegasque National Union. A new centre-left party, New Ideas for Monaco, was formed in 2022.
## Administrative divisions {#administrative_divisions}
There are no first-order administrative divisions in the principality, which is instead traditionally divided into four quarters (French: *quartiers*, singular *quartier*): Fontvieille, La Condamine, Monaco-Ville and Monte-Carlo, with the suburb Moneghetti (part of La Condamine) colloquially seen as an unofficial, fifth quarter. They have a joint Communal Council of Monaco.
The principality is, for administrative and official purposes, currently divided into ten wards:
- Monaco-Ville
- Monte Carlo/Spélugues
- Fontvieille
- Moneghetti/Bd de Belgique
- La Condamine
- Larvotto/Bas Moulins
- La Rousse/Saint Roman
- Jardin Exotique
- Ravin de Sainte-Dévote
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# Politics of Monaco
## International organization participation {#international_organization_participation}
ACCT, ECE, International Atomic Energy Agency, International Civil Aviation Organization, ICRM, IFRCS, IHO, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, International Olympic Committee, ITU, OPCW, OSCE, United Nations, UNCTAD, UNESCO, Universal Postal Union, World Health Organization, World Intellectual Property Organization, World Meteorological Organization, Council of Europe
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# Economy of Monaco
The **economy of Monaco** is reliant on tourism and banking. Monaco, situated on the French coast of the Mediterranean Sea, is a popular resort, attracting tourists to its casino and pleasant climate.
The Principality has successfully sought to diversify into services and small, high-value-added, nonpolluting industries. The state has no income tax and low business taxes and thrives as a tax haven both for individuals who have established residence and for foreign companies that have set up businesses and offices. The state retains monopolies in a number of sectors, including gambling, tobacco, the telephone network, and the postal service.
## Background
Economic development was spurred in the late 19th century with the opening of the rail link to France and the Monte Carlo Casino. Monaco\'s economy is now primarily geared toward finance, services, and real estate.
## Modern times {#modern_times}
Low taxes have drawn many foreign individuals to Monaco and account for around 75% of the \$7.78 billion annual GDP income in (2021).`{{how?|date=January 2024}}`{=mediawiki} Similarly, tourism accounts for close to 15% of the annual revenue, as the Principality of Monaco also has been a major center for tourism ever since the famed Monte Carlo Casino was established in 1856.
Financial and insurance activities, along with scientific, support-administrative, activities are the main contributors to the GDP of Monaco. Wholesale trades (10%), construction (9.1%) and real estate activities (7.8%) also contribute highly to the country\'s GDP. Monaco real estate is known to be one of the most expensive in the world. Banking sector of Monaco is rather large: in 2015 consolidated banking assets 8.42 times exceeded the country\'s GDP. Banks operating in Monaco traditionally specialize in private banking, asset and wealth management services. Wholesale trade, construction and real estate sectors come afterward in the ranking.
An economic and customs union with France governs customs, postal services, telecommunications, and banking in Monaco. Before the euro, Monaco used the Monegasque franc, which itself was pegged to the French franc. Now part of the Eurozone, but not the EU, Monaco mints its own euro coins.
All residents pay tax in the form of 20% value-added tax on all goods and services.
Monaco is noted for its activity in the field of marine sciences. Its Oceanographic Museum, formerly directed by Jacques-Yves Cousteau, is one of the most renowned institutions of its kind in the world. Monaco import and exports products and services from all over the world. There is no commercial agriculture in Monaco; it is 100% urban.
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# Economy of Monaco
## Tax haven {#tax_haven}
Monaco levies no income tax on individuals. The absence of a personal income tax in the principality has attracted to it a considerable number of wealthy \"tax refugee\" residents from European countries who derive the majority of their income from activity outside Monaco; celebrities such as Formula One drivers attract most of the attention, but the vast majority of them are less well-known business people.
In 2000, a report by the French parliamentarians, Arnaud Montebourg and Vincent Peillon, alleged that Monaco had lax policies with respect to money laundering, including within its famed casino, and that the government of Monaco had been placing political pressure on the judiciary so that alleged crimes were not properly investigated.
In 1998, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) issued a first report on the consequences of the tax havens\' financial systems. Monaco did not appear in the list of these territories until 2004, when OECD became indignant regarding the Monegasque situation and denounced it in its last report, as well as Andorra, Liechtenstein, Liberia and the Marshall Islands, underlining its lack of co-operation as regards to financial information disclosure and availability.
In 2000, the Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF) stated: \"The anti-money laundering system in Monaco is comprehensive. However, difficulties have been encountered with Monaco by countries in international investigations on serious crimes that appear to be linked also with tax matters. In addition, the FIU of Monaco (SICCFIN) suffers a great lack of adequate resources. The authorities of Monaco have stated that they will provide additional resources to SICCFIN.\" The Principality is no longer blamed in the 2005 FATF report, as well as all other territories. In 2003, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has identified Monaco, along with 36 other territories, as a tax haven but Monaco came out of that list in 2009.
In June 2024, due to concerns about money laundering and terror financing, the FATF added Monaco to a list of countries \"under increased monitoring.\" In a statement, the FATF said that the country needed to \"address strategic deficiencies.\"
## National enterprises {#national_enterprises}
Monaco\'s economy is also based on national companies, which combined produce over a billion in profit every year. Among the most profitable and well-known companies outside Monaco are the Société des bains de mer, the bank UBS Monaco, the auction house Monaco Legend Group and the media conglomerate Lagardère News.
## Companies
In 2022, the sector with the highest number of companies registered in Monaco is Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate with 4,497 companies followed by Services with 1,895 and 1,184 companies respectively.
## Public finances {#public_finances}
In 2023 Monaco recorded government revenues of 2.19 billion EUR and expenses of 2.07 billion EUR, for a 126 million EUR budget surplus.
The state\'s fiscal reserves, the Constitutional Reserve Fund (CRF), reached a balance of 7 billion EUR in 2023, up from 5.7 billion EUR in 2019
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# Transport in Monaco
**Transport in Monaco** is facilitated with road, air (helicopter), rail, and water networks. Rail transport is operated by SNCF with only Monaco Monte Carlo station seeing passenger service and the total length of the line inside the Principality is 1.7 km. Monaco has five bus routes operated by Compagnie des Autobus de Monaco. There are also two other bus routes which connect Monaco with neighboring regions such as Nice and Menton.
## Rail transport {#rail_transport}
The railway is totally underground within Monegasque territory, and no trains can be seen at ground level within the nation. It links Marseille to Ventimiglia (Italy) through the principality, and was opened in 1868. Two stations were originally provided, named \'Monaco\' and \'Monte-Carlo\', but neither remain in current use. The railway line was re-laid, in a new permanent way in tunnels, constructed in two stages. The first, in 1964, was a 3,500 metre tunnel (mostly in French territory) which rendered the original Monte-Carlo station redundant. The second stage, opened in 1999, was a 3 km-long tunnel linked to the first one, allowing the new \"underground railway station of Monaco-Monte Carlo\" to open. Where the above ground railway was is now available for development, schools, hotels and commercial facilities, can locate here totaling some four hectares. This station is also served by international trains (including the French TGV) and regional trains (\"TER\").
## Road transport {#road_transport}
Monaco has 50 km of urban roads which provide access to the A8 autoroute. Monaco buries its highways so that traffic flow can be improved and so more land is available.
There is about 77 km (48 miles) of roads in Monaco, many sections of which are also used for automotive and other races. (see also Circuit de Monaco)
## Urban transport {#urban_transport}
### Elevators / travelators {#elevators_travelators}
There are seven main **inclined** lifts (including Elevators and/or travelators) which provide public transport:
- between the *Place des Moulins* and the beaches
- between the Princess Grace Hospital Centre and the Exotic Garden
- between the Port Hercules harbor and the *Avenue de la Costa*
- between the *Place Str Dévôte* and the area of Moneghetti
- between the terraces of the Casino and the *Boulevard Louis II*
- between the *Avenue des Citronniers* and the *Avenue Grande-Bretagne*
- between the highway and the *Boulevard Larvotto*
### Bus
There are six bus routes in Monaco, all operated by Compagnie des Autobus de Monaco (CAM). There are 143 bus stops through the Principality.
- Line 1: Monaco-Ville, Monte-Carlo, Saint Roman and return
- Line 2: Monaco-Ville, Monte-Carlo, Exotic Garden and return
- Line 4: Place d\'Armes, Railway station, Monte-Carlo, Saint Roman and return
- Line 5: Railway station, Fontvieille, Hospital and return
- Line 6: Larvotto Beach, Fontvieille and return
There are four other bus routes which connect Monaco with neighbouring regions.
- Line 11: La Turbie, Monaco and return
- Line 100: Nice, Monaco, Menton and return
- Line 100X: Nice, Monaco and return
- Line 110: Nice Airport, Monaco, Menton and return
There is a ferry service \"Bateaubus\" which operates between both sides of Monaco port. The boat is powered by electricity and operates under the urban bus system tariff.
### Subway
A narrow gauge subway line is a perennial project in Monaco, which has not been built thus far.
## Sea transport {#sea_transport}
There are two ports in Monaco, one is Port Hercules and the other is in Fontvieille. There are seasonal ferry lines like the one [from Nice to Saint-Tropez](http://www.trans-cote-azur.co.uk/nice-monaco.php).
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# Transport in Monaco
## Air transport {#air_transport}
### Airports
There is no airport in the Principality of Monaco. The closest airport is Cote d\'Azur Airport in Nice, France, which is connected to Monaco by the Express 110 bus. Alternatively passengers can take Nice tramway lines 2 and 3 to downtown Nice and then a train onward to Monaco. Due to the wealth of many visitors and residents, a significant portion of those flying into Nice for travel to Monaco take a helicopter flight to their final destination (see below).
### Heliports
A heliport, the Monaco Heliport, is the only aviation facility in the principality. It features shuttle service to and from the international airport at Nice, France. As of May 2005, all Royal Helicopter Service is provided by the James Drabble Aviation Services Committee. This deal sparked a great deal of controversy in the National Council of Monaco, as there was no precedent yet set. Helicopter charter services to French ski resorts are also available
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# Public Services (Monaco)
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# Geography of Mongolia
Mongolia is a landlocked country in East Asia, located between China and Russia. The terrain is one of mountains and rolling plateaus, with a high degree of relief. The total land area of Mongolia is 1,564,116 square kilometres. Overall, the land slopes from the high Altai Mountains of the west and the north to plains and depressions in the east and the south. The Khüiten Peak in extreme western Mongolia on the Chinese border is the highest point (4374 m). The lowest point is at 560 m, is the Hoh Nuur or lake Huh. The country has an average elevation of 1580 m.
The landscape includes one of Asia\'s largest freshwater lakes (Lake Khövsgöl), many salt lakes, marshes, sand dunes, rolling grasslands, alpine forests, and permanent mountain glaciers. Northern and western Mongolia are seismically active zones, with frequent earthquakes and many hot springs and extinct volcanoes. The nation\'s closest point to any ocean is approximately 645 km from the country\'s easternmost tip, bordering North China to Jinzhou in Liaoning province, China along the coastline of the Bohai Sea.
## Mountain regions {#mountain_regions}
thumb\|left\|upright=1.5\|Altai Mountains, Sayan Mountains and Khangai Mountains Mongolia has four major mountain ranges. The highest is the Altai Mountains, which stretch across the western and southwestern regions of the country on a northwest-to-southeast axis. The range contains the country\'s highest peak, the 4374 m high Khüiten Peak.
The Khangai Mountains, also trending northwest to southeast, occupy much of central and north-central Mongolia. These are older, lower, and more eroded mountains, with many forests and alpine pastures.
The Khentii Mountains, trending from northeast to southwest for about 400 km, occupy central Mongolia\'s northeastern part. The northern parts are covered in taiga while the southern parts are filled with dry steppe. The range forms the watershed between the Arctic Ocean (via Lake Baikal) and the Pacific Ocean basins. Rivers originating in the range include the Onon, Kherlen, Menza and Tuul. These mountains also house the capital of Ulaanbaatar.
The Khövsgöl Mountains occupy the north of the country. It trends from north to south and generally has a lot of steep peaks. Young mountain range with Alpine characteristics, high gradient, with narrow cliffs.
Much of eastern Mongolia is occupied by a plain and the lowest area is a southwest-to-northeast trending depression that reaches from the Gobi Desert region in the south to the eastern frontier.
## Rivers and lakes {#rivers_and_lakes}
thumb\|left\|upright=1.5\|Topography of Mongolia Some of Mongolia\'s waterways drain to the oceans, but many finish at Endorheic basins in the deserts and the depressions of Inner Asia. Rivers are most extensively developed in the north, and the country\'s major river system is that of the Selenge, which drains via Lake Baikal to the Arctic Ocean. Some minor tributaries of Siberia\'s Yenisei River, which also flows to the Arctic Ocean, rise in the mountains of northwestern Mongolia. In northeastern Mongolia the Onon River drains into the Pacific Ocean through the Shilka River in Russia and the Amur (Heilong Jiang) rivers, forming the tenth longest river system in the world.
thumb\|upright=1.5\|The southern portion of Mongolia is taken up by the Gobi Desert, while the northern and western portions are mountainous. Many rivers of western Mongolia end at lakes in the Central Asian Internal Drainage Basin, most often in the Great Lakes Depression, or at Hulun Lake, Ulaan Lake or Ulungur Lake. The few streams of southern Mongolia do not reach the sea but run into lakes or deserts.
Mongolia\'s largest lake by area, Uvs Lake is in the Great Lakes Depression. Mongolia\'s largest lake by volume of water, Lake Khövsgöl, drains via the Selenge river to the Arctic Ocean. One of the most easterly lakes of Mongolia, Hoh Nuur, at an elevation of 557 metres, is the lowest point in the country. In total, the lakes and rivers of Mongolia cover 10,560 square kilometres, or 0.67% of the country.
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# Geography of Mongolia
## Climate
### Overview
Mongolia has a high elevation, with a cold and dry climate. It has an extreme continental climate with long, very cold winters and short summers, during which most precipitation falls. The country averages 257 cloudless days a year, and it is usually at the center of a region of high atmospheric pressure. Precipitation is highest in the north, which averages 200 to per year, and lowest in the south, which receives 100 to. The extreme south is the Gobi Desert, some regions of which receive no precipitation at all in most years. The name Gobi is a Mongol word meaning desert, depression, salt marsh, or steppe, but which usually refers to a category of arid rangeland with insufficient vegetation to support marmots but with enough to support camels. Mongols distinguish Gobi from desert proper, although the distinction is not always apparent to outsiders unfamiliar with the Mongolian landscape. Gobi rangelands are fragile and are easily destroyed by overgrazing, which results in expansion of the true desert, a stony waste where not even Bactrian camels can survive.
Average temperatures over most of the country are below freezing from November through March and are above freezing in April and October. Winter nights can drop to -40 °C in most years. Summer extremes reach as high as 38 °C in the southern Gobi region and 33 °C in Ulaanbaatar. Most of Mongolia is covered by discontinuous permafrost (grading to continuous at high altitudes), which makes construction, road building, and mining difficult. All rivers and freshwater lakes freeze over in the winter, and smaller streams commonly freeze to the bottom. Ulaanbaatar lies at 1351 m above sea level in the valley of the Tuul River. Located in the relatively well-watered north, it receives an annual average of 310 mm of precipitation, almost all of which falls in July and in August. Ulaanbaatar has an average annual temperature of -2.9 °C and a frost-free period extending on the average from mid-May to late August.
Mongolia\'s weather is characterized by extreme variability and short-term unpredictability in the summer, and the multiyear averages conceal wide variations in precipitation, dates of frosts, and occurrences of blizzards and spring dust storms. Such weather poses severe challenges to human and livestock survival. Official statistics list less than 1% of the country as arable, 8 to 10% as forest, and the rest as pasture or desert. Grain, mostly wheat, is grown in the valleys of the Selenge river system in the north, but yields fluctuate widely and unpredictably as a result of the amount and the timing of rain and the dates of killing frosts.
### Zud
Although winters are generally cold and clear, and livestock can survive, under various weather conditions livestock are unable to graze and die in large numbers. A winter in which this occurs is known as a *zud;* causes include blizzards, drought, extreme cold, and freezing rain. Such losses of livestock, which are an inevitable and, in a sense, normal consequence of the climate, have made it difficult for planned increases in livestock numbers to be achieved.
### Seasonal blizzards {#seasonal_blizzards}
Severe blizzards can occur in the region. The winters of 1970--1971, 2000--2001, 2008--2009 and 2009--2010 were particularly harsh, featuring extremely severe zuds.
The blizzards of December 2011 blocked many roads, and killed 16,000 livestock and 10 people. The Mongolian State Emergency Commission said it was the coldest winter in thirty years and, like the preceding harsh summer drought, could have been the result of global warming. The United Nations provided major aid due to the high level of damage caused.
In the snowstorms between the 8 and 28 May 2008, 21 people were killed and 100 others went missing in seven provinces in eastern Mongolia. The toll finally reached at least 52 people and 200,000 livestock by the end of June. Most of the victims were herders who froze to death along with their livestock. It was the worst cold snap since the founding of the modern state in 1922.
Snowstorms in December 2009 -- February 2010 also killed 8,000,000 livestock and 60 people
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# Telecommunications in Mongolia
**Telecommunications in Mongolia** face unique challenges. As the least densely populated country in the world, with a significant portion of the population living a nomadic lifestyle, it has been difficult for many traditional information and communication technology (ICT) companies to make headway into Mongolian society. With almost half the population clustered in the capital of Ulaanbaatar, most landline technologies are deployed there. Wireless technologies have had greater success in rural areas.
Mobile phones are common, with provincial capitals all having 4G access. Wireless local loop is another technology that has helped Mongolia increase accessibility to telecommunications and bypass fixed-line infrastructure. For Internet, Mongolia relies on fiber optic communications with its Chinese and Russian neighbors. In 2005, Mongolia\'s state-run radio and TV provider converted to a public service provider. Private radio and TV broadcasters, multi-channel satellite, and cable TV providers are also available.
## Telecommunications infrastructure {#telecommunications_infrastructure}
Telecommunications network is improving with international direct dialing available in many areas. A fiber-optic network has been installed that is improving broadband and communication services between major urban centers with multiple companies providing inter-city fiber-optic cable services.
- 7 satellite earth station: Intersputnik (Indian Ocean Region), Intelsat, Asiasat-1.
- International overland: Europe-Russia-Mongolia-China (ERMC) cable system.
## Telephones
- 385,000 fixed lines in use, 102nd in the world (2019 estimate).
- 4.3 million mobile-cellular lines in use, 127th in the world (2019 estimate).
- International dialing code: +976.
There are two landline telephone companies in Mongolia: Mongolia Telecom Company (MTC) and the Mongolian Railway Authority. MTC is a joint venture with Korea Telecom and partially publicly owned. MTC leases fiber-optic lines from the Mongolian Railway Authority and connects to all aimags and soums. The number of fixed-line phones in Mongolia is slowly decreasing. The majority of MTC subscribers are in Ulaanbaatar.
Mobile phones are very popular in the city as well as the countryside with 1.5 million active mobile social users in January 2017. Especially in the countryside, the government is preferring the installation of cell phone base stations over laying land lines, as cell phone base stations are easier to install. Mongolia\'s Communication Authority has announced a plan to connect all sum center and a number of other settlements to cell phone services. Since 2012 the country is covered by 3G services. The biggest problem of phone usage in rural parts of the country was the poor reception since in some areas getting the mobile signal required climbing on the highest mountain top in the neighbourhood or on the top of the horse on some hill. But with the plan of Communications Regulatory Commission of Mongolia that will allow the nationwide introduction of 4G mobile Internet technologies by approving licenses to use radio spectrum for 4G LTE service to Mobicom Corporation, Unitel, Skytel according to the first commission meeting in 2016 this problem should be resolved. It will also help parents for whom mobile phones are the only way to stay in touch with their children attending boarding schools in the cities.
Mobile operators
- Unitel (GSM)- The No.1 ICT group in Mongolia who have the first and nationwide 3G/4G/5G network.
- G-Mobile (CDMA) -- Established in 2007, it is focusing on development in rural areas
- Mobicom Corporation (GSM) -- The first mobile operator.
- Skytel (CDMA)
- ONDO 5th Competitor in telecommunications
`service resembling that of landlines, but uses technology similar to mobile phones. There are currently five licensed WLL providers, though there only appear to be three companies actually offering service.`
WLL providers
- Mongolia Telecom Company: WLL project a joint venture with LG Electronics Company of South Korea, 8,768 users, covers Darkhan, Erdenet, Nalaikh, Choibalsan, and Ulanbaatar. It also provides 450 MHz coverage in the following aimags: Orkhon, Darkhan Uul, Dornod, Arkhangai, Bayan-Ulgii, Bulgan, Hovd, Huvsgul, Zavkhan, and Uvs.
- Mobicom: Covers Ulaanbaatar and areas near the city, 13,400 users.
- Skytel: Covers Ulaanbaatar and rural Mongolia (area not specified), and has 22,000 users.
## Radio
, more than 100 radio stations, including some 20 via repeaters for the public broadcaster as well as transmissions by multiple international broadcasters were available. `{{As of|1997}}`{=mediawiki}, there were 360,000 radios.
Ulaanbaatar has 20 FM stations, including foreign radio stations BBC World Service, VOA, and Inner Mongolian Radio. In the whole country there are 5 longwave broadcasting stations, the most powerful at Ulaanbaatar with 1000 KW.
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# Telecommunications in Mongolia
## Television
Mongolian TV Broadcasting started on 27 September 1967 with the start of Mongolian National Television.
- Television sets: 118,000 (1997)
### Television providers {#television_providers}
Stations/Channels
- Mongolian National Broadcaster, the official, state-funded television channel in Mongolia.
- Premier Sports Network (PSN, dominant subscription television sports brand in Mongolia.)
- C1
- Channel 25
- Eagle TV
- Edutainment TV (Боловсрол суваг)
- ETV
- Mongol TV, first HD TV, New Mongol TV
- NTV
- SBN
- TV5
- TV8
- TV9
- Ulaanbaatar Broadcasting System (UBS)
Satellite television
- DDishTV LLC, broadcasts major Mongolian channels and some international channels throughout the whole of Mongolia and to other Asian countries via Ku-Band Satellite. For that service it is necessary to have a dish and special box.
- Mongolsat
Cable television
- DDishTV LLC
- MNBC CaTV
- Sansar CaTV -- *Space*
Internet Protocol television (IPTV)
- Univision IPTV
- LookTV IPTV
- Homemedia IPTV
- Skymedia IPTV
- VOO IPTV
## Internet
The Internet, established in 1995 in Mongolia, has begun making a significant impact, with 68.1% of the population having access to it as of 2020. Mongolia is the most sparsely populated independent country in the world, which is a serious constraint to country-wide Internet deployment. While much of the country remains pastoral with countryside residents dependent on herding and agriculture, Internet access is widely available to urban populations. There has been steady online growth in online newspapers, magazines and advertising. The poor access to the Internet in the countryside has been a reason behind designating Mongolian countryside as a digital detox location for the tech-tired tourists.
- Internet users: 2,233,000 users; 68.1% of the population (2020).
- Fixed broadband: 115,561 subscriptions, 98th in the world; 3.6% of the population, 114th in the world (2012).
- Mobile broadband: 848,391 subscriptions, 75th in the world; 26.7% of the population, 61st in the world (2012).
- Internet hosts: 20,084 hosts, 118th in the world (2012).
- The top level domain of Mongolia is \".mn\".
### Internet service providers (ISPs) {#internet_service_providers_isps}
Wholesale providers
- Information Communications Network LLC /NETCOM/
- Gemnet LLC
- Mobicom Networks LLC
- MT Networks
- Unitel
- Skytel
Retail providers
- Mongolia Telecom Company
- Univision\[MCSCom\]
- Boldsoft
- Digicom (FTTB)
- Mobinet
- Magicnet
- Micom
- Bodicom
- Skymedia\[SkyC&C\]
- Yokozunanet
- Citinet
- HOMENET
- G-mobilenet
Satellite providers
- DDishTV LLC, provides VSAT Internet connections, especially in rural area of Mongolia.
- Incomnet LLC, provides data communications network services throughout Mongolia, as well as satellite telephone call and satellite Internet services in remote areas since its establishment in 2001.
- Isatcom LLC, national satellite provider in Mongolia, provides VSAT Internet connections, VPN network for organizations in rural areas of Mongolia, since its establishment in 2004. Also involved in the sale of solar energy equipment.
### Internet initiatives {#internet_initiatives}
Citizens Information Service Centers (CISC) have been established in Ulaanbataar and six Aimags that are equipped to allow nomadic rural populations to receive internet access.
Many libraries and schools provide internet access, including some mobile providers that travel between rural populations.
The Asian Development Bank has an initiative to develop ICT technologies to \"boost access to high-quality education for disadvantaged and remote populations in Mongolia, through a grant assistance approved for US\$1 million.\" The goal is to take advantage of newer technologies to improve access to information for about 10,000 students at 36 schools.
### Internet censorship and surveillance {#internet_censorship_and_surveillance}
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet. The criminal code and constitution prohibit arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, however, there are reports of government surveillance, wiretapping, and e-mail account monitoring. Individuals and groups engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. Defamation laws carrying civil and criminal penalties severely impede criticism of government officials. Moreover, in 2014 the Mongolian Telecommunications Regulatory Commission has published a list of up to 774 words and phrases, use of which is prohibited on local websites.
Censorship of public information is banned under the 1998 Media Freedom Law, but a 1995 state secrets law severely limits access to government information. After an eight-year campaign by activists, the parliament passed the Law on Information Transparency and Right to Information in June 2011, with the legislation taking effect in December 2011. Internet users remain concerned about a February 2011 regulation, the \"General Conditions and Requirements on Digital Content\", by the Communications Regulatory Commission (CRC) that restricts obscene and inappropriate content without explicitly defining it and requires popular websites to make their users\' IP addresses publicly visible. The production, sale, or display of all pornography is illegal and carries a penalty of up to three months in prison.
