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# Politics of Macau
## Head of Government {#head_of_government}
\| *General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (paramount leader)* \|*Xi Jinping* \|*Chinese Communist Party* \|*15 November 2012* \|- \| *President of the PRC (head of state)* \|*Xi Jinping* \|*Chinese Communist Party* \|*14 March 2013* \|- \|*Premier of the State Council (head of central government)* \|*Li Qiang* \|*Chinese Communist Party* \|*11 March 2023* \|- \|Chief Executive of the Macau SAR (head of region AND head of regional government) \|Sam Hou Fai \|Non-partisan \|20 December 2019 \|}
The Chief Executive of Macau is appointed by the People\'s Republic of China\'s central government after selection by an election committee, whose members are nominated by corporate bodies. The chief executive appears before a cabinet, the Executive Council, of between 7 and 11 members. The term of office of the chief executive is 5 years, and no individual may serve for more than two consecutive terms. The governor has strong policymaking and executive powers similar to those of a president. These powers are, however, limited from above by the central government in Beijing, to whom the governor reports directly, and from below (to a more limited extent) by the legislature.
In May 1999, Edmund Ho, a community leader and banker, was the first PRC-appointed chief executive of the Macau SAR, having replaced General de Rocha Viera on 20 December 1999. He was elected by the 200-member Chief Executive Selection Committee. Ho, born in Macau in 1955, was the first Chinese person to govern the region since the 1550s. Prior to 20 December 1999, Ho nominated major officials in the new government and carried out other transfer tasks. Ho was re-elected for a second term in 2004 and was succeeded by Fernando Chui in 2009.
The executive branch of the Macau government has the following cabinet departments, each headed by a secretary: Administration and Justice, Economic and Financial Affairs, Security, Social Affairs and Culture, and Transport and Public Works. There also are two commissions, Against Corruption and Audit, and a chief public prosecutor. Upon Macau\'s reversion to China, the executive offices were moved from Macau Government House temporarily to the Banco Tai Fung.
## Executive
The executive council decides on matters of policy, the introduction of bills to the Legislative Assembly of Macau and the drafting of subordinate legislation. The council consists of 11 members including the chief executive.
### Cabinet
The cabinet consists of 5 secretariats of departments led by a chief:
- Chief of Cabinet (Macau)
- Secretariat for Transport and Public Works
- Secretariat for Social Affairs and Culture
- Secretariat for Security
- Secretariat for Economy and Finance
- Secretariat for Administration and Justice
### Principal officials {#principal_officials}
- Commissioner of the Macau Customs Service
- Commissioner of the Unitary Police Service of Macau
- Commissioner Against Corruption
- Procurator General of Macau
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
The legislative organ of the territory is the Legislative Assembly, a 33-member body comprising fourteen directly elected members, twelve indirectly elected members representing functional constituencies and seven members appointed by the chief executive. The Legislative Assembly is responsible for general lawmaking, including taxation, the passing of the budget and socioeconomic legislation. Terms are for four years, with annual sessions running from 15 October to 16 August. There are several standing committees in the assembly that perform the following functions: examination and issuance of reports and statements on projects and proposals of law, on resolutions and deliberations, and on proposals of alteration presented to the Legislative Assembly; examination of petitions submitted to the Legislative Assembly; voting on issues as approved in general by the Legislative Assembly General Meeting; and answering questions raised by the president or the General Meeting.
The last election was held in 2017 and the current Legislative Assembly is chaired by its president, businessman Ho Iat Seng (賀一誠), who is assisted by the vice president, Chui Sai Cheong (崔世昌), the elder brother of Chief Executive Fernando Chui Sai On.
## Elections
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# Politics of Macau
## Judiciary
The Court of Final Appeal is the court of last resort in the Macau Special Administrative Region.
The legal system is based largely on Portuguese law. The territory has its own independent judicial system, with a high court. Judges are selected by a committee and appointed by the chief executive. Foreign judges may serve on the courts. In July 1999 the chief executive appointed a seven-person committee to select judges for the SAR. Twenty-four judges were recommended by the committee and were then appointed by Mr. Ho. Included are three judges who serve on the Macau SAR\'s highest court, the Court of Final Appeal (CFA): 39-year-old Sam Hou Fai (who will be chief justice), 32-year-old Chu Kin, and the 46-year-old Viriato Manuel Pinhiero de Lima.
## Political pressure groups and leaders {#political_pressure_groups_and_leaders}
Public political demonstration is rare in Macau.
- Roman Catholic Church (José Lai, bishop)
- Macau Society of Tourism and Entertainment or STDM (Stanley Ho, managing director)
- Union for Democracy Development (Antonio Ng Kuok cheong, leader)
## Foreign affairs {#foreign_affairs}
The central government in Beijing controls the foreign affairs of Macau. The Office of the Commissioner of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People\'s Republic of China in the Macao Special Administrative Region opened its office in Macau on 20 December 1999. As a central government agency, the commission interacts with the Macau government in matters of foreign policy. It also processes applications from foreign nations and international organisations wishing to establish consulates or representative offices in Macau. Macau is also authorised to handle some external affairs on its own. These affairs include economic and cultural relations and agreements it concludes with states, regions, and international organisations. In such matters, Macau functions under the name \"Macao, China.\" Macau displays the flag and national emblem of the People\'s Republic of China but is also authorised to display its own regional flag and emblem. Taiwanese organisations in Macau are allowed to continue operations and are required to abide by the Basic Law
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# Telecommunications in Macau
With Macau\'s small population (about 680,000) and market, only a few local media options are available for the local people. Because radio signals, newspapers and magazines from Hong Kong are available in Macau, the local media are always a minority group in terms of sales and number of viewers.
## Newspapers
There are eighteen newspapers (twelve in Chinese, four in Portuguese and two in English). *O Mun Yat Po* or *Macau Daily News*) is owned by the Chinese Communist Party and has the largest circulation (4,000). Additionally, Chinese-language newspapers from Hong Kong are popular.
Macau has eight Chinese-language, three Portuguese-language and two English-language dailies. The *Macau Daily Times* is Macau\'s only English-language newspaper edited seven days a week. *Macau Post Daily* is published from Monday to Friday. It is owned by a local publishing company, Everbright Co. Ltd., which is locally owned.
## Radio
There are 250,000 radios; two twenty-hour FM radio stations, one Portuguese, one Chinese; and four AM stations. Hong Kong radio stations also are popular in Macau.
- Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 0 (2005)
- Radios: 160,000 (1997)
## Television
There are 70,300 television sets (1997 estimate); two general television channels from TDM: one Portuguese and one Chinese. Hong Kong television networks TVB and ViuTV can be received and are widely watched by Macau residents.
- Television broadcast stations: 3 (2006)
- Televisions: 49,000 (1997)
Macau government owns the television station called TDM. It has 16 digital television channels (6 channels are its own channel, 1 channel for transmitting TDM radio, 9 channels are transmitting television channels from mainland China).
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# Telecommunications in Macau
## Telephone
The number of telephone lines has been increasing since the mid-1990s. In 1997 there were 222,456 telephones; by 1999, 300,066 lines were in use. In 1999 there were 686 telephone lines per 1,000 people. Cellular-telephone-use statistics were not available. International access is via Hong Kong and Mainland China and via Intelsat (Indian Ocean). Alcatel-Lucent was granted a contract in February 2007 to collocate a CDMA2000 1xEV-DO (Revision A) high-speed wireless network in Macau for China Unicom. Following the completion of the upgrades in related software and hardware, China Unicom will be equipped with the facilities needed to provide high-speed mobile data services for users in Macau, including broadcasting and video telephony.
- Telephone main lines in use: 175,592 (July 2006)
- Mobile cellular telephones: 325,016 (July 2006)
Telephone system: fairly modern communication facilities maintained for domestic and international services
- domestic: N/A
- international: HF radiotelephone communication facility; access to international communications carriers provided via Hong Kong and Mainland China; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
- Users: 88,653 (2005)
CTM is the only carrier to offer eSIM. 3 Macau is the only carrier to offer VoWiFi. SmarTone MAC is the only carrier not yet to offer VoLTE, till its operation ceased.
On 21 August 2024, The Macau SAR Government has received an application from SmarTone to forgo the 4G license and plans to cease renewing the 3G license after expiration. According to the Post and Telecommunications Bureau (CTT), SmarTone (at that time) had a relatively small market share in Macau, only a single-digit percentage.
### Mobile phone operators {#mobile_phone_operators}
+-----------------------+-------------------+-----------------+----------------------------+
| Brand | Operator | Status | Bands (MHz) |
+=======================+===================+=================+============================+
| CTM | C.T.M. Telemovel+ | Operational | LTE FDD 900 / 1800 / 2100\ |
| | | | NR FDD 2100\ |
| | | | NR TDD 3500 / 4900 |
+-----------------------+-------------------+-----------------+----------------------------+
| 3 Macau | Hutchison Telecom | Operational | LTE FDD 900 / 1800 |
+-----------------------+-------------------+-----------------+----------------------------+
| China Telecom (Macau) | China Telecom | Operational | LTE FDD 850 / 1800 / 2100\ |
| | | | NR TDD 3500 |
+-----------------------+-------------------+-----------------+----------------------------+
| SmarTone MAC | SmarTone Macau | Not operational | UMTS 2100\ |
| | | | LTE FDD 1800 |
+-----------------------+-------------------+-----------------+----------------------------+
### Decommissioning of GSM {#decommissioning_of_gsm}
GSM mobile phone networks for consumers in Macau were set to be decommissioned in July 2012. Networks will only be left in place for visitors to roam onto. The planned shutdown will make Macau be the first region in the world to phase out networks using the GSM standard, but it was postponed until 2019.
## Internet
Internet Service Providers (ISPs): CTM (Companhia de Telecomunicações de Macau S.A.R.L.), MTel
Country code (Top level domain): .mo
### Broadband Internet access {#broadband_internet_access}
The Macao Telecommunications Company (CTM) in 2000 launched the first broadband Internet access in the territory, on a network built by Cisco Systems.
MTel Telecommunications also provides broadband internet service and is CTM\'s main competitor, though much smaller market share.
### Censorship
Macau is outside the Great Firewall, therefore there is no internet censorship besides illegal content in Macau
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# Transport in Macau
**Transport in Macau** includes road, sea, rail and air transport. Road transport is the primary mode of transport within Macau, although a new rail system opened in December 2019 serving the areas of Taipa and Cotai. The main forms of public transport are buses and taxis.
Modes of transport out of Macau include ferries to Hong Kong and mainland China from two ferry terminals, as well as helicopter service to Hong Kong. International flights are available from Macau International Airport.
## Internal
### Road
Buses and taxis are the major modes of public transport in Macau. Bus services are frequent and inexpensive, linking the Macau peninsula, Taipa, Cotai and Coloane. Transmac and TCM are the only operators of Macau\'s bus services. Nova Era (zh), which took over the operations of Reolian, merged with TCM on 1 August, 2018. Most hotels (four-starred or above) and gaming venues operate their own fleet of shuttle bus service between the Hong Kong-Macau Ferry Terminal, Taipa Ferry Terminal or Portas do Cerco (Macau\'s border to mainland China) and their premises.
Taxis are plentiful near the airport/Taipa ferry terminal, the Hong Kong-Macau and Taipa ferry terminal, and major gaming venues/hotels in the city though it is harder to get one during rush hours on the streets. Most of Macau\'s taxis have a black body with cream color top livery. Radio taxis are available for the black cabs.`{{not in citation|date=April 2020}}`{=mediawiki}
In order to enhance the quality of taxi services, such as eliminate the language barrier between taxi drivers and passengers, the Tourist Office has provided most taxis with a destination guide which includes the names of the most requested destinations in Chinese, Portuguese and English.
The trishaw, a hybrid of the tricycle and the rickshaw, is a unique mode of transport in Macau, though it is mainly for sightseeing purposes but they were a type of mainly used transportation system before the 1970s because of their cheap price. They can easily be found next to Hotel Lisboa and the Macau ferry terminal waiting for passengers.
### Railways
There is one railway line open in Macau called the Macau Light Rail Transit system. Phase 1 of the Taipa line opened for operations in December 2019. Similar to the Singapore Light Rapid Transit system, the tracks will be a mix of elevated guideways and tunnels, ensuring a dedicated right-of-way separated from road traffic. When completed it will serve passengers on Macau Peninsula, Taipa island, the Cotai reclamation area, the Macau International Airport and the Hong Kong--Zhuhai--Macau Bridge.
Proposals have been put forward to link Macau to the Chinese railway network by extending the Guangzhou Railway (or, possibly, Guangzhou-Zhuhai Intercity Mass Rapid Transit) to Cotai through Hengqin Island. However, no decisions have yet been made so far.
Zhuhai Railway Station of the Guangzhou--Zhuhai Intercity Railway terminates adjacent to the northern border entrance into Macau at Portas do Cerco.
Other systems include the Teleférico da Guia gondola lift system on Guia Hill, and the Elevador Inclinado da Colina da Taipa Grande, an inclined lift.
### Others
The Macau Maritime Museum used to have two sailing vessels (which were based on the ancient \"junk\" form but were remodeled) serving for touring trips between the inner and outer harbours. Along the trip, the crew would introduce the general lifestyle and customs of the local boat dwellers. However, due to the land reclamation works in the harbour and the maintenance of the boats, all trips have been suspended.
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# Transport in Macau
## External
### Sea
Over 150 sea-crossing services are scheduled daily between Macau and Hong Kong, and the Outer Harbour Ferry Terminal serves as the major terminal for Macau\'s passenger traffic by sea. The route is served by high speed catamarans (with passenger capacity of about 400) and jetfoils (with passenger capacity of about 260) and the journey takes approximately one hour. There are also daily scheduled ferry services between Macau and Shenzhen. At present the services are operated by TurboJET from Sheung Wan, Tsim Sha Tsui and Hong Kong International Airport. Cotai Water Jet also operates services between Taipa Ferry Terminal and the Sheung Wan, Tsim Sha Tsui and Hong Kong International Airport. Apart from the sea routes there are also regular scheduled helicopter services between Hong Kong and Macau, which are operated by Sky Shuttle. The trip takes approximately 20 minutes.
A sea-crossing service has been launched by TurboJET which travels between the Hong Kong International Airport and Macau. This differs from the above Macau-Hong Kong route since travelers who arrive in Hong Kong by air do not have to go through Hong Kong immigration\'s passport control and can board a direct ferry to Macau through a special transfer terminal within the airport. On the return trip, travelers can directly reach the Hong Kong International Airport by ferry (a dedicated check-in desk for the service is available at the Hong Kong-Macau Ferry Terminal) and arrive at the airport without going through Hong Kong immigration\'s passport control, though airline check-in has to be done for some airlines within the airport prior to boarding a plane. Later on, the Cotai Water Jet launched the same service linking Hong Kong Airport and Macau but mostly embarked at Taipa Ferry Terminal.
A new ferry terminal in Taipa, which is adjacent to the Macau International Airport, was opened in 2017 and some of the passenger traffic by sea will be diverted to the new facility. It is expected to act as a major hub for passenger transfer between the Hong Kong International Airport and the Macau International Airport.
From the Inner Harbour Ferry Terminal (Terminal Marítimo de Passageiros do Porto Interior), ferry services were available between Macau and Wanzai, Zhuhai until January, 2016 due to safety issues at the Wanzai Ferry Terminal. On 31 December 2019, the Macau government announced that the Wanzai Port will officially reopen on January 23 with an hourly immigration capacity of 3,840 crossings. To transport passengers between Macau and Zhuhai, the mainland ferry company Yuet Tung will arrange one ferry every 15 minutes, amounting to four ferries every hour. Each ferry can take a maximum of 280 passengers.
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# Transport in Macau
## External
### Air
Air service in Macau began in the 1930s with Pan American Airways operating seaplanes from Macau to Hong Kong and lasted until 1941. In 1948 Cathay Pacific Airways commenced Hong Kong to Macau seaplane service under their subsidiary Macau Air Transport Company (MATCO). MATCO operated from the Outer Harbour Terminal along Avenida da Amizade to Kai Tak Airport in Hong Kong. The scheduled passenger service continued until 1961 when MATCO ceased operations.
The Macau International Airport, located at Taipa, serves as the terminal for Macau\'s international air traffic. It was inaugurated on 9 November 1995 and has since established a number of regular flights between Macau and major cities in Northeast and Southeast Asia, such as Bangkok, Beijing, Kaohsiung, Kuala Lumpur, Manila, Osaka, Seoul, Shanghai, Singapore, and Taipei.
Passengers who would like to enter mainland China by land can use the \"Two Customs, One Checkpoint\" service (or the AIR-TO-LAND Flow Express Bus - Two Customs, One Checkpoint) provided by the Macau International Airport. Passengers can request the \"Express Link\" service at the check-in counter of their respective airlines. When arriving at the Macau International Airport, they can simply follow the \"Express Link\" signs and board the Air-to-Land transfer. Passengers do not have to go through Macau\'s immigration and customs checkpoint until they reach the border of mainland China.
Owing to its relatively low landing fees and the business opportunities brought by the booming gaming industry in Macau, the airport has attracted several of Asia\'s low-cost carriers such as AirAsia, Tigerair, Cebu Pacific, etc. to establish regular flights between Macau and several major cities in Southeast Asia. As a result, it has been gradually developing into a major hub for low-cost air travel within the region. Other traditional carriers, such as the local flag carrier Air Macau, the Taiwanese carrier EVA Air, and even carriers which operate similar routes from Hong Kong, are facing potential challenges from these newcomers.
Due to a lack of intercontinental flights from Macau, air passengers are also served by Hong Kong International Airport and Shenzhen Bao\'an International Airport. Passengers can take ferries from the Outer Harbor and Taipa terminals to the Skypier in Hong Kong, or Fuyong Ferry Terminal in Shenzhen, without clearing customs or immigration at the other side. There is also a helicopter service to Shenzhen.
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# Transport in Macau
## Roads, bridges and tunnels {#roads_bridges_and_tunnels}
Further information: List of roads in Macau, 3=list of bridges and tunnels in Macau{{!List of tunnels and bridges of Macau}}
Macau has 321 kilometres of public roads, four bridges (viaducts) linking the Macau Peninsula and Taipa, and a tunnel through the Guia Hill linking the Horta e Costa area and the New Port Area (NAPE). The four bridges are (from east to west) Macau Bridge, the Friendship Bridge (*Ponte de Amizade*); the Macau-Taipa Bridge (*Ponte Governador Nobre de Carvalho*); and the Sai Van Bridge (*Ponte de Sai Van*).
The Lotus Bridge links Cotai with Hengqin New Area of Zhuhai. Unlike mainland China, where traffic drives on the right, traffic in Macau and Hong Kong drives on the left, therefore a special design has been used to build this bridge to facilitate the change in driving directions.
Roads are generally narrow at the heart of the city and parked cars are always found on both sides of the road. Traffic congestion has been a major problem throughout the day owing to the lack of an efficient mass transit system and a relatively high car to population ratio.
There are four land cross-border checkpoints, Portas do Cerco, Parque Industrial Transfronteiriço, located at Ilha Verde, Cotai (Lotus) Checkpoint, and the Hong Kong--Zhuhai--Macau Bridge Checkpoint for connection Mainland China. Except for Portas do Cerco, which operates from 06:00 to 01:00, the other checkpoints are in 24-hour operation.
The recent opening of the Hong Kong--Zhuhai--Macau Bridge, opened in October 2018 has formed the first single road link between Hong Kong, Macau and the Chinese mainland at Zhuhai. This 50 km link consists of a series of bridges and tunnels crossing the Lingdingyang channel, that connects these three major cities on the Pearl River Delta in China.
## Ports
- Macau Container Port, located at the Inner Harbour area on the west side of the Macau peninsula
- Ká Hó Port, located on the Coloane Island
## Airports
### Airports {#airports_1}
There is only one airport located within Macau. Service began in 1995. Previously, seaplanes operated in Macau.`{{where?|Where in Macau? Porto Exterior?|date=June 2025}}`{=mediawiki}
Location ICAO IATA Airport name
-------------------------------- ------ ------ -----------------------------
Taipa Island (*Ilha da Taipa*) VMMC MFM Macau International Airport
### Heliports and helipads {#heliports_and_helipads}
There are two heliports in Macau
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# Geography of North Macedonia
North Macedonia is a country situated in southeastern Europe with geographic coordinates 41 50 N 22 00 E type:country, bordering Kosovo and Serbia to the north, Bulgaria to the east, Greece to the south and Albania to the west. The country is part of the wider region of Macedonia and makes up most of Vardar Macedonia. The country is a major transportation corridor from Western and Central Europe to Southern Europe and the Aegean Sea. North Macedonia is a landlocked country but has three major natural lakes: Lake Ohrid, Lake Prespa and Lake Dojran. It has a water area of 857 km^2^, while its land area is 24,856 km^2^.
Phytogeographically, Macedonia belongs to the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF and Digital Map of European Ecological Regions by the European Environment Agency, North Macedonia\'s territory can be subdivided into four ecoregions: the Pindus Mountains mixed forests, Balkan mixed forests, Rhodopes mixed forests and Aegean sclerophyllous and mixed forests.