While there is no official censorship by the government, journalists frequently complain of harassment and intimidation.
## Post
Mongol Post is the state-owned postal service of Mongolia
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# Transport in Mongolia
The **transportation system** in Mongolia consists of a network of railways, roads, waterways, and airports.
## Railways
The Trans-Mongolian Railway connects the Trans-Siberian Railway from Ulan Ude in Russia to Erenhot and Beijing in China through the capital Ulaanbaatar. The Mongolian section of this line runs for 1110 km. A spur line connects Darkhan to the copper mines of Erdenet; another spur line connects Ulaanbaatar with the coal mines of Baganuur. A separate railway line is in the east of the country between Choibalsan and the Trans-Siberian at Borzya; however, that line is closed to passengers beyond the Mongolian town of Chuluunkhoroot.
For domestic transport, daily trains run from Ulaanbaatar to Darkhan, Sukhbaatar, and Erdenet, as well as Zamiin-Üüd, Choir and Sainshand. Mongolia uses the `{{RailGauge|1520mm}}`{=mediawiki} (Russian gauge) track system. The total length of the system 1,810 km. In 2007, rail transport carried 93% of Mongolian freight and 43% of passenger turnover (in tons\*km and passenger\*km, respectively).
## Roadways
thumb\|upright=1.5\|A road in Bayan-Ölgii Province, in northwest Mongolia near the Russian border In 2007, only about 2600 km of Mongolia\'s road network were paved. Another 3900 km are graveled or otherwise improved. This network of paved roads was expanded to 4,800 km in 2013, with 1,800 km completed in 2014 alone. This included the roads from Ulaanbaatar to the Russian and Chinese borders, paved road from Ulaanbaatar to Kharkhorin and Bayankhongor, another going south to Mandalgovi, and a partly parallel road from Lün to Dashinchilen, as well as the road from Darkhan to Bulgan via Erdenet. The vast majority of Mongolia\'s official road network, some 40,000 km, are simple cross-country tracks.
Construction is underway on an east-west road (the so-called Millennium Road) that incorporates the road from Ulaanbaatar to Arvaikheer and on the extension of the Darkhan-Bulgan road beyond Bulgan. Private bus and minibus companies offer service from Ulaanbaatar to most aimag centers.
In September and December 2014 roads connecting Dalanzadgad town of Ömnögovi Province and Mörön town of Khuvsgul province with capital city of Ulaanbaatar were completed.
In 2019, the first expressway in Mongolia opened, the Ulaanbaatar Airport Expressway.
### Buses
The history of public transport in Mongolia starts with the creation of \<\> council in 1929. The first public bus route was between Ulaanbaatar city and then-city Amgalan with 5 rides a day. Currently, buses are the main mode of public transportation in Ulaanbaatar. Buses pass stops at approximately 15-minute intervals. Buses runs between 7:00am and 10:00pm. The 1,200 daily buses of 21 companies serve the people on 79 routes in the capital city.
There is a daily international bus service between Ulan-Ude, Russia and Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.
There is relatively developed bus transport between cities of Mongolia from minivans to large coach buses (usually up to 45 seats). The national and municipal governments regulate a wide system of private transit providers which operate numerous bus lines around the city. There is also an Ulaanbaatar trolleybus system. Tenuun Ogoo LLC, Erdem Trans LLC and Sutain buyant LLC are major bus operators.
### Taxis
There are about 10 licensed taxi companies such as Get Airport Taxi (UbShuttle) Noyon taxi (1950), Telecom taxi (1109), 1616 taxi (1616) with about 600 cars operating in Ulaanbaatar. There are a few local taxi companies in smaller cities such as Darkhan, Erdenet, Baganuur and Zuunmod. And there are many drivers with private unlicensed cars who act as taxis.
A typical fare is MNT 1,500 per kilometer; taxi drivers tend to ask for more especially if the client is a foreign national. Official taxis with proper markings are allowed to drive without plate number restrictions on the first lane of Ulaanbaatar\'s central road usually reserved for large public transports such as buses and trolleybuses since October 2013.
## Waterways
Mongolia has 580 km of waterways, but only Lake Khövsgöl has ever been heavily used. The Selenge (270 km) and Orkhon (175 km) rivers are navigable but carry little traffic, although a customs boat patrols the Selenge to the Russian border. Lake Khovsgol has charter boats for tourists. The lakes and rivers freeze over in the winter and are usually open between May and September.
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# Transport in Mongolia
## Air transport {#air_transport}
`{{See also|MIAT Mongolian Airlines}}`{=mediawiki} MIAT Mongolian Airlines is the country\'s flag carrier and first airline, operating since 1956. It conducted scheduled domestic flights in the communist era with its hub at Buyant-Ukhaa International Airport (built 1961), and started international routes in 1987. With the onset of the democratic revolution, the airline gradually adopted modern jet airliners and expanded its international operations. Since the 2000s, private operators such as Aero Mongolia, Hunnu Air, and Eznis Airways commenced flights, dominating domestic air routes in the country. In 2023, MIAT Mongolian Airlines resumed domestic flights after 15 years under the brand name MIAT Regional.
Mongolia opened the new Chinggis Khaan International Airport (UBN) in July 2021, located about 50 km from the center of Ulaanbaatar. Replacing Buyant-Ukhaa, it is the country\'s only international airport. Most airports of the 21 aimag centers of Mongolia have paved runways, but those closest to Ulaanbaatar lack scheduled air service.
Ulaanbaatar can be accessed with direct flights to various locations in Europe and Asia, with future direct routes planned to North America and Australia
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# Demographics of Montserrat
This is demography of the population of Montserrat including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
## Population
Montserrat had a population of 7,119 in 1842.
In 1995, the Soufriere Hills Volcano eruption caused two-thirds of the population of about 11,500 people to evacuate the island. According to the 2001 census only 4,491 people were resident of Montserrat. The total local-born population was 69% while those born abroad were 31%. According to The 2012 Revision of the World Population Prospects\' medium fertility scenario, the anticipated mid-year population for 2014 is 5,100.\
*note:* Approximately two thirds of the population left the island following the resumption of volcanic activity in July 1995. According to the 2001 UK Census 7,983 Montserratian-born people were residing in the UK (almost twice the population of Montserrat itself).
### Structure of the population {#structure_of_the_population}
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- ------- -------- ------- ---------
Total 2 546 2 376 4 922 100
0--4 157 144 301 6.12
5--9 146 165 311 6.32
10--14 187 172 359 7.29
15--19 179 140 319 6.48
20--24 404 365 269 5.47
25--29 154 145 299 6.07
30--34 138 160 298 6.05
35--39 172 196 368 7.48
40--44 189 217 406 8.25
45--49 196 185 381 7.74
50--54 183 148 331 6.72
55--59 181 133 314 6.38
60--64 165 110 275 5.59
65--69 130 101 231 4.69
70--74 75 70 145 2.95
75--79 61 55 116 2.36
80--84 44 50 94 1.91
85+ 37 68 105 2.13
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 490 481 971 19.73
15--64 1 709 1 551 3 260 66.23
65+ 347 344 691 14.04
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- ------- -------- ------- ---------
Total 2 284 2 342 4 626 100
0--4 112 132 244 5.27
5--9 109 123 232 5.02
10--14 162 159 321 6.94
15--19 125 135 260 5.62
20--24 124 114 238 5.14
25--29 167 134 301 6.51
30--34 138 183 321 6.94
35--39 123 166 289 6.25
40--44 150 167 317 6.85
45--49 156 172 328 7.09
50--54 182 185 367 7.93
55--59 171 143 314 6.79
60--64 154 134 288 6.23
65--69 148 130 278 6.01
70--74 121 92 213 4.60
75--79 77 70 147 3.18
80--84 34 48 82 1.77
85--89 21 23 44 0.95
90+ 10 32 42 0.91
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 383 414 797 17.23
15--64 1 490 1 533 3 023 65.35
65+ 411 395 806 17.42
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# Demographics of Montserrat
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
Average population (x 1000) Live births Deaths Natural change Crude birth rate (per 1000) Crude death rate (per 1000) Natural change (per 1000) TFR
------ ----------------------------- ------------- -------- ---------------- ----------------------------- ----------------------------- --------------------------- -------
1950 13.5 406 197 209 30.0 14.6 15.5
1951 14.1 436 177 259 30.9 12.5 18.3
1952 14.5 423 148 275 29.2 10.2 19.0
1953 14.6 424 203 221 29.0 13.9 15.1
1954 14.6 429 180 249 29.5 12.4 17.1
1955 14.3 428 173 255 29.9 12.1 17.8
1956 13.9 396 166 230 28.5 11.9 16.5
1957 13.4 373 162 211 27.8 12.1 15.7
1958 12.9 377 172 205 29.2 13.3 15.9
1959 12.5 391 184 207 31.4 14.8 16.6
1960 12.1 359 141 218 29.7 11.7 18.0
1961 11.9 335 136 199 28.2 11.4 16.7
1962 11.8 324 128 196 27.5 10.8 16.6
1963 11.8 341 117 224 28.9 9.9 19.0
1964 11.8 364 107 257 30.8 9.0 21.7
1965 11.8 383 147 236 32.3 12.4 19.9
1966 11.8 328 139 189 27.8 11.8 16.0
1967 11.8 363 148 215 30.9 12.6 18.3
1968 11.7 322 115 207 27.5 9.8 17.7
1969 11.7 264 138 126 22.7 11.8 10.8
1970 11.6 302 121 181 26.0 10.4 15.6
1971 11.6 269 123 146 23.1 10.6 12.6
1972 11.7 318 144 174 27.3 12.4 14.9
1973 11.7 295 107 188 25.2 9.2 16.1
1974 11.7 304 131 173 25.9 11.2 14.7
1975 11.8 213 128 85 18.1 10.9 7.2
1976 11.8 20 128 78 17.4 10.8 6.6
1977 11.9 205 138 67 17.2 11.6 5.6
1978 11.9 193 147 46 16.2 12.3 3.9
1979 11.9 238 116 122 19.9 9.7 10.2
1980 11.9 224 103 121 18.8 8.6 10.2
1981 11.9 231 117 114 19.5 9.9 9.6
1982 11.7 260 114 146 22.1 9.7 12.4
1983 11.6 266 124 142 22.9 10.7 12.2
1984 11.5 244 104 140 21.3 9.1 12.2
1985 11.3 237 124 113 20.9 10.9 10.0
1986 11.2 200 123 77 17.9 11.0 6.9
1987 11.0
1988 10.9
1989 10.8
1990 10.7
1991 10.8
1992 10.9
1993 10.9
1994 10.7 150 14.0
1995 10.2 126 12.3
1996 9.4 128 13.7
1997 8.3 67 8.2
1998 6.9 33 4.8
1999 5.8 45 59 -14 7.8 10.2 -2.4
2000 5.0 48 52 -4 9.6 10.4 -0.8
2001 4.5 47 50 -3 10.4 11.1 -0.7
2002 4.4 54 44 10 12.3 10.0 2.3
2003 4.5 40 55 -15 8.9 12.3 -3.4
2004 4.6 47 57 -10 10.1 12.4 -2.3
2005 4.785 63 59 4 13.2 12.4 0.8
2006 4.655 49 47 2 10.1 9.7 0.4
2007 4.819 43 44 -1 8.8 9.1 -0.2
2008 4.875 72 45 27 14.8 9.2 5.5
2009 5.039 50 44 6 9.9 8.7 1.2
2010 5.020 62 40 22 12.4 8.0 4.4
2011 4.883 46 55 -9 9.4 11.3 -1.9
2012 4.847 53 44 9 10.9 9.1 1.8
2013 4.796 41 45 -4 8.5 9.4 -0.9
2014 4.798 50 32 18 10.4 6.7 3.7
2015 4.801 48 49 -1 10.0 10.2 -0.2
2016 4.742 46 43 3 9.7 9.1 0.6
2017 4.768 55 39 16 11.5 8.2 3.3
2018 4.667 45 38 7 9.6 8.1 1.5
2019 4.519 47 59 -12 10.4 13.1 -2.7 1.680
2020 4.626 50 39 11 10.8 8.4 2.4 1.703
2021 4.458 43 46 -3 9.6 10.3 -0.7 1.559
2022 4.433 35 58 -23 7.9 13.1 -5.2 1.300
2023 4.294 25 40 -15 5.8 9.3 -3.5
### Life Expectancy {#life_expectancy}
Based on 2023 data:
- total: 75.9 years
- male: 76.8 years
- female: 75.0 years
Only in Montserrat life expectancy for men is higher than for women. The difference is 1.8 years.
## Ethnic groups {#ethnic_groups}
The vast majority of the population of Montserrat are of African descent (92.4% at the 2001 census) or mixed (2.9%). There is also a European origin minority (3.0%; mostly descendants of Irish indentured servants or British colonists), East Indians (1.0%) groups. Out of 403 Amerindians at the 1980 census only 3 persons were left in 2001
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# Politics of Montserrat
**Politics of Montserrat** takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic dependency, whereby the Premier is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. **Montserrat** is an internally self-governing overseas territory of the United Kingdom. The United Nations Committee on Decolonization includes Montserrat on the United Nations list of non-self-governing territories. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Legislative Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Military defence is the responsibility of the United Kingdom.
## Executive branch {#executive_branch}
\|King \|Charles III \| \|8 September 2022 \|- \|Governor \|Harriet Cross \| \|23 April 2025 \|- \|Premier \|Reuben Meade \|UA \|25 October 2024 \|} The Governor is appointed by the Monarch. The Premier is appointed by the Governor from among the members of the Legislative Assembly.
His cabinet is appointed by the Governor from among the elected members of the Legislative Assembly and consists also of the Attorney General, and the Finance Secretary.
The current Premier of the island is Reuben Meade, of the United Alliance, replacing the outgoing Premier, Easton Taylor-Farrell, of the Movement for Change and Prosperity.
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
Montserrat elects on territorial level a legislature. The Legislative Assembly has nine members, elected for five-year terms in one constituency.
## Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
Political parties do not adhere to a single defined ideology and are difficult to distinguish from each other. Instead, policy emphasis shifts depending on the popular approval of the party leader and their policies.
### Most recent election {#most_recent_election}
## Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
The Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court, consists of the High Court of Justice and the Court of Appeal.
## Administrative divisions {#administrative_divisions}
Montserrat is divided in 3 parishes; Saint Anthony, Saint Georges, and Saint Peter
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# Economy of Montserrat
The **economy of Montserrat** is an economical system which was severely disrupted by volcanic activity which began in July 1995. Prior to this date, the small island country of 12,000 had an export economy based on agriculture, clothing, electronic parts and plants, with a per capita gross national product of US\$3,000 to 8,000.
Montserrat had an international reputation as a tourist getaway, and the record producer George Martin established an important recording studio there, Associated Independent Recording. Destroyed by Hurricane Hugo in 1989, the studio was never reestablished; however, Martin subsequently helped found the Montserrat Cultural Centre, which was opened in 2007. Some of the funds were raised in a London concert called \"Music for Montserrat\" (September 15, 1997).
## Collapse
A catastrophic eruption of Soufrière Hills in June 1997 closed the W. H. Bramble Airport and seaport at Plymouth, causing further economic and social dislocation. Two-thirds of the inhabitants fled the island. Some began to return in 1998, but lack of housing limited the number.
The agriculture sector continued to be affected by the lack of suitable land for farming and the destruction of crops. Prospects for the economy depend largely on developments in relation to the volcano and on public sector construction activity. The UK launched a three-year \$122.8 million aid program to help reconstruct the economy. Half of the island was expected to remain uninhabitable for another decade.
Today, Montserrat\'s main economic activity is in construction and government services which together accounted for about 50 percent of GDP in 2000 when it was EC\$76 million. In contrast, banking and insurance together accounted for less than 10 percent of GDP. The unemployment rate in 1998 was estimated at 6 percent. Montserrat\'s domestic financial sector is very small and has seen a reduction in offshore finance in recent years with only 11 offshore banks remaining. Real GDP declined from EC\$122 million in 1995 to about EC\$60 million in 1999, with the rate of decline peaking at -21.5 percent for 1996. The decline in economic activity reflected in large part the completion of major projects in both the private and public sectors. However, the rate of decline slowed markedly since 2000 and 2001, when GDP contracted by less than 3 percent. In 2002, the GDP growth rate reverted to a positive 4.6 percent reversing the declining trend over the past six years and maybe more.
Year Real GDP (factor cost) \% Change
------ ----------------------------- -----------
1996 95.9 -21.5
1997 76.7 -20.0
1998 68.9 -8.6
1999 60.3 -12.5
2000 58.6 -2.8
2001 56.9 -2.9
2002 59.5 -4.6
2002 79.9 (2000 constant prices) +3.3
2003 78.9 -0.9
2004 82.4 +4.5
2005 83.7 +1.5
## New Town {#new_town}
The Montserrat Development Corporation was an entity founded by the Government of Montserrat and the Department for International Development in 2008. The company\'s primary mandate was to help foster private sector investment and development on the island. The company had announced plans to develop the new town of Little Bay on the northwest coast of Montserrat between Brades and Davy Hill, however an internal audit of the company in 2015 led to the company\'s dissolution. The audit revealed that the company was not being prudent with the government\'s funds.
Slated for completion by 2020, the new town will be the new focus of tourism, trade and housing and will also house the seat of government
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# Telecommunications in Montserrat
Montserrat possesses a number of **telecommunications systems**, including mobile and main line telephone, radio and television. The country code for Montserrat in the Domain Name System of the Internet is \".ms\". Telephony uses the area code 664.
According to a July 2016 estimate by the CIA, Montserrat\'s fully digitalized telephone service had 3,000 subscribers while an estimated 5,000 mobile handsets were in use. An estimated 2,860 users have internet access.
There are 17 internet service providers.
Montserrat possesses an AM radio station, and 2 FM stations. These serve 7,000 radios (by 1997 figures). There is one television broadcast station, which in 1997 was serving 3,000 televisions; the Peoples Television (PTV) is a free service providing news, documentaries, commercials and entertainment. Cable and satellite television service is also available
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# Transport in Montserrat
**Railways:** 0 km
**Highways:**\
*total:* 269 km\
*paved:* 203 km\
*unpaved:* 66 km (1995)
**Waterways:** none
**Ports and harbours:** Plymouth (abandoned), Little Bay (anchorages and ferry landing), Carr\'s Bay
**Merchant marine:** none (2002 est.)
**Airports:** One, Gerald\'s Airport, opened on 11 July 2005 replacing W.H. Bramble Airport which was destroyed by volcanic eruption in 1997
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# Geography of Morocco
Morocco is the northwesternmost country which spans from the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean on the north and the west respectively, into large mountainous areas in the interior, to the Sahara desert in the far south. Morocco is a Northern African country, located in the extreme northwest of Africa on the edge of continental Europe. The Strait of Gibraltar separates Spain from Morocco with a 13 km span of water. Morocco borders the North Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the western Mediterranean Sea to the north, and has borders with Algeria and disputed Western Sahara.
The terrain of Morocco is largely mountainous. The Atlas Mountains stretch from the central north to the southwest. It expands to about 1350 km and is the dorsal spine of the country. To the north of the Atlas Mountains, there are the Rif Mountains, a chain that makes part of the Sierra Nevada mountain range in Andalusia, Spain. The massive range expands to about 250 km from Tangier in the west to Nador eastward.
In the west of the country, along the Atlantic coast, the Moroccan Plateau stretches from Tangier to essaouira and get inward to Saiss Plains near Fes and Tansift-Alhaouz near Marrakech. These vast plains promotes fertile agricultural lands and support 15% of the local economy.
In the extreme southeast of the country, the lands are arid due to their proximity to the Sahara Desert. Palm trees oasis are developed in many regions, notably in Figuig and Zagora.
## Geography statistics {#geography_statistics}
Coordinates: Coordinates: 32 00 N 5 00 W type:country
**Area**:\
*total:* 446,550 km²\
*land:* 446,302 km² (or 712,200 km²)\
*water:* 250 km²
**Land boundaries:**\
*total:* 2,018.9 km\
*border countries:* Algeria 1 559 km, Western Sahara 444 km, Spain (Ceuta) 6.3 km, Spain (Melilla) 9.6 km
**Coastline:** 1835 km
**Maritime claims:**\
*Territorial sea:* 12 nmi\
*Contiguous zone:* 24 nmi\
*Exclusive economic zone:* 575,230 km2 with 200 nmi\
*Continental shelf:* 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
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# Geography of Morocco
## Climate
Morocco\'s climate can be divided into two parts: The northwest and the southeast. In the southeast, the climate is arid and poorly populated. The northwest has a mild climate, and 95% of the Moroccan population lives in these regions.
The largely populated areas of the northwest of the country mostly have a Mediterranean climate, but since the country is heavily mountainous, continental and alpine influence is evident, as well as the oceanic influence along the Atlantic coastline. And finally, the semi-arid lands, that cover few regions in the northeast, the central-south, and the southwest.
Along the Mediterranean coast, the climate is typically Mediterranean and supports all types of typical Mediterranean vegetation. The summers are moderately hot and the winters are mild. Further away from the coast, into the Rif Mountain range, the climate starts to become more continental in character, with colder winters and hotter summers. At elevations above 1000 m, the climate is alpine with warm summers and cold winters. Rainfall is much higher on the west side than it is on the east side. The average annual precipitation is between 600 and, and 300 and respectively. Snow is abundant at higher elevations.
1. Typical Mediterranean climate cities: Tangier, Tétouan, Al Hoceima, Nador
2. Typical continental-influenced cities: Chefchaouen, Issaguen, Targuist, Taza
3. Typical alpine-influenced cities: Bab Berred
Along the Atlantic coast, the climate is the Mediterranean with oceanic influence. The imprint of the oceanic climate differs along the coastline from region to region. It is generally presented from Asilah to Essaouira. The summers are warm to moderately hot, and winters are cooler than on the Mediterranean coast. Further away from the coastal lands, into the Atlas Mountain range, the climate starts to become more continental in character, with colder winters and hotter summers. At elevations above 1000 m, the climate is typically alpine, with warm summers and cold winters. Rainfall is generally high. The average annual precipitations is between 500 and on the north, but as you move southward, the average drops by about 100 to. Snow is abundant at higher elevations. There are two ski stations, one in the middle-Atlas Mischliffen, and the other in the High-Atlas Oukaïmeden.
1. Typical oceanic-influenced cities: Rabat, Casablanca, Essaouira, Larache
2. Typical continental-influenced cities: Fès, Meknès, Khenifra, Beni Mellal
3. Typical alpine-influenced cities: Ifrane, Azrou, Midelt, Imouzzer Kandar
The southern regions of the northwest are semi-arid. Rainfall is lower, and is between 250 and annually. Although temperature ranges generally do not change in comparison with the upper provinces, a slight increase in high averages is not to be dismissed. Largely due to the lower latitudes where they fall.
Typical cities with such climate are Agadir and Marrakesh.
### Climate change {#climate_change}
As of 2020, Morocco has been hit with unseasonal heatwaves.
## Physical geography {#physical_geography}
The northern coast and interior are mountainous with large areas of bordering plateaus, intermontane valleys, and rich coastal plains. The northern mountains are geologically unstable and subject to earthquakes.
Morocco occupies a strategic location along the Strait of Gibraltar, the waterway connecting the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean.
**Elevation extremes:**\
*Lowest point:* Sebkha Tah −55 m\
*Highest point:* Toubkal mountain 4,165 m
**Longest river:** Draa River (1,100 km)
## Environment
### Ecoregions
#### Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub {#mediterranean_forests_woodlands_and_scrub}
- Mediterranean dry woodlands and steppe
- Mediterranean woodlands and forests
- Mediterranean Acacia-Argania dry woodlands and succulent thickets
#### Temperate coniferous forests {#temperate_coniferous_forests}
- Mediterranean conifer and mixed forests
#### Montane grasslands and shrublands {#montane_grasslands_and_shrublands}
- Mediterranean High Atlas juniper steppe
#### Deserts and xeric shrublands {#deserts_and_xeric_shrublands}
- North Saharan steppe and woodlands
#### Freshwater ecoregions {#freshwater_ecoregions}
- Permanent Maghreb
- Temporary Maghreb
#### Marine ecoregions {#marine_ecoregions}
- Alboran Sea
- Saharan Upwelling
### Current environmental issues {#current_environmental_issues}
Land degradation/desertification (soil erosion resulting from farming of marginal areas, overgrazing, destruction of vegetation); water supplies contaminated by raw sewage; siltation of reservoirs; oil pollution of coastal waters.
### International environmental agreements {#international_environmental_agreements}
*Morocco is party to:* Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution (MARPOL 73/78), Wetlands, Whaling\
*signed, but not ratified:* Environmental Modification
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# Geography of Morocco
## Extreme points {#extreme_points}
This is a list of the extreme points of Morocco, the points that are farther north, east or west than any other location.
- Northernmost point -- Pointe Leona, Tanger-Tetouan-Al Hoceima region
- Easternmost point -- unnamed point on the border with Algeria immediately east of the town of Iche, Oriental region
- Westernmost point -- the point at which the border with Western Sahara enters the Atlantic Ocean, Guelmim-Oued Noun region
- *Note: Morocco does not have a southernmost point, its southern border with Western Sahara following latitude 27° 40′ north
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# Demographics of Morocco
Demographic features of the population of Morocco include population density, ethnicity, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. All figures are from the Haut-Commissariat au Plan of Morocco or the United Nations Demographic Yearbooks, unless otherwise indicated.
The population of Morocco in 2021 is 37.271 million. Moroccans are primarily of Arab and Berber origin. Socially, there are two contrasting groups of Moroccans: those living in the cities and those in the rural areas. Among the rural, several classes have formed such as landowners, peasants, and tenant farmers. Moroccans live mainly in the north and west portions of Morocco. However, they prefer living in the more fertile regions near the Mediterranean Sea.