## Climate
North Macedonia has a unique climate explained by its location and topography. The climate of the plains is a Mediterranean climate combined with the influence of the Black Sea. The country also holds continental characteristics, which are accentuated by the mountains in the south which prevent hot air from the south from moving to the north. Conversely, the Šar Mountains, which are located in the northwestern part, block cold northern winds. In whole, the northern and western parts of the country are relatively close to a Continental climate and the southern and eastern to a Mediterranean climate.
North Macedonia has four seasons, but the lengths of the seasons varies based on geography. The spring is often very short. Summers are subtropical and it is not uncommon to see temperatures of above 40 °C during this season, especially in the plains along the valley of the Vardar river. Winters, although moderate, can be quite cold. Snowfalls during winter are common and occasionally heavy. The average annual temperature of the air is 11.5 °C, but the plains experience higher temperatures, 15 °C. The warmest month is July, which has an average temperature of 22.2 °C and the coldest is January, with a temperature of 0.3 °C. The maximum and minimum temperatures recorded in North Macedonia to date are 45.7 °C and -31.5 °C, respectively.
The rainfall is abundant in the western and eastern parts of the country, but the temperature decreases significantly in the Vardar region. This region sees warmer winters through the *Vardarec* wind. This wind comes up from the mouth of the Vardar river and brings warm air. Skopje, considered a low-lying city, has an average of 64 rainy days per year. The month of October is the wettest with 61 mm; the driest is August with 28 mm. Rains are most common in the spring and fall.
+------------+-----------------------------------+----------+-----------+--------------+---------------+--------------+
| Place | Region | Latitude | Longitude | Altitude (m) | Rainfall (mm) | Temperature\ |
| | | | | | | (°C) |
+============+===================================+==========+===========+==============+===============+==============+
| Skopje | North of the valley of the Vardar | 42° 00' | 21° 26' | 245 | 940 | 13,5 |
+------------+-----------------------------------+----------+-----------+--------------+---------------+--------------+
| Kočani | Eastern North Macedonia | 41° 50' | 22° 00' | 400 | 538 | 12,9 |
+------------+-----------------------------------+----------+-----------+--------------+---------------+--------------+
| Lake Ohrid | Southwest North Macedonia | 41° 03' | 20° 42' | 693 | 759 | 11,4 |
+------------+-----------------------------------+----------+-----------+--------------+---------------+--------------+
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# Geography of North Macedonia
## Physical Geography {#physical_geography}
### Boundaries
The country has some 766 km of boundaries, shared with Kosovo (159 km or 99 mi) to the northwest, Serbia (62 km or 39 mi) to the North, Bulgaria (148 km) to the east, Greece (246 km) to the south, and Albania (151 km) to the west.
The north border with Serbia and Kosovo is 221 kilometers in length. The border was made after World War II, between SR Macedonia and SR Serbia. But in 2008 when Kosovo declared independence the border with it was remarked again. Rather more than half of the boundary separates North Macedonia from Kosovo. From the tripoint with Albania, the boundary trends north-eastwards along the watershed of Šar Mountain. It describes a curve to the south across the River Lepenec and then turns to north-east to traverse Mount Crna before taking a course slightly to the north of east across the landscape features to the tripoint with Bulgaria. The east border with Bulgaria has length of approximately 148 km. The settled boundary from Yugoslavia and the People\'s Republic of Bulgaria was accepted after the independence in 1992. The boundary starts from the tripoint with Greece, the boundary runs north, crossing the River of Strumica and then rising to the watershed which it follows northwards and then north-westwards to the tripoint with Serbia.
The south border that splits North Macedonia from Greece is 228 km long and it is the longest border. It was marked with the Treaty of Bucharest on 10 August 1913. The border starts from the tripoint with Albania, in Lake Prespa, the boundary runs in a straight line eastwards across the lake and then continues in the north of east trend across the relief to the Voras Oros (Nidže), where it turns north-eastwards. It traverses the watershed of the Voras Oros and then continues eastwards along the watershed before dropping to the valley of Vardar river. The boundary continues eastwards and then turns north across the Dojran lake, before, on the latitude of Valandovo, turning east to the tripoint with Bulgaria on Mount Tumba.
The boundary with Albania was marked first in 1926 and then remarked with the Treaty of Paris in 1947. The boundary starts from the tripoint with Kosovo and follows a watershed before crossing, and for a short distance, following the Black Drin river and continuing along a crest line to Ohrid Lake. It crosses the lake, leaving approximately one-third in Albania, traverses a high ridge and meets the tripoint with Greece in Lake Prespa.
### Topography
North Macedonia is a landlocked country that is geographically clearly defined by a central valley formed by the Vardar river and framed along its borders by mountain ranges. The terrain is mostly rugged, located between the Šar Mountains and Osogovo, which frame the valley of the Vardar river. Three large lakes --- Lake Ohrid, Lake Prespa and Dojran Lake --- lie on the southern borders, bisected by the frontiers with Albania and Greece. Ohrid is considered to be one of the oldest lakes and biotopes in the world. The region is seismically active and has been the site of destructive earthquakes in the past, most recently in 1963 when Skopje was heavily damaged by a major earthquake, killing over 1,000.
North Macedonia also has scenic mountains. They belong to two different mountain ranges: the first is the Šar Mountains that continues to the West Vardar/Pelagonia group of mountains (Baba Mountain, Nidže, Kozuf and Jakupica), also known as the Dinaric range. The second range is the Osogovo--Belasica mountain chain, also known as the Rhodope range. The mountains belonging to the Šar Mountains and the West Vardar/Pelagonia range are younger and higher than the older mountains that are part of the Osogovo-Belasica mountain group.
Name Rank Height (m) Height (ft)
--------------- ------ ------------ -------------
Mount Korab 1 2,764 9,396
Titov Vrv 2 2,748 9,016
Baba Mountain 3 2,601 8,533
Jakupica 4 2,540 8,333
Nidže 5 2,521 8,271
Dešat 6 2,373 7,785
Galičica 7 2,288 7,507
Stogovo 8 2,273 7,457
Jablanica 9 2,257 7,405
Osogovo 10 2,251 7,383
: 10 tallest mountains in North Macedonia
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# Geography of North Macedonia
## Physical Geography {#physical_geography}
### Hydrography
In North Macedonia there are 1,100 large sources of water. The rivers flow into three different basins: the Aegean, the Adriatic and that Black Sea basin.
The Aegean basin is the largest. It covers 87% of the country\'s territory, which is 22,075 km^2^ . Vardar, the largest river in this basin, drains 80% of the territory or 20,459 km^2^. Its valley plays an important part in the economy and the communication system of the country. The project named The Vardar Valley is considered to be crucial for the strategic development of the country.
The river Black Drim forms the Adriatic basin, which covers an area of about 3,320 km^2^, i. e. 13% of the territory. It issues from Lakes Prespa and Ohrid.
The Black Sea basin is the smallest with only 37 km^2^ It covers the northern side of Mount Skopska Crna Gora. Here is the source of the river Binačka Morava which joins the South Morava and later the Danube, which eventually flows into the Black Sea.
Despite being a landlocked country, North Macedonia has three large lakes (Ohrid, Prespa, and Dojran), three artificial lakes and roughly 50 ponds.
There are nine spa resorts in North Macedonia: Banište, Banja Bansko, Istibanja, Katlanovo, Kežovica, Kosovrasti, Banja Kočani, Kumanovski Banji and Negorci.
#### River Vardar {#river_vardar}
The Vardar is the longest and most important river in North Macedonia. It is 388 km long, and drains an area of around 25000 km2. There are proposals to construct a Morava-Vardar Canal, connecting to the Morava river, and hence connecting the Adriatic to central Europe, although this would require extensive work.
The river rises at Vrutok, a few kilometers north of Gostivar in the Republic of North Macedonia. It passes through Gostivar, Skopje and into Veles, crosses the Greek border near Gevgelija, Polykastro and Axioupoli, before emptying into the Aegean Sea in Central Macedonia west of Thessaloniki in northern Greece.
The Vardar basin includes two-thirds of the territory of the Republic of North Macedonia. For that the area is called \"Vardar Macedonia\" after the river, to distinguish it from \"Aegean Macedonia\" (in Greece) and \"Pirin Macedonia\" (in Bulgaria). The valley comprises fertile lands in Polog, Gevgelija and other parts. The river is surrounded by mountains elsewhere. The M1 / E75, connecting with Greek National Road 1, runs through the valley along the river\'s entire length to near Skopje.
The river is depicted on the coat of arms of Skopje, which in turn is incorporated in the city\'s flag.
#### Lake Ohrid {#lake_ohrid}
Lake Ohrid (Macedonian: Охридско Езеро, Ohridsko Ezero) straddles the mountainous border between southwestern North Macedonia and eastern Albania. Lake Ohrid is the deepest lake of the Balkans, with a maximum depth of 288 m (940 ft) and a mean depth of 155 m (508 ft). It covers an area of 358 km2, containing an estimated 55.4 km^3^ of water. It is 30.4 km long by 14.8 km wide at its maximum extent with a shoreline length of 87.53 km, shared between North Macedonia (56.02 km) and Albania (31.51 km). The lake drains an area of around 2600 km^2^ and is fed primarily by underground springs on the eastern shore (about 50% of total inflow), with roughly 25% shares from rivers and direct precipitation. Over 20% of the lake\'s water comes from nearby Lake Prespa, about 10 km to the southeast and at 150 m higher altitude than Lake Ohrid.
Similar to Lake Baikal and Lake Tanganyika, Lake Ohrid harbors endemic species covering the whole food-chain, from phytoplankton and sestile algae (20 species; e.g., Cyclotella fottii), over plant species (2 species; e.g., Chara ohridana), zooplankton (5 species; e.g., Cyclops ochridanus), cyprinid fish (8 species; e.g., Pachychilon pictus), to predatory fish (2 trout species; Ohrid trout Salmo letnica and \"Belvica\" Acantholingua ohridana) and finally its diverse endemic bottom fauna (176 species; e.g. Ochridagammarus solidus), with particularly large endemism among crustaceans, molluscs, sponges and planarians.
There are three cities on the lake\'s shores: Ohrid and Struga in North Macedonia; Pogradec in Albania. There are also several fishing villages, although tourism is now a more significant part of their income. The catchment area of the lake has a population of around 170,000 people, with 131,000 people living directly at the lake shore (43,000 in Albania and 88,000 in North Macedonia).
#### Lake Prespa {#lake_prespa}
The Great Prespa Lake (Macedonian: Преспанско Езеро, Prespansko Ezero) is divided between Albania, Greece and North Macedonia. The largest island in the Great Prespa Lake, called *Golem Grad* (\"Large Fortress\"), or Snake Island (Змиски Остров), lies within North Macedonia.
Because Great Prespa Lake sits about 150m above Lake Ohrid, which lies only about 10 km to the west, its waters run through underground channels in the karst and emerge from springs which feed streams running into Lake Ohrid.
#### Dojran Lake {#dojran_lake}
Dojran Lake, located in southeastern North Macedonia, is the smallest of the three major lakes with an area of 42.7 km^2^. The lake is shared between North Macedonia (27.1 km^2^) and Greece (15.6 km^2^). The town of Dojran is situated on the west coast of the lake, while the Greek village of Mouries lies to the east. To the north is the mountain Belasica and to the south is the Greek town of Doirani. The lake is round in shape, has a maximum depth of 10 metres, has a north-to-south length of 8.9 km, and is 7.1 km at its widest.
### Flora and fauna {#flora_and_fauna}
The flora of North Macedonia is represented with around 210 families, 920 genera, and around 3,700 plant species. The most abundant group are the flowering plants with around 3,200 species, which is followed by mosses (350 species) and ferns (42).
Phytogeographically, North Macedonia belongs to the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF and Digital Map of European Ecological Regions by the European Environment Agency, the territory of the Republic can be subdivided into four ecoregions: the Pindus Mountains mixed forests, Balkan mixed forests, Rhodopes mixed forests and Aegean sclerophyllous and mixed forests.
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# Geography of North Macedonia
## Physical Geography {#physical_geography}
### Minerals and ores {#minerals_and_ores}
North Macedonia is rich in low-grade iron ore, copper, lead, zinc, chromite, manganese, nickel, tungsten, gold, silver, asbestos, and gypsum. Also it is one of possibly two places in the world where the lorandite mineral is found.
### Land use {#land_use}
- 16.1% of the country\'s territory is arable land.
- 1.36% of permanent crops
- 82.54% -- other. (2011).
According to 2004 estimates, there are 1278 km^2^ of irrigated land, and 6.4 km^3^ of total renewable water resources.
### Degradation and protection of the environment {#degradation_and_protection_of_the_environment}
In July 2007, fires were particularly visible in Greece, Albania and North Macedonia.
The environment is preserved in areas impractical and sparsely populated. In addition, the country has three major national parks, created under the Yugoslav regime of 1948--1958. The parks of Pelister, Mavrovo and Galičica cover an area of 108250 acre and allow for the protection of natural areas by their exceptional geological setting, their fauna and flora. The ornithological reserve of Ezerani, north of Lake Prespa, is 2,000 hectares big and is home to sixty animals protected by the Bern Convention.
However, if it is protected where man has little access, nature is threatened the outskirts of towns and villages. Indeed, in order to make North Macedonia, formerly rural and poor, a modern and prosperous country, the Yugoslav communist regime established many factories, often highly polluting. These factories, located mainly in the regions of Veles and Skopje are still functioning. The emissions of waste pollutants have decreased after 1991, after independence, because many companies have gone bankrupt or have reduced their activity after the transition to a market economy.
The other danger of degradation of nature lies in waste. Indeed, only the city of Skopje has a processing center for household waste in the rest of the country, so they are left in open dumps. The lack of resources and political will behind these fatal neglect for the environment.
North Macedonia is also experiencing serious problems in water management. The country, however should be able to secure its water through its dams and its sources. In summer, water restrictions are common. The summer period is also marked by the devastation of forests by wildfire. In 2008, six million trees were planted in North Macedonia to regenerate damaged forests.
The environmental degradation nevertheless mobilizes local groups and North Macedonia is a signatory to international treaties like the Kyoto Protocol.
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# Geography of North Macedonia
## Human geography {#human_geography}
### Differences in population and urbanization {#differences_in_population_and_urbanization}
The Republic of North Macedonia consists primarily of rural country towns, with only 45% of the population concentrated in the larger towns and cities. Skopje, with more than 500,000 inhabitants, is by far the largest city in the country. The surrounding region, one of the few plains of the country, includes several other cities, like Tetovo and Gostivar. Bitola, Prilep and other significant cities, are located in the plain of Pelagonia in the south. The rest of the population is concentrated in the valley of the Vardar and the few other basins and plains of the country.
Urbanization, which is developing very fast since the communist era of Yugoslavia, has led to uncontrolled and illegal constructions. Other cities have not grown as fast as the capital, which has gained more than 300,000 inhabitants between 1948 and 1981. Bitola, Prilep and Kumanovo, the three other major cities, did not exceed 30,000 inhabitants in 1948 and have barely reached 100,000 people since. Kumanovo, which is the second largest city of North Macedonia, had only 105,000 inhabitants in 2002, which is substantial difference comparing it with the population of the capital Skopje -- 506,000 inhabitants. This makes Skopje a primate city.
**Population of the most populous municipalities** TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal format:yyyy ImageSize = width:640 height:auto barincrement:25 PlotArea = left:10 right:10 top:10 bottom:40 AlignBars = justify
Colors =
` id:canvas value:rgb(0.97,0.97,0.97)`
BackgroundColors = canvas:canvas
Period = from:0 till:600 ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:100 start:0 gridcolor:drabgreen
BarData=
` barset:Einwohnerzahl`
PlotData=
` width:20 fontsize:M textcolor:black color:skyblue shift:(20,-6) anchor:from`
` barset:Einwohnerzahl`
` from:start till:506.9 text:``Skopje``_(506 926)`\
` from:start till:105.5 text:``Kumanovo``_(105 484)`\
` from:start till:95.4 text:``Bitola``_(95 385)`\
` from:start till:86.5 text:``Tetovo``_(86 580)`\
` from:start till:81.0 text:``Gostivar``_(81 042)`\
` from:start till:76.7 text:``Prilep``_(76 768)`\
` from:start till:63.3 text:``Struga``_(63 376)`\
` from:start till:55.7 text:``Ohrid``_(55 749)`\
` from:start till:55.1 text:``Veles``_(55 108)`\
` from:start till:54.6 text:``Strumica``_(54 676)`
TextData=
` fontsize:S pos:(450,20)`\
` text:Population (in thousands)`
### Ethnic distribution {#ethnic_distribution}
The Macedonians are the largest ethnic group in the country, accounting for 58.4% of the total population, according to the 2021 census. They speak the Macedonian language and most are Eastern Orthodox Christians. Ethnic Albanians are the country\'s largest minority, making up one-quarter of the total population. They live mainly in the west and northwest. The Turks, who comprise nearly 4% of the population, are mostly scattered, though they form a majority in two municipalities (Plasnica and Centar Župa). The Romani make up 2.5% of the population and are also concentrated throughout North Macedonia, while the Serbs, who form 1.3% of the total population, live mostly in the north of the country.
### Administrative divisions {#administrative_divisions}
North Macedonia is divided into eight statistical regions: Skopje, Pelagonia, Polog, Vardar, Eastern, Southeastern, Northeastern and Southwestern.
The country is further divided into 84 municipalities. Until 1996, there were 123 municipalities, but several laws aimed at increasing the rights of minorities decreased the number of municipalities and modified their overall role. Skopje, the nation\'s capital, is itself divided into ten municipalities.
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# Geography of North Macedonia
## Economic geography {#economic_geography}
North Macedonia, like most countries in Eastern Europe, has a developing economy. Under Yugoslavia, North Macedonia saw the establishment of many factories and the significant modernisation of the country, especially after the devastating Skopje earthquake of 1963. Since independence in 1991, it has suffered the transition to market economy. Greece, which believed that the republic was monopolising the cultural and historical heritage of Macedonia, imposed a temporary embargo in 1993 and had prevented the country\'s accession to organisations like the European Union and NATO, until the implementation of the Prespa agreement in 2019.
In 1995, the Greek embargo was lifted and Macedonia was able to access the IMF and World Bank. The country still suffers, however, from its isolation and lack of foreign investment, to which Greece is one of the largest contributors. In 2007, the unemployment rate was estimated at 32% and the black market provided about 20% of the Gross Domestic Product.
### Characteristics and advantages {#characteristics_and_advantages}
North Macedonia\'s geographical positioning provides it with many advantages. One advantage is the geographical position of the country. It is the center of the Balkans, between Belgrade and Athens, Tirana and Sofia, between the Adriatic and Black Sea. The Vardar valley forms a natural corridor, which connects Greece to the rest of Europe. This corridor is crossed by the highway E75, which crosses in Europe and connects Scandinavia with Attica. This highway has also been renovated in North Macedonia with the European Agency for Reconstruction, and the communication channels that connect the Adriatic to the Black Sea, called the Corridor VIII, were also upgraded and maintained through international assistance including the Italian one.
North Macedonia is also rich with minerals. The country in fact has substantial deposits of chromium and other nonferrous metals like copper, zinc, manganese and nickel. The country also has gypsum mines, marble and granite, located in Pelagonia. Lignite, provides 80% of the electricity in North Macedonia. In addition to mines and quarries, the country has large cement plants and large complexes of metal, created by the communist regime.
Agriculture is encouraged by the significant water resources, managed by dams and canals. The presence of hot springs of volcanic origin can heat the greenhouses in winter, particularly in the Strumica region, whose products include tomatoes and cucumbers in the month of February. Different climates provide opportunities for various productions in the geographical area, so the vine and tobacco are operated in the south, the rice in the region of Kočani which is largely irrigated, and the wood industry is concentrated around Štip. Agriculture contributes a significant share of exports, especially with the wine and tobacco. The low cost of labor also helps the textile industry.
North Macedonia receives about 1,000,000 tourists annually and experiences a constant increase of visitors. The number of domestic tourists from January to March 2008 increased by 23.5% compared to the same period of the previous year. The number of foreign tourists in March 2008 compared to March 2007 increased by 44.7%. In 2007, Lake Ohrid received about 250,000 domestic and foreign tourists. In February 2009, the country was visited by nearly 28,000 tourists, namely, 3.2% more than the same month last year. There was also an 8% increase in the number of foreign visitors. The summer of 2009 was the best tourist season for the city of Dojran with 135,000 overnight visitors, an increase of 12.5% compared to the previous year.
The tourist capital of North Macedonia, Ohrid, has been listed as an UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1979
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# Economy of North Macedonia
\| average gross salary = MKD 64,634 / €1,050.59 / \$1,192.10 monthly (February, 2025) \| average net salary = MKD 43,053 / €699.80 / \$794.11 monthly (February, 2025) \| industries = food processing, beverages, textiles, chemicals, iron, steel, cement, energy, pharmaceuticals, automotive parts \| edbr = `{{decrease}}`{=mediawiki} 17th (very easy, 2020) \| exports = `{{increase}}`{=mediawiki} \$8,996 billion (2023) \| export-goods = foodstuffs, beverages, tobacco; textiles, miscellaneous manufactures, iron, steel; automotive parts \| export-partners = `{{plainlist|
*{{flag|Germany}} 39.5%
*{{flag|Serbia}} 8.15%
*{{flag|Bulgaria}} 5.58%
*{{flag|Greece}} 5.34%
*{{flag|Czech Republic}} 3.39%
*{{flag|Hungary}} 3.19%
*{{flag|United States}} 2.69%
*{{flag|Poland}} 2.29%
*{{flag|Italy}} 2.26%
*{{flag|Turkey}} 2.21%
*{{flag|Slovakia}} 1.95% (2023)<ref name="OECexport">{{cite web |title=Export partners of Macedonia |url=https://oec.world/en/visualize/tree_map/hs92/export/mkd/show/all/2023 |publisher=[[The Observatory of Economic Complexity]] |access-date=5 May 2025}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} \| imports = `{{increase}}`{=mediawiki} \$12,053 billion (2023) \| import-goods = machinery and equipment, automobiles, chemicals, fuels, food products \| import-partners = `{{plainlist|
*{{flag|United Kingdom}} 12.3%
*{{flag|Germany}} 10.1%
*{{flag|Greece}} 8.96%
*{{flag|China}} 8.55%
*{{flag|Serbia}} 7.52%
*{{flag|Turkey}} 5.75%
*{{flag|Bulgaria}} 4.69%
*{{flag|Italy}} 4.21%
*{{flag|Poland}} 3.05%
*{{flag|Hungary}} 2.53%
*{{flag|Russia}} 2.14% (2023)<ref name="OECimport">{{cite web |title=Import partners of Macedonia |url=https://oec.world/en/visualize/tree_map/hs92/import/mkd/show/all/2023 |publisher=[[The Observatory of Economic Complexity]] |access-date=5 May 2025}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} \| current account = `{{increase}}`{=mediawiki} −\$151 million (2017 est.) \| FDI = `{{plainlist|
*{{increase}} $6.937 billion (31 December 2017 est.)<ref name="CIAWFMK"/>
*{{increase}} Abroad: $1.169 billion (31 December 2017 est.)<ref name="CIAWFMK"/>}}`{=mediawiki} \| gross external debt = `{{IncreaseNegative}}`{=mediawiki} \$8.79 billion (31 December 2017 est.) \| debt = `{{decreasePositive}}`{=mediawiki} 47.3% of GDP (2017) \| revenue = 3.295 billion (2017 est.) \| expenses = 3.605 billion (2017 est.) \| balance = −2.7% (of GDP) (2017 est.) \| aid = \| credit = Standard & Poor\'s:\
BB-(Domestic)\
BB-(Foreign)\
BB(T&C Assessment)\
Outlook: Stable (2014)\
Fitch:\
BB+\
Outlook: Stable (2011) \| reserves = `{{increase}}`{=mediawiki} \$2.802 billion (31 December 2017 est.) \| cianame = north-macedonia }}
The **economy of North Macedonia** has become more liberalized, with an improved business environment, since its independence from Yugoslavia in 1991, which deprived the country of its key protected markets and the large transfer payments from Belgrade. Prior to independence, North Macedonia was Yugoslavia\'s poorest republic (only 5% of the total federal output of goods and services). An absence of infrastructure, United Nations sanctions on its largest market (the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia), and a Greek economic embargo hindered economic growth until 1996.
Worker remittances and foreign aid have softened the subsequent volatile recovery period. The country\'s GDP has increased each year except in 2001, rising by 5% in 2000. However, growth in 1999 was held down by the severe regional economic dislocations caused by the Kosovo War.
Successful privatization in 2000 boosted the country\'s reserves to over \$700 million. Also, the leadership demonstrated a continuing commitment to economic reform, free trade, and regional integration. The economy can meet its basic food needs, and its coal and hydroelectric power needs, but depends on outside sources for all of its petroleum, natural gas, and most of its modern machinery and parts. Inflation jumped to 11% in 2000 largely due to higher oil prices, but the currency has calmed since the exchange rate was normalised when the EU Stabilisation and Association Agreement entered into force in 2004.
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# Economy of North Macedonia
## History
North Macedonia\'s economy has almost always been completely agricultural in nature from the beginning of the Ottoman Empire when it was part of the Sanjak of Üsküp and Salonica vilayet. It concentrated on pasture farming and vineyard growing. Opium poppy, introduced into the region in 1835, became an important crop as well by the late 19th century, and remained so until the 1930s.
The role of industry in the region\'s economy increased during the industrial age. The geographical region of Macedonia was responsible for large outputs of textiles and several other goods in the Ottoman Empire. However, outdated techniques to produce the goods persisted. The stagnation of the regional economy began under the rule of the Kingdom of Serbia.
When World War II ended, the local economy began to experience revitalization by way of subsidies from Federal Belgrade. The subsidies assisted North Macedonia to redevelop its \"lost\" industry and shift its agricultural-centered economy to an industry-centered economy with new hearts of industry emerging all over the country in Veles, Bitola, Štip and Kumanovo. Previously, Skopje was the only industrial centre in North Macedonia, this expanded to several other cities during Socialist Yugoslavia.
After the fall of Socialist Yugoslavia, the economy experienced several shocks that damaged the local economy. Starting with the Western embargo on the Yugoslavian common market, and ending with the Greek embargo on Macedonia over the Macedonia naming dispute. The economy began to recover in 1995 and experienced a full recovery after the 2001 insurgency by ethnic Albanians. Macedonia\'s GDP grew by an average of 6% annually until the 2008 financial crisis, when its economy contracted. The crisis had little impact on the country. North Macedonia today maintains a low debt-to-GDP ratio and is experiencing a revitalized investment interest by companies from Turkey, Algeria, Albania, and others.
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# Economy of North Macedonia
## Economic activity {#economic_activity}
North Macedonia is vulnerable to economic developments in Europe - due to strong banking and trade ties - and dependent on regional integration and progress toward EU membership for continued economic growth. At independence in September 1991, North Macedonia was the least developed of the Yugoslav republics, producing a mere 5% of the total federal output of goods and services. The collapse of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ended transfer payments from the central government and eliminated advantages from inclusion in a de facto free trade area. An absence of infrastructure, UN sanctions on the downsized Yugoslavia, and a Greek economic embargo over a dispute about the country\'s constitutional name and flag hindered economic growth until 1996. Since then, North Macedonia has maintained macroeconomic stability with low inflation, but it has so far lagged the region in attracting foreign investment and creating jobs, despite making extensive fiscal and business sector reforms. Official unemployment remains high at 24.6% (2015, Q4), but may be overstated based on the existence of an extensive gray market that is not captured by official statistics. In the wake of the global economic downturn, North Macedonia has experienced decreased foreign direct investment, lowered credit availability, and a large trade deficit. However, as a result of conservative fiscal policies and a sound financial system, in 2010 the country credit rating improved slightly to BB+ and was kept at that level in 2011. Macroeconomic stability has been maintained by a prudent monetary policy, which keeps the domestic currency pegged against the euro. As a result, GDP growth was modest, but positive, in 2010 and 2011, and inflation was under control. Latest data from North Macedonia\'s State Statistical Office show that overall, output for 2012 dropped by 6.6 percent compared to 2011.
As of 2020, the country had signed free trade agreements with the Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA), the Stabilisation and Association Agreement with the European Union, the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) with Switzerland, Norway, Iceland, and Liechtenstein, and bilateral agreements with Turkey and Ukraine.
### Free Economic Zones {#free_economic_zones}
In a bid to attract more interest from domestic and foreign investors after 2000 the government has pursued a Free economic zone (FEZ) policy, in which more than a dozen geographically disparate FEZs have sprouted. One benefit is a tax holiday for 10 years. The social contribution rate hovered at approximately 30% for the five-year period to 2019.
### Agriculture
North Macedonia produced in 2020:
- 318,000 tons of grape;
- 246,000 tons of wheat;
- 205,000 tons of bell pepper;
- 193,000 tons of potato;
- 168,000 tons of cabbage;
- 155,000 tons of tomato;
- 150,000 tons of maize;
- 148,000 tons of barley;
- 125,000 tons of watermelon;
- 106,000 tons of apple;
- 63,000 tons of onion;
- 49,000 tons of cucumber;
In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products.
### Energy
In September 2019, it was said that \"thermal power plants account for 842 MW of North Macedonia's total power generation capacity of 1.41 GW, with hydroelectricity and wind accounting for 553.6 MW and 36.8 MW, respectively.\" There are 20 economically-exploitable locations for coal in the country, whose total geological reserves are estimated at 2,5 billion tons. There exist four hydroelectric reservoirs, located at: Pelagonia, Kičevo, Mariovo and Tikveš. The first two produce energy, while the latter two are speculative.
### Mining and metallurgy {#mining_and_metallurgy}
The country has been home to mines since at least the Roman era. Gold, silver, lead, copper, iron, nickel, zinc, gypsum and sulfur have been or are now being economically exploited. Marble has since Ancient Greek days been quarried at Sivec.
### Trade
North Macedonia remains committed to pursuing membership in the European Union (EU) and NATO. It became a full World Trade Organization (WTO) member in April 2003. Following a 1997 cooperation agreement with the EU, North Macedonia signed a Stabilization and Association Agreement with the EU in April 2001, giving North Macedonia duty-free access to European markets. In December 2005, it moved a step forward, obtaining candidate country status for EU accession. North Macedonia has had a foreign trade deficit since 1994, which reached a record high of \$2.873 billion in 2008, or 30.2% of GDP. Total trade in 2010 (imports plus exports of goods and services) was \$8.752 billion, and the trade deficit amounted to \$2.149 billion, or 23.4% of GDP. In the first 8 months of 2011, total trade was \$7.470 billion and the trade deficit was \$1.778 billion. A significant 56.5% of North Macedonia\'s total trade was with EU countries. North Macedonia\'s major trading partners are Germany, Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Russia, and Italy. In 2010, total trade between North Macedonia and the United States was \$116.6 million, and in the first 8 months of 2011 it was \$65 million. U.S. meat, mainly poultry, and electrical machinery and equipment have been particularly attractive to North Macedonia importers. Principal exports from North Macedonia to the United States are tobacco, apparel, iron, and steel.
North Macedonia has bilateral free trade agreements with Ukraine, Turkey, and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA---Switzerland, Norway, Iceland, and Liechtenstein). Bilateral agreements with Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, and Moldova were replaced by membership in the Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA). North Macedonia also has concluded an \"Agreement for Promotion and Protection of Foreign Direct Investments\" with Albania, Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Belarus, Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Egypt, Iran, Italy, India, Spain, Serbia, Montenegro, People\'s Republic of China, South Korea, Malaysia, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovenia, Turkey, Ukraine, Hungary, Finland, France, the Netherlands, Croatia, Czech Republic, Switzerland, and Sweden.
### Unemployment
Unemployed 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
------------- ------ ------ ------ --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- ---------
Persons N/A N/A N/A 311,000 265,000 225,000 218,601 199,325 161,242 156,627 142,206
Percent (%) 30% 33% 38% 32% 27% 24% 22.9% 19.4% 16.6% 16.2% 15.2%
Unemployment is a continuing problem in the Republic\'s economy where a large percentage of the Republic\'s qualified labor force cannot find work. Many people lost their jobs with the collapse of Yugoslavia. As a result, national unemployment was above 35% (37.30% in 2005), but that number has since dropped to 16.6% (2019), with population below the poverty line also dropping from 30.4% (2011) to 21.5% (2015), it is reasonable to assume that based on the trend over the past few years, further declines are likely for both unemployment and poverty. Full-time employment has risen steadily over the last few years, with part-time employment trending slightly downward over the same period resulting in an overall increase to employment, wages increased sharply after 2008, with steady increases continuing into 2016
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# Economy of North Macedonia
## Economic activity {#economic_activity}
### Tourism
Tourism is a significant part of the economy.
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# Economy of North Macedonia
## Macroeconomics
Real GDP in the first half of 2011 increased by 5.2%. This robust growth was mainly driven by 23.6% growth in the construction sector; 13.2% in mining, quarrying, and manufacturing; 12.4% in wholesale and retail trade; and 4.2% in transport and communication services. Industrial output in the first 8 months of 2011 was 7.5% higher than in the same period of 2010. Low public and external debt and a comfortable level of foreign exchange reserves allowed for further relaxation of monetary policy, with the reference interest rate of the Central Bank decreasing to 4%. Due to rising prices for energy, fuel, and food on international markets, inflation increased in the first half of 2011, but later decreased to an annualized rate of 3.4% at the end of September. The official unemployment rate dropped to 24.6% in the fourth quarter of 2015, but remained one of the highest in Europe. Many people work in the gray economy, and many experts estimate North Macedonia\'s actual unemployment is lower.
The government budget has generally kept within projections. The budget deficit at the end of August 2011 reached about 2% of GDP, and fiscal authorities seemed committed to keeping it under the projected target of 2.5% of GDP by the end of the year. In addition to 220 million euros (approx. \$298 million) drawn from an IMF Precautionary Credit Line (PCL) in March, financing mostly came from domestic borrowing. However, by the end of the year a financing gap remained of about 50 million to 60 million euros (approx. \$67 million to \$81 million), which the government plans to cover by borrowing from international capital markets, supported by a policy-based guarantee by the World Bank. The central government\'s public debt remained low at 26% of GDP, but represents a gradual increase from previous years. Despite lowering the Central Bank bills rate, the Central Bank has not changed liquidity indicators for banks or the reserve requirement since 2009, curbing credit growth to 7.5% in the first three-quarters of 2011. Nikola Gruevski says the government will pay off its entire debt to the private sector by February 2013 in order to improve the economy\'s overall liquidity. North Macedonia\'s external trade struggled in 2010 due to the slow recovery from the economic crisis of its main trading partners, particularly EU members. Starting from a very low base, export growth in the first 8 months of 2011 reached 41.7%, topping import growth of 36.8%. The trade deficit has widened to 18.3% of GDP, approaching the end-year target of 21.9% of GDP. At the same time, the current account balance deficit significantly improved and the end-year projection was revised upward to 5.5% of GDP. This was due primarily to a 4.4% higher inflow of current transfers, mostly during the summer, and came despite a poor level of foreign direct investment (FDI) of only \$237.2 million by end-July 2011. Foreign currency reserves remained at about \$2.6 billion, a level that comfortably covers 4 months of imports and about 110% of the country\'s short-term debt.
In October 2010, the World Bank Board of Directors approved a new Country Partnership Strategy (CPS) with North Macedonia for the period 2011--2014. This CPS will provide the country assistance of about \$100 million in funding for the first 2 years to improve competitiveness, strengthen employability and social protection, and increase the use of sustainable energy. This assistance also includes a commitment of \$30 million in direct budget support in the form of a policy-based guarantee by the World Bank to the government to facilitate its access to financing from international capital markets, a process that had been started as of November 2011.
North Macedonia became the first country eligible for the IMF\'s Precautionary Credit Line in January 2011. This program gives North Macedonia a line of credit worth 475 million euros (about \$675 million) over 2 years, intended to be accessed only in case of need brought about by external shocks. The credit line was approved after extensive consultations with the IMF in October and December 2010. The IMF expects that there will be no additional withdrawals from the PCL.
North Macedonia has the best economic freedom in the region, according to the 2012 Index of Economic Freedom, released in January, 2012 by the conservative U.S. think tank Heritage Foundation and the Wall Street Journal.
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# Economy of North Macedonia
## Macroeconomics
### Macroeconomic trends {#macroeconomic_trends}
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| Year | GDP\ | GDP per capita\ | GDP\ | GDP per capita\ | GDP growth rate |
| | (in bil. US\$ PPP) | (in US\$ PPP) | (in bil. US\$ nominal) | (in US\$ nominal) | |
+======+====================+=================+========================+===================+=================+
| 1992 | 12.5 | 6,470 | 2.4 | 1,264 | n/a |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 1993 | 11.8 | 6,097 | 2.7 | 1,384 | -7.5% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 1994 | 11.9 | 6,084 | 3.6 | 1,824 | -1.8% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 1995 | 12.0 | 6,107 | 4.7 | 2,387 | -1.1% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 1996 | 12.4 | 6,250 | 4.6 | 2,348 | 1.2% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 1997 | 12.7 | 6,423 | 3.9 | 1,980 | 1.4% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 1998 | 13.3 | 6,683 | 3.8 | 1,889 | 3.4% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 1999 | 14.1 | 7,041 | 3.9 | 1,932 | 4.3% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2000 | 15.1 | 7,498 | 3.8 | 1,878 | 4.5% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2001 | 14.9 | 7,407 | 3.7 | 1,840 | -3.1% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2002 | 15.4 | 7,614 | 4.0 | 1,974 | 1.5% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2003 | 16.0 | 7,918 | 4.9 | 2,441 | 2.2% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2004 | 17.2 | 8,527 | 5.7 | 2,810 | 4.7% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2005 | 18.6 | 9,289 | 6.3 | 3,120 | 4.7% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2006 | 20.2 | 10,123 | 6.9 | 3,440 | 5.1% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2007 | 22.1 | 11,134 | 8.3 | 4,204 | 6.5% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2008 | 23.7 | 12,039 | 9.9 | 5,027 | 5.5% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2009 | 23.8 | 12,148 | 9.4 | 4,799 | -0.4% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2010 | 24.9 | 12,790 | 9.4 | 4,837 | 3.4% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2011 | 26.0 | 13,421 | 10.5 | 5,419 | 2.3% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2012 | 26.4 | 13,662 | 9.8 | 5,053 | -0.5% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2013 | 27.6 | 14,354 | 10.8 | 5,629 | 2.9% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2014 | 29.1 | 15,175 | 11.4 | 5,933 | 3.6% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2015 | 30.5 | 15,949 | 10.1 | 5,264 | 3.9% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2016 | 31.7 | 16,612 | 10.7 | 5,605 | 2.8% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2017 | 32.6 | 17,161 | 11.3 | 5,971 | 1.1% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2018 | 34.9 | 18,460 | 12.7 | 6,720 | 2.9% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2019 | 37.9 | 20,223 | 12.6 | 6,720 | 3.9% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2020 | 37.1 | 19,962 | 12.4 | 6,673 | -4.7% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2021 | 41.1 | 22,373 | 14.0 | 7,625 | 4.5% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2022 | 45.0 | 24,572 | 13.7 | 7,499 | 2.2% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2023 | 47.1 | 25,718 | 14.8 | 8,063 | 1.0% |
+------+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 2024 | 49.3 | 26,912 | 15.9 | 8,659 | 2
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# Telecommunications in North Macedonia
**Telecommunications in North Macedonia** include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, telegraph and the Internet.
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
- Radio stations: the public radio broadcaster operates over multiple stations; 3 privately owned radio stations broadcast nationally; there are about 70 local commercial radio stations (2012).
- Radios: In the Radios market, volume is expected to amount to 103.00k pieces by 2028.
- Television stations:
- the public TV broadcaster operates 3 national channels and a satellite network; 5 privately owned TV channels broadcast nationally using terrestrial transmitters and about 15 broadcast nationally via satellite; there are roughly 75 local commercial TV stations; and a large number of cable operators offering domestic and international programming (2012);
- 136 stations (1997).
- Television sets: 1.9 million sets in use (2008).
Television is North Macedonia\'s most popular news medium. Most private media are tied to political or business interests and state media tend to support the government. Public broadcast networks face stiff competition from commercial stations, which dominate the ratings. A European Union sponsored report says that with scores of TV and radio networks, the market is overcrowded and many local broadcasters are struggling to survive financially.
## Telephones
- Calling code: +389
- International call prefix: 00
- Main lines:
- 407,900 lines in use, 103rd in the world (2012);
- 550,000 lines in use (2005).
- Mobile cellular:
- 2.2 million lines, 142nd in the world;
- 2.1 million lines (2008).
The combined fixed-line and mobile-cellular telephone subscribership was about 130 per 100 persons in 2012. Competition from mobile-cellular phones has led to a drop in fixed-line telephone subscriptions.
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# Telecommunications in North Macedonia
## Internet
- Top-level domains: .mk and .мкд (Cyrillic).
- Internet users:
- 1.3 million users, 109th in the world; 63.1% of the population, 58th in the world (2012);
- 1.1 million users, 97th in the world, 52% of the population (2009).
- Fixed broadband: 304,547 subscriptions, 79th in the world; 14.6% of the population, 58th in the world (2012).
- Wireless broadband: 449,646 subscriptions, 93rd in the world; 21.6% of the population, 68th in the world (2012).
- Internet hosts: 62,826 hosts, 92nd in the world (2012).
- IPv4: 657,664 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 315.8 addresses per 1000 people (2012).
- Internet service providers: 20 ISPs (2005).
- Wi-Fi coverage: 95% of the population (2006).
The United States Agency for International Development sponsored a project called \"Macedonia Connects\" which in 2006 helped to make Macedonia the first all-broadband wireless country in the world, where Internet access is available to virtually anyone with a wireless-enabled computer. Wireless access is available to about 95% of the population, even those living in remote sheepherding mountain villages where people don\'t have phones. The Ministry of Education and Sciences reported that all 461 primary and secondary schools were connected to the Internet. An Internet Service Provider (On.net), created a MESH Network to provide WIFI services in the 11 largest cities/towns in the country.
### Internet censorship and surveillance {#internet_censorship_and_surveillance}
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight. Individuals and groups engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail.