Between the Nile and the Red Sea were living Arab tribes expelled from Arabia for their turbulence, Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym, who often plundered farming areas in the Nile Valley. According to Ibn Khaldun, whole tribes set off with women, children, ancestors, animals and camping equipment. These tribes, along with others, who mass arrived in the region of Morocco in colossal numbers around the 12th-13th centuries, and later the Ma\'qil in the 14th century, contributed to a more extensive ethnic, cultural, and linguistic Arabization of Morocco over time, especially beyond the major urban centres and the northern regions well into the countryside. The descendants of the original Arab settlers who continue to speak Arabic as a first language currently form the single largest population group in North Africa.
About 99% of Moroccans are considered to be Sunni Muslims religiously or culturally. The numbers of the Jewish minority has decreased significantly since the creation of the State of Israel in 1948. Today there are 2,500 Moroccan Jews inside the country. Thousands of Moroccan Jews living in Europe, Israel and North America visit the country regularly. There is a small but apparently growing minority of Moroccan Christians made of local Moroccan converts (not Europeans). In 2014, most of the 86,206 foreign residents are French people, Spaniards, Algerians and sub-Saharan African students.
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# Demographics of Morocco
## Population size and structure {#population_size_and_structure}
### Main populated areas {#main_populated_areas}
Most Moroccans live west and north of the Atlas Mountains, a range that insulates the country from the Sahara Desert. Casablanca is the largest city and the centre of business and industry, and has the leading seaport and airport. Rabat is the seat of government. Tangier and Nador are the two major northern seaports on the Mediterranean. Fez is a cultural, religious and industrial centre. Marrakesh and Agadir are the two major tourist centres. Oujda is the largest city of eastern Morocco. Meknes houses the military academy. Kenitra has the largest military airbase. Mohammedia has the largest oil refineries and other major industrial installations.
### Structure of the population {#structure_of_the_population}
Structure of the population (Census 2004):
Age Group Male Female Total \%
-------------- ------------ ------------ ------------ -------
Total 14 640 662 15 039 407 29 680 069 100
Total(known) 14 045 137 14 783 487 28 828 624 97.13
0--4 1 488 631 1 435 833 2 924 464 9.85
5--9 1 552 440 1 502 718 3 055 158 10.29
10--14 1 666 632 1 614 368 3 281 000 11.05
15--19 1 564 900 1 583 690 3 148 590 10.61
20--24 1.426.174 1 521 526 2 947 700 9.93
25--29 1 190 111 1 292 162 2 482 273 8.36
30--34 1 054 069 1 149 302 2 203 371 7.42
35--39 897 812 993 739 1 891 551 6.37
40--44 892 083 968 391 1 860 474 6.27
45--49 758 044 731 635 1 489 679 5.02
50--54 627 433 599 755 1 227 188 4.13
55--59 370 969 388 594 759 563 2.56
60--64 340 722 400 169 740 891 2.50
65--69 261 046 274 018 535 064 1.80
70--74 236 107 267 260 503 367 1.70
75+ 58 933 60 327 119 260 0.40
unknown 595 525 255 920 851 445 2.87
Age group Male Female Total Percent
----------- ----------- ----------- ------------ ---------
0--14 4 707 703 4 552 919 9 260 622 31.20
15--64 8 781 348 9 628 963 18 410 311 62.03
65+ 556 086 601 605 1 157 691 3.90
According to 2004 census
Age group Male Female Total Percent
----------- ------ -------- -------------- ---------
0--14 \~9 260 182 31.2
15--59 \~18 164 202 61.2
60+ \~2 404 086 8.1
Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2013) (Based on the results of the 2004 Population Census.) :
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- ------------ ------------ ------------ ---------
Total 16 371 475 16 578 971 32 950 445 100
0--4 1 482 899 1 421 020 2 903 919 8.81
5--9 1 453 315 1 391 847 2 845 161 8.63
10--14 1 473 231 1 420 973 2 894 204 8.78
15--19 1 547 292 1 496 243 3 043 535 9.24
20--24 1 614 483 1 564 368 3 178 851 9.65
25--29 1 477 952 1 494 267 2 972 219 9.02
30--34 1 338 558 1 409 129 2 747 687 8.34
35--39 1 106 764 1 199 802 2 306 566 7.00
40--44 975 428 1 070 441 2 045 869 6.21
45--49 862 688 947 158 1 809 846 5.49
50--54 859 927 902 421 1 762 347 5.35
55--59 704 367 670 923 1 375 290 4.17
60--64 543 733 529 913 1 073 646 3.26
65--69 314 577 348 098 662 674 2.01
70--74 276 251 333 385 609 636 1.85
75+ 340 012 378 983 718 996 2.18
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 4 409 445 4 233 840 8 643 285 26.23
15--64 11 031 190 11 284 665 22 315 855 67.73
65+ 930 840 1 060 466 1 991 306 6.04
Structure of the population (Census 2014) :
Age Group Male Female Total \%
--------------- ------------ ------------ ------------ ---------
Total (known) 16 330 731 16 416 140 32 746 871 100
0--4 1 700 796 1 623 119 3 323 915 9.82
5--9 1 524 586 1 460 840 2 985 426 8.82
10--14 1 532 755 1 475 241 3 007 996 8.89
15--19 1 490 344 1 468 114 2 958 458 8.74
20--24 1 495 404 1 520 770 3 016 174 8.91
25--29 1 369 558 1 411 583 2 781 141 8.22
30--34 1 289 375 1 338 721 2 628 096 7.76
35--39 1 137 269 1 198 986 2 336 255 6.90
40--44 1 058 073 1 102 280 2 160 353 6.38
45--49 879 096 926 400 1 805 496 5.33
50--54 877 383 925 006 1 802 389 5.32
55--59 715 207 669 610 1 384 817 4.09
60--64 594 071 566 539 1 160 610 3.43
65--69 316 816 321 867 638 683 1.89
70--74 268 617 316 576 585 193 1.73
75--79 81 381 90 488 171 869 0.51
unknown 1 101 371 3.25
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 4 758 137 4 559 200 9 317 337 27.53
15--64 10 905 780 11 128 009 22 033 789 65.10
65+ 666 814 728 931 1 395 745 4.12
According to 2014 census
Age group Male Female Total Percent
----------- ------ -------- -------------- ---------
0--14 \~9 477 508 28.0%
15--59 \~21 121 303 62.4%
60+ \~3 249 431 9.6%
Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2020) (Projections based on the results of national survey on population and health conducted between 2010 and 2011, and especially population and housing census 2014.):
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- ------------ ------------ ------------ ---------
Total 17 906 986 18 044 671 35 591 657 100
0--4 1 492 467 1 429 285 2 921 752 8.21
5--9 1 708 600 1 633 163 3 341 763 9.39
10--14 1 559 465 1 499 301 3 058 766 8.59
15--19 1 543 022 1 476 586 3 019 608 8.48
20--24 1 485 093 1 464 748 2 949 841 8.29
25--29 1 486 386 1 512 412 2 998 798 8.43
30--34 1 375 309 1 425 420 2 800 729 7.87
35--39 1 285 134 1 341 877 2 627 011 7.38
40--44 1 151 768 1 222 974 2 374 742 6.67
45--49 1 060 816 1 114 695 2 175 511 6.11
50--54 896 058 947 784 1 843 842 5.18
55--59 870 841 911 813 1 782 654 5.01
60--64 712 857 690 587 1 403 444 3.94
65--69 571 519 554 058 1 125 577 3.16
70--74 312 752 324 624 637 376 1.79
75--79 213 596 265 028 478 624 1.34
80+ 181 303 230 316 411 619 1.16
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 4 760 532 4 561 749 9 322 281 26.19
15--64 11 867 284 12 108 896 23 976 180 67.36
65+ 1 279 170 1 374 026 2 653 196 7.45
Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.I.2023):
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- ------------ ------------ ------------ ---------
Total 18 439 000 18 583 000 37 022 000 100
0--4 1 479 000 1 416 000 2 894 000 7.82
5--9 1 555 000 1 490 000 3 046 000 8.23
10--14 1 678 000 1 605 000 3 283 000 8.87
15--19 1 522 000 1 463 000 2 985 000 8.06
20--24 1 518 000 1 464 000 2 982 000 8.05
25--29 1 456 000 1 460 000 2 916 000 7.88
30--34 1 446 000 1 489 000 2 935 000 7.93
35--39 1 316 000 1 373 000 2 689 000 7.26
40--44 1 232 000 1 293 000 2 525 000 6.82
45--49 1 099 000 1 168 000 2 267 000 6.12
50--54 997 000 1 048 000 2 045 000 5.52
55--59 853 000 906 000 1 759 000 4.75
60--64 817 000 843 000 1 661 000 4.49
65-69 622 000 598 000 1 220 000 3.30
70-74 450 000 457 000 907 000 2.45
75-79 209 000 245 000 455 000 1.23
80+ 190 000 264 000 454 000 1.23
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 4 712 000 4 511 000 9 223 000 24.91
15--64 12 256 000 12 508 000 24 763 000 66.89
65+ 1 471 000 1 564 000 3 036 000 8.20
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# Demographics of Morocco
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
Average population Live births Deaths Natural change Crude birth rate (per 1,000) Crude death rate (per 1,000) Natural change (per 1,000) Fertility rates
------ -------------------- ------------------- --------- ---------------- ------------------------------ ------------------------------ ---------------------------- -----------------
1960 11,626,000
1962 12,177,000 561 360 227 710 333 650 46.1 18.7 27.4 7.20
1971 15,379,000
1972 15,772,000
1973 16,196,000
1974 16,630,000
1975 17,072,000 5.91
1976 17,521,000
1977 17,978,000
1978 18,440,000
1979 18,908,000
1980 19,380,000
1981 19,855,000
1982 20,419,000 756 425 215 504 540 921 37.2 10.6 26.6 5.52
1983 20,815,000
1984 21,297,000
1985 21,779,000
1986 22,261,000
1987 22,742,000
1988 23,220,000
1989 23,696,000
1990 24,167,000
1991 24,634,000
1992 25,095,000
1993 25,549,000
1994 26,074,000 675 896 174 173 501 723 26.0 6.7 19.3 3.28
1995 26,435,000
1996 26,864,000
1997 27,282,000
1998 27,689,000
1999 28,084,000
2000 28,466,000
2001 28,833,000
2002 29,185,000
2003 29,520,000
2004 29,892,000 602 768 173 073 429 696 20.2 5.8 14.4 2.47
2005 30,215,000
2006 30,606,000
2007 30,998,000
2008 31,391,000
2009 31,786,000
2010 32,182,000 599 607 178 606 421 001 18.8 5.6 13.2 2.19
2011 32,579,000
2012 32,978,000 18.5 5.1 13.4
2013 33,378,000 18.3 5.1 13.2
2014 33,848,242 18.1 5.1 13.0 2.21
2015 34,124,870 17.6 5.4 12.3
2016 34,486,536 17.4 5.2 12.2
2017 34,852,121 677,411 17.2 5.1 12.1
2018 35,219,547 679,863 (623,036) 141,207 481,829 17.7 5.1 12.6 2.38
2019 35,586,616 681,606 (749,758) 21.1 5.0 16.1
2020 35,952,000 682,984 (660,391) 18.4
2021 37,082,000 684,121 (650,892) 228,888 422,004 17.55 6.17 11.38
2022 684,738 2.07
2023 37,022,000 592,352 188,812 403,540 16.0 5.1 10.9 2.05
2024 36,828,330 1.97
Source: Haut-Commissariat au Plan (HCP)
### Demographic and Health Surveys {#demographic_and_health_surveys}
Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and CBR (Crude Birth Rate):
Year Total Urban
------------ ------- ------------- -------
CBR TFR CBR TFR
1987 4,62 (3,76)
1992 28,4 4,04 (2,66) 21,5
1995 26,0 3,31 (2,24) 20,4
2003--2004 21,1 2,5 (1,8) 18,7
### Life expectancy {#life_expectancy}
+------------+---------------------+------------+---------------------+
| Period | Life expectancy in\ | Period | Life expectancy in\ |
| | Years | | Years |
+============+=====================+============+=====================+
| 1950--1955 | 45.7 | 1985--1990 | 63.2 |
+------------+---------------------+------------+---------------------+
| 1955--1960 | 47.5 | 1990--1995 | 66.0 |
+------------+---------------------+------------+---------------------+
| 1960--1965 | 49.5 | 1995--2000 | 67.7 |
+------------+---------------------+------------+---------------------+
| 1965--1970 | 51.6 | 2000--2005 | 72.9 |
+------------+---------------------+------------+---------------------+
| 1970--1975 | 53.5 | 2005--2010 | 74.9 |
+------------+---------------------+------------+---------------------+
| 1975--1980 | 55.7 | 2010--2015 | 76.2 |
+------------+---------------------+------------+---------------------+
| 1980--1985 | 59.6 | | |
+------------+---------------------+------------+---------------------+
Source: *UN World Population Prospects*
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# Demographics of Morocco
## Ethnic groups {#ethnic_groups}
`{{Pie chart|caption=Ethnic groups in Morocco (2012)<ref name="OxfordBusinessGroup" />|label1=[[Arabs]]|label2=[[Berbers]]|label3=[[Sahrawis]]|value1=67|value2=31|value3=2|color1=DarkGreen|color2=Yellow|color3=Purple|color4=Pink|color5=Cyan}}`{=mediawiki}Moroccans are primarily of Arab and Berber origin as in other neighbouring countries in the Maghreb. Arabs comprise 67% of the population of Morocco, while Berbers make up 31% and Sahrawis make up 2%. However, according to *Encyclopædia Britannica*, 44% of Moroccans are Arab, 24% are Arabized Berbers, 21% are Berbers, and 10% are Mauritanian Moors.
The Arab population of Morocco is a result of the inflow of nomadic Arab tribes from the Arabian Peninsula since the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb in the 7th century with a major wave in the 11th century. The major migration to the region by Arab tribes was in the 11th century when the tribes of Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym, along with others, were sent by the Fatimids to defeat a Berber rebellion and then settle in the Maghreb. Between the Nile and the Red Sea were Arab tribes expelled from Arabia for their turbulence, Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym, who often plundered farming areas in the Nile Valley. According to Ibn Khaldun, whole tribes set off with women, children, ancestors, animals and camping equipment. These tribes, who arrived in the region of Morocco around the 12th-13th centuries, and later the Ma\'qil in the 14th century, contributed to a more extensive ethnic, genetic, cultural, and linguistic Arabization of Morocco over time, especially beyond the major urban centres and the northern regions which were the main sites of Arabization up to that point.
The Berber population mainly lives in the mountainous regions of Morocco where some preserve Berber culture, and are split into three groups; Rifians, Shilha, and Zayanes. The Rifians inhabit the Rif mountains, the Shilha inhabit the Anti-Atlas mountains, and the Zayanes inhabit the Middle Atlas mountains. The Arabized Berbers who constitute about a quarter of the population are the Berbers who were Arabized mainly as a result of the Arab nomad inflow, and have adopted Arab culture and the Arabic language as their native language, especially those who sought the protection of the Bedouin. Some parts of the population are descendants of refugees who fled Spain after the Reconquista in the 15th century. The Trans-Saharan slave trade brought a population of Sub-Saharan Africans to Morocco. After the founding of Israel and start of the Arab-Israeli conflict in 1948, many Jews felt compelled to leave Morocco especially after the anti-Jewish riots in Oujda, and many fled to Israel, Europe, and North America, and by 1967 250,000 Jews left Morocco. In a 2021 survey on 1,200 Moroccan adults, 68% were Arab, 25.6% were Berber, 3.6% were Sahrawi, and 2.7% were others.
### Immigration
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# Demographics of Morocco
## Languages
Arabic and Berber are the official languages of Morocco. The majority spoken language in Morocco is Arabic which is spoken by 92.7% of the population and includes the dialects of Moroccan Arabic (Hilalian dialects), spoken by 91.9%, and Hassaniya Arabic, spoken by 0.8%. Berber languages are spoken by 24.8% of the population in three varieties (3.2% speak Tarifit, 14.2% speak Shilha, and 7.4% speak Tamazight). According to the 2024 Moroccan census, 99.2%, or almost the entire literate population of Morocco, could read and write in Arabic, while 1.5% of the population could read and write in Berber. The census also indicated that 80.6% of Moroccans consider Arabic to be their native language, while 18.9% regard any of the various Berber languages as their mother tongue.
French is an implicitly \"official language\" of government and big business, and is taught throughout school and still serves as Morocco\'s primary language of business, economics, and scientific university education. French is also widely used in the media. Morocco is a member of La Francophonie. Berber activists have struggled since the 1960s for the recognition of their language as an official language of Morocco, which was achieved in July 2011 following the February 20th 2011 uprising. About 20,000 Moroccans in the northern part of the country speak some Spanish.
English, while still far behind French in terms of the number of proficient speakers, is rapidly becoming a foreign language of choice among educated youth and business people. It has been taught to Moroccan students after the fourth year of elementary school since the education reforms of 2002
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# Politics of Morocco
**Politics of Morocco** take place in a framework of an official parliamentary semi-constitutional islamic monarchy, whereby the prime minister of Morocco is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament, the Assembly of Representatives of Morocco and the Assembly of Councillors. The Moroccan Constitution provides for a monarchy with a Parliament and an independent judiciary.
On June 17, 2011, King Mohammed VI announced a series of reforms that would transform Morocco into a constitutional monarchy.
## Executive branch {#executive_branch}
\|King \|Mohammed VI \| \|23 July 1999 \|- \|Prime Minister \|Aziz Akhannouch \|RNI \|10 September 2021 \|- \|} The constitution grants the king extensive powers; he is both the secular political leader and the \"Commander of the Faithful\" as a direct descendant of the Prophet Mohammed. He presides over the Council of Ministers; appoints the prime minister following legislative elections, and on recommendations from the latter, appoints the members of the government. While the constitution theoretically allows the king to terminate the tenure of any minister, and after consultation with the heads of the higher and lower Assemblies, to dissolve the Parliament, suspend the constitution, call for new elections, or rule by decree, the only time this happened was in 1965. The King is formally the chief of the military. Upon the death of his father Mohammed V, King Hassan II succeeded to the throne in 1961. He ruled Morocco for the next 38 years until he died in 1999. His son, the King Mohammed VI, assumed the throne in July 1999.
Following the March 1998 elections, a coalition government headed by opposition socialist Abderrahmane Youssoufi and composed largely of ministers drawn from opposition parties, was formed. Prime Minister Youssoufi\'s government is the first government drawn primarily from opposition parties in decades, and also represents the first opportunity for a coalition of socialist, left-of-centre, and nationalist parties to be included in the government until October 2002. It was also the first time in the modern political history of the Arab world that the opposition assumed power following an election. The current government is headed by Aziz Akhannouch, who was appointed by King Mohammed VI after his party won a plurality of seats in the September 2021 general election. His cabinet was sworn in on 7 October.
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
**The House of Representatives**: The House of Representatives consisted of 395 members elected by direct suffrage through a list system vote as follows:
- 305 members at local constituencies level
- 90 members at national constituencies level: 60 of whom are women, and 30 are youths.
**The House of Councilors**: The House of Councilors consists of 120 members elected according to the following regulations and procedures:
- 72 members from local communes
- 20 members from professional chambers
- 8 members from professional organizations of employers
- 20 members from the representatives of the wage earners
## Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
On 26 November 2011, the initial results of the parliamentary elections were released. The moderate Islamist party, the Justice and Development Party (PJD), was projected to win the largest number of seats. However, the electoral rules were structured such that no political party could win more than 20 percent of the seats in the parliament.
The Justice and Development Party (PJD) remained the largest party, winning 125 of the 395 seats in the House of Representatives, a gain of 18 seats compared to the 2011 elections. Abdelillah Benkirane was reappointed Prime Minister by the King on 10 October. The Authenticity and Modernity Party (PAM) won 102 seats, and the rest of the seats were split among smaller parties.
In the September 2021 general election, the moderate Islamist PJD suffered an electoral wipeout, with the liberal National Rally of Independents becoming the largest party in Parliament. Its leader, Aziz Akhannouch, subsequently formed a coalition government with the Authenticity and Modernity Party and Istiqlal Party.
## Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
The highest court in the judicial structure is the Supreme Court, whose judges are appointed by the King. The Youssoufi government continued to implement a reform program to develop greater judicial independence and impartiality.
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## Administrative divisions {#administrative_divisions}
Since 2015 Morocco officially administers 12 regions: Béni Mellal-Khénifra, Casablanca-Settat, Dakhla-Oued Ed-Dahab, Drâa-Tafilalet, Fès-Meknès, Guelmim-Oued Noun, Laâyoune-Sakia El Hamra, Marrakech-Safi, Oriental, Rabat-Salé-Kénitra, Souss-Massa and Tanger-Tetouan-Al Hoceima. The regions are administered by Walis and governors appointed by the King.
Morocco is divided also into 13 prefectures and 62 provinces. Prefectures: Agadir-Ida Ou Tanane, Casablanca, Fès, Inezgane-Aït Melloul, Marrakesh, Meknès, Mohammedia, Oujda-Angad, Rabat, Safi, Salé, Skhirate-Témara and Tangier-Assilah. Provinces: Al Haouz, Al Hoceïma, Aousserd, Assa-Zag, Azilal, Benslimane, Béni-Mellal, Berkane, Berrechid, Boujdour, Boulemane, Chefchaouen, Chichaoua, Chtouka Aït Baha, Driouch, El Hajeb, El Jadida, El Kelâa des Sraghna, Errachidia, Es Semara, Essaouira, Fahs-Anjra, Figuig, Fquih Ben Salah, Guelmim, Guercif, Ifrane, Jerada, Kénitra, Khémisset, Khénifra, Khouribga, Laâyoune, Larache, Médiouna, Midelt, Moulay Yacoub, Nador, Nouaceur, Ouarzazate, Oued Ed-Dahab, Ouezzane, Rehamna, Safi, Sefrou, Settat, Sidi Bennour, Sidi Ifni, Sidi Kacem, Sidi Slimane, Tan-Tan, Taounate, Taourirt, Tarfaya, Taroudannt, Tata, Taza, Tétouan, Tinghir, Tiznit, Youssoufia and Zagora.
## International organization affiliations {#international_organization_affiliations}
ABEDA, ACCT (associate), AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, AMU, EBRD, ECA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO (pending member), ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITF, ITU, NAM, OAS (observer), OIC, OPCW, OSCE (partner), UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCO, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
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# Transport in Morocco
There are around 56986 km of roads (national, regional and provincial) in Morocco. In addition to 1808 km of highways (August 2016).
The Tangier--Casablanca high-speed rail link marks the first stage of the ONCF\'s high-speed rail master plan, pursuant to which over 1500 km of new railway lines will be built by 2035. The high speed train - TGV - will have a capacity of 500 passengers and will carry 8 million passengers per year. The work on the High Speed Rail project was started in September 2011. Construction of infrastructure and delivery of railway equipment will end in 2014 and the HSR will be operational by `{{Date|December 2015}}`{=mediawiki}.
## Government policy {#government_policy}
With billions of dollars committed to improving the country\'s infrastructure, Morocco aims to become a world player in terms of marine transport. The 2008--2012 investment plan aims to invest \$16.3 billion and will contribute to major projects such as the combined port and industrial complex of the Tanger-Med and the construction of a high-speed train between Tangier and Casablanca. The plan will also improve and expand the existing highway system and expand the Casablanca Mohammed V International Airport. Morocco\'s transport sector is one of the kingdom\'s most dynamic, and will remain so for years to come. The improvements in infrastructure will boost other sectors and will also help the country in its goal of attracting 10 million tourists by 2010.
## Railways
*Main article: Rail transport in Morocco* Further information: ONCF 1907 km `{{RailGauge|sg}}`{=mediawiki} standard gauge, 1003 km electrified with 3 kV DC.
### High speed lines {#high_speed_lines}
Morocco has one high-speed line with plans for several additional high-speed lines extensions.
Since 2018, the first high-speed rail line connects Casablanca and Tangier. This line is the first of its kind on the African continent. The line was inaugurated on 15 November 2018, by King Mohammed VI of Morocco. It is called Al Boraq (البُراق) in reference to the mythical creature that transported the Islamic prophets. On 26 November 2018, it was launched. This high-speed line allows a 323-kilometer-long (201 mi) high-speed rail service.the service is operated by the ONCF.
The high-speed line required over a decade of planning and construction. Work by ONCF began in September 2011 on a first section from Tangier to Kenitra.
The current high-speed line Tangier-Kenitra under construction was impacted by delays resulting from issues about land acquisitions because this operation was performed by different provincial governors, in order to avoid such delays on the next high-speed rail Marrakech-Essaouira, the national railway company ONCF was given the green light to start the land acquisition and expropriation procedure.
There are plans for extensions on two core lines: a first one from Tangier in the north via Marrakesh to Agadir in the south, and a second from Casablanca on the Atlantic to Oujda on the Algerian border. If all of these plans are approved soon enough, building the 1,500 kilometres of tracks may last until 2035 to complete at a cost of around 100 billion dirhams (\$10 billion).
#### Proposed high speed extensions {#proposed_high_speed_extensions}
Potential speed gains are large, with travel time from Casablanca to Marrakesh down from 3 hours to 1:20, and from the capital Rabat to Tangier from 4:30 to 1:30.
The second High-Speed Rail (HSR) which is planned to be built after Tangier-Kenitra is the HSR Marrakech-Essaouira (180 km) followed by a new HSR Rabat-Meknes (130 km). The last high-speed lines will connect these two old empire cities to the Atlantique coast in less than one hour instead of two hours now.
In December 2024, Morocco secured \$14 billion in investments to expand Morocco\'s high speed rail. The goal of the project is to increase the high speed rail coverage of 320km to over 1280km by 2040, this would significantly enhance the country\'s connectivity, reduce travel times, and contribute to a greener, more sustainable transport system.
high-speed rail linking Kenitra to Marrakech via Casablanca Airport is being currently constructed. Journeys to Marrakech will only take 2 hours 45 minutes by 2029, down from 7 hours. Another line connecting Marrakech to Agadir could be ready as soon as mid-2025.