The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press; however, the government does not always respect these rights in practice. The law prohibits speech that incites national, religious, or ethnic hatred, and provides penalties for violations. In November 2012 the defamation, libel and slander laws were decriminalized. Editors and media owners expressed concerns that steep fines under the revised law would cause self-censorship. The law prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government generally respects these prohibitions in practice
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# Transport in North Macedonia
The following is a summary of the **transport system of the Republic of North Macedonia**.
## Railways
\
*total:* 925 km (699 km (437 miles) of open track and 225 km of station/industrial track)\
*standard gauge:* 925 km 1.435-m gauge (312 km electrified, all 25 kV 50 Hz)\
*note:* a new 56 km extension of the Kumanovo-Beljakovci line to the Bulgarian border is under construction.
Restructuring of national railway MZ into infrastructure and operating companies completed in July 2007.
### Railway links with adjacent countries {#railway_links_with_adjacent_countries}
- Serbia - yes
- Kosovo - yes
- Bulgaria - no
- Greece - yes
- Albania - no
### Maps
- [UN Map](https://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/profile/macedonia.pdf)
- [UNHCR Atlas Map](http://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/441688280.pdf)
## Roads
\
14,410 km *total* (2021)\
335 km of motorways (2021)
### Motorways
**A-1**\
Tabanovce - Kumanovo - Miladinovci - Petrovec - Veles - Gradsko - Negotino - Demir Kapija - Gevgelija
**A-2**\
Deve Bair - Kriva Palanka - Kumanovo - Skopje - Tetovo - Gostivar - Kičevo - Struga - Qafë Thanë
**A-3**\
Ohrid - Resen - Bitola - Prilep - Veles - Štip - Kočani - Delčevo\
(**M-5K1** Bitola - Medžitlija)
**A-4**\
Blace - Skopje - Petrovec - Miladinovci - Sveti Nikole - Štip - Radoviš - Strumica - Novo Selo
The first motorway in the country was the Kumanovo-Petrovec section of the A-1, opened for traffic in 1979 as part of the Brotherhood and Unity Highway which linked Central Europe to Athens.
In 2025 the country had 335 km of motorways, with additional 167km under construction
### E-roads {#e_roads}
The E-road network in North Macedonia consists of:\
E65\
E75\
E852\
E871
### Road rules {#road_rules}
The traffic signs adhere to the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals.
Lights must be on all the time, seatbelts are mandatory for passengers in the front and drivers are forbidden to speak on a mobile phone while driving.
The general speed limits are:
- in inhabited areas 50 km/h
- outside of inhabited areas 90 km/h
- on expressways 110 km/h
- on motorways 130 km/h
## Waterways
None. Lake transport (tourist and recreational boats) only, on the Greek and Albanian borders.
## Pipelines
Oil 120 km (2004)\
Gas 268 km (2004)
## Ports and harbours {#ports_and_harbours}
North Macedonia has no sea access. There are marinas for mostly recreational traffic on Ohrid Lake and other natural and artificial lakes.
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# Transport in North Macedonia
## Air transport {#air_transport}
Air transport in North Macedonia began after the end of the First World War, when airmail traffic route was created between Novi Sad--Belgrade--Niš--Skoplje. Later, the Yugoslav flag carrier Aeroput inaugurated in 1930 a regular scheduled flight between Belgrade and Thessaloniki with a stop in Skopje airfield. Later, in 1933, Aeroput extended the route to Athens, while in 1935 Skopje was linked to Niš, Bitola, and Podujevo in 1936.
After the end of Second World War, passenger and cargo air transport reestablished, Aeroput was rebranded as JAT Yugoslav Airlines, and routes linking Belgrade, through Skopje, to Athens and Istanbul, using a Douglas DC-3, were inaugurated. During SFRY period JAT linked Skopje with Belgrade and other domestic destinations, but through Belgrade passengers from Skopje were able to catch connecting flights to all five continents. In the 1980s the Skopje airport was majorly expanded, and by late 1980s and early 1990s several companies with hub in Skopje were created, such as Palair, Avioimpex, Air Vardar, and others. After independence of North Macedonia, most became flag carriers of the newly independent country.
Beside Skopje, in North Macedonia, during second half of the 20th century, Ohrid airport was also developed, starting with the opening of regular scheduled flights between Belgrade--Skopje--Ohrid during the 1960s. Until 1990 charted flights were also inaugurated linking Ohrid with international destinations.
As of 2024, the country has no active air transport companies; the international airports of Skopje and Ohrid are served by foreign airlines.
### Airports
17 (2002 est.)
#### Airports - with paved runways {#airports___with_paved_runways}
\
*total:* 11\
8,000 to 9,999 ft: 2\
under 3,000 ft: 8 (2000 est.)
#### Airports - with unpaved runways {#airports___with_unpaved_runways}
\
*total:* 6\
3,000 to 4,999 ft: 3\
under 3,000 ft: 3 (2000 est
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# History of Malawi
The **history of Malawi** covers the area of present-day Malawi. The region was once part of the Maravi Empire (Maravi was a kingdom which straddled the current borders of Malawi, Mozambique, and Zambia, in the 16th century). In colonial times, the territory was ruled by the British, under whose control it was known first as British Central Africa and later Nyasaland. It becomes part of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. The country achieved full independence, as Malawi, in 1964. After independence, Malawi was ruled as a one-party state under Hastings Banda until 1994.
## Prehistory
In 1991, a hominid jawbone was discovered near Uraha village that was between 2.3 and 2.5 million years old. Early humans inhabited the vicinity of Lake Malawi 50,000 to 60,000 years ago. Human remains at a site dated about 8000 BCE showed physical characteristics similar to peoples living today in the Horn of Africa. At another site, dated 1500 BCE, the remains possess features resembling San people. They might be responsible for the rock paintings found south of Lilongwe in Chencherere and Mphunzi. According to Chewa myth, the first people in the area were a race of dwarf archers which they called Akafula or Akaombwe. Bantu-speaking people entered the region during the four first centuries of the \"Common Era\", bringing use of iron and slash-and-burn agriculture. Later waves of Bantu settlement, between the 13th and 15th centuries, displaced or assimilated the earlier Bantu and pre-Bantu populations.
## Maravi Empire {#maravi_empire}
*Main article: Maravi* The name Malawi is thought to derive from the word *Maravi*. The people of the Maravi Empire were iron workers. Maravi is thought to mean \"Flames\" and may have come from the sight of many kilns lighting up the night sky. A dynasty known as the Maravi Empire was founded by the Amaravi people in the late 15th century. The Amaravi, who eventually became known as the Chewa (a word possibly derived from a term meaning \"foreigner\"), migrated to Malawi from the region of the modern-day Republic of Congo to escape unrest and disease. The Chewa attacked the Akafula, whom no longer exist.
Eventually encompassing most of modern Malawi, as well as parts of modern-day Mozambique and Zambia, the Maravi Empire began on the southwestern shores of Lake Malawi. The head of the empire during its expansion was the Kalonga (also spelt Karonga). The Kalonga ruled from his headquarters in Mankhamba. Under the leadership of the Kalonga, sub-chiefs were appointed to occupy and subdue new areas. The empire began to decline during the early 18th century when fighting among the sub-chiefs and the burgeoning slave trade weakened the authority of the Maravi Empire.
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# History of Malawi
## Trade and invasions {#trade_and_invasions}
### Portuguese influence {#portuguese_influence}
Initially, the Maravi Empire\'s economy was largely dependent on agriculture, especially the production of millet and sorghum. It was during the Maravi Empire, sometime during the 16th century, that Europeans first came into contact with the people of Malawi. Under the Maravi Empire, the Chewa had access to the coast of modern-day Mozambique. Through this coastal area, the Chewa traded ivory, iron, and slaves with the Portuguese and Arabs. Trade was enhanced by the common language of Chewa (Nyanja) which was spoken throughout the Maravi Empire.
In 1616, the Portuguese trader Gaspar Bocarro journeyed through what is now Malawi, producing the first European account of the country and its people. The Portuguese were also responsible for the introduction of maize to the region. Maize would eventually replace sorghum as the staple of the Malawian diet. Malawian tribes traded slaves with the Portuguese. These slaves were sent mainly to work on Portuguese plantations in Mozambique or to Brazil.
### Ngoni
The decline of the Maravi Empire was due to the entry of two powerful groups into the Malawi region. In the 19th century, the Angoni or Ngoni people and their chief Zwangendaba arrived from the Natal region of modern-day South Africa. The Angoni were part of a great migration, known as the mfecane, of people fleeing from the head of the Zulu Empire, Shaka Zulu. The Ngoni people settled mostly in what is modern-day central Malawi; particularly Ntcheu and parts of Dedza district. However, some groups proceeded north; entering Tanzania and settling around Lake Victoria. But splinter groups broke off and headed back south; settling in modern-day northern Malawi, particularly Mzimba district, where they mixed with another migrant group coming from across Lake Malawi called the Bawoloka. Clearly, the mfecane had a significant impact on Southern Africa. The Angoni adopted Shaka\'s military tactics to subdue the lesser tribes, including the Maravi, they found along their way. Staging from rocky areas, the Ngoni impis would raid the Chewa (also called Achewa) and plunder food, oxen and women. Young men were drawn in as new fighting forces while older men were reduced to domestic slaves and/or sold off to Arab slave traders operating from the Lake Malawi region.
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# History of Malawi
## Trade and invasions {#trade_and_invasions}
### Yao
The second group to take power around this time was the Yao. The Yao were richer and more independent than the Makuwa. They came to Malawi from northern Mozambique either to escape from conflict with the Makuwa, who had become their enemies, or to profit from the slave and ivory trades with the Arabs from Zanzibar, the Portuguese, and the French. In any case, upon migrating to Malawi in the 1800s, they soon began buying slaves from the Chewa and Ngoni. The Yao are recorded to have also attacked them in order to capture prisoners whom they later sold as slaves.
By the time, David Livingstone encountered them on his travels, recording their practice of slavery, they traded with the Rwozi of Zimbabwe, with the Bisa on the Luangwa river in modern-day Zambia, and even the Congo and the eastern coast. Their extensive expeditions required educated merchants and tradespeople, who were naturally proficient in using the Arabic alphabet. Craftsmen built dhows for lake travel, farmers set out irrigation for the growing of rice, and prominent members of society founded madrassahs and boarding schools. The Yao were the first, and for a long while, the only group to use firearms, which they bought from Europeans and Arabs, in conflicts with other tribes, including the Makololo who had migrated from Southern Africa after being displaced by the Zulu people.
By the 1860s, the Yao had converted to Islam. The conversion is normally attributed to connections made during their trading expeditions, especially those to the Kilwa Sultanate and Zanzibar. The conversion had begun before the 1840s, as can be told from the accounts of Salim bin Abdallah, who is better known as the Jumbe of Nkhotakota. Although the Yao were not animist before Islam, they believed in a God accessible through the intercedence of ancestral spirits. As a benefit of their conversion, the Yao employed Swahili and Arab sheikhs from the coast who promoted literacy and founded mosques; Chief Mponda in Mangochi had founded almost twelve madrassas before the Christian missionaries arrived in 1875. Their writings were in Kiswahili which became a lingua franca of Malawi from 1870 to the 1960s.
### Arabs and their Swahili allies {#arabs_and_their_swahili_allies}
Using their strong partnership with the Yao, the Arab traders set up several trading posts along the shore of Lake Malawi. The Yao expeditions to the east attracted the attention of the Swahili-Arabs. It was from the Yao, the Swahili and Arabs knew the existence and the geography of Lake Malawi. Jumbe (Salim Abdallah) followed the Yao trade route from the eastern side of Lake Malawi up to Nkhotakota. When Jumbe arrived in Nkhotakota in 1840, he found a number of Yao and Bisa well established. Some of those Yao he found in Nkhotakota were already Islamised and he opted to employ them rather than employing non-Muslim Chewa. During the height of his power, Jumbe transported between 5,000 and 20,000 slaves through Nkhotakota annually. From Nkhotakota, the slaves were transported in caravans of no less than 500 slaves to the small island of Kilwa Kisiwani off the coast of modern-day Tanzania. The founding of these various posts effectively shifted the slave trade in Malawi from the Portuguese in Mozambique to the Arabs of Zanzibar.
Although the Yao and the Angoni continually clashed with each other, neither was able to win a decisive victory. However, the Ngoni of Dedza opted to work the Yao of Mpondas. The remaining members of the Maravi Empire, however, were nearly wiped out in attacks from both sides. Some Achewa chiefs saved themselves by creating alliances with the Swahili people who were allied with the Arab slave traders.
### Lomwe of Malawi {#lomwe_of_malawi}
The Lomwe of Malawi are a recent introduction having arrived as late as the 1890s. The Lomwe came from a hill in Mozambique called uLomwe, north of the Zambezi River and south east of Lake Chilwa in Malawi. Theirs was also a story of hunger largely instigated by the Portuguese settlers moving into the neighbourhoods of uLomwe. To escape from ill-treatment, the Lomwe headed north and entered Nyasaland by way of the southern tip of lake Chilwa, settling in the Phalombe and Mulanje areas.
In Mulanje they found the Yao and Mang\'anja already settled. The Yao chiefs such as Chikumbu, Mtilamanja, Matipwili, Juma, Chiuta welcomed the Lomwe as their cousins from Mozambique. A large number of Lomwe were given land by the Yao and Mang\'anja. Later on the Lomwe got employment on tea estates that various British companies were establishing on the foothills of Mount Mulanje. They gradually spread into Thyolo and Chiradzulu. The Lomwe readily mixed with the local Mang\'anja tribes, and there are no reported cases of tribal conflict.
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# History of Malawi
## Trade and invasions {#trade_and_invasions}
### Early European contact {#early_european_contact}
The Portuguese were reportedly the first Europeans to enter Malawi; in 1859, acting off a tip received from a Portuguese source, David Livingstone discovered Lake Malawi. The Yao allegedly told him that the mass of water he saw was called *Nyasa*. Livingstone, who did not know Chiyao, possibly thought that Nyasa was the proper name of the lake. However, the term Nyasa in Chiyao meant the *lake* in English. His next journey, with Bishop Charles Mackenzie from the UMCA in 1861, saw hostility erupt between the Muslim Yao and the non-Muslim Mang\'anja, whom the bishop preferred to preach to; those of the Yao who practised Islam and slavery were naturally hostile to the Christian missionaries. The skirmishes eventually subsided after Mackenzie\'s death from malaria.
More group of missionaries arrived in 1875-6 from the Free Church of Scotland, and established a base at Cape Maclear at the southern end of Lake Malawi. This time, attempts were also made to convert those of the Yao who were Muslims. Although some of the Amangochi Yao were prepared to convert, slow progress was made. After some initial debate, Bishop Robert Laws was selected as leader. Laws, who quickly gained fame for his medical expertise, decided to establish missions further north, at Bandawe among the Tonga and at Kaningina among the Ngoni people. There, the missionaries found fertile ground in a turbulent political climate: the missions became buffer zones for the Tonga, who were near-constantly under attack by Ngoni raiders. Some of the teachers of the Tonga were the Nyanja who had embraced Christianity at Cape Maclear in Mangochi. In 1878, a number of traders, mostly from Glasgow, formed the African Lakes Company to supply goods and services to the missionaries. Others soon followed: traders, hunters, planters came, and even missionaries from different denominations; from 1889, the Catholic White Fathers attempted to convert the Yao.
In 1894, the mission extended to the Tumbuka, who were also being attacked by the powerful Ngoni; Laws opened a mission station near Rumphi that year. The Tumbuka, like the Tonga sought refuge among the missionaries and embraced Christianity. By contrast, the Yao were still completely distanced from Christianity, and were still writing and reading in Arabic, which would soon not be recognized in Malawi; this would prove to disadvantage the Yao. The failure to convert the Yao Muslims to Christianity contributed to the negative appearance of the Yao people in traditional Euro-centric history. The Yao socio-economic contribution to Malawi was not recognised, rather history judged them as great slave traders. Under H. H. Johnson, the British fought Yao chiefs such as Makanjila and Mponda Jalasi for five years before they were subdued. Today, fewer Yao are found in jobs requiring literacy, which has forced a large number of them to migrate to South Africa as a source of labour. The Yao believe that they have been deliberately marginalized by the authorities because of their faith; in Malawi, they are predominantly farmers, tailors, guards, fishermen or working in other unskilled manual jobs. At one time, a number of Yao concealed their names in order to progress in education: Mariam was known as Mary; Yusufu was called Joseph; Che Sigele became Jeanet.
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# History of Malawi
## British rule {#british_rule}
*Main article: British Central Africa Protectorate, Nyasaland*
In 1883, a consul of the British government was accredited to the \"Kings and Chiefs of Central Africa\" and in 1891, the British established the British Central Africa Protectorate.
In 1907, the name was changed to *Nyasaland* or the *Nyasaland Protectorate* (Nyasa is the Chiyao word for \"lake\"). In the 1950s, Nyasaland was joined with Northern and Southern Rhodesia in 1953 to form the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. The Federation was dissolved on 31 December 1963.
In January 1915, John Chilembwe, a Baptist pastor in south-eastern Nyasaland, led an unsuccessful revolt against British colonial rule known as the Chilembwe uprising. Chilembwe opposed both the recruitment of Nyasas as porters in the East African campaign of World War I, as well as the system of colonial rule. Chilembwe\'s followers attacked local plantations, but a rapid counteroffensive by government forces defeated the rebels. Chilembwe was killed, and many of his followers were executed.
In 1944, the Nyasaland African Congress (NAC), inspired by the African National Congress\' Peace Charter of 1914, emerged. NAC soon spread across Southern African with powerful branches emerging among migrant Malawian workers in Salisbury (now Harare) in Southern Rhodesia and Lusaka, in Northern Rhodesia.
Thousands of Nyasalanders fought in the Second World War.
In July 1958, Dr Hastings Kamuzu Banda returned to the country after a long absence in the United States, the United Kingdom and Ghana. He assumed leadership of the NAC, which later became the Malawi Congress Party (MCP). In 1959, Banda was sent to Gwelo Prison for his political activities but was released in 1960 to participate in a constitutional conference in London.
In August 1961, the MCP won an overwhelming victory in an election for a new Legislative Council. It also gained an important role in the new Executive Council and ruled Nyasaland in all but name a year later. In a second constitutional conference in London in November 1962, the British Government agreed to give Nyasaland self-governing status the following year.
Hastings Banda became Prime Minister on 1 February 1963, although the British still controlled the country\'s financial, security, and judicial systems. A new constitution took effect in May 1963, providing for virtually complete internal self-government.
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# History of Malawi
## Independence`{{anchor|Malawi Independence Act 1964}}`{=mediawiki}
Malawi became a fully independent member of the Commonwealth (formerly the British Commonwealth) on 6 July 1964.
Shortly after, in August and September 1964, Banda faced dissent from most of his cabinet ministers in the Cabinet Crisis of 1964. The Cabinet Crisis began with a confrontation between Banda, the prime minister, and all the cabinet ministers present on 26 August 1964. Their grievances were not dealt with, but three cabinet ministers were dismissed on 7 September. These dismissals were followed, on the same day and on 9 September, by the resignations of three more cabinet ministers in sympathy with those dismissed, although one of those who had resigned rescinded his resignation within a few hours. The reasons that the ex-ministers put forward for the confrontation and their subsequent resignations were the autocratic attitude of Banda, who failed to consult other ministers and kept power in his own hands, his insistence on maintaining diplomatic relations with South Africa and Portugal and a number of domestic austerity measures. After continuing unrest and some clashes between their supporters and those of Banda, most of the ex-ministers left Malawi in October. One ex-minister, Henry Chipembere led a small, unsuccessful armed uprising in February 1965. After its failure, he arranged for his transfer to the USA. Another ex-minister, Yatuta Chisiza, organised an even smaller incursion from Mozambique in 1967, in which he was killed. Several of the former ministers died in exile or, in the case of Orton Chirwa in a Malawian jail, but some survived to return to Malawi after Banda was deposed in 1993, and resumed public life.
Two years later, Malawi adopted a republican constitution and became a one-party state with Hastings Banda as its first president.
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# History of Malawi
## One-party rule {#one_party_rule}
In 1970, Hastings Banda was declared President for life of the MCP, and in 1971 Banda consolidated his power and was named president for life of Malawi itself. The paramilitary wing of the Malawi Congress Party, the Young Pioneers, helped keep Malawi under totalitarian control until the 1990s.
Banda, who was always referred to as \"His Excellency the Life President Ngwazi Dr. H. Kamuzu Banda\", was a dictator. Allegiance to him was enforced at every level. Every business building was required to have an official picture of Banda hanging on the wall. No other poster, clock, or picture could be placed higher on the wall than the president\'s picture. The national anthem was played before most events -- including movies, plays, and school assemblies. At the cinemas, a video of His Excellency waving to his subjects was shown while the anthem played. When Banda visited a city, a contingent of women was expected to greet him at the airport and dance for him. A special cloth, bearing the President\'s picture, was the required attire for these performances. The one radio station in the country aired the President\'s speeches and government propaganda. People were ordered from their homes by police, and told to lock all windows and doors, at least an hour prior to President Banda passing by. Everyone was expected to wave.