### Other routes {#other_routes}
A railway connecting Nador to the existing network at Taourirt was finished in 2010, after it had been under construction since 2007.
## Tramways
- Rabat-Salé tramway (2011)
- Casablanca Tramway (2012)
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# Transport in Morocco
## Roads
As of 2006 there were around 57625 kilometres of roads (national, regional and provincial) in Morocco, and an additional 1808 kilometers of highways (August 2016).
Principal national roads:
- National Route 1 (Morocco)
- National Route 2 (Morocco)
- National Route 3 (Morocco)
- National Route 4 (Morocco)
- National Route 5 (Morocco)
- National Route 6 (Morocco)
- National Route 7 (Morocco)
- National Route 8 (Morocco)
- National Route 9 (Morocco)
- National Route 10 (Morocco)
- National Route 11 (Morocco)
- National Route 12 (Morocco)
- National Route 13 (Morocco)
- National Route 14 (Morocco)
- National Route 15 (Morocco)
- National Route 16 (Morocco)
### Highways
- Rabat Ring Road (42 km)
- A1 Casablanca-Rabat (86 km)
- A1 Casablanca--Safi (255 km)
- A2 Rabat-Fes (190 km)
- A2 Fes-Oujda (306 km)
- A3 Casablanca-Marrakesh (220 km)
- A3 extension to Agadir (233 km)
- A4 Berrechid-Benni Mellal (172 km)
- A5 Rabat-Tangier Med (308 km)
- A7 Tetouan-Fnideq (28 km)
## Major airports {#major_airports}
- Agadir \-- Agadir Al Massira Airport: (AGA) Flights to most major European cities.
- Al Hoceima \-- Cherif Al Idrissi Airport: (AHU) Flights to Brussels, Amsterdam and Rotterdam
- Casablanca \-- Mohammed V International Airport: (CMN) Royal Air Maroc hub. Arrivals and departures to worldwide destinations.
- Essaouira \-- Essaouira Mogador Airport: (ESU) Flights to Brussels, Bordeaux, London, Paris, Madrid and Marseille.
- Fez \-- Fes Saïss Airport: (FEZ) Flights to Europe and Casablanca
- Laayoune \-- Hassan I Airport: (EUN) Flights to Agadir, Casablanca, Dakhla and Las Palmas.
- Marrakesh \-- Marrakesh Menara Airport: (RAK) Flights all major international airports in Western Europe
- Nador \-- Nador International Airport: (NDR) Flights to Amsterdam, Brussels, Casablanca, Cologne, Düsseldorf and Paris.
- Oujda \-- Angads Airport: (OUD) Flights to Amsterdam, Casablanca, Marseille and Paris.
- Ouarzazate \-- Ouarzazate Airport: (OZZ) Flights to Casablanca and Paris.
- Rabat \-- Rabat--Salé Airport: (RBA) Flights to Paris, Brussels, Barcelona, London, Madrid, Rome, Düsseldorf, Toulouse, Marseille and Seville.
- Tangier \-- Tangier Ibn Battouta Airport: (TNG) Flights all major international airports in Western Europe
- Tetouan \-- Tetouan Saniat Rmel Airport: (TTU) Flights to Brussels, Malaga, Seville, Madrid, Al Hoceima and Casablanca.
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## National airlines {#national_airlines}
- Air Arabia Maroc
- Royal Air Maroc
- Royal Air Maroc Express
## Merchant marine {#merchant_marine}
Total: 35 ships (`{{GT|1000|metric}}`{=mediawiki} or over) by type:
- cargo ship 3,
- chemical tanker 6,
- container ship 8,
- passenger/cargo ship 12,
- petroleum tanker 1,
- refrigerated cargo ship 1,
- roll-on/roll-off 4
Foreign-owned: 14 (France 13, Germany 1) (2007)
- Registered in other countries: 4 (Gibraltar)
## Maritime companies {#maritime_companies}
- Acciona Trasmediterránea
- Baleària
- Comanav
- Comarit
- FerriMaroc
- FRS Iberia
- Grandi Navi Veloci
- Grimaldi Lines
- International Maritime Transport Corporation
- Naviera Armas
## Intercity bus companies {#intercity_bus_companies}
Bus service in Morocco offers access almost to every corner of the country
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# History of Mozambique
Mozambique was a Portuguese colony, overseas province and later a member state of Portugal. It gained independence from Portugal in 1975.
## Pre-colonial history {#pre_colonial_history}
### Prehistoric Mozambique {#prehistoric_mozambique}
In 2007 Julio Mercader, of the University of Calgary, recovered dozens of 100,000-year-old stone tools from a deep limestone cave (Ngalue) near Lake Niassa in Mozambique showing that wild sorghum, the ancestor of the chief cereal consumed today in sub-Saharan Africa for flours, bread, porridges, and alcoholic beverages, was being consumed by *Homo sapiens* along with African wine palm, the false banana, pigeon peas, wild oranges, and the African \"potato.\" This is the earliest direct evidence of humans using pre-domesticated cereals anywhere in the world.
The first inhabitants of what is now Mozambique were the San hunters and gatherers, ancestors of the Khoisani peoples. Between the 1st and 5th centuries AD, waves of Bantu-speaking peoples migrated from the north through the Zambezi River valley and then gradually into the plateau and coastal areas. The Bantu were farmers and iron workers.
### Intercultural contact {#intercultural_contact}
When Vasco da Gama, exploring for Portugal, reached the coast of Mozambique in 1498, Arab trading settlements had existed along the coast and outlying islands for several centuries, and political control of the coast was in the hands of a string of local sultans. Muslims had actually lived in the region for quite some time; the famous Arab historian and geographer, Al-Masudi, reported Muslims amongst Africans in the land of Sofala in 947 (modern day Mozambique, itself a derivative of the name of the Sheikh who ruled the area at the time when the Portuguese arrived, Mussa Bin Bique). Most of the local people had embraced Islam. The region lay at the southernmost end of a traditional trading world that encompassed the Red Sea, the Hadhramaut coast of Arabia and the Indian coast, described in the 1st-century coasting guide that is called the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
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# History of Mozambique
## Portuguese Mozambique (1498--1975) {#portuguese_mozambique_14981975}
From about 1500, Portuguese trading posts and forts displaced the Arabic commercial and military hegemony, becoming regular ports of call on the new European sea route to the east.
The voyage of Vasco da Gama around the Cape of Good Hope in 1498 marked the Portuguese entry into trade, politics, and society of the region. The Portuguese gained control of the Island of Mozambique and the port city of Sofala in the early 16th century, and by the 1530s, small groups of Portuguese traders and prospectors seeking gold penetrated the interior regions, where they set up garrisons and trading posts at Sena and Tete on the River Zambezi and tried to gain exclusive control over the gold trade.
The Portuguese attempted to legitimise and consolidate their trade and settlement positions through the creation of *prazos* (land grants) tied to Portuguese settlement and administration. While *prazos* were originally developed to be held by Portuguese, through intermarriage they became African Portuguese or African Indian centres defended by large African slave armies known as *Chikunda*. Historically within Mozambique there was slavery. Human beings were bought and sold by African tribal chiefs, Arab Muslim traders and Portuguese and other European traders as well. Many Mozambican slaves were supplied by tribal chiefs who raided warring tribes and sold their captives to the *prazeiros*.
Although Portuguese influence gradually expanded, its power was limited and exercised through individual settlers and officials who were granted extensive autonomy. The Portuguese were able to wrest much of the coastal trade from Arab Muslims between 1500 and 1700, but, with the Arab Muslim seizure of Portugal\'s key foothold at Fort Jesus on Mombasa Island (now in Kenya) in 1698, the pendulum began to swing in the other direction. As a result, investment lagged while Lisbon devoted itself to the more lucrative trade with India and the Far East and to the colonisation of Brazil.
During these wars, the Mazrui and Omani Arabs reclaimed much of the Indian Ocean trade, forcing the Portuguese to retreat south. Many *prazos* had declined by the mid-19th century, but several of them survived. During the 19th century other European powers, particularly the British (British South Africa Company) and the French (Madagascar), became increasingly involved in the trade and politics of the region around the Portuguese East African territories.
By the early 20th century the Portuguese had shifted the administration of much of Mozambique to large private companies, like the Mozambique Company, the Zambezia Company and the Niassa Company, controlled and financed mostly by the British, which established railroad lines to their neighbouring colonies (South Africa and Rhodesia). Although slavery had been legally abolished in Mozambique, at the end of the 19th century the Chartered companies enacted a forced labor policy and supplied cheap---often forced---African labour to the mines and plantations of the nearby British colonies and South Africa. The Zambezia Company, the most profitable chartered company, took over a number of smaller *prazeiro* holdings, and established military outposts to protect its property. The chartered companies built roads and ports to bring their goods to market including a railroad linking present day Zimbabwe with the Mozambican port of Beira.
Due to their unsatisfactory performance and the shift, under the corporatist Estado Novo regime of Oliveira Salazar, towards a stronger Portuguese control of Portuguese Empire\'s economy, the companies\' concessions were not renewed when they ran out. This was what happened in 1942 with the Mozambique Company, which however continued to operate in the agricultural and commercial sectors as a corporation, and had already happened in 1929 with the termination of the Niassa Company\'s concession. In 1951, the Portuguese overseas colonies in Africa were rebranded as Overseas Provinces of Portugal.
## Mozambican War of Independence (1964--1974) {#mozambican_war_of_independence_19641974}
As communist and anti-colonial ideologies spread out across Africa, many clandestine political movements were established in support of Mozambican independence. These movements claimed that since policies and development plans were primarily designed by the ruling authorities for the benefit of Mozambique\'s Portuguese population, little attention was paid to Mozambique\'s tribal integration and the development of its native communities.
This affected a majority of the indigenous population who suffered both state-sponsored discrimination and enormous social pressure.
The Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) initiated a guerrilla campaign against Portuguese rule in September 1964. This conflict---along with the two others already initiated in the other Portuguese colonies of Angola and Portuguese Guinea---became part of the so-called Portuguese Colonial War (1961--1974). From a military standpoint, the Portuguese regular army maintained control of the population centres while the guerrilla forces sought to undermine their influence in rural and tribal areas in the north and west. As part of their response to FRELIMO, the Portuguese government began to pay more attention to creating favourable conditions for social development and economic growth.
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# History of Mozambique
## Independence (1975) {#independence_1975}
After 10 years of sporadic warfare and Portugal\'s return to democracy through a leftist military coup in Lisbon, which replaced Portugal\'s Estado Novo regime with a military junta (the Carnation Revolution of April 1974), FRELIMO took control of the territory. Within a year, most of the 250,000 Portuguese in Mozambique had left---some expelled by the government of the nearly independent territory, some fleeing in fear---and Mozambique became independent from Portugal on 25 June 1975. A law had been passed on the initiative of the then relatively unknown Armando Guebuza of the FRELIMO party ordering the Portuguese to leave the country in 24 hours with only 20 kilograms (44 pounds) of luggage. Unable to salvage any of their assets, most of them returned to Portugal penniless.
## Civil War (1977--1992) {#civil_war_19771992}
Formed in 1975, Mozambican National Resistance, an anti-communist group sponsored by the Rhodesian Intelligence Service, and the apartheid government in South Africa, launched a series of attacks on transport routes, schools and health clinics, and the country descended into civil war. In the United States, the CIA and conservatives lobbied for support to RENAMO, which was strongly resisted by the State Department, which would \"not recognize or negotiate with RENAMO\".
In 1984, Mozambique negotiated the Nkomati Accord with P. W. Botha and the South African government, in which Mozambique was to expel the African National Congress in exchange for South Africa stopping support of Renamo. At first both sides complied but it soon became evident that infringements were taking place on both sides and the war continued. In 1986, Mozambican President Samora Machel died in an air crash in South African territory. Although unproven, many suspect the South African government of responsibility for his death. Machel was replaced by Joaquim Chissano as president. The war was marked by huge human rights violations by both RENAMO and FRELIMO.
With support for RENAMO from South Africa drying up, in 1990 the first direct talks between the FRELIMO government and Renamo were held. In November 1990 a new constitution was adopted. Mozambique was now a multiparty state, with periodic elections, and guaranteed democratic rights. On 4 October 1992, the Rome General Peace Accords, negotiated by the Community of Sant\'Egidio with the support of the United Nations, were signed in Rome between President Chissano and RENAMO leader Afonso Dhlakama, which formally took effect on the October 15, 1992. A UN Peacekeeping Force (ONUMOZ) oversaw a two-year transition to democracy. The last ONUMOZ contingents departed in early 1995.
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# History of Mozambique
## Democratic era (1994--present) {#democratic_era_1994present}
Mozambique held elections in 1994, which were accepted by most parties as free and fair while still contested by many nationals and observers alike. FRELIMO won, under Joaquim Chissano, while RENAMO, led by Afonso Dhlakama, ran as the official opposition.
In 1995, Mozambique joined the Commonwealth of Nations, becoming, at the time, the only member nation that had never been part of the British Empire.
By mid-1995, over 1.7 million refugees who had sought asylum in neighboring countries had returned to Mozambique, part of the largest repatriation witnessed in sub-Saharan Africa. An additional four million internally displaced persons had returned to their homes.
In December 1999, Mozambique held elections for a second time since the civil war, which were again won by FRELIMO. RENAMO accused FRELIMO of fraud, and threatened to return to civil war, but backed down after taking the matter to the Supreme Court and losing.
In early 2000 a cyclone caused widespread flooding in the country, killing hundreds and devastating the already precarious infrastructure. There were widespread suspicions that foreign aid resources have been diverted by powerful leaders of FRELIMO. Carlos Cardoso, a journalist investigating these allegations, was murdered but his death was not satisfactorily explained.
Indicating in 2001 that he would not run for a third term, Chissano criticized leaders who stayed on longer than he had, which was generally seen as a reference to Zambian president Frederick Chiluba, who at the time was considering a third term, and Zimbabwean president Robert Mugabe, then in his fourth term. Presidential and National Assembly elections took place on December 1--2, 2004. FRELIMO candidate Armando Guebuza won with 64% of the popular vote. His opponent, Afonso Dhlakama of RENAMO, received 32% of the popular vote. FRELIMO won 160 seats in Parliament. A coalition of RENAMO and several small parties won the 90 remaining seats. Armando Guebuza was inaugurated as the President of Mozambique on February 2, 2005.
Much of the economic recovery which has followed the end of the Mozambican Civil War (1977--1992) is being led by investors and tourists from neighbour South Africa and from East Asia. A number of returning Portuguese nationals have also invested in the country as well as some Italian organizations. Coal and gas have grown to become large sectors. The income per capita tripled over twenty years since the civil war.
Mozambique was declared to be free of land mines in 2015, following a 22-year effort to remove explosive devices planted during the War of Independence and Civil War.
The candidate of the ruling Mozambican Liberation Front\'s (Frelimo) Filipe Nyusi has been the President of Mozambique since January 2015 after winning the election in October 2014.
President Filipe Nyusi was re-elected after a landslide victory in the 2019 general elections. Frelimo won 184 seats, Renamo got 60 seats and the MDM party received the remaining six in the National Assembly. The opposition did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud and irregularities. Frelimo secured two-thirds majority in parliament which allowed Frelimo to re-adjust the constitution without needing the agreement of the opposition.
In October 2024 the ruling FRELIMO party, which has increasingly become marked with growing concerns of authoritarianism and impunity amid the controversies surrounding the 2023 local elections and the 2019 general election, was declared the winner of the general election, with its leader, Daniel Chapo, proclaimed as president-elect. This was disputed by Venâncio Mondlane, with his party PODEMOS claiming Mondlane had received 53% of the vote using data from their poll observers. The result was also questioned by the Episcopal Conference of Mozambique and the European Union, while deadly protests broke out over the election results, with at least 250 deaths, mostly demonstrators being killed by police and army forces
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# Geography of Mozambique
upright=1.4\|thumb\|Map of Mozambique\'s population centres thumb\|upright=1.3\|Mozambique\'s topography thumb\|upright=1.3\|A view of the Zambezi river delta from space.
The **geography of Mozambique** consists mostly of coastal lowlands with uplands in its centre and high plateaus in the northwest. There are also mountains in the western portion. The country is located on the east coast of southern Africa, directly west of the island of Madagascar. Mozambique has a tropical climate with two seasons, a wet season from October to March and a dry season from April to September.
## Physical features {#physical_features}
### The coast {#the_coast}
The coastline extends from 26° 52′ S. to 10° 40′ S., and from south to north makes a double curve with a general trend outward to the east. It has a length of 1430 mi.
The southern coastline is characterized by sandy beaches backed by coastal dunes. The dunes can reach up to 120 m in height, and older dunes are vegetated. Behind the coastal dunes are lagoons, including river estuaries, closed saline lagoons, and salt lakes. Some 40 mi north of the South African frontier is the deep indentation of Maputo Bay (formerly Delagoa Bay). The land then turns outward to Cape Correntes, a little north of which is Inhambane Bay. Bending westward again and passing the Bazaruto Archipelago of several small islands, of which the chief is Bazaruto.
Mozambique\'s central coast, from Bazaruto Island north to Angoche Island, is known as the Bight of Sofala or Sofala Bay. It is also known as the Swamp Coast, and is characterized by extensive mangrove swamps and coastal wetlands. As in the south, the coastline is generally low, and harbours are few and poor. Beira is the principal seaport on the central coast, with rail and highway links to the interior.
The bay has an area of 801,590 km2. The continental shelf is up to 140 km wide at Beira, and is Mozambique\'s most important marine fishery. Several large rivers, including the Save, Pungwe, and Zambezi, create coastal estuaries and river deltas, of which the Zambezi delta is the largest. North of the Zambezi, the small coralline islands of the Primeiras and Segundas Archipelago lie parallel to the coast.
The northern coast is much indented, abounding in rocky headlands and rugged cliffs, with an almost continuous fringe of islands. On one of these islands is Mozambique, and immediately north of that port is Conducia Bay. Somewhat farther north are two large bays, Fernao Veloso Bay and Memba Bay. Nacala on Fernao Veloso Bay is the principal seaport on the northern coast, with a rail link to Malawi and the coalfields of northwestern Mozambique. North of Fernao Veloso and Memba bays is Pemba Bay, where there is commodious anchorage for heavy draught vessels. North of Pemba Bay the Quirimbas Islands lie offshore, and numerous bays and estuaries indent the coast. Cape Delgado, the northernmost point on Mozambique\'s coast, is part of the delta of the Ruvuma River, which forms Mozambique\'s border with Tanzania.
The northern coast is part of the East African coral coast, a marine ecoregion that extends along the coasts of northern Mozambique, Tanzania, and Kenya. Along the northern coast the Mozambique Current, which flows south between Madagascar and the continent is close to the coast and scours out all the softer material, while at the same time the corals are building in deep waters.
A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 2,029km² of tidal flats in Mozambique, making it the 16th ranked country in terms of how much tidal flat occurs there.
### Orography
Orographically the backbone of the country is the mountain chain which forms the eastern escarpment of the continental plateau. It does not present a uniformly abrupt descent to the plains, but in places, as in the lower Zambezi district, slopes gradually to the coast. The Lebombo Mountains, behind Delagoa Bay, nowhere exceed 2070 ft in height. The Manica Plateau, farther north between the Save and Zambezi rivers, is higher, rising towards the Eastern Highlands along the border with Zimbabwe. Monte Binga (2440 m), on the border with Zimbabwe, is Mozambique\'s highest peak. Mount Gorongosa (6550 ft) lies north-east of the Manica Plateau, and is, like it, of granitic formation. Gorongosa, rising isolated with precipitous outer slopes, has been likened in its aspect to a frowning citadel. East of Gorongosa a graben valley extends from the Zambezi to Pungwe Bay, the southern extension of the African Rift Valley. The Cheringoma Plateau lies east of the graben, sloping gently towards the coast.
The chief mountain range lies north of the Zambezi, and east of Lake Chilwa, namely, the Namuli Mountains, in which Namuli Peak rises to 8860 ft, and Molisani, Mruli and Mresi attain altitudes of 6500 to These mountains are covered with magnificent forests. Farther north the river basins are divided by well-marked ranges with heights of 3000 ft and over. Near the south-east shore of Lake Malawi there is a high range (5000 to) with an abrupt descent to the lake --- some 3000 ft in 6 mi. The country between Malawi and Ibo is remarkable for the number of fantastically-shaped granite peaks, or inselbergs, which rise from the plateau.
The plateau lands west of the escarpment are of moderate elevation --- perhaps averaging 2000 to. It is, however, only along the Zambezi and north of that river that Mozambique\'s territory reaches to the continental plateau. This northern plain has been categorised by the World Wildlife Fund as part of the Eastern miombo woodlands ecoregion.
### Rivers
Besides the Zambezi, the most considerable river in Mozambique is the Limpopo which enters the Indian Ocean about 100 mi north of Maputo Bay. The other Mozambican rivers with considerable drainage areas are the Komati, Save, Buzi, and Pungwe south of the Zambezi, and the Licungo (Likungo), Ligonha, Lúrio, Montepuez (Montepuesi or Mtepwesi), Messalo (or Msalu), and Ruvuma (or Rovuma) with its affluent the Lugenda (or Lujenda), north of the Zambezi.
The Save (or Sabi) rises in Zimbabwe at an elevation of over 3000 ft, and after flowing south for over 200 mi turns east and pierces the mountains some 170 mi from the coast, being joined near the Zimbabwe-Mozambique frontier by the Lundi. Cataracts entirely prevent navigation above this point. Below the Lundi confluence the bed of the Save becomes considerably broader, varying from 1/2 to. In the rainy season the Save is a large stream and even in the \"dries\" it can be navigated from its mouth by shallow draught steamers for over 150 mi. Its general direction through Mozambique is east by north. At its mouth it forms a delta 60 mi in extent.
The Buzi (220 mi) and Pungwe (180 mi) are streams north of and similar in character to the Save. They both rise in the Manica Highlands and enter the ocean in a large estuary, their mouths 1 to apart. The lower reaches of both streams are navigable, the Buzi for 25 mi, the Pungwe for about 2 mi. The port of Beira is at the mouth of the Pungwe.
Of the north-Zambezi streams the Licungo, rising in the hills south-east of Lake Chilwa, flows south and enters the ocean not far north of Quelimane. The Lúrio, rising in the Namuli Mountains, flows north-east, having a course of some 200 mi. The Montepurez and the Messalo drain the country between the Lúrio and Ruvuma basins. Their banks are in general well-defined and the wet season rise seems fairly constant.
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# Geography of Mozambique
## Physical features {#physical_features}
### Somali Plate {#somali_plate}
Geologists have divided the Phanerozoic era of Mozambique\'s geology into the Karoo and post-Karoo era. This terminology is mostly used pertaining to studies of the structural and stratigraphic composition of rocks in the Zambezi valley. Mozambique entirely lies within the Somali Plate.
## Climate
thumb\|upright=1.3\|Mozambique map of Köppen climate classification zones Mozambique has a tropical climate with two seasons, a wet season from October to March and a dry season from April to September. Climatic conditions vary depending on altitude. Rainfall is heavy along the coast and decreases in the north and south.
Annual precipitation varies from 500 to depending on the region with an average of 590 mm. Cyclones are also common during the wet season. Average temperature ranges in Maputo are from 13 to in July to 22 to in February.
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# Geography of Mozambique
## Facts
Area:
:\*Total: 801,590 km2
:\*\**country rank in the world:* 35th
:\* Land: 786,380 km²
:\*Water: 13,000 km²
Area comparative
:\* Australia comparative: approximately the size of New South Wales
:\* Canada comparative: slightly less than twice the size of Newfoundland and Labrador
:\* United States comparative: slightly less than three times the size of Colorado
:\* EU comparative: slightly less than `{{sfrac|3|5}}`{=mediawiki} larger than Spain
**Capital**
- Maputo (Lourenço Marques)
**Major Cities**
- Matola
- Nampula
- Beira
- Chimoio
- Nacala
- Quelimane
- Tete
- Lichinga
- Pemba (Porto Amelia)
**Other Cities**
- Angoche (António Enes)
**Land boundaries:** *total:* 4,571 km\
*border countries:* Malawi 1,569 km, South Africa 491 km, Eswatini 105 km, Tanzania 756 km, Zambia 419 km, Zimbabwe 1,231 km
**Coastline:** 2,470 km
**Maritime claims:**\
*territorial sea:* 12 nmi\
*exclusive economic zone:* 578,986 km2 and 200 nmi
**Elevation extremes:**\
*lowest point:* Indian Ocean 0 m\
*highest point:* Monte Binga 2 436 m
**Natural resources:** coal, titanium, natural gas, hydropower, tantalum, graphite
**Land use:**\
*arable land:* 6.51% (2011), 5.43% (2005 est.), 3.98% (1998 est.)\
*permanent crops:* 0.25% (2011), 0.29% (2005 est.), 0.29% (1998 est.)\
*other:* 93.24% (2011), 94.28% (2005 est.), 95.73% (1998 est.)
**Irrigated land:** 1181 km2 (2003)
**Total renewable water resources:** 217.1 km^3^ (2011)
**Natural hazards:** severe droughts; devastating cyclones and floods occur in central and southern provinces
**Environment --- current issues:** a long civil war and recurrent drought in the hinterlands have resulted in increased migration of the population to urban and coastal areas with adverse environmental consequences; desertification; pollution of surface and coastal waters; elephant poaching for ivory is a problem
**Environment --- international agreements:**\
*party to:* Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
**Ecoregions**
- Eastern miombo woodlands
- Eastern Zimbabwe montane forest--grassland mosaic
- Maputaland coastal forest mosaic
- Southern miombo woodlands
- Southern Rift montane forest--grassland mosaic
- Southern Zanzibar--Inhambane coastal forest mosaic
- Zambezian coastal flooded savanna
- Zambezian flooded grasslands
- Zambezian halophytics
- Zambezian and mopane woodlands
- East African mangroves
## Extreme points {#extreme_points}
This is a list of the extreme points of Mozambique, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location
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# Demographics of Mozambique
The **demographics of Mozambique** describes the condition and overview of Mozambique\'s peoples. Demographic topics include basic education, health, and population statistics as well as identified racial and religious affiliations.
## Population
According to the 2022 revision of the world factbook the total population was 31,693,239 in 2022. The proportion of children below the age of 14 in 2020 was 45.57%, 51.5% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 2.93% was 65 years or older. A population census took place in 2017, and the preliminary results indicate a population of 28 861 863 inhabitants.
Total population Population aged 0--14 (%) Population aged 15--64 (%) Population aged 65+ (%)
------ ------------------ --------------------------- ---------------------------- -------------------------
1950 6 442 000 41.7 55.6 2.7
1955 6 972 000 41.9 55.4 2.7
1960 7 647 000 42.3 55.0 2.8
1965 8 474 000 42.9 54.3 2.8
1970 9 453 000 43.5 53.6 2.9
1975 10 620 000 43.8 53.2 3.0
1980 12 146 000 43.8 53.1 3.0
1985 13 335 000 44.7 52.2 3.1
1990 13 547 000 46.6 50.2 3.3
1995 15 933 000 44.2 52.7 3.1
2000 18 201 000 43.9 53.0 3.2
2005 20 770 000 44.4 52.4 3.2
2010 23 391 000 44.1 52.6 3.3
2020 30 098 197 45.6 51.5 2.9
Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2020) (Data refer to national projections based on 2007 census.):
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- ------------ ------------ ------------ ---------
Total 14 501 196 15 565 452 30 066 648 100
0--4 2 315 310 2 295 586 4 610 896 15.34
5--9 2 487 720 2 531 664 5 019 384 16.69
10--14 2 076 198 2 067 546 4 143 744 13.78
15--19 1 594 940 1 630 074 3 225 014 10.73
20--24 1 264 746 1 481 775 2 746 521 9.13
25--29 1 000 516 1 222 754 2 223 270 7.39
30--34 802 315 906 767 1 709 082 5.68
35--39 673 119 774 993 1 448 112 4.82
40--44 574 984 660 820 1 235 804 4.11
45--49 454 062 504 057 958 119 3.19
50--54 343 740 397 999 741 739 2.47
55--59 264 107 302 253 566 360 1.88
60--64 203 386 229 467 432 853 1.44
65-69 159 568 188 765 348 333 1.16
70-74 109 258 134 617 243 875 0.81
75-79 69 868 89 298 159 166 0.53
80+ 107 359 147 017 254 376 0.85
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 6 879 228 6 894 796 13 774 024 45.81
15--64 7 175 915 8 110 959 15 286 874 50.84
65+ 446 053 559 697 1 005 750 3.35
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# Demographics of Mozambique
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
Registration of vital events is in Mozambique not complete. The website Our World in Data prepared the following estimates based on statistics from the Population Department of the United Nations.
Mid-year population (thousands) Live births (thousands) Deaths (thousands) Natural change (thousands) Crude birth rate (per 1000) Crude death rate (per 1000) Natural change (per 1000) Total fertility rate (TFR) Infant mortality (per 1000 live births) Life expectancy (in years)
------ --------------------------------- ------------------------- -------------------- ---------------------------- ----------------------------- ----------------------------- --------------------------- ---------------------------- ----------------------------------------- ----------------------------
1950 5 920 277 160 117 46.7 27.0 19.7 5.99 204.4 37.26
1951 6 002 280 160 120 46.5 26.6 19.9 6.02 203.0 37.49
1952 6 082 284 159 125 46.5 26.1 20.4 6.06 200.2 37.93
1953 6 160 287 159 128 46.4 25.6 20.8 6.09 197.3 38.33
1954 6 237 291 158 133 46.4 25.2 21.2 6.11 194.5 38.77
1955 6 319 295 158 137 46.4 24.8 21.6 6.14 191.6 39.18
1956 6 404 299 157 141 46.4 24.4 22.0 6.16 188.8 39.63
1957 6 493 303 157 146 46.5 24.1 22.4 6.18 186.0 40.02
1958 6 580 307 157 150 46.4 23.7 22.7 6.19 183.3 40.46
1959 6 676 314 157 157 46.9 23.4 23.5 6.24 180.8 40.85
1960 6 788 322 158 164 47.3 23.2 24.1 6.32 178.5 41.22
1961 6 918 329 159 170 47.5 22.9 24.6 6.38 176.6 41.59
1962 7 060 337 161 176 47.7 22.8 24.9 6.45 175.1 41.83
1963 7 210 345 164 181 47.7 22.7 25.0 6.49 174.1 41.93
1964 7 364 351 169 182 47.6 22.9 24.7 6.52 174.0 41.67
1965 7 524 357 172 186 47.4 22.8 24.6 6.55 173.8 41.70
1966 7 690 365 176 189 47.4 22.8 24.6 6.59 173.9 41.64
1967 7 859 372 179 193 47.3 22.7 24.5 6.63 174.0 41.66
1968 8 036 380 183 197 47.2 22.7 24.5 6.67 174.2 41.67
1969 8 218 389 186 202 47.2 22.6 24.6 6.71 174.2 41.71
1970 8 412 396 190 206 47.1 22.5 24.5 6.72 174.0 41.76
1971 8 623 403 194 210 46.8 22.5 24.3 6.72 174.3 41.74
1972 8 861 413 199 214 46.8 22.5 24.3 6.74 173.5 41.59
1973 9 124 426 204 222 46.8 22.4 24.4 6.73 173.1 41.71
1974 9 404 441 208 233 47.0 22.1 24.8 6.71 172.6 42.07
1975 9 704 457 211 246 47.2 21.8 25.4 6.69 171.6 42.58
1976 10 019 474 218 257 47.5 21.8 25.7 6.66 171.2 42.64
1977 10 364 493 225 268 47.8 21.8 26.0 6.64 171.0 42.70
1978 10 741 515 233 283 48.2 21.8 26.4 6.61 170.7 42.80
1979 11 128 539 243 296 48.6 21.9 26.7 6.58 170.8 42.74
1980 11 414 559 251 308 48.7 21.9 26.8 6.52 170.8 42.80
1981 11 640 563 277 286 48.3 23.8 24.6 6.46 181.4 40.54
1982 11 902 570 280 290 47.8 23.5 24.4 6.40 180.6 40.70
1983 12 163 580 284 297 47.7 23.3 24.4 6.39 179.6 40.83
1984 12 426 593 311 282 47.6 25.0 22.7 6.40 178.2 38.38
1985 12 680 602 313 289 47.4 24.7 22.7 6.38 176.6 38.66
1986 12 910 612 295 317 47.2 22.8 24.4 6.36 164.8 40.68
1987 12 965 621 298 323 47.1 22.6 24.5 6.34 163.0 40.84
1988 12 957 614 269 345 46.9 20.6 26.3 6.30 161.3 43.84
1989 13 088 616 268 348 46.7 20.3 26.4 6.28 159.6 44.14
1990 13 303 619 268 352 46.4 20.0 26.3 6.22 158.0 44.47
1991 13 561 626 270 356 46.0 19.8 26.2 6.16 156.2 44.66
1992 13 817 632 271 361 45.6 19.5 26.0 6.10 154.0 44.95
1993 14 206 640 270 370 45.3 19.1 26.2 6.03 151.3 45.35
1994 14 913 659 276 383 44.9 18.9 26.1 5.96 147.9 45.61
1995 15 595 693 287 406 44.5 18.4 26.1 5.90 143.8 46.04
1996 16 080 711 287 424 44.3 17.9 26.4 5.85 138.9 46.64
1997 16 522 736 287 449 44.4 17.3 27.1 5.89 133.4 47.41
1998 16 923 749 285 464 44.2 16.8 27.4 5.86 127.6 48.02
1999 17 338 764 282 483 44.0 16.2 27.8 5.83 121.5 48.81
2000 17 769 779 279 499 43.7 15.7 28.1 5.81 115.9 49.49
2001 18 221 792 277 515 43.4 15.2 28.2 5.78 110.0 50.07
2002 18 695 806 276 530 43.0 14.7 28.3 5.73 105.0 50.59
2003 19 187 824 277 547 42.9 14.4 28.5 5.73 100.5 50.87
2004 19 694 834 277 557 42.3 14.1 28.2 5.67 96.3 51.25
2005 20 211 847 278 569 41.9 13.8 28.1 5.61 92.6 51.56
2006 20 736 860 278 582 41.4 13.4 28.0 5.55 89.0 51.96
2007 21 281 876 275 600 41.1 12.9 28.2 5.51 84.5 52.57
2008 21 846 911 274 636 41.6 12.5 29.1 5.58 80.8 53.16
2009 22 437 942 273 669 41.9 12.1 29.8 5.63 77.3 53.79
2010 23 074 970 275 695 42.0 11.9 30.1 5.63 75.8 54.20
2011 23 760 989 273 716 41.6 11.5 30.1 5.55 72.9 54.87
2012 24 488 1 006 269 737 41.1 11.0 30.1 5.45 70.2 55.64
2013 25 252 1 024 265 759 40.5 10.5 30.1 5.34 67.7 56.49
2014 26 039 1 021 260 761 39.3 10.0 29.2 5.13 65.2 57.27
2015 26 843 1 041 255 786 38.8 9.5 29.3 5.06 62.3 58.15
2016 27 696 1 063 250 813 38.4 9.0 29.4 4.99 59.9 59.04
2017 28 569 1 089 248 841 38.1 8.7 29.4 4.92 58.3 59.77
2018 29 424 1 111 245 866 37.8 8.3 29.4 4.85 56.7 60.53
2019 29 884 1 169 241 928 37.3 8.0 29.3 5.02 55.0 61.3
2020 30 784 1 192 246 948 37.0 8.0 29.0 4.96 53.4 61.4
2021 31 708 1 218 266 951 36.6 8.8 27.8 4.91 52.0 60.3
2022 32 656 1 241 237 1 004 37.8 8.3 29.4 4.84 56.7 63.0
2023 33 635 1 261 236 1 025 37.8 7.0 30.5 4.76 56.7 63.6
Also, according to a 2011 survey, the total fertility rate was 5.9 children per woman, with 6.6 in rural areas and 4.5 in urban areas.
### Demographic and Health Surveys {#demographic_and_health_surveys}
Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR):
Year Total Urban
--------- ------- ----------- -------
CBR TFR CBR TFR
1997 5.2 (4.7)
2003 40 5.5 (4.9) 31
2011 41.6 5.9 (5.1) 37.4
2015 38.0 5.3 30.8
2018 37.5 5.4 31.2
2022-23 34.5 4.9 (4.2) 28.8
Fertility data by province (DHS Program):
+------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Province | Total fertility rate\ | Total fertility rate\ | Total fertility rate\ | Total fertility rate\ |
| | (2011) | (2015) | (2018) | (2022-23) |
+==================+=======================+=======================+=======================+=======================+
| Niassa | 7.1 | 6.6 | 6.4 | 6.8 |
+------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Cabo Delgado | 6.6 | 5.6 | 6.1 | 6.2 |
+------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Nampula | 6.1 | 5.2 | 6.0 | 5.8 |
+------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Zambézia | 6.8 | 6.3 | 6.2 | 5.1 |
+------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Tete | 6.8 | 6.2 | 6.0 | 5.1 |
+------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Manica | 5.8 | 6.2 | 5.8 | 5.5 |
+------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Sofala | 6.1 | 6.0 | 6.4 | 4.9 |
+------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Inhambane | 4.9 | 4.3 | 4.1 | 4.0 |
+------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Gaza | 5.3 | 4.7 | 4.1 | 3.7 |
+------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Maputo Província | 4.1 | 3.4 | 3.0 | 2.8 |
+------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| Maputo Cidade | 3.1 | 2.5 | 2.2 | 2.1 |
+------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
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## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
### Life expectancy {#life_expectancy}
+------------+---------------------+
| Period | Life expectancy in\ |
| | Years |
+============+=====================+
| 1950--1955 | 31.29 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1955--1960 | 33.79 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1960--1965 | 36.18 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1965--1970 | 38.14 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1970--1975 | 40.37 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1975--1980 | 42.21 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1980--1985 | 41.47 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1985--1990 | 42.33 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1990--1995 | 43.90 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1995--2000 | 47.21 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 2000--2005 | 49.56 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 2005--2010 | 53.24 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 2010--2015 | 56.08 |
+------------+---------------------+
## Ethnic groups {#ethnic_groups}
Mozambique\'s major ethnic groups encompass numerous subgroups with diverse languages, dialects, cultures, and histories. Many are linked to similar ethnic groups living in inland countries. The estimated 4 million Makua are the largest ethnic group of the country and are dominant in the northern part of the country --- the Sena and Shona (mostly Ndau and Manyika) are prominent in the Zambezi valley, and the Shangaan (Tsonga) dominate in southern Mozambique. Other groups include Makonde, Yao, Swahili, Tonga, Chopi, and Nguni (including Zulu). The country is also home to a growing number of white residents, most with Portuguese ancestry. During colonial rule, European residents hailed from every Mozambican province, and at the time of independence the total population was estimated at around 360,000. Most vacated the region after independence in 1975, emigrating to Portugal as *retornados*. There is also a larger *mestiço* minority with mixed African and Portuguese heritage. The remaining non-Blacks in Mozambique are primarily Indian Asiatics, who have arrived from Pakistan, Portuguese India, and numerous Arab countries. There are various estimates for the size of Mozambique\'s Chinese community, ranging from 1,500 to 12,000 `{{as of|2007|lc=on}}`{=mediawiki}.
Ethnic group Census 2017
-------------- -------------
Number \%
Black 26,637,425
Mestiço 212,540
White 22,258
Indian 15,492
Pakistani 4,423
Chinese 1,746
Other 5,221
Total 26,899,105
: Ethnic groups in Mozambique
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# Demographics of Mozambique
## Languages
Portuguese is the official and most widely spoken language of the nation, but in 2017 only 47.4% of Mozambique\'s population speak Portuguese as either their first or second language, and only 16.6% speak Portuguese as their first language. Arabs, Chinese, and Indians speak their own languages (Indians from Portuguese India speak any of the Portuguese Creoles of their origin) aside from Portuguese as their second language. Most educated Mozambicans speak English, which is used in schools and business as second or third language.
## Religion
## Culture
Despite the influence of Islamic coastal traders and European colonizers, the people of Mozambique have largely retained an indigenous culture based on smallscale agriculture. Mozambique\'s most highly developed art forms have been wood sculpture, for which the Makonde in northern Mozambique are particularly renowned, and dance. The middle and upper classes continue to be heavily influenced by the Portuguese colonial and linguistic heritage.
## Education and health {#education_and_health}
Under Portugal, educational opportunities for poor Mozambicans were limited; 93% of the Bantu population was illiterate, and many could not speak Portuguese. In fact, most of today\'s political leaders were educated in missionary schools. After independence, the government placed a high priority on expanding education, which reduced the illiteracy rate to about two-thirds as primary school enrollment increased. Unfortunately, in recent years school construction and teacher training enrollments have not kept up with population increases. With post-war enrollments reaching all-time highs, the quality of education has suffered. As a member of Commonwealth of Nations, most urban Mozambicans are required to learn English starting high-school
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# Politics of Mozambique
**Politics in Mozambique** takes place in a framework of a semi-presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Mozambique is head of state and head of government in a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Assembly of the Republic.
## Political history before the introduction of democracy {#political_history_before_the_introduction_of_democracy}
The last 25 years of Mozambique\'s history have encapsulated the political developments of the entire 20th century. Portuguese colonialism collapsed in 1974 after a decade of armed struggle, initially led by American-educated Eduardo Mondlane, who was assassinated in 1969. When independence was proclaimed in 1975, the leaders of FRELIMO\'s military campaign rapidly established a one-party state allied to the Soviet bloc, eliminating political pluralism, religious educational institutions, and the role of traditional authorities.
Mozambique\'s Portuguese population were ordered to leave the country within 24 hours, an order which was given by Armando Guebuza. Panicked Portuguese left the country via plane, road and sea and had to leave behind all their assets, returning to Portugal where they became destitute and fell under the ridicule of the European Portuguese who saw their rehabilitation as a burden on the country\'s meager resources. They became known as the \"retornados\" or refugees. Many Portuguese took their own lives.
The new government gave shelter and support to South African (ANC) and Zimbabwean (ZANU-PF) guerrilla movements while the governments of apartheid South Africa and Rhodesia fostered and financed an armed rebel movement in central Mozambique called the Mozambican National Resistance (RENAMO). Civil war, sabotage from neighbouring states, and economic collapse characterised the first decade of Mozambican independence. Also marking this period were the mass exodus of Portuguese nationals, weak infrastructure, nationalisation, and economic mismanagement. During most of the civil war the government was unable to exercise effective control outside of urban areas, many of which were cut off from the capital. An estimated one million Mozambicans perished during the civil war, 1.7 million took refuge in neighbouring states, and several million more were internally displaced. In the third FRELIMO party congress in 1983, President Samora Machel conceded the failure of socialism and the need for major political and economic reforms. His death, along with several advisers, in a suspicious plane crash in 1986 interrupted progress.
His successor, Joaquim Chissano, continued the reforms and began peace talks with RENAMO. The new constitution enacted in 1990 provided for a multi-party political system, market-based economy, and free elections. The civil war ended in October 1992 with the Rome General Peace Accords.
By mid-1995 the over 1.7 million Mozambican refugees who had sought asylum in neighbouring Malawi, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Zambia, Tanzania, and South Africa as a result of war and drought had returned, as part of the largest repatriation witnessed in Sub-Saharan Africa. Additionally, a further estimated 4 million internally displaced returned to their areas of origin.
Under supervision of the ONUMOZ peacekeeping force of the United Nations, peace returned to Mozambique. In 1994 the country held its first democratic elections. Joaquim Chissano was elected president with 53% of the vote, and a 250-member National Assembly was voted in with 129 FRELIMO deputies, 112 RENAMO deputies, and 9 representatives of three smaller parties that formed the Democratic Union (UD).
## Executive branch {#executive_branch}
\|President \|Daniel Chapo \|FRELIMO \|15 January 2025 \|- \|Prime Minister \|Maria Benvinda Levy \|FRELIMO \|15 January 2025 \|}
The Constitution of Mozambique stipulates that the President of the Republic functions as the head of state, head of government, commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and as a symbol of national unity. He is directly elected for a five-year term via run-off voting; if no candidate receives more than half of the votes cast in the first round of voting, a second round of voting will be held in which only the two candidates who received the highest number of votes in the first round will participate, and whichever of the candidates obtains a majority of votes in the second round will thus be elected president. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President. His functions include convening and chairing the Council of Ministers (cabinet), advising the President, assisting the President in governing the country, and coordinating the functions of the other Ministers.
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## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
The Assembly of the Republic (*Assembleia da República*) has 250 members, elected for a five-year term by proportional representation.
## Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
In 1994 the country held its first democratic elections. Joaquim Chissano was elected President with 53% of the vote, and a 250-member National Assembly was voted in with 129 FRELIMO deputies, 112 RENAMO deputies, and 9 representatives of three smaller parties that formed the Democratic Union (UD). Since its formation in 1994, the National Assembly has made progress in becoming a body increasingly more independent of the executive. By 1999, more than one-half (53%) of the legislation passed originated in the Assembly.
After some delays, in 1998 the country held its first local elections to provide for local representation and some budgetary authority at the municipal level. The principal opposition party, RENAMO, boycotted the local elections, citing flaws in the registration process. Independent slates contested the elections and won seats in municipal assemblies. Turnout was very low.
In the aftermath of the 1998 local elections, the government resolved to make more accommodations to the opposition\'s procedural concerns for the second round of multiparty national elections in 1999. Working through the National Assembly, the electoral law was rewritten and passed by consensus in December 1998. Financed largely by international donors, a very successful voter registration was conducted from July to September 1999, providing voter registration cards to 85% of the potential electorate (more than 7 million voters).
The second general elections were held 3--5 December 1999, with high voter turnout. International and domestic observers agreed that the voting process was well organised and went smoothly. Both the opposition and observers subsequently cited flaws in the tabulation process that, had they not occurred, might have changed the outcome. In the end, however, international and domestic observers concluded that the close result of the vote reflected the will of the people.
President Chissano won the presidency with a margin of 4% points over the RENAMO-Electoral Union coalition candidate, Afonso Dhlakama, and began his 5-year term in January 2000. FRELIMO increased its majority in the National Assembly with 133 out of 250 seats. RENAMO-UE coalition won 116 seats, one went independent, and no third parties are represented.
The opposition coalition did not accept the National Election Commission\'s results of the presidential vote and filed a formal complaint to the Supreme Court. One month after the voting, the court dismissed the opposition\'s challenge and validated the election results. The opposition did not file a complaint about the results of the legislative vote.
The second local elections, involving 33 municipalities with some 2.4 million registered voters, took place in November 2003. This was the first time that FRELIMO, RENAMO-UE, and independent parties competed without significant boycotts. The 24% turnout was well above the 15% turnout in the first municipal elections. FRELIMO won 28 mayoral positions and the majority in 29 municipal assemblies, while RENAMO won 5 mayoral positions and the majority in 4 municipal assemblies. The voting was conducted in an orderly fashion without violent incidents. However, the period immediately after the elections was marked by objections about voter and candidate registration and vote tabulation, as well as calls for greater transparency.
In May 2004, the government approved a new general elections law that contained innovations based on the experience of the 2003 municipal elections.
Presidential and National Assembly elections took place on 1--2 December 2004. FRELIMO candidate Armando Guebuza won with 64% of the popular vote. His opponent, Afonso Dhlakama of RENAMO, received 32% of the popular vote. FRELIMO won 160 seats in Parliament. A coalition of RENAMO and several small parties won the 90 remaining seats. Armando Guebuza was inaugurated as the President of Mozambique on 2 February 2005.
The candidate of the ruling Mozambican Liberation Front\'s (Frelimo) Filipe Nyusi has been the President of Mozambique since January 2015 after winning the election in October 2014. In October 2019, President Filipe Nyusi was re-elected after a landslide victory in general election. Frelimo won 184 seats, Renamo got 60 seats and the MDM party received the remaining six in the National Assembly. Opposition did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud and irregularities. Frelimo secured two-thirds majority in parliament which allowed Frelimo to re-adjust the constitution without needing the agreement of the opposition.
## Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
The judiciary comprises a Supreme Court and provincial, district, and municipal courts.
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# Politics of Mozambique
## Administrative divisions {#administrative_divisions}
Mozambique is divided in 10 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Cabo Delgado, Gaza, Inhambane, Manica, Maputo, Nampula, Niassa, Sofala, Tete, Zambezia
## International organisation participation {#international_organisation_participation}
Mozambique is a member of ACP, AfDB, the Commonwealth, CPLP, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt (signatory), ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, MONUC, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMISET, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO and WTrO
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# Transport in Mozambique
Modes of transport in Mozambique include rail, road, water, and air. There are rail links serving principal cities and connecting the country with Malawi, Zimbabwe and South Africa. There are over 30,000 km of roads, but much of the network is unpaved.
On the Indian Ocean coast are several large seaports, including Nacala, Beira and Maputo, with further ports being developed. There are 3,750 km of navigable inland waterways. There is an international airport at Maputo, 21 other paved airports, and over 100 with unpaved runways.
## Railways
*Main article: Mozambique Ports and Railways*
The Mozambican railway system developed over more than a century from three different ports on the Indian Ocean that serve as terminals for separate lines to the hinterland. The railroads were major targets during the Mozambican Civil War, were sabotaged by RENAMO, and are being rehabilitated. A parastatal authority, *Portos e Caminhos de Ferro de Moçambique* (abbreviated CFM; in English Mozambique Ports and Railways), oversees the railway system of Mozambique and its connected ports, but management has been largely outsourced. Each line has its own development corridor.
there are 3,123 km of railway track, consisting of 2,983 km of `{{RailGauge|1067mm}}`{=mediawiki} gauge, compatible with neighboring rail systems, and a 140 km line of `{{RailGauge|762mm}}`{=mediawiki} gauge, the Gaza Railway. The central Beira-Bulawayo railway and Sena railway route links the port of Beira to the landlocked countries of Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe. To the north of this the port of Nacala is also linked by Nacala rail to Malawi, and to the south the port of Maputo is connected by the Limpopo rail, the Goba rail and the Ressano Garcia rail to Zimbabwe, Eswatini and South Africa.. These networks interconnect only via neighbouring countries. A new route for coal haulage between Tete and Beira was planned to come into service by 2010, and in August 2010, Mozambique and Botswana signed a memorandum of understanding to develop a 1,100 km railway through Zimbabwe, to carry coal from Serule in Botswana to a deepwater port at Techobanine Point in Mozambique.
Newer rolling stock has been supplied by the Indian Golden Rock and BLW, Varanasi workshop using Centre Buffer Couplers (AAR couplers) and air brakes.
### Towns served by railways {#towns_served_by_railways}
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# Transport in Mozambique
## Roads and highways {#roads_and_highways}
Mozambique\'s inter-city roads are classified as a national or primary road (*estrada nacional* or *estrada primária*), or as regional -- secondary or tertiary -- roads (*estradas secundárias* and *estradas terciáreas*). National roads are given the prefix \"N\" or \"EN\" followed by a one- or two-digit number. The numbers generally increase from the south of the country to the north. Regional roads are given the prefix \"R\", followed by a three-digit number.
In 2008 the total length of Mozambique\'s road network was 32,500 km. The primary and secondary road networks were less than 5000 km each. The tertiary network was 12,700 km. Unclassified or local roads (*estradas vicinais*) were estimated at 6,700 km, and urban roads at 3,300 km.