Among the laws enforced by Banda, it was illegal for women to wear see-through clothes, pants of any kind or skirts which showed any part of the knee. There were two exceptions to this: if they were at a Country Club (a place where various sports were played) and if they were at a holiday resort/hotel, which meant that with the exception of the resort/hotel staff they were not seen by the general populace. Men were not allowed to have hair below the collar; when men whose hair was too long arrived in the country from overseas, they were given a haircut before they could leave the airport. Churches had to be government sanctioned. Members of certain religious groups, such as Jehovah\'s Witnesses, were persecuted and forced to leave the country at one time. All Malawian citizens of Indian heritage were forced to leave their homes and businesses and move into designated Indian areas in the larger cities. At one time, they were all told to leave the country, then hand-picked ones were allowed to return. It was illegal to transfer or take privately earned funds out of the country unless approved through proper channels; proof had to be supplied to show that one had already brought in the equivalent or more in foreign currency in the past. When some left, they gave up goods and earnings.
All movies shown in theatres were first viewed by the Malawi Censorship Board. Content considered unsuitable -- particularly nudity or political content -- was edited. Mail was also monitored by the Censorship Board. Some overseas mail was opened, read, and sometimes edited. Videotapes had to be sent to the Censorship Board to be viewed by censors. Once edited, the movie was given a sticker stating that it was now suitable for viewing, and sent back to the owner. Telephone calls were monitored and disconnected if the conversation was politically critical. Items to be sold in bookstores were also edited. Pages, or parts of pages, were cut out or blacked out of magazines such as *Newsweek* and *Time*.
Dr Banda was a wealthy man, like most if not all world leaders. He owned houses (and lived in a palace), businesses, private helicopters, cars and other such luxuries. Speaking out against the President was strictly prohibited. Those who did so were often deported or imprisoned. Banda and his government were criticised for human rights violations by Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International. After he was deposed, Banda was put on trial for murder and attempts to destroy evidence.
During his rule, Banda was one of the very few post-colonial African leaders to maintain diplomatic relations with Apartheid-era South Africa.
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# History of Malawi
## Multi-party democracy {#multi_party_democracy}
Increasing domestic unrest and pressure from Malawian churches and from the international community led to a referendum in which the Malawian people were asked to vote for either a multi-party democracy or the continuation of a one-party state. On 14 June 1993, the people of Malawi voted overwhelmingly in favour of multi-party democracy. Free and fair national elections were held on 17 May 1994 under a provisional constitution, which took full effect the following year.
Bakili Muluzi, leader of the United Democratic Front (UDF), was elected president in those elections. The UDF won 82 of the 177 seats in the National Assembly and formed a coalition government with the Alliance for Democracy (AFORD). That coalition disbanded in June 1996, but some of its members remained in the government. The President was referred to as Dr Muluzi, having received an honorary degree at Lincoln University in Missouri in 1995. Malawi\'s newly written constitution (1995) eliminated special powers previously reserved for the Malawi Congress Party. Accelerated economic liberalisation and structural reform accompanied the political transition.
On 15 June 1999, Malawi held its second democratic elections. Bakili Muluzi was re-elected to serve a second five-year term as president, despite an MCP-AFORD Alliance that ran a joint slate against the UDF.
The aftermath of elections brought the country to the brink of civil strife. Disgruntled Tumbuka, Ngoni and Nkhonde Christian tribes dominant in the north were irritated by the election of Bakili Muluzi, a Muslim from the south. Conflict arose between Christians and Muslims of the Yao tribe (Muluzi\'s tribe). Property valued at over millions of dollars was either vandalised or stolen and 200 mosques were torched down.
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# History of Malawi
## Malawi in the 21st century {#malawi_in_the_21st_century}
In 2001, the UDF held 96 seats in the National Assembly, while the AFORD held 30, and the MCP 61. Six seats were held by independents who represent the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) opposition group. The NDA was not recognised as an official political party at that time. The National Assembly had 193 members, of whom 17 were women, including one of the Deputy Speakers.
Malawi saw its very first transition between democratically elected presidents in May 2004, when the UDF\'s presidential candidate Bingu wa Mutharika defeated MCP candidate John Tembo and Gwanda Chakuamba, who was backed by a grouping of opposition parties. The UDF, however, did not win a majority of seats in Parliament, as it had done in 1994 and 1999 elections. It successfully secured a majority by forming a \"government of national unity\" with several opposition parties. Bingu wa Mutharika left the UDF party on 5 February 2005 citing differences with the UDF, particularly over his anti-corruption campaign. He won a second term outright in the 2009 election as the head of a newly founded party, the Democratic Progressive Party. In April 2012, Mutharika died of a heart attack; the presidential title was taken over by Vice-President Joyce Banda (not related to the former president Banda). In 2014 Malawian general election Joyce Banda lost (coming third) and was replaced by Peter Mutharika, the brother of ex-President Mutharika. In 2019 Malawian general election president Peter Mutharika got narrow election victory and he was re-elected. In February 2020 Malawi Constitutional Court overturned the result because of irregularities and widespread fraud. In May 2020 Malawi Supreme Court upheld the decision and announced a new election will be held on 2 July. This was the first time election was legally challenged. Opposition leader Lazarus Chakwera won 2020 Malawian presidential election and he was sworn in as the new president of Malawi.
In August 2021, the Constitutional Court examines an appeal lodged by the Democratic Progress Party of Peter Mutharika. He calls for the cancellation of the 2020 presidential election because four of his representatives had been banned from sitting on the Electoral Commission. However, the challenge to Malawi\'s 2020 presidential elections, made by the opposition Democratic Progress Party, was dismissed by the country\'s constitutional court in November 2021
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# Communications in Malawi
**Communications in Malawi** includes the country\'s postal, telephone, television, radio and internet services.
## Post
Malawi Posts Corporation provides the national postal service in Malawi and runs the post offices throughout the country. Ten other postal services providers operate in Malawi, including DHL, FedEx.
Postal services in Malawi are regulated by the Malawi Communications Regulatory Authority (MACRA).
## Telephone
Mobile telephones are vastly more common than fixed line phones in Malawi, with over 6.1 million mobile subscriptions compared with only 45,678 fixed line subscriptions `{{as of|2015}}`{=mediawiki}.
A report by the International Telecommunication Union in 2014 found the average Malawians spend on mobile phones was over 56% of the average monthly earning there. This was the highest proportion of earnings found by the survey.
Telephone system:
- domestic - fair system of open-wire lines, microwave radio relay links, and radiotelephone communications stations
- international - satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Atlantic Ocean)
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
Radio and television broadcast services in Malawi are also regulated by the Malawi Communications Regulatory Authority (MACRA).
There are 45 licensed radio broadcast stations, of which 31 are operational: AM 9, FM 5 (plus 15 repeater stations), shortwave 2 (plus a third station held in standby status)) (`{{as of|2016}}`{=mediawiki})
Radios: 2.6 million (`{{as of|1997}}`{=mediawiki})
There are 20 licensed television broadcast stations, of which 5 are operational (`{{as of|2016}}`{=mediawiki}).
## Internet
The internet in Malawi is regulated by the Malawi Communications Regulatory Authority (MACRA) Business to consumer Internet service providers include Airtel, and Malawi Postal Service.
there were 1.67 million internet users in Malawi.
The number of Internet Service Providers (ISPs) was 18 (`{{as of|2003}}`{=mediawiki}). The Country code (Top level domain) is MW
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# Transport in Malawi
**Transportation in Malawi** is poorly developed. The country of almost 23 million has 39 airports, 6 with paved runways and 33 with unpaved runways. It has 495 mi of railways, all narrow-gauge and about 45 percent of its roads are paved. Though it is landlocked, Malawi also has 435 mi of waterways on Lake Malawi and along the Shire River.
## Highways
Recent (c. 2009) assessments indicate that there were 9601 mi of roads in the country; of these, 4322 mi (45 percent) were paved. The remaining 5279 mi were not paved.
## Ports, harbours and waterways {#ports_harbours_and_waterways}
Lake Nyasa (Lake Malawi) and Shire River (144 kilometres) provide the major waterways. There is a railhead at the port of Chipoka, Salima district in central Malawi. Smaller ports exist at Monkey Bay, Nkhata Bay, Nkhotakota and Chilumba. The MV Ilala connects Likoma Island with the mainland, as well as the Malawian and Mozambican sides of the lake. In 2010, a port in Nsanje was opened to connect the country through the Shire and Zambezi rivers with the Indian Ocean. As of 2015, the port is not operational due to unresolved contracts with Mozambique.
## Air transport {#air_transport}
**Malawian Airlines Limited** is the national airline of Malawi which operates regional passenger service. Based in Lilongwe, it is 51% owned by the Malawi government. 49% are controlled by Ethiopian Airlines The airline\'s main base of operations is Lilongwe International Airport, with a secondary hub at Chileka International Airport.
### Airports
In 2001, there was a total of 44 airports in the country. As of 2015, two airports have scheduled passenger services.
### Paved runways {#paved_runways}
\
*total:* 6\
*over 3,047 m:* 1\
*1,524 to 2,437 m:*1\
*914 to 1,523 m:* 4 (2002)
### Unpaved runways {#unpaved_runways}
\
*total:* 37\
*1,524 to 2,437 m:* 1\
*914 to 1,523 m:* 14\
*under 914 m:* 22 (2002)
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# Transport in Malawi
## Rail transport {#rail_transport}
**Malawi Railways** is the national rail network in Malawi, run by a government corporation until privatisation in 1999. As of 1 December 1999 the **Central East African Railways**, a consortium led by Railroad Development Corporation, won the right to operate the network. This was the first rail privatisation in Africa which did not involve a parastatal operator.
The rail network totalled 797 kilometres in 2001. It is a narrow gauge line with a `{{RailGauge|1067mm}}`{=mediawiki} track.
### Railway links with adjacent countries {#railway_links_with_adjacent_countries}
The 797 km, `{{RailGauge|3ft6in|lk=on|first=met}}`{=mediawiki} gauge line extends from the Zambian border at Mchinji in the west via Lilongwe to Blantyre and Makhanga in the south. At Nkaya Junction it links with the Nacala Corridor line going east via Nayuchi to Mozambique\'s deepwater port at Nacala on the Indian Ocean. The link south from Makhanga to Mozambique\'s Beira corridor has been closed since the Mozambique Civil War, with plans for reconstruction not yet realised.
There is no direct link with neighbouring Tanzania as there is a break of gauge, `{{RailGauge|1067mm}}`{=mediawiki}/`{{RailGauge|1000mm}}`{=mediawiki} . An extension from Mchinji to Chipata in Zambia opened in 2010, and there is a proposal to eventually link up from there with the TAZARA railway at Mpika. Direct linkage is available with Mozambique, however, which has the same gauge track. Linkage is called the Nacala Corridor line via Nayuchi to the port of Nacala, and Nsanje to the Dona Ana Bridge and Beira. The latter link has not been operational since the war in Mozambique and is in need of reconstruction.
### Rail developments in 2006 {#rail_developments_in_2006}
In 2006, a Brazilian company (VALE) announced plans to build a rail branch line to the Moatize coal mine in western Mozambique from the Nacala Corridor line to export coal via the port of Nacala; the link would cross Malawi. The national Railroad Development Corporation map shows a proposed extension across the border to Chipata in Zambia. Central East African Railways, previously a subsidiary of the Railroad Development Corporation, operates the privatised Malawi Railways network. Also in 2006, the president of Malawi, Bingu wa Mutharika asked his Mozambiquan counterpart, Armando Guebuza, to consider the provision of a new 250 kilometre rail connection from Nsanje - the then-current southern extent of Malawi Railways - to the Indian Ocean port of Chinde, near the mouth of the Zambesi.
## Communications
As of 2007, there were 175,200 land line telephones in Malawi, and 1.051 million cell phones, which is approximately 8 cell phones per 100 people. The telephone system overall is described as rudimentary. In the past, Malawi\'s telecommunications system has been named as some of the poorest in Africa, but conditions are improving, with 130,000 land line telephones being connected between 2000 and 2007. Telephones are much more accessible in urban areas, with less than a quarter of land lines being in rural areas. There were 139,500 Internet users as of 2007, and 3 Internet service providers as of 2002. As of 2001 there were 14 radio stations and 1 TV station
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# Demographics of the Maldives
This is a demography of the population of Maldives, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
## Population size and structure {#population_size_and_structure}
### Structure of the population {#structure_of_the_population}
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- --------- --------- --------- ---------
Total 151 459 147 509 298 968 100
0--4 13 362 12 809 26 171 8.75
5--9 15 352 14 515 29 867 9.99
10--14 19 111 17 888 36 999 12.38
15--19 20 155 19 749 39 904 13.35
20--24 16 933 17 876 34 809 11.64
25--29 11 915 12 666 24 581 8.22
30--34 10 022 10 613 20 635 6.90
35--39 8 780 9 394 18 174 6.08
40--44 7 828 8 043 15 871 5.31
45--49 6 872 6 697 13 569 4.54
50--54 4 147 3 789 7 936 2.65
55--59 3 046 2 813 5 859 1.96
60--64 2 852 2 714 5 566 1.86
65--69 3 014 2 664 5 678 1.90
70--74 2 333 1 853 4 186 1.40
75--79 1 444 933 2 377 0.80
80--84 617 447 1 064 0.36
85--89 241 155 396 0.13
90--94 89 70 159 0.05
95+ 52 32 84 0.03
unknown 3 294 1 789 5 083 1.70
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 47 825 45 212 93 037 31.12
15--64 92 550 94 354 186 904 62.52
65+ 7 790 6 154 13 944 4.66
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- --------- --------- --------- ---------
Total 169 800 166 424 336 224 100
0--4 16 714 16 429 33 143 9.86
5--9 13 826 13 318 27 144 8.07
10--14 14 498 13 671 28 169 8.38
15--19 18 153 16 795 34 948 10.39
20--24 20 743 19 640 40 383 12.01
25--29 19 091 19 401 38 492 11.45
30--34 14 054 14 828 28 882 8.59
35--39 10 761 11 263 22 024 6.55
40--44 9 409 9 935 19 344 5.75
45--49 8 270 8 587 16 857 5.01
50--54 7 421 7 340 14 761 4.39
55--59 5 105 4 799 9 904 2.95
60--64 3 118 2 884 6 002 1.79
65--69 2 542 2 495 5 037 1.50
70--74 2 430 2 338 4 768 1.42
75--79 1 971 1 648 3 619 1.08
80+ 1 693 1 054 2 747 0.82
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 45 038 43 418 88 456 26.31
15--64 116 126 115 471 231 597 68.88
65+ 8 636 7 535 16 171 4.81
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- --------- --------- --------- ---------
Total 356 149 201 277 557 426 100
0--4 20 612 18 798 39 411 7.07
5--9 19 345 17 242 36 587 6.56
10--14 17 446 16 495 33 941 6.09
15--19 17 354 13 032 30 386 5.45
20--24 48 242 16 763 65 005 11.66
25--29 65 935 21 387 87 322 15.67
30--34 51 583 22 366 73 949 13.27
35--39 36 844 19 016 55 859 10.02
40--44 24 838 13 365 38 203 6.85
45--49 17 124 10 950 28 074 5.04
50--54 11 939 9 187 21 126 3.79
55--59 8 754 7 754 16 508 2.96
60--64 6 450 6 008 12 458 2.23
65--69 3 351 2 958 6 309 1.13
70--74 2 232 2 200 4 432 0.80
75--79 1 832 1 848 3 680 0.66
80+ 2 269 1 908 4 177 0.75
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 57 403 52 535 109 938 19.72
15--64 289 062 139 828 428 890 76.94
65+ 9 684 8 914 18 598 3.34
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# Demographics of the Maldives
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
### UN estimates {#un_estimates}
Period Live births per year Deaths per year Natural change per year CBR^1^ CDR^1^ NC^1^ TFR^1^ IMR^1^
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ---------------------- ----------------- ------------------------- -------- -------- ------- -------- --------
1950--1955 3 000 2 000 1 000 43.2 27.7 15.5 6.03 233.4
1955--1960 4 000 2 000 2 000 53.0 28.2 24.8 6.81 221.6
1960--1965 5 000 3 000 3 000 55.0 27.2 27.9 7.12 205.5
1965--1970 6 000 3 000 3 000 52.2 23.4 28.8 7.22 175.5
1970--1975 6 000 2 000 4 000 47.4 19.3 28.1 7.17 146.5
1975--1980 6 000 2 000 4 000 44.1 15.7 28.3 6.86 121.5
1980--1985 8 000 2 000 6 000 47.8 12.7 35.1 7.26 97.2
1985--1990 9 000 2 000 7 000 45.4 10.5 34.8 6.81 77.1
1990--1995 8 000 2 000 6 000 35.6 8.0 27.6 5.25 62.5
1995--2000 7 000 1 000 5 000 25.1 5.5 19.6 3.52 41.7
2000--2005 6 000 1 000 4 000 19.7 4.1 15.6 2.49 26.5
2005--2010 5 000 1 000 4 000 17.2 3.7 13.5 1.90 9.8
^1^ CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births
### Registered births and deaths {#registered_births_and_deaths}
Average estimated population Live births Deaths Natural change Crude birth rate (per 1000) Crude death rate (per 1000) Natural change (per 1000) TFR
------ ------------------------------ ------------- -------- ---------------- ----------------------------- ----------------------------- --------------------------- -------
1980 157,000 6,822 1,787 5,035 43.6 11.4 32.1
1981 162,000 7,010 1,963 5,047 43.3 12.1 31.2
1982 168,000 7,402 2,129 5,273 44.1 12.7 31.4
1983 174,000 7,236 1,748 5,488 41.6 10.1 31.6
1984 180,000 8,255 1,640 6,615 45.8 9.1 36.7
1985 187,000 8,968 1,607 7,361 48.0 8.6 39.4
1986 193,000 8,615 1,511 7,104 44.6 7.8 36.8
1987 200,000 8,364 1,525 6,839 41.8 7.6 34.2
1988 207,000 8,297 1,526 6,771 40.2 7.4 32.8
1989 213,000 8,726 1,476 7,250 41.0 6.9 34.0
1990 219,000 8,639 1,355 7,284 39.4 6.2 33.2
1991 226,000 8,390 1,366 7,024 37.2 6.1 31.1
1992 232,000 8,139 1,330 6,809 35.1 5.7 29.4
1993 238,000 7,780 1,319 6,461 32.7 5.6 27.2
1994 243,000 7,382 1,240 6,142 30.3 5.1 25.2
1995 249,000 6,849 1,151 5,698 27.5 4.6 22.9
1996 254,000 6,772 1,213 5,559 26.7 4.8 21.9
1997 259,000 6,184 1,175 5,009 23.9 4.5 19.3
1998 264,000 5,687 1,121 4,566 21.6 4.2 17.3
1999 269,000 5,225 1,037 4,188 19.5 3.9 15.6
2000 273,000 5,399 1,032 4,367 19.8 3.8 16.0
2001 278,000 4,897 1,081 3,816 17.6 3.9 13.7
2002 282,000 5,003 1,113 3,890 17.7 3.9 13.8
2003 287,000 5,157 1,030 4,127 18.0 3.6 14.4
2004 291,000 5,220 1,015 4,205 17.9 3.5 14.5
2005 295,000 5,543 1,027 4,516 18.8 3.5 15.3
2006 300,000 5,829 1,083 4,746 19.5 3.6 15.9
2007 305,000 6,569 1,118 5,451 21.6 3.7 18.0
2008 310,000 6,946 1,061 5,885 22.6 3.4 19.1
2009 315,000 7,423 1,163 6,260 23.6 3.7 19.9 2.400
2010 320,000 7,115 1,105 6,010 22.3 3.5 18.8 2.263
2011 325,000 7,180 1,137 6,043 22.1 3.5 18.6 2.239
2012 331,000 7,431 1,135 6,296 22.5 3.4 19.0 2.259
2013 336,000 7,153 1,120 6,033 21.3 3.3 18.0 2.133
2014 437,535 7,245 1,143 6,102 16.6 2.6 14.0 2.007
2015 454,434 6,896 1,130 5,766 15.2 2.5 12.7 1.907
2016 472,426 6,756 1,226 5,530 14.3 2.6 11.7 1.805
2017 491,589 6,723 1,241 5,482 13.7 2.5 11.2 1.718
2018 512,038 6,586 1,300 5,286 12.9 2.5 10.4 1.651
2019 533,941 6,153 1,132 5,021 11.5 2.1 9.4 1.557
2020 557,426 6,293 1,275 5,018 11.3 2.3 9.0 1.572
2021 568,362 5,914 1,552 4,362 10.4 2.7 7.7 1.506
### Demographic and Health Surveys {#demographic_and_health_surveys}
Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and CBR (Crude Birth Rate):
Year Total Urban
---------- ------- ----------- -------
CBR TFR CBR TFR
2009 24.7 2.5 (2.2) 22.9
2016--17 22.0 2.1 (1.9) 19.9
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# Demographics of the Maldives
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
### Total fertility rate {#total_fertility_rate}
The total fertility rate differs greatly from as low as 2.05 children per woman in Malé to a maximum of 3.88 children in Faafu.