The national highway network includes 14 routes:
- **N1 (EN1)**. Maputo -- Xai-Xai -- N5 junction -- Maxixe -- Inchope (N6 junction) -- Gorongosa -- Caia -- N10 junction -- Mocuba (N11 junction) -- Nampula (N13 junction) -- Mocuba (N11 junction) -- Namialo (N12 junction) -- Pemba
- **N2 (EN2)**. Maputo -- Matola -- N3 junction -- Namaacha border post (to eSwatini)
- **N3 (EN3)**. N2 junction -- Goba border post (to eSwatini)
- **N4 (EN4)**. Maputo -- Komatipoort border post (to South Africa)
- **N5 (EN5)**. N1 junction -- Inhambane
- **N6 (EN6)**. Beira -- Inchope (N1 junction) -- Chimoio -- N7 junction -- Manica -- Machipanda border post (to Zimbabwe). The N6 Highway is part of the Beira--Lobito Highway, Highway 9 in the Trans-African Highway network.
- **N7 (EN7)**. N6 junction -- Catandica -- Changara District (N8 junction) -- Tete (N9 junction) -- Zobue border post (to Malawi)
- **N8 (EN8)**. Changara District (N7 junction) -- Nyamapanda border post (to Zimbabwe)
- **N9 (EN9)**. Tete (N6 junction) -- Chimefusa border post (to Zambia)
- **N10 (EN10)**. N1 junction -- Quelimane
- **N11 (EN11)**. Mocuba (N1 junction) -- Milange border post (to Malawi)
- **N12 (EN12)**. Namialo (N1 junction) -- Monapo -- Nacala
- **N13 (EN13)**. Nampula (N1 junction) -- Ribaue -- Cuamba -- Mandimba border post (to Malawi) -- Lichinga (N14 junction)
- **N14 (EN14)**. Metoro (N1 junction) -- Montepuez -- Cassembe -- Lichinga (N13 junction)
## Waterways
There are 3,750 km of navigable waterways.
## Sea transport {#sea_transport}
### Ports and harbours {#ports_and_harbours}
Seaports on the Indian Ocean coast include:
- Beira - railhead for Zimbabwe (via the Beira-Bulawayo railway) and Malawi (via the Sena railway)
- Inhambane
- Maputo - railhead for South Africa (via the Pretoria-Maputo railway), Eswatini (via the Goba railway) and Zimbabwe (via the Limpopo railway)
- Nacala - a deepwater port and a railhead for Malawi (via the Nacala railway).
- Pemba
- Quelimane
- Matutuine, a new coal port in the far south, approved October 2009.
### Merchant marine {#merchant_marine}
the merchant marine fleet consisted of three cargo ships of 1,000 gt or over, totaling 4,125 gt/`{{DWT|7,024|metric|disp=long}}`{=mediawiki}. Two of these were Belgian-owned ships registered in Mozambique as a flag of convenience.
## Airports
there were 158 airports in total, 22 of them having paved runways. The main airport in the country is Maputo International Airport, which is also the hub of Mozambique\'s flag carrier, LAM Mozambique Airlines
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# Mozambique Defence Armed Forces
fleet admiral}} `{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2021}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Infobox national military
| name = Mozambique Defence Armed Forces
| native_name = {{native name|pt|Forças Armadas de Defesa de Moçambique}}
| image2 = Flag of the Mozambique Defence Armed Forces.svg
| caption2 = Flag of the Armed Forces
| founded = 1975
| current_form = August 1994
| branches = {{ill|Army (Mozambique)|es|Ejército de Mozambique}}<br />{{ill|Naval Command|es|Armada de Mozambique}}<br />[[Mozambique Air Force|Air and Air Defence Forces]]<br />Militia
| headquarters = Ministry of National Defence, Avenida Martires de Mueda, [[Maputo]]<ref name="Military Technology 2008, p.323">Military Technology, World Defence Almanac, Vol. XXXII, Issue 1, 2008, p.323</ref>
| website = {{URL|mdn.gov.mz/index.php/fadm}}
<!-- Leadership -->| commander-in-chief = [[Daniel Chapo]]
| commander-in-chief_title = [[List of presidents of Mozambique|President]]
| chief minister = [[Maria Benvinda Levy]]
| chief minister_title = [[List of prime ministers of Mozambique|Prime Minister]]
| minister = Cristovão Chume<ref>{{cite web| url = https://clubofmozambique.com/news/you-dont-need-to-be-a-military-officer-to-be-defence-minister-jaime-bessa-neto-150707/| title = "You don't need to be a military officer to be defence minister" – Jaime Bessa Neto {{!}} Club of Mozambique| access-date = 30 October 2021| archive-date = 26 October 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211026004027/https://clubofmozambique.com/news/you-dont-need-to-be-a-military-officer-to-be-defence-minister-jaime-bessa-neto-150707/| url-status = live}}`{=mediawiki}
\| minister_title = National Defence Minister \| commander = Joaquim Mangrasse \| commander_title = Chief of General Staff \| age = 18 \| manpower_age = 18 to 65 \| active = \~11,200 \| amount = \$245 million (2020 est.) \| percent_GDP = 2.5% (2008 est.) \| foreign_suppliers = `{{ubl|{{flag|China}}|{{flag|India}}|{{flag|Portugal}}}}`{=mediawiki} \| history = `{{ubl|[[Mozambican War of Independence]]|[[Mozambican Civil War]]|[[Rhodesian Bush War]]|[[Angolan Civil War]]|[[Uganda–Tanzania War]]|[[1999 East Timorese crisis]]|[[RENAMO insurgency (2013–2019)]]|[[Insurgency in Cabo Delgado]]}}`{=mediawiki} \| ranks = Military ranks of Mozambique }}
The **Mozambique Defence Armed Forces** (*Forças Armadas de Defesa de Moçambique*, **FADM**) are the national armed forces of Mozambique. They include the General Staff of the Armed Forces and three branches of service: Army, Air Force and Navy.
The FADM were formed in mid August 1994, by the integration of the Forças Armadas de Moçambique/FPLM with the military wing of RENAMO, following the end of the civil war.
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# Mozambique Defence Armed Forces
## History
Coelho et al write: \"Independence in June 1975 was preceded by a nine-month transition period in which Frelimo took control of a transitional cabinet where ..it held six of the nine ministries.\" The previous Forças Populares de Libertação de Moçambique (FPLM), the armed wing of FRELIMO, became the Forças Armadas de Moçambique but retained the FPLM title, becoming \"FAM/FPLM\". From 1975 to the successful conclusions of the Rome negotiations in 1992, former liberation war leader Alberto Joaquim Chipande served as Minister of National Defence.
Under the previous FAM, in 1982, ten provincial semi-autonomous military commands were created; the provincial commanders also acted as second in commands of the provincial government. Coelho et al write:
> \"the 1st Brigade and the 6th Tank Brigade were located in Maputo; the 2nd Brigade was in Mapai and, together with 8th Brigade based in Chokwe, assured protection of the south; the 3rd Brigade was in Chimoio and the 5th in Beira; the 4th Brigade was placed in Tete, and the 7th in Cuamba, assuring a military presence in Niassa, Cabo Delgado, Zambezia and Nampula, and particularly in the Nacala corridor..\"
Throughout the 1980s the FRELIMO government and its armed forces, the Forças Armadas de Moçambique/FPLM, fought the rebel Mozambican National Resistance (RENAMO), which received support by South Africa. The Mozambican Civil War only ended in 1992.
The Mozambique Defence Armed Forces were formed in mid-August 1994 after peace negotiations in Rome had produced the General Peace Agreement (GPA, AGP in Portuguese). The new armed forces were formed by integrating those soldiers of the former government Forças Armadas de Moçambique/FPLM and those among the RENAMO rebels who wished to stay in uniform. They were formed through a commission, the *Comissão Conjunta para a Formação das Forças Armadas de Defesa e Segurança de Moçambique* (CCFADM), chaired by the United Nations Operation in Mozambique (ONUMOZ).
Two generals were appointed to lead the new forces, one from FRELIMO, Lieutenant General Lagos Lidimo, who was named Chief of the Defence Force and Major General Mateus Ngonhamo from RENAMO as Vice-Chief of the Defence Force. The former Chief of the Army of the *Forças Armadas de Moçambique,* Lieutenant General Antonio Hama Thai, was retired.
The first three infantry battalions were stationed at Chokwe, Cuamba, and Quelimane.
On 20 March 2008, Reuters reported that President Guebuza had dismissed the Chief and Vice Chief of the Defence Force, Lieutenant General Lagos Lidimo (FRELIMO) and Lieutenant General Mateus Ngonhamo (RENAMO), replacing them with Brigadier General Paulino Macaringue as Chief of Defence Force and Major General Olímpio Cambora as Vice-Chief of Defence Force.
Filipe Nyussi took office as Minister of Defense on 27 March 2008, succeeding Tobias Joaquim Dai. Nyussi\'s appointment came almost exactly one year after a fire and resulting explosions of munitions at the Malhazine armoury in Maputo killed more than 100 people and destroyed 14,000 homes. A government-appointed investigative commission concluded that negligence played a role in the disaster, and Dai \"was blamed by many for failing to act on time to prevent the loss of life\". Although no official reason was given for Dai\'s removal, it may have been a \"delayed reaction\" to the Malhazine disaster.
In April 2010 it was announced that \"the People\'s Republic of China donated to the FADM material for agriculture worth 4 million euros, including trucks, tractors, agricultural implements, mowers and motorbikes in the framework of bilateral cooperation in the military. Under a protocol of cooperation in the military field, the Government of China will also provide support to the Ministry of Defence of Mozambique with about 1 million euros for the areas of training and logistics. The protocol for granting aid to the Armed Forces for the Defence of Mozambique (FADM) was signed by Defense Minister of Mozambique, Filipe Nyusi, and the charge d\'affaires of the Chinese embassy in Maputo, Lee Tongli.\"
Mozambique has also been involved in many peacekeeping operations in Burundi (232 personnel), Comoros, Democratic Republic of the Congo, East Timor and Sudan. They have also actively participated in joint military operations such Blue Hungwe in Zimbabwe in 1997 and Blue Crane in South Africa in 1999.
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# Mozambique Defence Armed Forces
## Land Forces {#land_forces}
The Mozambican Army was formed in 1976 from three conventional battalions, two of which were trained in Tanzania and a third of which was trained in Zambia. Army officer candidates were initially trained in Maputo by Chinese military instructors. In March 1977, following Mozambique\'s Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union, officer candidates became eligible for training in various Warsaw Pact member states. The Soviet military mission in Mozambique assisted in raising a new army composed of five infantry brigades and an armored brigade. At the height of the civil war, this was gradually increased to eight infantry brigades, an armored brigade, and a counter-insurgency brigade modeled after the Zimbabwean 5th Brigade.
The preexisting FAM was abolished after the end of the civil war under the auspices of the Joint Commission for the Formation of the Mozambican Defence Force (CCFADM), which included advisers from Portugal, France, and the United Kingdom. The CCFADM recommended that former army personnel and an equal number of demobilised RENAMO insurgents be integrated into a single force numbering about 30,000. Due to logistics problems and budgetary constraints, however, the army only numbered about 12,195 in 1995. Force levels rarely fluctuated between 1995 and the mid-2000s due to the army\'s limited resources and low budget priority.
In 2016, the Mozambican Army consisted of 10,000 troops organised into three special forces battalions, seven light infantry battalions, two engineer battalions, two artillery battalions, and a single logistics battalion.
As of 2017, the serving chief of the army was Major General Eugènio Dias Da Silva.
### Equipment
Between 1977 and 1989, the Mozambican Army was lavishly supplied with Soviet weapons, as well as a Soviet-supervised technical programme to oversee their logistics needs and maintenance. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, along with the resulting departure of Soviet technical staff, much of this equipment was rendered inoperable. The bulk of the army\'s hardware remained vested in this ageing and increasingly obsolescent Soviet equipment throughout the 2000s, and serviceability rates have remained low. In 2016, less than 10% of the army\'s artillery and armoured vehicles were operational.
#### Small arms {#small_arms}
+------------------------------------+-------+------------+-----------------------------+--------+---------------------------------------+
| Name | Image | Caliber | Type | Origin | Notes |
+====================================+=======+============+=============================+========+=======================================+
| Škorpion | | .32 ACP | Submachine gun | | |
+------------------------------------+-------+------------+-----------------------------+--------+---------------------------------------+
| Rifles | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+-------+------------+-----------------------------+--------+---------------------------------------+
| SKS | | 7.62×39mm | Semi-automatic rifle | | |
+------------------------------------+-------+------------+-----------------------------+--------+---------------------------------------+
| AKM | | 7.62×39mm | Assault rifle | | |
+------------------------------------+-------+------------+-----------------------------+--------+---------------------------------------+
| PM md. 63 | | 7.62×39mm | Assault rifle | | |
+------------------------------------+-------+------------+-----------------------------+--------+---------------------------------------+
| Vz. 58 | | 7.62×39mm | Assault rifle | | |
+------------------------------------+-------+------------+-----------------------------+--------+---------------------------------------+
| SA80 | | 5.56×45mm | Bullpup | | Sold as part of British military aid. |
| | | | | | |
| | | | Assault rifle | | |
+------------------------------------+-------+------------+-----------------------------+--------+---------------------------------------+
| FN FAL | | 7.62×51mm | Battle rifle | | |
+------------------------------------+-------+------------+-----------------------------+--------+---------------------------------------+
| Sniper rifles | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+-------+------------+-----------------------------+--------+---------------------------------------+
| Mosin--Nagant | | 7.62×54mmR | Bolt-action\ | | |
| | | | Sniper rifle | | |
+------------------------------------+-------+------------+-----------------------------+--------+---------------------------------------+
| Machine guns | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+-------+------------+-----------------------------+--------+---------------------------------------+
| RPK | | 7.62×39mm | Squad automatic weapon | | |
+------------------------------------+-------+------------+-----------------------------+--------+---------------------------------------+
| PKM | | 7.62×54mmR | General-purpose machine gun | | |
+------------------------------------+-------+------------+-----------------------------+--------+---------------------------------------+
| DShK | | 12.7×108mm | Heavy machine gun | | |
+------------------------------------+-------+------------+-----------------------------+--------+---------------------------------------+
| Rocket propelled grenade launchers | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+-------+------------+-----------------------------+--------+---------------------------------------+
| RPG-7 | | 40mm | Rocket-propelled grenade | | |
+------------------------------------+-------+------------+-----------------------------+--------+---------------------------------------+
#### Anti-tank weapons {#anti_tank_weapons}
+---------------+--------------+------------------+--------+---------+-----------------+
| Name | Image | Type | Origin | Caliber | Notes |
+===============+==============+==================+========+=========+=================+
| B-10 | | Recoilless rifle | | 82mm | |
+---------------+--------------+------------------+--------+---------+-----------------+
| 9M14 Malyutka | | Anti-tank weapon | | | |
+---------------+--------------+------------------+--------+---------+-----------------+
| 9K111 Fagot | | Anti-tank weapon | | | 10 in service. |
+---------------+--------------+------------------+--------+---------+-----------------+
#### Mortars
+---------+-------------+---------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
| Name | Image | Type | Origin | Quantity | Status | Notes |
+=========+=============+=========+========+==========+========+================+
| PM-43 | | Mortar | | 12 | | |
+---------+-------------+---------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
| BM-37 | | Mortar | | 40 | | |
+---------+-------------+---------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
#### Tanks
+---------+-------------+-------------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
| Name | Image | Type | Origin | Quantity | Status | Notes |
+=========+=============+=============+========+==========+========+================+
| T-54 | | Medium tank | | 60 | | |
+---------+-------------+-------------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
#### Scout cars {#scout_cars}
+---------+-------------+------------------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
| Name | Image | Type | Origin | Quantity | Status | Notes |
+=========+=============+==============================+========+==========+========+================+
| BRDM-2 | | Amphibious armored scout car | | 28 | | |
+---------+-------------+------------------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
| BRDM-1 | | Amphibious armored scout car | | 28 | | |
+---------+-------------+------------------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
#### Infantry fighting vehicles {#infantry_fighting_vehicles}
+---------+-------------+---------------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
| Name | Image | Type | Origin | Quantity | Status | Notes |
+=========+=============+===========================+========+==========+========+================+
| BMP-1 | | Infantry fighting vehicle | | 40 | | |
+---------+-------------+---------------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
#### Armored personnel carriers {#armored_personnel_carriers}
+-------------+-------------+---------------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
| Name | Image | Type | Origin | Quantity | Status | Notes |
+=============+=============+===========================+========+==========+========+================+
| BTR-152 | | Armored personnel carrier | | 100 | | |
+-------------+-------------+---------------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
| BTR-60 | | Armored personnel carrier | | 160 | | |
+-------------+-------------+---------------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
| WZ-551 | | Armored personnel carrier | | 30-35 | | |
+-------------+-------------+---------------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
| AT105 Saxon | | Armored personnel carrier | | 25 | | |
+-------------+-------------+---------------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
| Marauder | | Armored personnel carrier | | 5 | | |
+-------------+-------------+---------------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
| Casspir | | MRAP | | 15 | | |
+-------------+-------------+---------------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
#### Artillery
+------------------+-------------+--------------------------+------------------------------+----------+--------+----------------+
| Name | Image | Type | Origin | Quantity | Status | Notes |
+==================+=============+==========================+==============================+==========+========+================+
| Rocket artillery | | | | | | |
+------------------+-------------+--------------------------+------------------------------+----------+--------+----------------+
| BM-21 Grad | | Multiple rocket launcher | | 12 | | |
+------------------+-------------+--------------------------+------------------------------+----------+--------+----------------+
| Field artillery | | | | | | |
+------------------+-------------+--------------------------+------------------------------+----------+--------+----------------+
| BS-3 | | Field gun | | 20 | | |
+------------------+-------------+--------------------------+------------------------------+----------+--------+----------------+
| Type 56 | | Field gun | \ | 12 | | |
| | | | `{{Flag|China}}`{=mediawiki} | | | |
+------------------+-------------+--------------------------+------------------------------+----------+--------+----------------+
| M-46 | | Field gun | | 6 | | |
+------------------+-------------+--------------------------+------------------------------+----------+--------+----------------+
| M-30 | | Howitzer | | 24 | | |
+------------------+-------------+--------------------------+------------------------------+----------+--------+----------------+
| D-1 | | Howitzer | | 12 | | |
+------------------+-------------+--------------------------+------------------------------+----------+--------+----------------+
| D-30 | | Howitzer | | 12 | | |
+------------------+-------------+--------------------------+------------------------------+----------+--------+----------------+
| M101 | | Howitzer | | 12 | | |
+------------------+-------------+--------------------------+------------------------------+----------+--------+----------------+
| D-48 | | Anti-tank gun | | 6 | | |
+------------------+-------------+--------------------------+------------------------------+----------+--------+----------------+
#### Air defence systems {#air_defence_systems}
+---------------+-------------+------------------------+--------+----------+--------+-----------------+
| Name | Image | Type | Origin | Quantity | Status | Notes |
+===============+=============+========================+========+==========+========+=================+
| ZU-23-2 | | Autocannon | | 120 | | |
+---------------+-------------+------------------------+--------+----------+--------+-----------------+
| 61-K | | Autocannon | | 90 | | 10 in storage. |
+---------------+-------------+------------------------+--------+----------+--------+-----------------+
| ZSU-57-2 | | SPAAG | | 20 | | |
+---------------+-------------+------------------------+--------+----------+--------+-----------------+
| S-125 Neva | | Surface-to-air missile | | 103 | | |
+---------------+-------------+------------------------+--------+----------+--------+-----------------+
| 9K32 Strela-2 | | MANPADS | | 20 | | 250 in storage. |
+---------------+-------------+------------------------+--------+----------+--------+-----------------+
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# Mozambique Defence Armed Forces
## Air Force {#air_force}
## Navy
There are about 200 personnel in the navy. In September 2004 it was reported that the South African Navy was to donate two of its Namacurra class harbour patrol boat to the Mozambique Navy. The boats were refitted by the naval dockyard at Simon\'s Town and equipped with outboard motors and navigation equipment donated by the French Navy. The French Navy *Durance* class command and replenishment oiler *Marne* (A360) was to deliver the boats to Maputo en route to its ALINDIEN operational area in the Indian Ocean after a refit in Cape Town.
In 2013, the French shipyard CMN Group confirmed a major order by Mozambique, including 6 patrol vessels & interceptors (HSI32).
On 29 July 2019 in the first ever visit by an Defence Minister of India Rajnath Singh donated 2 L&T class Fast interceptor boats to the Navy. A team from Indian Coast Guard will also be stationed to train the crew, support for maintenance and operation of the two boats.
In January 2022, two Solas Marine fast interceptor boat were transferred from Indian Navy to Mozambique on board `{{Ship|INS|Kesari|L15}}`{=mediawiki}. Mozambique Navy personnel were given training to operate the new interceptor boats. On 8 November 2024, the Indian Navy gifted another two Fast Interceptor Crafts of the same class to Mozambique. They were delivered via `{{Ship|INS|Gharial|L23}}`{=mediawiki}. The Fast Interceptor Craft are capable of reaching speeds of 45 knots and equipped with machine guns and bullet-resistant cabins. They will enhance Mozambique\'s capability to address maritime threats.
### Equipment {#equipment_1}
- PCI-class inshore patrol boat (3 ordered, non-operational)
- 2 × L&T-class fast interceptor craft (donated by India)
- 4 × Solas Marine fast interceptor boat (donated by India)
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- MNS Pebane (P-001) ex-Spanish navy *Dragonera* (P-32) (85 tons, 32 meters) transferred after refit 2012 from the Spanish Navy for a symbolic price (€100).
- 20 - 25 DV 15 interceptors. An unknown number of units in active service.
- 3 × HSI32 Interceptors
- 3 × Ocean Eagle 43 OPV. Three were acquired as part of the CMN deal. Currently all three are based at Pemba.
### Decommissioned ships {#decommissioned_ships}
- 2x Yevgenya-class minesweeper
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# Master shot
A **master shot** (or short **master**) is a film recording of an entire dramatized scene, start to finish, from a camera angle that keeps all the players in view. It is often a long shot and can sometimes perform a double function as an establishing shot. Usually, the master shot is the first shot checked off during the shooting of a scene. It is the foundation of what is called camera coverage, other shots that reveal different aspects of the action, groupings of two or three of the actors at crucial moments, close-ups of individuals, insert shots of various props, and so on.
Historically, the master shot was the most important shot of any given scene. All shots in a given scene were somehow related to what was happening in the master shot. This is one reason that some of the films from the 1930s and the 1940s are considered \"stagey\" by today\'s standards. By the 1960s and the 1970s, the style of film shooting and editing shifted to include radical angles that conveyed more subjectivity and intimacy within the scenes. Today, the master shot is still a key element of film production, but scenes are not built around the master shot in the same way that they were when professional filmmaking was in its infancy
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# Medium shot
In a movie a **medium shot**, **mid shot** (**MS**), or **waist shot** is a camera angle shot from a medium distance.
## Use
Medium shots are favored in sequences where dialogues or a small group of people are acting, as they give the viewer a partial view of the background, such as when the shot is \'cutting the person in half\' and also show the subjects\' facial expressions in the context of their body language. Medium shots are also used when the subject in the shot is delivering information, such as news presenters. It is also used in interviews. It is the most common shot in movies, and it usually follows the first establishing shots of a new scene or location.
A normal lens that sees what the human eye sees is usually used for medium shots.
## Definition
The medium shot shows equality between subjects and background. The dividing line between what constitutes a long shot and medium shot is not definite, nor is the line between medium shot and close-up. In some standard texts and professional references, a full-length view of a human subject is called a medium shot; in this terminology, a shot of the person from the knees up or the waist up is a close-up shot. In other texts, these partial views are called medium shots. In principle, the medium shot is what can be seen with the human eye in a single quick glance and convey all the action taking place in that field of view.
## Types
Medium shots are divided into singles (a waist-high shot of one actor), group shots, over-the shoulders or two-shots (featuring two people). A medium wide shot, or American shot, shows a bit more of the background but is still close enough for facial expressions to be seen, although these facial expressions would be better seen in a waist-high shot
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# Index of articles related to motion pictures
The film industry is built upon many technologies and techniques, drawing upon photography, stagecraft, music, and many other disciplines. Following is an index of specific terminology applicable thereto
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# Mountain range
Mountain range (options)}}
thumb\|upright=1.5\|The Namcha Barwa Himal, east part of the Himalayas as seen from space by Apollo 9
A **mountain range** or **hill range** is a series of mountains or hills arranged in a line and connected by high ground. A **mountain system** or **mountain belt** is a group of mountain ranges with similarity in form, structure, and alignment that have arisen from the same cause, usually an orogeny. Mountain ranges are formed by a variety of geological processes, but most of the significant ones on Earth are the result of plate tectonics. Mountain ranges are also found on many planetary mass objects in the Solar System and are likely a feature of most terrestrial planets.
Mountain ranges are usually segmented by highlands or mountain passes and valleys. Individual mountains within the same mountain range do not necessarily have the same geologic structure or petrology. They may be a mix of different orogenic expressions and terranes, for example thrust sheets, uplifted blocks, fold mountains, and volcanic landforms resulting in a variety of rock types.
## Major ranges {#major_ranges}
thumb\|upright=1.35\|The Ocean Ridge, the world\'s longest mountain range (chain)
Most geologically young mountain ranges on the Earth\'s land surface are associated with either the Pacific Ring of Fire or the Alpide belt. The Pacific Ring of Fire includes the Andes of South America, extends through the North American Cordillera, the Aleutian Range, on through Kamchatka Peninsula, Japan, China, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, to New Zealand. The Andes is 7000 km long and is often considered the world\'s longest mountain system.
The Alpide belt stretches 15,000 km across southern Eurasia, from Java in Maritime Southeast Asia to the Iberian Peninsula in Western Europe, including the ranges of the Himalayas, Karakoram, Hindu Kush, Alborz, Caucasus, and the Alps. The Himalayas contain the highest mountains in the world, including Mount Everest, which is 8848 m high.
Mountain ranges outside these two systems include the Arctic Cordillera, Appalachians, Great Dividing Range, East Siberians, Altais, Scandinavians, Qinling, Western Ghats, Vindhyas, Byrrangas, and the Annamite Range. If the definition of a mountain range is stretched to include underwater mountains, then the Ocean Ridge forms the longest continuous mountain system on Earth, with a length of 65000 km.
## Climate
The position of mountain ranges influences climate, such as rain or snow. When air masses move up and over mountains, the air cools, producing orographic precipitation (rain or snow). As the air descends on the leeward side, it warms again (following the adiabatic lapse rate) and is drier, having been stripped of much of its moisture. Often, a rain shadow will affect the leeward side of a range. As a consequence, large mountain ranges, such as the Andes, compartmentalize continents into distinct climate regions.
## Erosion
Mountain ranges are constantly subjected to erosional forces which work to tear them down. The basins adjacent to an eroding mountain range are then filled with sediments that are buried and turned into sedimentary rock. Erosion is at work while the mountains are being uplifted until the mountains are reduced to low hills and plains.
The early Cenozoic uplift of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado provides an example. As the uplift was occurring some 10000 ft of mostly Mesozoic sedimentary strata were removed by erosion over the core of the mountain range and spread as sand and clays across the Great Plains to the east. This mass of rock was removed as the range was actively undergoing uplift. The removal of such a mass from the core of the range most likely caused further uplift as the region adjusted isostatically in response to the removed weight.
Rivers are traditionally believed to be the principal cause of mountain range erosion, by cutting into bedrock and transporting sediment. Computer simulation has shown that as mountain belts change from tectonically active to inactive, the rate of erosion drops because there are fewer abrasive particles in the water and fewer landslides.
## Extraterrestrial \"Montes\" {#extraterrestrial_montes}
Mountains on other planets and natural satellites of the Solar System, including the Moon, are often isolated and formed mainly by processes such as impacts, though there are examples of mountain ranges (or \"Montes\") somewhat similar to those on Earth. Saturn\'s moon Titan and Pluto, in particular, exhibit large mountain ranges in chains composed mainly of ices rather than rock. Examples include the Mithrim Montes and Doom Mons on Titan, and Tenzing Montes and Hillary Montes on Pluto. Some terrestrial planets other than Earth also exhibit rocky mountain ranges, such as Maxwell Montes on Venus taller than any on Earth and Tartarus Montes on Mars. Jupiter\'s moon Io has mountain ranges formed from tectonic processes including the Boösaule, Dorian, Hi\'iaka and Euboea Montes
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# Magnoliales
The **Magnoliales** are an order of flowering plants. Well-known members of Magnoliales include: magnolias, tulip trees, custard apples, American pawpaw, cherimoyas, ylang-ylang, soursop fruit, and nutmeg.
## Classification
The Magnoliales include six families:
- Annonaceae (custard apple family, over 2000 species of trees, shrubs, and lianas; mostly tropical but some temperate)
- Degeneriaceae (two species of trees found on Pacific islands)
- Eupomatiaceae (three species of trees and shrubs found in New Guinea and eastern Australia)
- Himantandraceae (two species of trees and shrubs, found in tropical areas in Southeast Asia and Australia)
- Magnoliaceae (about 225 species including magnolias and tulip trees)
- Myristicaceae (several hundred species including nutmeg)
### APG system {#apg_system}
The APG system (1998), APG II system (2003), APG III system (2009), and APG IV system (2016) place this order in the clade magnoliids, circumscribed as follows:
<table>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="background:#fff; padding:2.5px"><p>order <strong>Magnoliales</strong></p>
<dl>
<dt></dt>
<dd>
family Annonaceae
</dd>
<dd>
family Degeneriaceae
</dd>
<dd>
family Eupomatiaceae
</dd>
<dd>
family Himantandraceae
</dd>
<dd>
family Magnoliaceae
</dd>
<dd>
family Myristicaceae
</dd>
</dl></td>
<td><p>{{clade| style=font-size:75%;line-height:75%</p></td>
<td><p>label1=Magnoliids</p></td>
<td><p>1={{clade</p></td>
<td><p>1={{clade</p></td>
<td><p>1=Canellales</p></td>
<td><p>2=Piperales</p>
<p><code> }}</code></p></td>
<td><p>2={{clade</p></td>
<td><p>1={{clade</p></td>
<td><p>label1=<strong>Magnoliales</strong></p></td>
<td><p>1={{clade</p></td>
<td><p>1=Myristicaceae</p></td>
<td><p>2={{clade</p></td>
<td><p>1=Magnoliaceae</p></td>
<td><p>2={{clade</p></td>
<td><p>1={{clade</p></td>
<td><p>1=Degeneriaceae</p></td>
<td><p>2=Himantandraceae</p>
<p><code> }}</code></p></td>
<td><p>2={{clade</p></td>
<td><p>1=Eupomatiaceae</p></td>
<td><p>2=Annonaceae</p>
<p><code> }}</code><br />
<code> }}</code><br />
<code> }}</code><br />
<code> }}</code><br />
<code> }}</code></p></td>
<td><p>2=Laurales</p>
<p><code> }}</code><br />
<code> }}</code></p>
<p>}}</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td colspan="2"><p>The current composition and phylogeny of the Magnoliales.</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
In these systems, published by the APG, the Magnoliales are a basal group, excluded from the eudicots.
### Earlier systems {#earlier_systems}
The Cronquist system (1981) placed the order in the subclass Magnoliidae of class Magnoliopsida (=dicotyledons) and used this circumscription:
- order Magnoliales
- family Annonaceae
- family Austrobaileyaceae
- family Canellaceae
- family Degeneriaceae
- family Eupomatiaceae
- family Himantandraceae
- family Lactoridaceae
- family Magnoliaceae
- family Myristicaceae
- family Winteraceae
The Thorne system (1992) placed the order in superorder Magnolianae, subclass Magnoliidae (= dicotyledons), in the class Magnoliopsida (= angiosperms) and used this circumscription (including the plants placed in order Laurales and Piperales by other systems):
- order Magnoliales
- family Amborellaceae
- family Annonaceae
- family Aristolochiaceae
- family Austrobaileyaceae
- family Calycanthaceae
- family Canellaceae
- family Chloranthaceae
- family Degeneriaceae
- family Eupomatiaceae
- family Gomortegaceae
- family Hernandiaceae
- family Himantandraceae
- family Illiciaceae
- family Lactoridaceae
- family Lauraceae
- family Magnoliaceae
- family Monimiaceae
- family Myristicaceae
- family Piperaceae
- family Saururaceae
- family Schisandraceae
- family Trimeniaceae
- family Winteraceae
The Engler system, in its update of 1964, placed the order in subclassis Archychlamydeae in class Dicotyledoneae (=dicotyledons) and used this circumscription:
- order Magnoliales
- family Amborellaceae
- family Annonaceae
- family Austrobaileyaceae
- family Calycanthaceae
- family Canellaceae
- family Cercidiphyllaceae
- family Degeneriaceae
- family Eupomatiaceae
- family Eupteleaceae
- family Gomortegaceae
- family Hernandiaceae
- family Himantandraceae
- family Illiciaceae
- family Lauraceae
- family Magnoliaceae
- family Monimiaceae
- family Myristicaceae
- family Schisandraceae
- family Trimeniaceae
- family Tetracentraceae
- family Trochodendraceae
- family Winteraceae
The Wettstein system, latest version published in 1935, did not use this name although it had an order with a similar circumscription with the name Polycarpicae. This was placed in the Dialypetalae in subclass Choripetalae of class Dicotyledones. (See also Sympetalae).
From the above it will be clear that the plants included in this order by APG have always been seen as related. They have always been placed in the order Magnoliales (or a predecessor). The difference is that earlier systems have also included other plants, which have been moved to neighbouring orders (in the magnoliids) by APG
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# March
MAR}} `{{pp-move}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Calendar}}`{=mediawiki}
**March** is the third month of the year in both the Julian and Gregorian calendars. Its length is 31 days. In the Northern Hemisphere, the meteorological beginning of spring occurs on the first day of March. The March equinox on the 20 or 21 marks the astronomical beginning of spring in the Northern Hemisphere and the beginning of autumn in the Southern Hemisphere, where September is the seasonal equivalent of the Northern Hemisphere\'s March.
## History
The name of March comes from *Martius*, the first month of the earliest Roman calendar. It was named after Mars, the Roman god of war, and an ancestor of the Roman people through his sons Romulus and Remus. His month *Martius* was the beginning of the season for warfare, and the festivals held in his honor during the month were mirrored by others in October, when the season for these activities came to a close. *Martius* remained the first month of the Roman calendar year perhaps as late as 153 BC, and several religious observances in the first half of the month were originally new year\'s celebrations. Even in late antiquity, Roman mosaics picturing the months sometimes still placed March first.
March 1 began the numbered year in Russia until the end of the 15th century. Great Britain and its colonies continued to use March 25 until 1752, when they finally adopted the Gregorian calendar (the fiscal year in the UK continues to begin on 6 April, initially identical to 25 March in the former Julian calendar). Many other cultures, for example in Iran, or Ethiopia, still celebrate the beginning of the New Year in March.
March is the first month of spring in the Northern Hemisphere (North America, Europe, Asia and part of Africa) and the first month of fall or autumn in the Southern Hemisphere (South America, part of Africa, and Oceania).
Ancient Roman observances celebrated in March include Agonium Martiale, celebrated on March 1, March 14, and March 17, Matronalia, celebrated on March 1, Junonalia, celebrated on March 7, Equirria, celebrated on March 14, Mamuralia, celebrated on either March 14 or March 15, Hilaria on March 15 and then through March 22--28, Argei, celebrated on March 16--17, Liberalia and Bacchanalia, celebrated March 17, Quinquatria, celebrated March 19--23, and Tubilustrium, celebrated March 23. These dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar.
## Other names {#other_names}
In Finnish, the month is called *maaliskuu*, which is believed to originate from *maallinen kuu*. The latter means *earthy month* and may refer to the first appearance of \"earth\" from under the winter\'s snow. In Ukrainian, the month is called *березень*/*berezenʹ*, meaning *birch tree*, and březen in Czech. Historical names for March include the Saxon *Lentmonat*, named after the March equinox and gradual lengthening of days, and the eventual namesake of Lent. Saxons also called March *Rhed-monat* or *Hreth-monath* (deriving from their goddess *Rhedam*/*Hreth*), and Angles called it *Hyld-monath*, which became the English *Lide*. In Croatia, the month is called *Ožujak*. In Slovene, the traditional name is *sušec*, meaning the month when the earth becomes dry enough so that it is possible to cultivate it. The name was first written in 1466 in the Škofja Loka manuscript. Other names were used too, for example *brezen* and *breznik*, \"the month of birches\". The Turkish word *Mart* is given after the name of *Mars* the god.
## Symbols
March\'s birthstones are aquamarine and bloodstone. These stones symbolize courage. Its birth flower is the daffodil. The zodiac signs are Pisces until approximately March 20 and Aries from approximately March 21 onward.
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# March
## Observances
*This list does not necessarily imply either official status or general observance.*
### Month-long {#month_long}
- In Catholic tradition, March is the Month of Saint Joseph.
- Endometriosis Awareness Month (International observance)
- National Nutrition Month (Canada)
- Season for Nonviolence: January 30 -- April 4 (International observance)
- Women\'s History Month (Australia, United Kingdom, United States)
- Women\'s Role in History Month (Philippines)
#### American
- Cerebral Palsy Awareness Month
- Irish-American Heritage Month
- Multiple Sclerosis Awareness Month
- Music in our Schools Month
- National Athletic Training Month
- National Bleeding Disorders Awareness Month
- National Celery Month
- National Frozen Food Month
- National Kidney Month
- National Nutrition Month
- National Professional Social Work Month
- National Reading Awareness Month
- Youth Art Month
### Non-Gregorian {#non_gregorian}
*(All Baháʼí, Islamic, and Jewish observances begin at the sundown prior to the date listed, and end at sundown of the date in question unless otherwise noted.)*
- List of observances set by the Baháʼí calendar
- List of observances set by the Chinese calendar
- List of observances set by the Hebrew calendar
- List of observances set by the Islamic calendar
- List of observances set by the Solar Hijri calendar
### Movable
- List of movable Eastern Christian observances
- List of movable Western Christian observances
- National Corndog Day (United States): March 21
- Equal Pay Day (United States): March 31
#### First Sunday {#first_sunday}
- Children\'s Day (New Zealand)
#### First week, March 1 to 7 {#first_week_march_1_to_7}
- Global Money Week
#### School day closest to March 2 {#school_day_closest_to_march_2}
- Read Across America Day
#### First Monday {#first_monday}
- Casimir Pulaski Day (United States)
#### First Tuesday {#first_tuesday}
- Grandmother\'s Day (France)
#### First Thursday {#first_thursday}
- World Book Day (UK and Ireland)
- World Maths Day
#### First Friday {#first_friday}
- Employee Appreciation Day (United States, Canada)
#### Second Sunday {#second_sunday}
- Daylight saving time begins (United States and Canada)
#### Week of March 8: March 8--14 {#week_of_march_8_march_814}
- Women of Aviation Worldwide Week
#### Monday closest to March 9, unless March 9 falls on a Saturday {#monday_closest_to_march_9_unless_march_9_falls_on_a_saturday}
- Baron Bliss Day (Belize)
#### Second Monday {#second_monday}
- Canberra Day (Australia)
- Commonwealth Day (Commonwealth of Nations)
#### Second Wednesday {#second_wednesday}
- Decoration Day (Liberia)
- No Smoking Day (United Kingdom)
#### Second Thursday {#second_thursday}
- World Kidney Day
#### Friday of the second full week of March {#friday_of_the_second_full_week_of_march}
- World Sleep Day
#### Third week in March {#third_week_in_march}
- National Poison Prevention Week (United States)
#### Third Monday {#third_monday}
- Birthday of Benito Juarez (Mexico)
#### March 19th, unless the 19th is a Sunday, then March 20 {#march_19th_unless_the_19th_is_a_sunday_then_march_20}
- Feast of Joseph of Nazareth (Western Christianity)
- Father\'s Day (Spain, Portugal, Italy, Honduras, and Bolivia)
- Las Fallas, celebrated on the week leading to March 19. (Valencia)
- \"Return of the Swallow\", annual observance of the swallows\' return to Mission San Juan Capistrano in California.
#### Third Wednesday {#third_wednesday}
- National Festival of Trees (Netherlands)
#### March equinox: c. March 20 {#march_equinox_c._march_20}
- Nowruz, The Iranian new year. (Observed Internationally)
- Chunfen (East Asia)
- Dísablót (some Asatru groups)
- Earth Equinox Day
- Equinox of the Gods/New Year (Thelema)
- Higan (Japan)
- International Astrology Day
- Mabon (Southern Hemisphere) (Neo-paganism)
- Ostara (Northern Hemisphere) (Neo-paganism)
- Shunbun no Hi (Japan)
- Sigrblót (The Troth)
- Summer Finding (Asatru Free Assembly)
- Sun-Earth Day (United States)
- Vernal Equinox Day/Kōreisai (Japan)
- World Storytelling Day
#### Fourth Monday {#fourth_monday}
- Labour Day (Christmas Island, Australia)
#### Fourth Tuesday {#fourth_tuesday}
- American Diabetes Alert Day (United States)
#### Last Saturday {#last_saturday}
- Earth Hour (International observance)
#### Last Sunday {#last_sunday}
- European Summer Time begins
#### Last Monday {#last_monday}
- Seward\'s Day (Alaska, United States)
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# March
## Observances
### Fixed
- March 1
- Baba Marta (Bulgaria),
- Beer Day (Iceland)
- Commemoration of Mustafa Barzani\'s Death (Iraqi Kurdistan)
- Heroes\' Day (Paraguay)
- Independence Day (Bosnia and Herzegovina)
- Mărțișor (Romania and Moldavia)
- National Pig Day (United States)
- Remembrance Day (Marshall Islands)
- Saint David\'s Day (Wales)
- Samiljeol (South Korea)
- Self-injury Awareness Day (International observance)
- World Civil Defence Day
- March 2
- National Banana Creme Pie Day (United States)
- National Reading Day (United States)
- Omizu-okuri (\"Water Carrying\") Festival (Obama, Japan)
- Peasant\'s Day (Burma)
- Texas Independence Day (Texas, United States)
- Victory at Adwa Day (Ethiopia)
- March 3
- Hinamatsuri (Japan)
- Liberation Day (Bulgaria)
- Martyr\'s Day (Malawi)
- Mother\'s Day (Georgia)
- National Canadian Bacon Day (United States)
- Sportsmen\'s Day (Egypt)
- World Wildlife Day
- March 4
- National Grammar Day (United States)
- St Casimir\'s Day (Poland and Lithuania)
- March 5
- Custom Chief\'s Day (Vanuatu)
- Day of Physical Culture and Sport (Azerbaijan)
- Learn from Lei Feng Day (China)
- National Absinthe Day (United States)
- National Cheez Doodle Day (United States)
- St Piran\'s Day (Cornwall)
- March 6
- European Day of the Righteous (`{{EUR}}`{=mediawiki})
- Foundation Day (Norfolk Island)
- Independence Day (Ghana)
- March 7
- Liberation of Sulaymaniyah (Iraqi Kurdistan)
- National Crown Roast of Pork Day (United States)
- Teacher\'s Day (Albania)
- March 8
- International Women\'s Day
- International Women\'s Collaboration Brew Day
- Mother\'s Day (primarily Eastern Europe, Russia, and the former Soviet bloc)
- National Peanut Cluster Day (United States)
- National Potato Salad Day (United States)
- March 9
- National Crabmeat Day (United States)
- National Meatball Day (United States)
- Teachers\' Day (Lebanon)
- March 10
- Harriet Tubman Day (United States of America)
- Holocaust Remembrance Day (Bulgaria)
- Hote Matsuri (Shiogama, Japan)
- National Blueberry Popover Day (United States)
- National Mario Day (United States)
- National Women and Girls HIV/AIDS Awareness Day (United States)
- Tibetan Uprising Day (Tibetan independence movement)
- March 11
- Day of Restoration of Independence of Lithuania
- Johnny Appleseed Day (United States)
- Moshoeshoe Day (Lesotho)
- Oatmeal Nut Waffles Day (United States)
- March 12
- Arbor Day (China)
- Arbor Day (Taiwan)
- Aztec New Year
- Girl Scout Birthday (United States)
- National Baked Scallops Day (United States)
- National Day (Mauritius)
- Tree Day (North Macedonia)
- World Day Against Cyber Censorship
- Youth Day (Zambia)
- March 13
- Anniversary of the election of Pope Francis (Vatican City)
- Kasuga Matsuri (Kasuga Grand Shrine, Nara, Japan)
- L. Ron Hubbard\'s birthday (Scientology)
- Liberation of Duhok City (Iraqi Kurdistan)
- National Coconut Torte Day (United States)
- March 14
- Multiple Sclerosis Awareness Week March 14 to March 20 (United States)
- Pi Day
- White Day (Asia)
- March 15
- Hōnen Matsuri (Japan)
- International Day Against Police Brutality
- J. J
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# March 28
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# May 3
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May 3
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# May 4
| 3 |
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# May 5
| 3 |
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# Matteo Carcassi
**Matteo Carcassi** (8 April 1792 -- 16 January 1853) was an Italian guitarist and composer.
## Life
Carcassi was born in Florence, Italy, and first studied the piano, but learned guitar when still a child. He quickly gained a reputation as a virtuoso concert guitarist.
He moved to Germany in 1810, gaining almost immediate success. By 1815, he was living in Paris, earning his living as a teacher of both the piano and the guitar. On a concert tour in Germany in 1819, he met his friend Jean-Antoine Meissonnier for the first time. Also a well-known guitarist, Meissonnier published many of Carcassi\'s works in his Paris publishing house. For Meissonnier he also arranged a number of popular songs for guitar that were originally written for piano, including works by Théodore Labarre and Loïsa Puget.
From 1820 on, Carcassi spent the majority of his time in Paris. In 1823, he performed an extremely successful series of concerts in London that earned him great fame, both as a performing artist and as a teacher. However, in Paris, a long time passed before his talents were truly recognized, partly because of the presence of Ferdinando Carulli.
Carcassi was in Germany again during autumn 1824. Afterwards he performed in London, where his reputation now gave him access to more prestigious concert halls. Finally he returned to Paris. For several years, he made concert trips from here to the important musical centres of Europe. After a short return to performing in 1836, he quit his concert practice around 1840 and died in Paris in 1853.
## Music
Carcassi wrote a method for guitar (Op. 59), first published with Schott in Mainz, in 1836. It is still valuable, relevant and interesting. His most famous works are collected in his 25 Études, Op. 60. In these, he managed to blend technical skills and brilliant Romantic music. This is the reason his music is still played by so many classical guitarists today
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# Microelectronics
**Microelectronics** is a subfield of electronics. As the name suggests, microelectronics relates to the study and manufacture (or microfabrication) of very small electronic designs and components. Usually, but not always, this means micrometre-scale or smaller. These devices are typically made from semiconductor materials. Many components of a normal electronic design are available in a microelectronic equivalent. These include transistors, capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes and (naturally) insulators and conductors can all be found in microelectronic devices. Unique wiring techniques such as wire bonding are also often used in microelectronics because of the unusually small size of the components, leads and pads. This technique requires specialized equipment and is expensive.
Digital integrated circuits (ICs) consist of billions of transistors, resistors, diodes, and capacitors. Analog circuits commonly contain resistors and capacitors as well. Inductors are used in some high frequency analog circuits, but tend to occupy larger chip area due to their lower reactance at low frequencies. Gyrators can replace them in many applications.
As techniques have improved, the scale of microelectronic components has continued to decrease. At smaller scales, the relative impact of intrinsic circuit properties such as interconnections may become more significant. These are called **parasitic effects**, and the goal of the microelectronics design engineer is to find ways to compensate for or to minimize these effects, while delivering smaller, faster, and cheaper devices.
Today, microelectronics design is largely aided by electronic design automation (EDA) software
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# Mondino
**Mondino** is an Italian surname
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# Multivariate statistics
**Multivariate statistics** is a subdivision of statistics encompassing the simultaneous observation and analysis of more than one outcome variable, i.e., *multivariate random variables*. Multivariate statistics concerns understanding the different aims and background of each of the different forms of multivariate analysis, and how they relate to each other. The practical application of multivariate statistics to a particular problem may involve several types of univariate and multivariate analyses in order to understand the relationships between variables and their relevance to the problem being studied.
In addition, multivariate statistics is concerned with multivariate probability distributions, in terms of both
:\*how these can be used to represent the distributions of observed data;
:\*how they can be used as part of statistical inference, particularly where several different quantities are of interest to the same analysis.
Certain types of problems involving multivariate data, for example simple linear regression and multiple regression, are *not* usually considered to be special cases of multivariate statistics because the analysis is dealt with by considering the (univariate) conditional distribution of a single outcome variable given the other variables.
## Multivariate analysis {#multivariate_analysis}
**Multivariate analysis** (**MVA**) is based on the principles of multivariate statistics. Typically, MVA is used to address situations where multiple measurements are made on each experimental unit and the relations among these measurements and their structures are important. A modern, overlapping categorization of MVA includes:
- Normal and general multivariate models and distribution theory
- The study and measurement of relationships
- Probability computations of multidimensional regions
- The exploration of data structures and patterns
Multivariate analysis can be complicated by the desire to include physics-based analysis to calculate the effects of variables for a hierarchical \"system-of-systems\". Often, studies that wish to use multivariate analysis are stalled by the dimensionality of the problem. These concerns are often eased through the use of surrogate models, highly accurate approximations of the physics-based code. Since surrogate models take the form of an equation, they can be evaluated very quickly. This becomes an enabler for large-scale MVA studies: while a Monte Carlo simulation across the design space is difficult with physics-based codes, it becomes trivial when evaluating surrogate models, which often take the form of response-surface equations.
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# Multivariate statistics
## Multivariate analysis {#multivariate_analysis}
### Types of analysis {#types_of_analysis}
Many different models are used in MVA, each with its own type of analysis:
1. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) extends the analysis of variance to cover cases where there is more than one dependent variable to be analyzed simultaneously; see also Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA).
2. Multivariate regression attempts to determine a formula that can describe how elements in a vector of variables respond simultaneously to changes in others. For linear relations, regression analyses here are based on forms of the general linear model. Some suggest that multivariate regression is distinct from multivariable regression, however, that is debated and not consistently true across scientific fields.
3. Principal components analysis (PCA) creates a new set of orthogonal variables that contain the same information as the original set. It rotates the axes of variation to give a new set of orthogonal axes, ordered so that they summarize decreasing proportions of the variation.
4. Factor analysis is similar to PCA but allows the user to extract a specified number of synthetic variables, fewer than the original set, leaving the remaining unexplained variation as error. The extracted variables are known as latent variables or factors; each one may be supposed to account for covariation in a group of observed variables.
5. Canonical correlation analysis finds linear relationships among two sets of variables; it is the generalised (i.e. canonical) version of bivariate correlation.
6. Redundancy analysis (RDA) is similar to canonical correlation analysis but allows the user to derive a specified number of synthetic variables from one set of (independent) variables that explain as much variance as possible in another (independent) set. It is a multivariate analogue of regression.
7. Correspondence analysis (CA), or reciprocal averaging, finds (like PCA) a set of synthetic variables that summarise the original set. The underlying model assumes chi-squared dissimilarities among records (cases).
8. Canonical (or \"constrained\") correspondence analysis (CCA) for summarising the joint variation in two sets of variables (like redundancy analysis); combination of correspondence analysis and multivariate regression analysis. The underlying model assumes chi-squared dissimilarities among records (cases).
9. Multidimensional scaling comprises various algorithms to determine a set of synthetic variables that best represent the pairwise distances between records. The original method is principal coordinates analysis (PCoA; based on PCA).
10. Discriminant analysis, or canonical variate analysis, attempts to establish whether a set of variables can be used to distinguish between two or more groups of cases.
11. Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) computes a linear predictor from two sets of normally distributed data to allow for classification of new observations.
12. Clustering systems assign objects into groups (called clusters) so that objects (cases) from the same cluster are more similar to each other than objects from different clusters.