+--------------+------------------------------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Code Name | Official Name | Population\ | Reg. Population\ | TFR (2014 census) |
| | | (2014 census) | (31 December 2018) | |
+==============+==============================+===============+====================+===================+
| Malé | Malé City | 133,412 | 64,742 | 2.05 |
+--------------+------------------------------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Haa Alif | Thiladhunmathi Uthuruburi | 13,004 | 22,761 | 2.91 |
+--------------+------------------------------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Haa Dhaalu | Thiladhunmathi Dhekunuburi | 18,570 | 27,259 | 2.91 |
+--------------+------------------------------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Shaviyani | Miladhunmadulu Uthuruburi | 12,127 | 18,274 | 2.66 |
+--------------+------------------------------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Noonu | Miladhunmadulu Dhekunuburi | 10,556 | 16,789 | 2.83 |
+--------------+------------------------------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Raa | Maalhosmadulu Uthuruburi | 14,934 | 23,721 | 2.93 |
+--------------+------------------------------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Baa | Maalhosmadulu Dhekunuburi | 8,919 | 14,624 | 2.45 |
+--------------+------------------------------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Lhaviyani | Faadhippolhu | 7,996 | 13,238 | 2.59 |
+--------------+------------------------------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Kaafu | Malé Atholhu | 12,232 | 12,036 | 2.70 |
+--------------+------------------------------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Alif Alif | Ari Atholhu Uthuruburi | 5,915 | 7,614 | 2.94 |
+--------------+------------------------------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Alif Dhaal | Ari Atholhu Dhekunuburi | 8,183 | 11,439 | 3.30 |
+--------------+------------------------------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Vaavu | Felidhu Atholhu | 1,622 | 2,599 | 2.34 |
+--------------+------------------------------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Meemu | Mulak Atholhu | 4,711 | 7,415 | 2.75 |
+--------------+------------------------------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Faafu | Nilandhe Atholhu Uthuruburi | 4,140 | 6,264 | 3.88 |
+--------------+------------------------------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Dhaalu | Nilandhe Atholhu Dhekunuburi | 5,329 | 7,932 | 2.62 |
+--------------+------------------------------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Thaa | Kolhumadulu | 8,923 | 16,161 | 2.97 |
+--------------+------------------------------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Laamu | Haddhunmathi | 11,841 | 16,977 | 2.67 |
+--------------+------------------------------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Gaafu Alif | Huvadhu Atholhu Uthuruburi | 8,477 | 14,057 | 2.80 |
+--------------+------------------------------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Gaafu Dhaalu | Huvadhu Atholhu Dhekunuburi | 11,653 | 21,096 | 3.13 |
+--------------+------------------------------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Gnaviyani | Fuvahmulah City | 8,095 | 13,037 | 2.76 |
+--------------+------------------------------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Addu City | Addu City | 19,827 | 33,876 | 2.49 |
+--------------+------------------------------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Maldives | Republic of Maldives | 344,023 | 374,775 | 2.46 |
+--------------+------------------------------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
### Life expectancy at birth {#life_expectancy_at_birth}
Period Life expectancy in Years Period Life expectancy in Years
------------ -------------------------- ------------ --------------------------
1950--1955 34.5 1985--1990 59.3
1955--1960 36.1 1990--1995 63.5
1960--1965 39.0 1995--2000 67.6
1965--1970 42.4 2000--2005 72.2
1970--1975 46.2 2005--2010 75.6
1975--1980 50.7 2010--2015 76.3
1980--1985 55.5
Source: *UN World Population Prospects*
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# Demographics of the Maldives
## Ethnic groups {#ethnic_groups}
The largest ethnic group is Dhivehin, native to the historic region of the Maldive Islands comprising today\'s Republic of Maldives and the island of Minicoy in Union territory of Lakshadweep, India. They share the same culture and speak the Dhivehi language. They are principally an Indo-Aryan people, closely related to the Sinhalese and having traces of Middle Eastern, South Asian, Austronesian and African genes in the population.
In the past there was also a small Tamil population known as the Giraavaru people. This group have now been almost completely absorbed into the larger Maldivian society but were once native to the island of Giraavaru (Kaafu Atoll). This island was evacuated in 1968 due to heavy erosion of the island.
Filipinos in the Maldives numbering 3,000 in 2018.
## Languages
Dhivehi, an Indo-Aryan language closely related to the Sinhala language of Sri Lanka, and written in a specialized Arabic script (Thaana), is the official language and is spoken by virtually the whole population. English is also spoken as a second language by many.
## Religion
Sunni Islam is the state religion. Historically, the Maldives were converted to Islam from Buddhism in the 12th century. Under the 2008 constitution Islam is the official religion of the entire population, as adherence to it is required for citizenship
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# Politics of the Maldives
The **politics of the Maldives** take place in the framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President is the Head of Government. Executive power is exercised by the government. The President heads the executive branch and appoints the Cabinet; like many presidential democracies, each member of the cabinet need to be approved by the Parliament. The President, along with their pick for vice-president, is directly elected by the denizens to a five-year term by a secret ballot. Once in office, they could be re-elected to a second 5-year term, which is the limit allowed by the Constitution. The current President of the Maldives is Mohamed Muizzu, when his predecessor, Ibrahim Mohamed Solih lost the 2023 Maldivian presidential election.
The unicameral Majlis of the Maldives is composed of 93 members serving a five-year term. The total number of the members representing each constituency depends on the total population of that constituency. The last parliamentary election was held on 21 April 2024.
The Maldivian legal system is derived mainly from the traditional Islamic law. There is a Supreme Court with 5 judges including the Chief Justice. The Chief Justice is appointed by the President, with the recommendation of the Judicial Service Commission. Parliament is required to approve the appointment before he assumes office. Excluding the Supreme Court, there also exists the High Court (two branches), a Criminal Court, Civil Court, Family Court, Juvenile Court, Drug Court and many Lower Courts in each Atoll/Island. An Attorney General is part of the Cabinet and also needs the approval of Parliament before taking office.
Under the new 2008 constitution, the function of Local Government is devolved to an Atoll Council to administer each atoll and an Island Council to administer each inhabited island. Island councillors are elected by the people of each island, and the Atoll Councilors are in turn elected by the Island Councilors.
The Constitution of the Maldives requires the following for a president: be a Maldivian citizen born to parents who are Maldivian citizens, and who is not also a citizen of a foreign country; be a Muslim and a follower of a Sunni school of Islam;
Maldives was 2023 the 9th most electoral democratic country in Asia according to V-Dem Democracy indices.
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# Politics of the Maldives
## History
A 1968 referendum approved a constitution making Maldives a republic with executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. The constitution was amended in 1970, 1972, 1975, and 1997 and again in 2008.
Ibrahim Nasir, Prime Minister under the pre-1968 sultanate, became president and held office from 1968 to 1978. He was succeeded by Maumoon Abdul Gayoom, who was elected president in 1978 and re-elected in 1983, 1988, 1993, 1998, and 2003. At the end of his presidency in 2008, he was the longest serving leader in Asia.
Since 2003, following the death in custody of a prisoner, Naseem, the Maldives experienced several anti-government demonstrations calling for political reforms, more freedoms, and an end to torture and oppression. As a result of these activities, political parties were eventually allowed in June 2005. The main parties registered in Maldives are: the Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP), the Dhivehi Raiyyithunge Party (DRP), the Islamic Democratic Party (IDP) and the Adhaalath Party. The first party to register was the MDP headed by popular opposition figures such as Mohamed Nasheed (Anni) and Mohamed Latheef (Gogo). The next was the Dhivehi Rayyithunge Party (DRP) headed by then-President Gayoom.
A new Constitution was ratified in August 2008, paving the way for the country\'s first multi-party presidential election two months later.
The Maldives have scored poorly on some indices of freedom. The \"Freedom in the World\" index, a measure of political rights and civil liberties published by Freedom House, judged Maldives as \"not free\" until May 1, 2009, when it was raised to \"partly free\". The \"Worldwide Press Freedom Index\", published by Reporters Without Borders, ranks Maldives 106 out of 180 in terms of press freedom as of 2024.
On 30 September 2023, PNC/PPM candidate Mohamed Muizzu won the 2023 Maldives presidential election, beating incumbent president Ibrahim Solih with 54% of the vote. On 17 October 2023, Mohamed Muizzu was sworn in as the eighth President of the Republic of Maldives.
In April 2024, President Mohamed Muizzu's pro-China People's National Congress (PNC) won 66 seats in the 2024 Maldivian parliamentary election, while its allies took nine, giving the president the backing of 75 legislators in the 93-member house, meaning a super-majority and enough to change the constitution.
## Executive branch {#executive_branch}
The Cabinet of the Maldives presided by the President, contains the Vice-President and ministers. there are currently 22 ministers that lead their respective ministries, they are:
- Minister of Defense
- Minister of Foreign Affairs
- Minister of Homeland Security and Technology
- Minister of Finance
- Minister of Education
- Minister of Health
- Minister of Economic Development and Trade
- Minister of Fisheries and Ocean Resources
- Attorney General
- Minister of Islamic Affairs
- Minister of Tourism
- Minister of Social and Family Development
- Minister of Sports, Fitness and Recreation
- Minister of Climate Change, Environment and Energy
- Minister of Housing, Land and Urban Development
- Minister of Transport and Civil Aviation
- Minister of Dhivehi Language, Culture and Heritage
- Minister of Higher Education, Labour and Skills Development
- Minister of Construction and Infrastructure
- Minister of Agriculture and Animal Welfare
- Minister of Youth Empowerment, Information and Arts
- Minister of Cities, Local Government and Public Works
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
The People\'s Majlis has 93 members elected by the people under first-past-the-post voting.
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# Politics of the Maldives
## Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
On a national level, Maldives elects a head of state `{{En dash}}`{=mediawiki} the president `{{En dash}}`{=mediawiki} and a legislature. The president is elected for a five-year term by the people since 2008. Until 2005 (after the election), no legal parties existed. The results of the most recent legislative elections held in 2024 are:`{{Election results|image=[[File:20th Parliament of the Maldives.svg]]|party1=[[People's National Congress (Maldives)|People's National Congress]]|votes1=101128|seats1=66|sc1=+63|party2=[[Maldivian Democratic Party]]|votes2=65476|seats2=12|sc2=–53|party4=[[Maldives Development Alliance]]|votes4=4071|seats4=2|sc4=0|party5=[[Jumhooree Party]]|votes5=3141|seats5=1|sc5=–4|party7=[[Maldives National Party]]|votes7=1060|seats7=1|sc7=New|party6=[[Adhaalath Party]]|votes6=2538|seats6=0|sc6=0|party3=[[The Democrats (Maldives)|The Democrats]]|votes3=4634|seats3=0|sc3=New|party8=Independents|votes8=30931|seats8=11|sc8=+4|total_sc=+6|valid=212,979|invalid=4120|electorate=284663|source=[https://results.elections.gov.mv/index.html ECM], [https://www.orfonline.org/research/what-does-maldives-parliament-elections-mean-for-india-and-china ORF]}}`{=mediawiki}The Maldivian parliament voted unanimously for the creation of a multiparty system on June 2, 2005. Prior to June 2005, the Maldivian political system was based on the election of individuals, rather than the more common system of election according to party platform. In June 2005, as part of an ongoing programme of democratic reform, new regulations were promulgated to formally recognised political parties within the framework of the electoral system.
The Maldivian Democratic Party was already active. New parties created within a few years after this included those such as the Dhivehi Rayyithunge Party, the Jumhooree Party, and the Adhaalath Party.
There are now 10 registered political parties in the Maldives:
Party Registered Date
------------------------------------- ------------------
Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP) 26 June 2005
Adhaalath Party (AP) 18 August 2005
Jumhooree Party (JP) 2 August 2008
Progressive Party of Maldives (PPM) 27 October 2011
Maldives Development Alliance (MDA) 30 December 2012
Maldives Third Way Democrats (MTD) 27 December 2018
People\'s National Congress (PNC) 31 January 2019
Maldives Reform Movement (MRM) 20 November 2019
Maldives National Party (MNP) 25 October 2021
The Democrats (TD) 12 July 2023
People\'s National Front (PNF) 25 April 2024
Source: Elections Commission
On October 8, 2008, the country held its first ever multi-party presidential election.
In the 2019 parliamentary election, MDP won 65 seats in the 87 seat parliament. This was the first time a single party was able to get such a high number of seats in the parliament in Maldivian history.
In the 2024 parliamentary election, PNC won 66 seats in the 93 seat parliament, meanwhile MDP received 12.
## Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
The legal system is based on Islamic law with admixtures of English common law primarily in commercial matters. Maldives has not accepted compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction.
## Administrative divisions {#administrative_divisions}
20 atolls (*atholhu*, singular and plural): Alif Alif, Alif Dhaal, Baa, Dhaalu, Faafu, Gaafu Alifu, Gaafu Dhaalu, Gnaviyani, Haa Alifu, Haa Dhaalu, Laamu, Lhaviyani, Kaafu, Meemu, Noonu, Raa, Seenu, Shaviyani, Thaa, Vaavu, and one first-order administrative city (Malé).
## International organisation participation {#international_organisation_participation}
The Maldives is a member of many international organisations, some of which include:
The ADB, Commonwealth of Nations, CP`{{Clarify|reason=|date=November 2019}}`{=mediawiki}, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFAD, IFC, International Monetary Fund, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IsDB, ITU, NAM, OIC, OPCW, SAARC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, World Health Organization, WCO, WIPO, WMO, and the WTO
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# Telecommunications in the Maldives
**Telecommunications in the Maldives** is under the control and supervision of the Communications Authority of Maldives (CAM). The Maldives is served by three telecommunications operators, Dhiraagu, Ooredoo Maldives and Raajjé Online.
## Telephones
**Mobile network operators (MNOs):** 2, Dhiraagu and Ooredoo Maldives (2020)
**Telephones -- Fixedline\'s in use:** 21,000 (1999)
**Telephones -- Mobile Cellular:** 344,000 (2007)
**Telephone system:** *domestic:* interatoll communication through microwave links; all inhabited islands are connected with telephone and fax service. *international:* satellite earth station -- 3 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
**Radio broadcast stations:** AM 1, FM 5, shortwave 1 (2008)
**Radios:** 35,000 (1999)
**Television broadcast stations:** 9 (2009)
**Televisions:** 10,000 (1999)
## Internet
**Internet Service Providers (ISPs):** 3, Dhiraagu, Ooredoo Maldives and Raajjé Online (2020)
**Internet users:** 20,000 (2008)
**Country code (Top level domain):** .mv
**MV Domain registrar:** [Dhiraagu](https://www.dhiraagu.com
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# Transport in the Maldives
**Transport in the Maldives** is highly facilitated by road, bridges, highways, air and water networks. The country has no railways. Transportation in the Maldives primarily revolves around its maritime and air travel systems, given the archipelagic nature of the country, which consists of 26 atolls and over 1,000 coral islands. The absence of extensive road networks between islands necessitates a heavy reliance on boats and seaplanes for inter-island connectivity. Dhoni, traditional Maldivian wooden boats, and modern speedboats are widely used for short distances and local travel, while ferries provide regular services between inhabited islands. For longer journeys, the Maldives domestic airlines operate seaplane and airplane services that link the capital, Malé, with outlying atolls, enhancing both passenger and cargo transport across the islands.
Malé, the capital city, serves as the central hub for the country's transportation network. Velana International Airport, located on nearby Hulhulé Island, is the primary gateway for international travel, with frequent connections to major global destinations. This airport also handles a significant volume of domestic traffic, alongside other regional airports dispersed across the atolls. For intra-city travel within Malé and its nearby islands, roads and a network of causeways and bridges facilitate movement. Notably, the Sinamalé Bridge connects Malé to Hulhulé Island, improving accessibility to the international airport. Overall, the transportation infrastructure of the Maldives is crucial for its tourism-driven economy and the mobility of its residents.
## Road transport {#road_transport}
Road infrastructure in the Maldives is relatively limited due to the country\'s unique geography of dispersed atolls and islands. Most of the roads are found in the capital city of Malé, Hulhumalé, and a few other larger islands like Addu Atoll. The road network in Malé is characterized by narrow streets and heavy traffic congestion, reflective of the city\'s high population density. The Sinamalé Bridge, also known as the China--Maldives Friendship Bridge, is a significant development that connects Malé with Hulhulé Island, where the Velana International Airport is located, and the planned city of Hulhumalé. This bridge has greatly improved road connectivity and facilitated easier movement between these key areas. Outside of these urban centers, most islands rely on footpaths, bicycles, and motorcycles for local transport, with very few roads available due to the small size of the islands and the prioritization of maritime and air travel for longer distances.
In the capital city of Malé, the majority of roads are paved with concrete cobblestones, while some are paved with tarmac. In Addu City, many roads are surfaced with tarmac. A notable feature in Aduu Atoll is a highway known as \"Addu link road\", connects four islands, Hithadhoo, Maradhoo, Maradhoo--Feydhoo, Feydhoo.
## Ports and harbours {#ports_and_harbours}
Ports and harbors in the Maldives are crucial to the nation\'s economy, given the country\'s geographic composition as an archipelago of over 1,000 islands. In Malé city, there are several regional ports and harbors that facilitate inter-island transportation and support local economies, including Kulhudhuffushi Harbor and Hithadhoo Regional Port. These ports handle a mix of conventional and containerized cargo, essential for importing goods and exporting local products. The development and maintenance of these maritime facilities are vital for the Maldives, ensuring the efficient movement of goods and supporting the tourism industry, which is a significant contributor to the national GDP.
Malé Commercial Harbour is the primary hub of maritime activities and commerce in the Maldives. Located in the capital city of Malé, the port offers a range of essential services including marine pilotage, wharfage, and mooring. It is equipped to handle both conventional and containerized cargo, providing facilities for cargo handling, as well as stuffing and un-stuffing services. As the main port of the Maldives, Malé Commercial Harbour plays a critical role in the nation\'s economy by facilitating the import and export of goods, thereby supporting the archipelago\'s trade and logistics infrastructure.
## Air transport {#air_transport}
Airports in the Maldives}}
The archipelago has 18 airports. Two had paved runways. One stretched over 10,000 ft. Another was in the range 8,000 to. Three airports had unpaved runways of 3,000 to. Five of the 18 airports schedule international flights
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# Demographics of Mali
Demographic features of the population of Mali include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
## Population
In `{{UN_Population|Year}}`{=mediawiki}, Mali\'s population was an estimated {{#expr:`{{replace|{{UN_Population|Mali}}|,||}}`{=mediawiki}/1e6 round 1}} million`{{UN_Population|ref}}`{=mediawiki}, with an annual growth rate of 2.7%. This figure can be compared to 4,638,000 in 1950. The population is predominantly rural (68% in 2002), and 5--10% of Malians are nomadic. More than 90% of the population lives in the southern part of the country, especially in Bamako, which has over 1 million residents.
In 2007, about 48% of Malians were less than 15 years old, 49% were 15--64 years old, and 3% were 65 and older. The median age was 15.9 years. The birth rate in 2007 was 49.6 births per 1,000, and the total fertility rate was 7.4 children per woman.
The death rate in 2007 was 16.5 deaths per 1,000. Life expectancy at birth was 49.5 years total (47.6 for males and 51.5 for females). Mali has one of the world\'s highest rates of infant mortality, with 106 deaths per 1,000 live births.
The proportion of the population aged below 15 in 2010 was 47.2%. 50.6% of the population were aged between 15 and 65 years of age. 2.2% of the population were aged 65 years or older.
Total population Population aged 0--14 (%) Population aged 15--64 (%) Population aged 65+ (%)
------ ------------------ --------------------------- ---------------------------- -------------------------
1950 4 638 000 38.9 58.3 2.8
1955 4 928 000 40.1 57.4 2.5
1960 5 248 000 40.5 57.2 2.3
1965 5 597 000 41.5 56.2 2.3
1970 6 034 000 42.3 55.2 2.4
1975 6 604 000 43.3 54.1 2.6
1980 7 246 000 44.6 52.6 2.8
1985 8 010 000 45.8 51.3 2.9
1990 8 673 000 47.5 49.5 3.0
1995 9 825 000 47.4 49.9 2.8
2000 11 295 000 47.2 50.3 2.5
2005 13 177 000 47.1 50.6 2.3
2010 15 370 000 47.2 50.6 2.2
### Structure of the population {#structure_of_the_population}
Structure of the population (census January 2009):
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- ----------- ----------- ------------ ---------
Total 7 204 990 7 323 672 14 528 662 100
0-4 1 328 871 1 294 514 2 623 385 18.06
5-9 1 202 875 1 154 948 2 357 823 16.23
10-14 918 866 865 138 1 784 004 12.28
15-19 732 526 783 620 1 516 146 10.44
20-24 529 535 612 368 1 141 903 7.86
25-29 449 099 546 603 995 702 6.85
30-34 385 003 427 795 812 798 5.59
35-39 325 005 326 894 651 949 4.49
40-44 271 239 275 364 546 603 3.76
45-49 228 626 217 261 445 887 3.07
50-54 189 424 192 382 381 806 2.63
55-59 148 594 134 083 282 677 1.95
60-64 127 557 123 461 251 018 1.73
65-69 88 292 77 082 165 374 1.14
70-74 67 319 66 063 133 382 0.92
75-79 40 904 36 197 77 101 0.53
80+ 41 992 43 602 85 594 0.59
unknown 129 213 146 297 275 510 1.90
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0-14 3 450 612 3 314 600 6 765 212 46.56
15-64 3 386 658 3 639 831 7 026 489 48.36
65+ 238 507 222 944 461 451 3.18
Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (January 2018):
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- ----------- ----------- ------------ ---------
Total 9 631 376 9 786 721 19 418 097 100
0--4 1 824 718 1 854 149 3 678 867 18.95
5--9 1 481 610 1 505 507 2 987 117 15.38
10--14 1 235 790 1 255 722 2 491 512 12.83
15--19 1 027 744 1 044 321 2 072 065 10.67
20--24 872 370 886 440 1 758 810 9.06
25--29 740 900 752 850 1 493 750 7.69
30--34 608 309 618 121 1 226 430 6.32
35--39 481 340 489 104 970 444 5.00
40--44 363 798 369 665 733 463 3.78
45--49 270 771 275 138 545 909 2.81
50--54 211 869 215 287 427 156 2.20
55--59 172 475 175 257 347 731 1.79
60--64 127 886 129 949 257 835 1.33
65-69 103 184 104 848 208 033 1.07
70-74 60 828 61 809 122 637 0.63
75-79 31 964 32 479 64 443 0.33
80+ 15 820 16 075 31 895 0.16
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 4 542 118 4 615 378 9 157 496 47.16
15--64 4 877 462 4 956 132 9 833 594 50.64
65+ 211 796 215 211 427 007 2.20
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# Demographics of Mali
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
Registration of vital events in Mali is not complete. The website Our World in Data prepared the following estimates based on statistics from the Population Department of the United Nations. (*UN World Population Prospects 2024*).