13. Recursive partitioning creates a decision tree that attempts to correctly classify members of the population based on a dichotomous dependent variable.
14. Artificial neural networks extend regression and clustering methods to non-linear multivariate models.
15. Statistical graphics such as tours, parallel coordinate plots, scatterplot matrices can be used to explore multivariate data.
16. Simultaneous equations models involve more than one regression equation, with different dependent variables, estimated together.
17. Vector autoregression involves simultaneous regressions of various time series variables on their own and each other\'s lagged values.
18. Principal response curves analysis (PRC) is a method based on RDA that allows the user to focus on treatment effects over time by correcting for changes in control treatments over time.
19. Iconography of correlations consists in replacing a correlation matrix by a diagram where the "remarkable" correlations are represented by a solid line (positive correlation), or a dotted line (negative correlation).
### Dealing with incomplete data {#dealing_with_incomplete_data}
It is very common that in an experimentally acquired set of data the values of some components of a given data point are missing. Rather than discarding the whole data point, it is common to \"fill in\" values for the missing components, a process called \"imputation\".
## Important probability distributions {#important_probability_distributions}
There is a set of probability distributions used in multivariate analyses that play a similar role to the corresponding set of distributions that are used in univariate analysis when the normal distribution is appropriate to a dataset. These multivariate distributions are:
:\*Multivariate normal distribution
:\*Wishart distribution
:\*Multivariate Student-t distribution. The Inverse-Wishart distribution is important in Bayesian inference, for example in Bayesian multivariate linear regression. Additionally, Hotelling\'s T-squared distribution is a multivariate distribution, generalising Student\'s t-distribution, that is used in multivariate hypothesis testing.
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# Multivariate statistics
## History
C.R. Rao made significant contributions to multivariate statistical theory throughout his career, particularly in the mid-20th century. One of his key works is the book titled \"Advanced Statistical Methods in Biometric Research,\" published in 1952. This work laid the foundation for many concepts in multivariate statistics. Anderson\'s 1958 textbook,*An Introduction to Multivariate Statistical Analysis*, educated a generation of theorists and applied statisticians; Anderson\'s book emphasizes hypothesis testing via likelihood ratio tests and the properties of power functions: admissibility, unbiasedness and monotonicity.
MVA was formerly discussed solely in the context of statistical theories, due to the size and complexity of underlying datasets and its high computational consumption. With the dramatic growth of computational power, MVA now plays an increasingly important role in data analysis and has wide application in Omics fields.
## Applications
- Multivariate hypothesis testing
- Dimensionality reduction
- Latent structure discovery
- Clustering
- Multivariate regression analysis
- Classification and discrimination analysis
- Variable selection
- Multidimensional analysis
- Multidimensional scaling
- Data mining
## Software and tools {#software_and_tools}
There are an enormous number of software packages and other tools for multivariate analysis, including:
- JMP (statistical software)
- MiniTab
- Calc
- PSPP
- R
- SAS (software)
- SciPy for Python
- SPSS
- Stata
- STATISTICA
- The Unscrambler
- WarpPLS
- SmartPLS
- MATLAB
- Eviews
- NCSS (statistical software) includes multivariate analysis.
- [The Unscrambler® X](http://www.camo.com/rt/Products/Unscrambler/unscrambler.html) is a multivariate analysis tool.
- [SIMCA](https://umetrics.com/products/simca)
- DataPandit (Free SaaS applications by [Let\'s Excel Analytics Solutions](http://letsexcel
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# Group (mathematics)
In mathematics, a **group** is a set with an operation that combines any two elements of the set to produce a third element within the same set and the following conditions must hold: the operation is associative, it has an identity element, and every element of the set has an inverse element. For example, the integers with the addition operation form a group.
The concept of a group was elaborated for handling, in a unified way, many mathematical structures such as numbers, geometric shapes and polynomial roots. Because the concept of groups is ubiquitous in numerous areas both within and outside mathematics, some authors consider it as a central organizing principle of contemporary mathematics.
In geometry, groups arise naturally in the study of symmetries and geometric transformations: The symmetries of an object form a group, called the symmetry group of the object, and the transformations of a given type form a general group. Lie groups appear in symmetry groups in geometry, and also in the Standard Model of particle physics. The Poincaré group is a Lie group consisting of the symmetries of spacetime in special relativity. Point groups describe symmetry in molecular chemistry.
The concept of a group arose in the study of polynomial equations, starting with Évariste Galois in the 1830s, who introduced the term *group* (French: *groupe*) for the symmetry group of the roots of an equation, now called a Galois group. After contributions from other fields such as number theory and geometry, the group notion was generalized and firmly established around 1870. Modern group theory---an active mathematical discipline---studies groups in their own right. To explore groups, mathematicians have devised various notions to break groups into smaller, better-understandable pieces, such as subgroups, quotient groups and simple groups. In addition to their abstract properties, group theorists also study the different ways in which a group can be expressed concretely, both from a point of view of representation theory (that is, through the representations of the group) and of computational group theory. A theory has been developed for finite groups, which culminated with the classification of finite simple groups, completed in 2004. Since the mid-1980s, geometric group theory, which studies finitely generated groups as geometric objects, has become an active area in group theory.
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# Group (mathematics)
## Definition and illustration {#definition_and_illustration}
### First example: the integers {#first_example_the_integers}
One of the more familiar groups is the set of integers $\Z = \{\ldots,-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4,\ldots\}$ together with addition. For any two integers $a$ and `{{tmath|1= b }}`{=mediawiki}, the sum $a+b$ is also an integer; this *closure* property says that $+$ is a binary operation on `{{tmath|1= \Z }}`{=mediawiki}. The following properties of integer addition serve as a model for the group axioms in the definition below.
- For all integers `{{tmath|1= a }}`{=mediawiki}, $b$ and `{{tmath|1= c }}`{=mediawiki}, one has `{{tmath|1= (a+b)+c=a+(b+c) }}`{=mediawiki}. Expressed in words, adding $a$ to $b$ first, and then adding the result to $c$ gives the same final result as adding $a$ to the sum of $b$ and `{{tmath|1= c }}`{=mediawiki}. This property is known as *associativity*.
- If $a$ is any integer, then $0+a=a$ and `{{tmath|1= a+0=a }}`{=mediawiki}. Zero is called the *identity element* of addition because adding it to any integer returns the same integer.
- For every integer `{{tmath|1= a }}`{=mediawiki}, there is an integer $b$ such that $a+b=0$ and `{{tmath|1= b+a=0 }}`{=mediawiki}. The integer $b$ is called the *inverse element* of the integer $a$ and is denoted `{{tmath|1= -a }}`{=mediawiki}.
The integers, together with the operation `{{tmath|1= + }}`{=mediawiki}, form a mathematical object belonging to a broad class sharing similar structural aspects. To appropriately understand these structures as a collective, the following definition is developed.
### Definition
A group is a non-empty set $G$ together with a binary operation on `{{tmath|1= G }}`{=mediawiki}, here denoted \"`{{tmath|1= \cdot }}`{=mediawiki}\", that combines any two elements $a$ and $b$ of $G$ to form an element of `{{tmath|1= G }}`{=mediawiki}, denoted `{{tmath|1= a\cdot b }}`{=mediawiki}, such that the following three requirements, known as **group axioms**, are satisfied:
Associativity : For all `{{tmath|1= a }}`{=mediawiki}, `{{tmath|1= b }}`{=mediawiki}, `{{tmath|1= c }}`{=mediawiki} in `{{tmath|1= G }}`{=mediawiki}, one has `{{tmath|1= (a\cdot b)\cdot c=a\cdot(b\cdot c) }}`{=mediawiki}.\
Identity element : There exists an element $e$ in $G$ such that, for every $a$ in `{{tmath|1= G }}`{=mediawiki}, one has `{{tmath|1= e\cdot a=a }}`{=mediawiki} and `{{tmath|1= a\cdot e=a }}`{=mediawiki}.
: Such an element is unique (see below). It is called the *identity element* (or sometimes *neutral element*) of the group.
Inverse element : For each $a$ in `{{tmath|1= G }}`{=mediawiki}, there exists an element $b$ in $G$ such that $a\cdot b=e$ and `{{tmath|1= b\cdot a=e }}`{=mediawiki}, where $e$ is the identity element.
: For each `{{tmath|1= a }}`{=mediawiki}, the element $b$ is unique (see below); it is called *the inverse* of $a$ and is commonly denoted `{{tmath|1= a^{-1} }}`{=mediawiki}.
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# Group (mathematics)
## Definition and illustration {#definition_and_illustration}
### Notation and terminology {#notation_and_terminology}
Formally, a group is an ordered pair of a set and a binary operation on this set that satisfies the group axioms. The set is called the *underlying set* of the group, and the operation is called the *group operation* or the *group law*.
A group and its underlying set are thus two different mathematical objects. To avoid cumbersome notation, it is common to abuse notation by using the same symbol to denote both. This reflects also an informal way of thinking: that the group is the same as the set except that it has been enriched by additional structure provided by the operation.
For example, consider the set of real numbers `{{tmath|1= \R }}`{=mediawiki}, which has the operations of addition $a+b$ and multiplication `{{tmath|1= ab }}`{=mediawiki}. Formally, $\R$ is a set, $(\R,+)$ is a group, and $(\R,+,\cdot)$ is a field. But it is common to write $\R$ to denote any of these three objects.
The *additive group* of the field $\R$ is the group whose underlying set is $\R$ and whose operation is addition. The *multiplicative group* of the field $\R$ is the group $\R^{\times}$ whose underlying set is the set of nonzero real numbers $\R \smallsetminus \{0\}$ and whose operation is multiplication.
More generally, one speaks of an *additive group* whenever the group operation is notated as addition; in this case, the identity is typically denoted `{{tmath|1= 0 }}`{=mediawiki}, and the inverse of an element $x$ is denoted `{{tmath|1= -x }}`{=mediawiki}. Similarly, one speaks of a *multiplicative group* whenever the group operation is notated as multiplication; in this case, the identity is typically denoted `{{tmath|1= 1 }}`{=mediawiki}, and the inverse of an element $x$ is denoted `{{tmath|1= x^{-1} }}`{=mediawiki}. In a multiplicative group, the operation symbol is usually omitted entirely, so that the operation is denoted by juxtaposition, $ab$ instead of `{{tmath|1= a\cdot b }}`{=mediawiki}.
The definition of a group does not require that $a\cdot b=b\cdot a$ for all elements $a$ and $b$ in `{{tmath|1= G }}`{=mediawiki}. If this additional condition holds, then the operation is said to be commutative, and the group is called an abelian group. It is a common convention that for an abelian group either additive or multiplicative notation may be used, but for a nonabelian group only multiplicative notation is used.
Several other notations are commonly used for groups whose elements are not numbers. For a group whose elements are functions, the operation is often function composition `{{tmath|1= f\circ g }}`{=mediawiki}; then the identity may be denoted id. In the more specific cases of geometric transformation groups, symmetry groups, permutation groups, and automorphism groups, the symbol $\circ$ is often omitted, as for multiplicative groups. Many other variants of notation may be encountered.
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# Group (mathematics)
## Definition and illustration {#definition_and_illustration}
### Second example: a symmetry group {#second_example_a_symmetry_group}
Two figures in the plane are congruent if one can be changed into the other using a combination of rotations, reflections, and translations. Any figure is congruent to itself. However, some figures are congruent to themselves in more than one way, and these extra congruences are called symmetries. A square has eight symmetries. These are:
-------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------
`{{br}}`{=mediawiki} $\mathrm{id}$ (keeping it as it is) `{{br}}`{=mediawiki} $r_1$ (rotation by 90° clockwise) `{{br}}`{=mediawiki} $r_2$ (rotation by 180°) `{{br}}`{=mediawiki} $r_3$ (rotation by 270° clockwise)
`{{br}}`{=mediawiki} $f_{\mathrm{v}}$ (vertical reflection) `{{br}}`{=mediawiki} $f_{\mathrm{h}}$ (horizontal reflection) `{{br}}`{=mediawiki} $f_{\mathrm{d}}$ (diagonal reflection) `{{br}}`{=mediawiki} $f_{\mathrm{c}}$ (counter-diagonal reflection)
-------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------
: The elements of the symmetry group of the square, `{{tmath|1= \mathrm{D}_4 }}`{=mediawiki}. Vertices are identified by color or number.
- the identity operation leaving everything unchanged, denoted id;
- rotations of the square around its center by 90°, 180°, and 270° clockwise, denoted by `{{tmath|1= r_1 }}`{=mediawiki}, $r_2$ and `{{tmath|1= r_3 }}`{=mediawiki}, respectively;
- reflections about the horizontal and vertical middle line (`{{tmath|1= f_{\mathrm{v} } }}`{=mediawiki} and `{{tmath|1= f_{\mathrm{h} } }}`{=mediawiki}), or through the two diagonals (`{{tmath|1= f_{\mathrm{d} } }}`{=mediawiki} and `{{tmath|1= f_{\mathrm{c} } }}`{=mediawiki}).
These symmetries are functions. Each sends a point in the square to the corresponding point under the symmetry. For example, $r_1$ sends a point to its rotation 90° clockwise around the square\'s center, and $f_{\mathrm{h}}$ sends a point to its reflection across the square\'s vertical middle line. Composing two of these symmetries gives another symmetry. These symmetries determine a group called the dihedral group of degree four, denoted `{{tmath|1= \mathrm{D}_4 }}`{=mediawiki}. The underlying set of the group is the above set of symmetries, and the group operation is function composition. Two symmetries are combined by composing them as functions, that is, applying the first one to the square, and the second one to the result of the first application. The result of performing first $a$ and then $b$ is written symbolically *from right to left* as $b\circ a$ (\"apply the symmetry $b$ after performing the symmetry `{{tmath|1= a }}`{=mediawiki}\"). This is the usual notation for composition of functions.
A Cayley table lists the results of all such compositions possible. For example, rotating by 270° clockwise (`{{tmath|1= r_3 }}`{=mediawiki}) and then reflecting horizontally (`{{tmath|1= f_{\mathrm{h} } }}`{=mediawiki}) is the same as performing a reflection along the diagonal (`{{tmath|1= f_{\mathrm{d} } }}`{=mediawiki}). Using the above symbols, highlighted in blue in the Cayley table: $f_\mathrm h \circ r_3= f_\mathrm d.$
$\circ$ $\mathrm{id}$ $r_1$ $r_2$ $r_3$ $f_{\mathrm{v}}$ $f_{\mathrm{h}}$ $f_{\mathrm{d}}$ $f_{\mathrm{c}}$
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------ ------------------ ------------------ ------------------ --------------------------------------- ------------------ ------------------ ------------------
$\mathrm{id}$ $\mathrm{id}$ $r_1$ $r_2$ $r_3$ $f_{\mathrm{v}}$ $f_{\mathrm{h}}$ $f_{\mathrm{d}}$ $f_{\mathrm{c}}$
$r_1$ $r_1$ $r_2$ $r_3$ $\mathrm{id}$ $f_{\mathrm{c}}$ $f_{\mathrm{d}}$ $f_{\mathrm{v}}$ $f_{\mathrm{h}}$
$r_2$ $r_2$ $r_3$ $\mathrm{id}$ $r_1$ $f_{\mathrm{h}}$ $f_{\mathrm{v}}$ $f_{\mathrm{c}}$ $f_{\mathrm{d}}$
$r_3$ $r_3$ $\mathrm{id}$ $r_1$ $r_2$ $f_{\mathrm{d}}$ $f_{\mathrm{c}}$ $f_{\mathrm{h}}$ $f_{\mathrm{v}}$
$f_{\mathrm{v}}$ $f_{\mathrm{v}}$ $f_{\mathrm{d}}$ $f_{\mathrm{h}}$ $f_{\mathrm{c}}$ $\mathrm{id}$ $r_2$ $r_1$ $r_3$
$f_{\mathrm{h}}$ $f_{\mathrm{h}}$ $f_{\mathrm{c}}$ $f_{\mathrm{v}}$ $f_{\mathrm{d}}$ \"style=background:#FFFC93;\"\| $r_2$ $\mathrm{id}$ $r_3$ $r_1$
$f_{\mathrm{d}}$ $f_{\mathrm{d}}$ $f_{\mathrm{h}}$ $f_{\mathrm{c}}$ $f_{\mathrm{v}}$ $r_3$ $r_1$ $\mathrm{id}$ $r_2$
$f_{\mathrm{c}}$ $f_{\mathrm{c}}$ $f_{\mathrm{v}}$ $f_{\mathrm{d}}$ $f_{\mathrm{h}}$ $r_1$ $r_3$ $r_2$ $\mathrm{id}$
The elements `{{tmath|1= \mathrm{id} }}`{=mediawiki}, `{{tmath|1= r_1 }}`{=mediawiki}, `{{tmath|1= r_2 }}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{tmath|1= r_3 }}`{=mediawiki} form a subgroup whose Cayley table is highlighted in `{{color box|#FDD}}`{=mediawiki} red (upper left region). A left and right coset of this subgroup are highlighted in `{{color box|#9DFF93}}`{=mediawiki} green (in the last row) and `{{color box|#FFFC93}}`{=mediawiki} yellow (last column), respectively. The result of the composition `{{tmath|1= f_{\mathrm{h} }\circ r_3 }}`{=mediawiki}, the symmetry `{{tmath|1= f_{\mathrm{d} } }}`{=mediawiki}, is highlighted in `{{color box|#BACDFF}}`{=mediawiki} blue (below table center).
: Cayley table of $\mathrm{D}_4$
Given this set of symmetries and the described operation, the group axioms can be understood as follows.
*Binary operation*: Composition is a binary operation. That is, $a\circ b$ is a symmetry for any two symmetries $a$ and `{{tmath|1= b }}`{=mediawiki}. For example, $r_3\circ f_\mathrm h = f_\mathrm c,$ that is, rotating 270° clockwise after reflecting horizontally equals reflecting along the counter-diagonal (`{{tmath|1= f_{\mathrm{c} } }}`{=mediawiki}). Indeed, every other combination of two symmetries still gives a symmetry, as can be checked using the Cayley table.
*Associativity*: The associativity axiom deals with composing more than two symmetries: Starting with three elements `{{tmath|1= a }}`{=mediawiki}, `{{tmath|1= b }}`{=mediawiki} and `{{tmath|1= c }}`{=mediawiki} of `{{tmath|1= \mathrm{D}_4 }}`{=mediawiki}, there are two possible ways of using these three symmetries in this order to determine a symmetry of the square. One of these ways is to first compose $a$ and $b$ into a single symmetry, then to compose that symmetry with `{{tmath|1= c }}`{=mediawiki}. The other way is to first compose $b$ and `{{tmath|1= c }}`{=mediawiki}, then to compose the resulting symmetry with `{{tmath|1= a }}`{=mediawiki}. These two ways must give always the same result, that is, $(a\circ b)\circ c = a\circ (b\circ c),$ For example, $(f_{\mathrm{d}}\circ f_{\mathrm{v}})\circ r_2=f_{\mathrm{d}}\circ (f_{\mathrm{v}}\circ r_2)$ can be checked using the Cayley table: $\begin{align}
(f_\mathrm d\circ f_\mathrm v)\circ r_2 &=r_3\circ r_2=r_1\\
f_\mathrm d\circ (f_\mathrm v\circ r_2) &=f_\mathrm d\circ f_\mathrm h =r_1.
\end{align}$
*Identity element*: The identity element is `{{tmath|1= \mathrm{id} }}`{=mediawiki}, as it does not change any symmetry $a$ when composed with it either on the left or on the right.
*Inverse element*: Each symmetry has an inverse: `{{tmath|1= \mathrm{id} }}`{=mediawiki}, the reflections `{{tmath|1= f_{\mathrm{h} } }}`{=mediawiki}, `{{tmath|1= f_{\mathrm{v} } }}`{=mediawiki}, `{{tmath|1= f_{\mathrm{d} } }}`{=mediawiki}, `{{tmath|1= f_{\mathrm{c} } }}`{=mediawiki} and the 180° rotation $r_2$ are their own inverse, because performing them twice brings the square back to its original orientation. The rotations $r_3$ and $r_1$ are each other\'s inverses, because rotating 90° and then rotation 270° (or vice versa) yields a rotation over 360° which leaves the square unchanged. This is easily verified on the table.
In contrast to the group of integers above, where the order of the operation is immaterial, it does matter in `{{tmath|1= \mathrm{D}_4 }}`{=mediawiki}, as, for example, $f_{\mathrm{h}}\circ r_1=f_{\mathrm{c}}$ but `{{tmath|1= r_1\circ f_{\mathrm{h} }=f_{\mathrm{d} } }}`{=mediawiki}. In other words, $\mathrm{D}_4$ is not abelian.
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# Group (mathematics)
## History
The modern concept of an abstract group developed out of several fields of mathematics. The original motivation for group theory was the quest for solutions of polynomial equations of degree higher than 4. The 19th-century French mathematician Évariste Galois, extending prior work of Paolo Ruffini and Joseph-Louis Lagrange, gave a criterion for the solvability of a particular polynomial equation in terms of the symmetry group of its roots (solutions). The elements of such a Galois group correspond to certain permutations of the roots. At first, Galois\'s ideas were rejected by his contemporaries, and published only posthumously. More general permutation groups were investigated in particular by Augustin Louis Cauchy. Arthur Cayley\'s *On the theory of groups, as depending on the symbolic equation $\theta^n=1$* (1854) gives the first abstract definition of a finite group.
Geometry was a second field in which groups were used systematically, especially symmetry groups as part of Felix Klein\'s 1872 Erlangen program. After novel geometries such as hyperbolic and projective geometry had emerged, Klein used group theory to organize them in a more coherent way. Further advancing these ideas, Sophus Lie founded the study of Lie groups in 1884.
The third field contributing to group theory was number theory. Certain abelian group structures had been used implicitly in Carl Friedrich Gauss\'s number-theoretical work *Disquisitiones Arithmeticae* (1798), and more explicitly by Leopold Kronecker. In 1847, Ernst Kummer made early attempts to prove Fermat\'s Last Theorem by developing groups describing factorization into prime numbers.
The convergence of these various sources into a uniform theory of groups started with Camille Jordan\'s *Traité des substitutions et des équations algébriques* (1870). Walther von Dyck (1882) introduced the idea of specifying a group by means of generators and relations, and was also the first to give an axiomatic definition of an \"abstract group\", in the terminology of the time. As of the 20th century, groups gained wide recognition by the pioneering work of Ferdinand Georg Frobenius and William Burnside (who worked on representation theory of finite groups and wrote the first book about group theory in the English language: *Theory of Groups of Finite Order*), Richard Brauer\'s modular representation theory and Issai Schur\'s papers. The theory of Lie groups, and more generally locally compact groups was studied by Hermann Weyl, Élie Cartan and many others. Its algebraic counterpart, the theory of algebraic groups, was first shaped by Claude Chevalley (from the late 1930s) and later by the work of Armand Borel and Jacques Tits.
The University of Chicago\'s 1960--61 Group Theory Year brought together group theorists such as Daniel Gorenstein, John G. Thompson and Walter Feit, laying the foundation of a collaboration that, with input from numerous other mathematicians, led to the classification of finite simple groups, with the final step taken by Aschbacher and Smith in 2004. This project exceeded previous mathematical endeavours by its sheer size, in both length of proof and number of researchers. Research concerning this classification proof is ongoing. Group theory remains a highly active mathematical branch, impacting many other fields, as the examples below illustrate.
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# Group (mathematics)
## Elementary consequences of the group axioms {#elementary_consequences_of_the_group_axioms}
Basic facts about all groups that can be obtained directly from the group axioms are commonly subsumed under *elementary group theory*. For example, repeated applications of the associativity axiom show that the unambiguity of $a\cdot b\cdot c=(a\cdot b)\cdot c=a\cdot(b\cdot c)$ generalizes to more than three factors. Because this implies that parentheses can be inserted anywhere within such a series of terms, parentheses are usually omitted.
### Uniqueness of identity element {#uniqueness_of_identity_element}
The group axioms imply that the identity element is unique; that is, there exists only one identity element: any two identity elements $e$ and $f$ of a group are equal, because the group axioms imply `{{tmath|1= e=e\cdot f=f }}`{=mediawiki}. It is thus customary to speak of *the* identity element of the group.
### Uniqueness of inverses {#uniqueness_of_inverses}
The group axioms also imply that the inverse of each element is unique. Let a group element $a$ have both $b$ and $c$ as inverses. Then
: \\begin{align}
b &= b\\cdot e
` && \text{(}e \text { is the identity element)}\\`\
` &= b\cdot (a \cdot c) `\
` && \text{(}c \text { and } a \text{ are inverses of each other)}\\`\
` &= (b\cdot a) \cdot c `\
` && \text{(associativity)}\\`\
` &= e \cdot c `\
` && \text{(}b \text { is an inverse of } a\text{)}\\`\
` &= c `\
` && \text{(}e \text { is the identity element and } b=c\text{)}`
\\end{align}
Therefore, it is customary to speak of *the* inverse of an element.
### Division
Given elements $a$ and $b$ of a group `{{tmath|1= G }}`{=mediawiki}, there is a unique solution $x$ in $G$ to the equation `{{tmath|1= a\cdot x=b }}`{=mediawiki}, namely `{{tmath|1= a^{-1}\cdot b }}`{=mediawiki}. It follows that for each $a$ in `{{tmath|1= G }}`{=mediawiki}, the function $G\to G$ that maps each $x$ to $a\cdot x$ is a bijection; it is called *left multiplication* by $a$ or *left translation* by `{{tmath|1= a }}`{=mediawiki}.
Similarly, given $a$ and `{{tmath|1= b }}`{=mediawiki}, the unique solution to $x\cdot a=b$ is `{{tmath|1= b\cdot a^{-1} }}`{=mediawiki}. For each `{{tmath|1= a }}`{=mediawiki}, the function $G\to G$ that maps each $x$ to $x\cdot a$ is a bijection called *right multiplication* by $a$ or *right translation* by `{{tmath|1= a }}`{=mediawiki}.
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