Mid-year population (thousands) Live births (thousands) Deaths (thousands) Natural change (thousands) Crude birth rate (per 1000) Crude death rate (per 1000) Natural change (per 1000) Total fertility rate (TFR) Infant mortality (per 1000 live births) Life expectancy (in years)
------ --------------------------------- ------------------------- -------------------- ---------------------------- ----------------------------- ----------------------------- --------------------------- ---------------------------- ----------------------------------------- ----------------------------
1950 4 695 245 176 69 52.2 37.5 14.7 6.96 211.1 28.17
1951 4 760 247 178 69 51.8 37.3 14.6 6.96 210.2 28.29
1952 4 825 249 178 70 51.5 36.9 14.6 6.95 208.4 28.53
1953 4 888 250 179 72 51.1 36.5 14.6 6.95 206.9 28.76
1954 4 951 252 179 73 50.8 36.1 14.7 6.94 205.5 28.97
1955 5 015 254 180 74 50.5 35.8 14.7 6.94 204.3 29.13
1956 5 079 256 180 76 50.4 35.5 14.9 6.94 203.3 29.37
1957 5 145 259 182 77 50.2 35.3 15.0 6.95 202.5 29.47
1958 5 209 262 183 79 50.2 35.1 15.1 6.95 201.8 29.59
1959 5 275 267 185 81 50.5 35.1 15.4 6.99 201.2 29.65
1960 5 347 270 187 83 50.5 35.0 15.5 7.00 200.6 29.75
1961 5 420 274 189 84 50.4 34.9 15.5 7.00 200.0 29.83
1962 5 495 277 191 86 50.4 34.8 15.6 7.02 199.3 29.94
1963 5 570 281 193 88 50.4 34.6 15.8 7.03 198.4 30.15
1964 5 647 285 194 91 50.4 34.3 16.1 7.05 197.3 30.42
1965 5 726 290 195 94 50.5 34.1 16.4 7.08 195.8 30.62
1966 5 807 294 197 97 50.6 33.9 16.7 7.10 194.0 30.87
1967 5 888 299 198 101 50.6 33.6 17.1 7.13 191.8 31.21
1968 5 974 303 198 105 50.7 33.1 17.5 7.15 189.4 31.63
1969 6 062 306 199 108 50.4 32.7 17.7 7.17 186.9 32.05
1970 6 154 310 198 112 50.4 32.2 18.2 7.18 183.9 32.53
1971 6 248 315 199 116 50.4 31.8 18.6 7.20 181.3 32.94
1972 6 347 320 196 124 50.3 30.8 19.5 7.20 177.8 33.86
1973 6 455 326 195 131 50.4 30.2 20.3 7.21 174.8 34.57
1974 6 569 332 193 139 50.4 29.3 21.1 7.23 171.9 35.43
1975 6 687 338 192 146 50.5 28.6 21.9 7.24 169.0 36.23
1976 6 808 344 189 155 50.4 27.7 22.7 7.25 165.5 37.20
1977 6 935 350 187 163 50.4 26.9 23.5 7.28 162.0 38.11
1978 7 073 357 185 172 50.4 26.1 24.3 7.30 158.5 39.06
1979 7 218 365 183 182 50.5 25.3 25.2 7.32 155.0 39.95
1980 7 373 372 182 190 50.3 24.7 25.7 7.33 151.5 40.75
1981 7 533 379 183 195 50.1 24.3 25.9 7.32 148.2 41.22
1982 7 696 383 183 200 49.6 23.7 25.9 7.27 144.6 41.82
1983 7 864 387 184 204 49.1 23.3 25.8 7.23 141.2 42.14
1984 8 030 394 183 210 48.9 22.8 26.1 7.22 138.0 42.70
1985 8 188 399 183 216 48.5 22.3 26.2 7.21 134.9 43.21
1986 8 335 405 181 224 48.3 21.6 26.7 7.24 131.7 43.98
1987 8 474 408 179 229 47.8 21.0 26.9 7.25 128.9 44.69
1988 8 617 413 176 237 47.7 20.4 27.3 7.26 126.3 45.39
1989 8 774 416 176 241 47.2 19.9 27.3 7.28 123.8 45.88
1990 8 945 419 173 246 46.7 19.3 27.4 7.25 121.8 46.62
1991 9 124 430 172 258 47.0 18.8 28.2 7.23 119.8 47.22
1992 9 311 437 173 263 46.7 18.5 28.2 7.18 118.1 47.50
1993 9 507 443 174 269 46.4 18.3 28.1 7.12 116.5 47.73
1994 9 712 452 177 275 46.4 18.2 28.2 7.07 115.2 47.74
1995 9 921 455 179 275 45.7 18.0 27.7 6.99 113.6 47.82
1996 10 132 464 182 282 45.7 17.9 27.8 6.95 112.1 47.79
1997 10 359 477 180 297 45.9 17.4 28.6 6.91 110.0 48.53
1998 10 620 492 180 312 46.2 16.9 29.3 6.89 107.9 49.16
1999 10 917 513 180 333 47.0 16.5 30.5 6.88 105.5 49.80
2000 11 239 530 180 350 47.1 16.0 31.1 6.87 102.8 50.54
2001 11 584 549 180 369 47.3 15.5 31.8 6.85 100.0 51.28
2002 11 953 568 178 390 47.5 14.9 32.6 6.82 97.1 52.22
2003 12 342 588 178 410 47.6 14.4 33.2 6.78 94.2 52.89
2004 12 752 611 179 432 47.9 14.0 33.9 6.74 91.4 53.54
2005 13 181 633 180 453 48.0 13.7 34.3 6.72 88.7 54.00
2006 13 624 649 180 469 47.6 13.2 34.4 6.69 86.2 54.62
2007 14 081 666 182 484 47.3 12.9 34.4 6.66 83.7 54.94
2008 14 551 684 184 501 47.0 12.6 34.4 6.64 81.2 55.29
2009 15 033 705 183 521 46.8 12.2 34.6 6.61 78.8 55.87
2010 15 529 724 184 541 46.6 11.8 34.8 6.58 76.5 56.38
2011 16 040 743 185 558 46.2 11.5 34.7 6.55 74.2 56.76
2012 16 515 762 186 576 45.9 11.2 34.7 6.52 72.0 57.08
2013 17 004 771 186 585 45.3 10.9 34.3 6.49 70.0 57.36
2014 17 552 788 185 602 44.8 10.5 34.2 6.44 67.8 57.90
2015 18 113 804 185 619 44.3 10.2 34.1 6.39 65.8 58.36
2016 18 700 820 186 634 43.8 9.9 33.9 6.32 63.9 58.73
2017 19 311 839 186 652 43.4 9.6 33.7 6.25 62.1 59.13
2018 19 934 856 188 668 42.9 9.4 33.5 6.18 60.4 59.39
2019 20 567 873 190 683 42.4 9.2 33.2 6.10 58.7 59.66
2020 21 380 889 206 668 41.0 9.5 30.8 5.85 57.1 65.5
2021 22 048 911 208 681 40.7 9.3 30.4 5.78 55.4 63.8
2022 22 729 931 204 687 40.3 8.9 29.8 5.69 57.1 62.4
2023 23 416 951 205 706 40.0 8.6 29.7 5.61 60.8 58.63
### Demographic and Health Surveys {#demographic_and_health_surveys}
Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR):
Year CBR (Total) TFR (Total) CBR (Urban) TFR (Urban) CBR (Rural) TFR (Rural)
----------- ------------- ------------- ------------- ------------- ------------- -------------
1981-1983 7.10 6.85 7.17
1984-1986 6.73 6.09 6.97
1995-1996 45.1 6.7 (6.0) 39.9 5.4 (4.8) 47.2 7.3 (6.6)
2001 45.1 6.8 (6.1) 42.1 5.5 (4.8) 45.9 7.3 (6.6)
2006 45.2 6.6 (6.0) 41.8 5.4 (5.1) 46.6 7.2 (6.5)
2012-2013 38.8 6.1 (5.3) 36.7 5.0 (4.3) 39.2 6.5 (5.6)
2018 40.9 6.3 (5.5) 36.3 4.9 (4.2) 42.3 6.8 (6.0)
2023-24 42.0 6.0 38.8 5.0 42.9 6.4
Fertility data as of 2012-2013 (DHS Program):
Region Total fertility rate Percentage of women age 15-49 currently pregnant Mean number of children ever born to women age 40-49
----------- ---------------------- -------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------
Kayes 6.0 11.3 6.0
Koulikoro 6.0 14.3 5.8
Sikasso 6.6 11.5 6.2
Ségou 6.1 12.2 6.1
Mopti 6.5 11.7 5.9
Bamako 5.1 6.5 5.1
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# Demographics of Mali
## Immigration and emigration {#immigration_and_emigration}
Mali had an estimated net migration rate of --6.6 migrants per 1,000 people in 2006. About 3 million Malians are believed to reside in Côte d\'Ivoire and France. Conversely, according to a 2003 estimate, Mali hosts about 11,000 Mauritanians; most are Fulani herders who routinely engage in cross-border migration. In addition, there are several thousand refugees from Côte d\'Ivoire, Sierra Leone, and Liberia in Bamako and other urban areas of Mali.
## Ethnic groups {#ethnic_groups}
Ethnic groups include:
- 33.3% Bambara
- 13.3% Fula
- 9.8% Soninke
- 9.6% Senufo / Bwa / Malinke
- 8.7% Dogon
- 6.1% Bobo
- 5.9% Songhai
- 1.7% Tuareg
- 11.6% Others
Mali\'s population consists of Sub-Saharan ethnic groups, sharing similar historic, cultural, and religious traditions. Exceptions are two nomadic northern groups, the Tuaregs, a Berber people, and Maurs (or Moors), of Arabo-Berber origins. In Mali and Niger, the Moors are also known as Azawagh Arabs, named after the Azawagh region of the Sahara. Azawagh Arabs speak mainly Hassaniya Arabic which is one of the regional varieties of Arabic.
The Tuaregs traditionally have opposed the central government. Starting in June 1990 in the north, Tuaregs seeking greater autonomy led to clashes with the military. In April 1992, the government and most opposing factions signed a pact to end the fighting and restore stability in the north. Its major aims are to allow greater autonomy to the north and increase government resource allocation to what has been a traditionally impoverished region. The peace agreement was celebrated in 1996 in Timbuktu during an official and highly publicized ceremony called \"Flamme de la Paix\" (peace flame).
Historically, interethnic relations throughout the rest of the country were facilitated by easy mobility on the Niger River and across the country\'s vast savannahs. Each ethnic group was traditionally tied to a specific occupation, all working within proximity to each other, although the distinctions were often blurred.
The Bambara, Malinké, Sarakole, Dogon and Songhay are farmers; the Fula or Fulani, Maur, and Tuareg are herders, while the Bozo and Somono are fishers. In recent years this linkage has shifted considerably, as ethnic groups seek nontraditional sources of income.
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# Demographics of Mali
## Ethnic groups {#ethnic_groups}
### Europeans in Mali {#europeans_in_mali}
People of European origin form a small minority in the country. They include those of mixed European and African descendant, as well as those of full European background. The latter includes the French, as well as the Spanish, Irish, Italian and Portuguese origins. Some of them descend from the Arma people (1% of the nation\'s population). They mainly live in Bamako, Sikasso, Kalabancoro, Koutiala, Ségou, Kayes, Kati, Mopti, Niono, Gao, San, Koro, Bla, Bougouni, Mandé, Baguineda-Camp, Kolondiéba, Kolokani, and others.
## Languages
Although each ethnic group speaks a separate language, nearly 80% of Malians communicate over ethnic borders in Bambara, which is the common language of the marketplace. French was formerly the country\'s official language and is spoken somewhat by 30% of Malians.
## Religion
An estimated 95% of Malians are Sunni Muslim, 4% adhere to indigenous or traditional animist beliefs, and 1% are Christian (about two-thirds Roman Catholic and one-third Protestant). Atheism and agnosticism are believed to be rare among Malians, most of whom practice their religion on a daily basis. Islam as practiced in Mali can be moderate, tolerant, and adapted to local conditions; relations between Muslims and practitioners of minority religious faiths are generally amicable. The constitution establishes a secular state and provides for freedom of religion.
## Health
Mali\'s health and development indicators rank among the worst in the world. In 2000 only 62--65 percent of the population was estimated to have access to safe drinking water and only 69 percent to sanitation services of some kind; only 8 percent was estimated to have access to modern sanitation facilities. Only 20 percent of the nation's villages and livestock watering holes had modern water facilities.
There were an estimated 140,000 cases of human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) reported in 2003, and an estimated 1.9 percent of the adult population was afflicted with HIV/AIDS that year, among the lowest rates in Sub-Saharan Africa (see also HIV/AIDS in Africa). In the same year, there were 12,000 AIDS deaths. The infant mortality rate is 69.5 deaths/1,000 live births (75.3/1,000 among males and 63.5/1,000 among females) (2017 est.). Life expectancy at birth is 60.3 years (58.2 years among males and 62.5 years among females) (2017 est.).
### Life expectancy {#life_expectancy}
+------------+---------------------+
| Period | Life expectancy in\ |
| | Years |
+============+=====================+
| 1950--1955 | 26.96 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1955--1960 | 27.98 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1960--1965 | 28.61 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1965--1970 | 30.79 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1970--1975 | 34.20 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1975--1980 | 37.71 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1980--1985 | 41.55 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1985--1990 | 44.51 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1990--1995 | 46.57 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1995--2000 | 46.75 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 2000--2005 | 49.96 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 2005--2010 | 54.03 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 2010--2015 | 56
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# Politics of Mali
Until the military coup of March 22, 2012 and a second military coup in December 2012 the **politics of Mali** took place in a framework of a semi-presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Mali is head of state with a Presidentially appointed Prime Minister as the head of government, and of a multi-party system.
Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.
In August 2018, President Ibrahim Boubacar Keita was re-elected for a new five-year term after winning the second round of the election against Soumaïla Cissé.
On 18 August 2020 a coup d\'état ousted the president and prime minister. On 25 September 2020, retired colonel and former defence minister Bah Ndaw was sworn in as Mali\'s interim president.
On 15 April 2021, the transitional administration announced that legislative and presidential elections will be held on 27 February 2022. On 7 June 2021, Mali\'s military commander Assimi Goita was sworn into office as the new interim president. On 30 December 2021, the transitional administration announced plans to delay the election by six months to five years in part because of security issues, leading to political opposition and sanctions.
On 14 May 2025, the National Committee for the Salvation of the People, the ruling military junta over Mali, ordered the dissolution of all political parties and organizations.
## Executive branch {#executive_branch}
\|Interim President \|Assimi Goïta \|Military \|25 May 2021 \|- \|Prime Minister \|Abdoulaye Maïga \|Military \|21 November 2024 \|}
The executive branch consists of the President of Mali and the Government of Mali, led by the Prime Minister of Mali.
Under Mali\'s 1992 constitution, the president is chief of state and commander in chief of the armed forces. The president is elected to 5-year terms by direct popular vote. He is limited to two terms.
The Prime Minister of Mali is the head of government. They are appointed by the president and are responsible for the appointment of the other ministers of government.
The president chairs the Council of Ministers (the prime minister and currently`{{when|date=August 2023}}`{=mediawiki} 27 other ministers), which adopts a proposals for laws submitted to the National Assembly for approval of them.
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
The National Assembly is the sole legislative arm of the Malian government. It has 160 members, who are elected directly for a five-year term by party list. 147 members are elected in single-seat constituencies and 13 members elected by Malians abroad. Representation is apportioned according to the population of administrative districts.
The Assembly meets for two regular sessions each year. It debates and votes on legislation proposed either by one of its members or by the government; it also has the right to question government ministers about government actions and policies. Eight political parties, aggregated into four parliamentary groups, are represented in the Assembly. ADEMA currently`{{when|date=August 2023}}`{=mediawiki} holds the majority; minority parties are represented in all committees and in the Assembly directorate.
## Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
Mali\'s constitution provides for a multi-party democracy, with the only restriction being a prohibition against parties based on ethnic, religious, regional, or gender lines. In addition to those political parties represented in the National Assembly, others are active in municipal councils.
### Presidential elections {#presidential_elections}
{{#section-h:2018 Malian presidential election\|Results}}
### Parliamentary elections {#parliamentary_elections}
{{#section-h:2013 Malian parliamentary election\|Results}}
## Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
Mali\'s legal system is based on codes inherited at independence from France. New laws have been enacted to make the system conform to Malian life, but French colonial laws not abrogated still have the force of law. The constitution provides for the independence of the judiciary.
The Ministry of Justice appoints judges and supervises both law enforcement and judicial functions. The Supreme Court has both judicial and administrative powers. Under the constitution, there is a separate constitutional court and a high court of justice with the power to try senior government officials in cases of treason.
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# Politics of Mali
## Administrative divisions {#administrative_divisions}
Administratively, Mali is divided into ten regions (Gao, Ménaka, Kayes, Kidal, Koulikoro, Mopti, Ségou, Sikasso, Tombouctou, Taoudénit) and the capital district of Bamako, each under the authority of an elected governor. Each region consists of five to nine districts (or Cercles), administered by Prefects. Cercles are divided into communes, which, in turn, are divided into villages or quarters.
A decentralisation and democratisation process began in the 1990s with the establishment of 702 elected municipal councils, headed by elected mayors, and previously appointed officials have been replaced with elected officials, which culminates in a National council of local officials. Other changes included greater local control over finances, and the reduction of administrative control by the central government
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# Telecommunications in Mali
Mali, a large, landlocked, multicultural country in West Africa, consistently ranks low in the Human Development Index. The infrastructure of **communications in Mali**, while underdeveloped, is crucial to the nation.
## History
Prior to the 19th century, the area which became Mali was crisscrossed by trade and communication links, the most important being the Niger River, and important southern terminals of the Trans-Saharan trade routes. Only the most basic infrastructure (notably the Dakar-Niger Railway) was constructed during the period of French colonialism. During the first two decades of independence, Mali received major technical and financial support from the former Soviet Union, China, and their allies, especially in the area of radio and television broadcasting.
Since the 1980s, the government has instituted major infrastructural drives, primarily funded by European government partners, to improve and expand communications. Cellular phone usage, due to the vast and sparsely populated distances in the north and west, has grown tremendously since the 1990s.
Internet connectivity, very low by developed world standards, has been the focus of decentralised commune based development projects since the year 2000, while the government participates in the UN\'s Global Alliance for ICT and Development and the Connect Africa projects to further provide computer and internet availability in the country.
## Telephone service {#telephone_service}
There are some 112,000 (2012) fixed line telephone lines in Mali, far outstripped by 14.613 million (2012) mobile cellular phone lines.
There are two major mobile telephone operators, Ikatel (a subsidiary of Sonatel, of Senegal) and Malitel (a subsidiary of SOTELMA, the state owned telecommunications company).
In June 2003, legislation passed a bill allowing other private telecommunications operators to enter the market.
**Telephone system:** the domestic system is unreliable but improving and provides only minimal service\
*domestic:* network consists of microwave radio relay, open wire, and radiotelephone communications stations; expansion of microwave radio relay in progress\
*international:* satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean)
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
**Radio broadcast stations:** Government funded: AM 1, shortwave 1.
Mali has since 1994 allowed for private (as in non-state) radios to begin operating. Foreign funding, and some commercial funding (mostly in the capital) have helped to establish 160 FM stations in Mali, though many of those are small community \"suitcase radio stations\". Private radio are required to be members of URTEL, the radio union.
The state-operated radio is ORTM (office de Radiodiffusion au Television de Mali), which operates 2 FM stations and 1 television station, with repeaters throughout the country.
\
*note:* The shortwave station in Bamako has seven frequencies and five transmitters and relays broadcasts for China Radio International (2001)
**Radios:** 570,000 (1997)
**Television broadcast stations:** 1 (plus repeaters) (2001)
**Televisions:** 45,000 (1997)
## Internet
`{{See also |Human rights in Mali#Internet Freedom |l1=Internet freedom in Mali}}`{=mediawiki}
**Top-level domain:** .ml
**Internet users:** 414,985 users or 2.9% of the population (2011). Internet usage is low by international standards, ranked 123 of 125 by the UN in 2002.
**Internet Service Providers (ISPs):** 13 (2001). There are an estimated 25 private internet service providers. Recently an association has been formed called AFIM (Association de Fournisseurs de l\'Internet au Mali), which is intended to represent these providers.
SOTELMA the state telecom, provides X.25 and dial-up telephone services. Many operators offer dial-up internet service, and wireless internet services. Most ISPs are small Bamako based providers with a VSAT connection, a cyber cafe and use wireless systems (Alviron, 802.11a,b, g, Motorola) to share their service with their clients. Bamako has at least 21 wireless providers, ranging from small VSAT operators, to sophisticated, multi-access point, full services providers
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# Politics of Malta
The **politics of Malta** takes place within a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the president of Malta is the constitutional head of state. Executive authority is vested in the president of Malta, with the general direction and control of the Government of Malta remaining with the prime minister of Malta, who is the head of government and the cabinet. Legislative power is vested in the Parliament of Malta, which consists of the president of Malta and the unicameral House of Representatives of Malta with the speaker as the presiding officer of the legislative body. Judicial power remains with the chief justice and the judiciary of Malta. Since independence, the party electoral system has been dominated by the Christian democratic Nationalist Party (*Partit Nazzjonalista*) and the social democratic Labour Party (*Partit Laburista*).
## Political developments since independence {#political_developments_since_independence}
Since independence on 1964, two parties have dominated Malta\'s polarized and evenly divided politics during this period: the centre-right Nationalist Party and the centre-left Labour Party. From the pre-independence 1962 general election until 2017, third parties failed to score any electoral success. In the 2013 election, the Democratic Alternative (a green party established in 1989) managed to secure only 1.8% of the first preference votes nationwide.
The 1996 elections resulted in the election of the Labour Party, by 8,000 votes, to replace the Nationalists, who had won in 1987 and 1992. Voter turnout was characteristically high at 96%, with the Labour Party receiving 50.72%, the Nationalist Party 47.8%, the Democratic Alternative 1.46%, and independent candidates 0.02%.
In 1998, the Labour Party\'s loss in a parliamentary vote led the prime minister to call an early election. The Nationalist Party was returned to office in September 1998 by a majority of 13,000 votes, holding a five-seat majority in Parliament. Voter turnout was 95%, with the Nationalist Party receiving 51.81%, the Labour Party 46.97%, the Democratic Alternative 1.21%, and independent candidates 0.01%.
By the end of 2002 the Nationalist government wrapped up negotiations for European Union membership. A referendum on the issue was called in March 2003, for which the Nationalists and the Democratic Alternative campaigned for a \"yes\" vote while Labour campaigned heavily for \"no\" vote, invalidate their vote or abstain. Turnout was 91%, with more than 53% voting \"yes\".
The Labour Party argued that the \"yes\" votes amounted to less than 50% of the overall votes, hence, and citing the 1956 Maltese United Kingdom integration referendum as an example, they claimed that the \"yes\" had not in fact won the referendum. The then MLP Leader Alfred Sant said that the general election which was to be held within a month would settle the affair. In the general elections the Nationalists were returned to office with 51.79% of the vote to Labour\'s 47.51%. The Democratic Alternative polled 0.68%. The Nationalists were thus able to form a government and sign and ratify the EU Accession Treaty on 16 April 2003.
On 1 May 2004 Malta joined the EU and on 1 January 2008, the Eurozone with the euro as the national currency. The first elections after membership were held in March 2008 resulting in a narrow victory for the Nationalist Party with 49.34% of first preference votes. In May 2011, a nationwide referendum was held on the introduction of divorce. This was the first time in the history of parliament that Parliament approved a motion originating outside from the Cabinet.
In March 2013, the Labour Party returned to government after fifteen years in opposition with a record-breaking lead of 36,000 votes leading to the resignation of the Nationalist leader Lawrence Gonzi, and Joseph Muscat became prime minister. In June 2017, the Labour Party called in a snap election on its May Day celebrations and increased its vote disparity to around 40,000 votes. The then leader of the opposition, Simon Busuttil, announced his resignation shortly thereafter. This election saw the first third party elected to Malta\'s Parliament since independence, with the election of Marlene Farrugia in the 10th District representing the Democratic Party. Joseph Muscat continued to be prime minister In January 2020, he stepped down after the 2019 Malta political crisis surrounding the car bombing of investigative journalist Daphne Caruana Galizia. Robert Abela - the son of Malta\'s former president George Abela - elected a new leader of Labour Party and new prime minister of Malta in January 2020.
Democratic Alternative and the Democratic Party merged into a new party, AD+PD, on 17 October 2020.
In March 2022, the ruling Labour party, led by Prime Minister Robert Abela, won its third successive election. It gained even bigger victory than in 2013 and in 2017.
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# Politics of Malta
## Executive branch {#executive_branch}
Under its 1964 constitution, Malta became a parliamentary democracy within the Commonwealth. Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom was sovereign of Malta, and a governor-general exercised executive authority on her behalf, while the actual direction and control of the government and the nation\'s affairs were in the hands of the cabinet under the leadership of a Maltese prime minister.
On December 13, 1974, the constitution was revised, and Malta became a republic within the Commonwealth, with executive authority vested in the president of Malta, which can be exercised directly or through officers subordinate to him. The president is elected by the House of Representatives for a five-year term. They appoint as prime minister the leader of the party with a majority of seats in the unicameral House of Representatives, known in Maltese as *Kamra tar-Rappreżentanti*. The president also nominally appoints, upon recommendation of the prime minister, the individual ministers. Ministers are selected from among the members of the House of Representatives, which usually consists of 65 members unless bonus seats are given to a party which gains an absolute majority of votes but not a parliamentary majority. Elections must be held at least every five years and the electoral system used is single transferable vote.
### Administrative divisions {#administrative_divisions}
Malta is divided into 68 elected local councils, with each council responsible for the administration of cities or regions of varying sizes. Administrative responsibility is distributed between the local councils and the central government in Valletta. The Local Councils Act, 1993 (Act XV of 1993), was published on June 30, 1993, subdividing Malta into 54 local councils in Malta and 14 in Gozo. The inhabitants who are registered elect the Council every three years, as voters in the Local Councils\' Electoral Register. Elections are held by means of the system of proportional representation using the single transferable vote. The mayor is the head of the Local Council and the representative of the Council for all effects under the Act. The executive secretary, who is appointed by the Council, is the executive, administrative, and financial head of the Council. All decisions are taken collectively with the other members of the Council. Local councils are responsible for the general upkeep and embellishment of the locality, local wardens, and refuse collection, and carry out general administrative duties for the central government such as collection of government rents and funds, and answering government-related public inquiries.
There are also Administrative Committees elected with responsibility for smaller regions.
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# Politics of Malta
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
Elections to the House of Representatives (*Kamra tad-Deputati*) are based on the single transferable vote system, a variant of the proportional representation electoral system. First, vacancies are filled through casual election and subsequent vacancies through co-option, meaning that no by-elections are held between one general election and the other. The parliamentary term cannot exceed five years.
Ordinarily, 65 members are elected to the House from 13 multi-seat constituencies each returning 5 MPs. Additional MPs are elected in two circumstances:
- When a party achieves 50%+1 of first-preference valid votes in the election but does not secure a parliamentary majority it is awarded enough seats (filled by the best runner-up candidates) to make a parliamentary majority
- When in an election contested by more than two parties only two parties are elected to Parliament and the relative parliamentary strength is not proportionate to the first preference votes obtained, additional seats are allocated to establish proportionality
A third electoral amendment has been enacted which guarantees strict-proportionality with respect to votes and seats to parliamentary political groups.
## Political party standings as of the most recent election {#political_party_standings_as_of_the_most_recent_election}
{{#section-h:2022 Maltese general election\|Results}}
## Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
The judicial system in Malta comprises inferior courts, civil and criminal courts of appeal, and a Constitutional Court. Inferior courts are presided over by magistrates which have original jurisdiction in criminal and civil actions. In the criminal courts, the presiding judge sits with a jury of nine. The Court of Appeal and the Court of Criminal Appeal hear appeals from decisions of the civil and criminal actions respectively.
The highest court, the Constitutional Court, has both original and appellate jurisdiction. In its appellate jurisdiction it adjudicates cases involving violations of human rights and interpretation of the Constitution. It can also perform judicial review. In its original jurisdiction it has jurisdiction over disputed parliamentary elections and electoral corrupt practices.
There is a legal aid scheme offered to citizens lacking the means to afford legal defence.
According to the Constitution, the president appoints the chief justice of Malta acting in accordance with a resolution of the House supported by the votes of not less than two-thirds of all the members of the House of Representatives. The judges of the Superior Court and the magistrates of the inferior courts are appointed through the Judicial Appointments Committee of Malta.
Guarantees for the independence of the judiciary include the security of tenure for judges until their retiring age set at 65 (with a choice to extend retirement till 68), or until impeachment. The impeachment procedure for judges foresees a removal decision of the president upon request by the Commission for the Administration for Justice.
The independence of the judiciary is also guaranteed by the constitutional requirement that the judges' salaries are paid from the Consolidated Fund and thus the government may not diminish or amend them to their prejudice.
The Maltese system is considered in line with the principles of separation of powers and of independence of the judiciary. However, in its pre-accession evaluation reports, the European Commission has suggested in 2003 the need to reform the procedure for appointment of the members of the judiciary, currently \"controlled by political bodies\" (i.e. the Parliament and parties therein), in order to improve its objectivity. The Commission has also pointed to the need to check the compliance of the procedure for challenging judges and magistrates provided for by Article 738 of the Code of Organisation and Civil Procedure with the principle of an impartial tribunal enshrined in the European Convention on Human Rights.
## International organization participation {#international_organization_participation}
Malta is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, CE, EBRD, ECE, EU (member from 1 May 2004), FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICFTU, ICRM, IFAD, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
Malta was a long-time member of the Non-Aligned Movement. It ceased to be part of the movement when it joined the European Union
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# Telecommunications in Malta
This article is an overview of **telecommunications in Malta**.
## Telephone
**Telephones - main lines in use:** 259,000 (2022)
**Telephones - mobile cellular:** 702,000 (2022)
**Telephone system:** automatic system satisfies normal requirements\
*domestic:* submarine cables and microwave radio relay between islands\
*international:* 2 submarine cables; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
## Radio
**Radio broadcast stations:** AM 1, FM 18, shortwave 6 (1999)
**Radios:** 255,000 (1997)
**Amateur radio operators:**\
Approx. 500
**Amateur radio repeaters:**\
1 HF ALE EchoLink Gateway (9H1BBS-L) DTMF Access 145300 CTCSS 77 Hz (Owned by G0DEO/9H1IA)\
1 VHF/UHF 9H1IA-L Frequency Agile CrossBand Link CTCSS 151.4 Hz (Owned by G0DEO/9H1IA)\
1 VHF (9H1BBS 145.750 MHz CTCSS 77 Hz (Owned by G0DEO/9H1IA)\
1 UHF (9H1BBS 433.175 MHz CTCSS 77 Hz (Owned by G0DEO/9H1IA)\
2 Microwave Amateur Television ( ATV ) Repeaters ( 9H1ATV built by 9H1LO and run by MARL and 9H1LO/r built and run by 9H1LO )
**Amateur radio beacons:**\
1 HF 6 Meater Beacon 9H1SIX 50.023 MHz JM75fv (Run by MARL Club)\
1 HF 10 Meter Band CW Beacon 9H1LO/B on 28.223 MHz\
1 HF 30 Meter Band QRSS Beacon 9H1LO/B on 10.140.90 MHz\
1 HF 17 Meter Band PSK31 Beacon 9H1LO/B on 18.110.15 MHz\
1 VHF 2 Meter Band Beacon 9H1LO/B on 144.500 MHz (currently summer months only)
## Television
**Television broadcast stations:** 6 (2000)
**Televisions:** 280,000 (1997)
## Internet
**Internet Service Providers (ISPs):** 17 (2005)
**Broadband Wireless Internet Service Provider Licenses:** 3 (2005)
**Internet users:** 461,100 (2021)
**Country code (Top level domain):**
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# Geography of the Marshall Islands
The Marshall Islands consist of two archipelagic island chains of 30 atolls and 1,152 islands, which form two parallel groups---the \"Ratak\" (sunrise) chain and the \"Ralik\" (sunset) chain. The Marshalls are located in the North Pacific Ocean and share maritime boundaries with Micronesia and Kiribati. Two-thirds of the nation\'s population lives in the capital of Majuro and the settlement of Ebeye. The outer islands are sparsely populated due to lack of employment opportunities and economic development.
## Statistics
The country is located about one-half of the way from Hawaii to Papua New Guinea. The archipelago includes the atolls of Bikini, Enewetak, Kwajalein, Majuro, Rongelap, and Utirik.
The total area of the islands is equal to the size of the City of Washington, DC. The largest atoll with a land area of 6 sqmi is Kwajalein. The terrain consists of low coral limestone and sand islands. Natural resources include coconut products, marine products, and deep seabed minerals. Current environmental issues are inadequate supplies of potable water; pollution of Majuro lagoon from household waste and discharges from fishing vessels.
**Maritime claims:**\
*territorial sea:* 12 nautical miles\
*contiguous zone:* 24 nm\
*exclusive economic zone:* 200 nm
**Elevation extremes:**\
*lowest point:* Pacific Ocean 0 meters\
*highest point:* unnamed location on Likiep Atoll 10 meters above sea level
**Land use:**\
*arable land:* 11.11%\
*permanent crops:* 44.44%\
*other:* 44.44% (2011)
**Environment - international agreements:**\
*party to:* Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling
Bikini and Enewetak are former US nuclear test sites; Kwajalein, the famous World War II battleground, is now used as a US missile test range; the island city of Ebeye is the second largest settlement in the Marshall Islands, after the capital of Majuro, and one of the most densely populated locations in the Pacific.
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# Geography of the Marshall Islands
## Climate
Tropical; hot and humid with a Koeppen-Geiger classification of *Af*. The wet season lasts from May to November and the islands border the typhoon belt. Typhoons do pose an infrequent threat from July to mid November.
Due to their low elevation, the Marshall Islands are threatened by the potential effects of sea level rise. According to the President of Nauru, the Marshall Islands are the most endangered nation on Earth due to flooding from climate change.
A study by the University of Plymouth found that the tides move sediment to create higher elevation, which may keep the islands habitable.
### Climate change {#climate_change}
Climate change is a serious threat to the Marshall Islands, with typhoons becoming stronger and sea levels rising. The sea around Pacific islands has risen 7mm a year since 1993, which is more than twice the rate of the worldwide average. In Kwajalein, there is a high risk of permanent flooding; when sea level rise to 1 meter, 37% of buildings will be permanently flooded in that scenario. In Ebeye, the risk of sea level rise is even higher, with 50% of buildings being permanently flooded in the same scenario. With 1 meter sea level rise parts of the Majuro atoll will be permanently flooded and other parts are having a high risk of flooding especially the eastern part of the atoll would be significantly at risk. With 2 meter sea level rise all the buildings of Majuro will be permanently flooded or would be at a high risk to be flooded.
The per capita `{{CO2}}`{=mediawiki} emissions were 2.56t in 2020. The government of Marshall Islands pledged to be net zero in 2050, with a decrease of 32% decrease of GHGs in 2025, 45% decrease in 2030 and a 58% decrease in 2035 all compared to 2010 levels.
## Extreme points {#extreme_points}
This is a list of the extreme points of the Marshall Islands, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.
- Northernmost point -- Bokak Atoll (Taongi), Ratak Chain\*
- Easternmost point -- Knox Atoll, Ratak Chain
- Southernmost point -- Ebon Atoll, Ralik Chain
- Westernmost point - Ujelang Atoll, Ralik Chain
- *Note: the government of the Marshall Islands claims Wake Island, currently under US administration
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# Demographics of the Marshall Islands
The **demographics of the Marshall Islands** include data such as population density, ethnicity, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
Historical population figures for the Marshall Islands are unknown. In 1862, the population of the islands was estimated at 10,000. In 1960, the population of the Islands was approximately 15,000. The 2021 census counted 42,418 residents, 23,156 of whom (approximately 54.6%) lived on Majuro. 77.7% of the population lived in an urban setting on Majuro or Ebeye, the country\'s secondary urban center. The Marshallese census figures exclude Marshall Islanders who have relocated elsewhere; the Compact of Free Association allows them to freely relocate to the United States and obtain work there. Approximately 4,300 Marshall Islands natives relocated to Springdale, Arkansas in the United States; this figure represents the largest population concentration of Marshall Islands natives outside their island home.
Most residents of the Marshall Islands are Marshallese. Marshallese people are of Micronesian origin and are believed to have migrated from Asia to the Marshall Islands several thousand years ago. A minority of the Marshallese have Asian and European ancestry such as Japanese and German. A majority have Polynesian and Melanesian ancestry. About one-half of the nation\'s population lives in Majuro and Ebeye Atolls.
The official languages of the Marshall Islands are English and Marshallese. Both languages are widely spoken.
## Population
`{{Historical populations
|type =
| cols=2
|percentages=pagr
|footnote = Source:<ref name="2011census">{{cite web |url=https://sdd.spc.int/digital_library/republic-marshall-islands-2011-census-report |title=Republic of the Marshall Islands 2011 Census Report |date=2012 |publisher=[[Pacific Community]] (SPC): Statistics for Development Division |access-date=September 29, 2023 |archive-date=October 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231006211632/https://sdd.spc.int/digital_library/republic-marshall-islands-2011-census-report |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="2021census">{{cite web |url=https://sdd.spc.int/news/2023/05/30/marshall-islands-2021-census-report-basic-tables |title=Republic of the Marshall Islands 2021 Census Report, Volume 1: Basic Tables and Administrative Report |date=May 30, 2023 |publisher=[[Pacific Community]] (SPC): Statistics for Development Division |access-date=September 27, 2023 |archive-date=October 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231020115031/https://sdd.spc.int/news/2023/05/30/marshall-islands-2021-census-report-basic-tables |url-status=live }}</ref>
|1920 | 9800
|1925 | 9644
|1930 | 10412
|1935 | 10446
|1958 | 13928
|1967 | 18925
|1973 | 24135
|1980 | 30873
|1988 | 43380
|1999 | 50840
|2011 | 53158
|2021 | 42418
}}`{=mediawiki}
- 77,917 (July 2020 est.)
Source:
### Structure of the population {#structure_of_the_population}
Population by Sex and Age Group (Census 03.IV.2011):
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- -------- -------- -------- ---------
Total 27 243 25 915 53 158 100
0--4 4 031 3 712 7 743 14.57
5--9 3 622 3 395 7 017 13.20
10--14 3 385 3 108 6 493 12.21
15--19 2 417 2 314 4 731 8.90
20--24 2 614 2 480 5 094 9.58
25--29 2 159 2 245 4 404 8.28
30--34 1 876 1 913 3 789 7.13
35--39 1 587 1 549 3 136 5.90
40--44 1 419 1 366 2 785 5.24
45--49 1 189 1 155 2 344 4.41
50--54 1 016 914 1 930 3.63
55--59 815 761 1 576 2.96
60--64 583 469 1 052 1.98
65-69 284 283 522 0.98
70-74 131 119 250 0.47
75-79 62 90 152 0.29
80-84 31 61 92 0.17
85-89 21 15 36 0.07
90-94 1 11 12 0.02
95+ 0 0 0 0
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 11 038 10 215 21 253 39.98
15--64 15 675 15 121 30 796 57.93
65+ 530 579 1 109 2.09
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
### Registrered births and deaths {#registrered_births_and_deaths}
Year Population Live births Deaths Natural increase Crude birth rate Crude death rate Rate of natural increase TFR
------ ------------ ------------- -------- ------------------ ------------------ ------------------ -------------------------- ------
1988 43,380 7.2
1999 50,840 2,125 41.8 4.9 36.9 5.71
2011 53,158 1,641 32.1 3.7 28.4 4.05
2021 42,418 704 3.4
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# Demographics of the Marshall Islands
## Ethnic groups {#ethnic_groups}
- Marshallese: 92.1%
- Mixed Marshallese: 5.9%
- Other: 2% (2006)
## Languages
- Marshallese (official): 98.2%
- other languages 1.8%
## Religion
Major religious groups in the Republic of the Marshall Islands include the United Church of Christ -- Congregational in the Marshall Islands, with 51.5% of the population; the Assemblies of God, 24.2%; the Roman Catholic Church, 8.4%; and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), 8.3%. Also represented are Bukot Nan Jesus (also known as Assembly of God Part Two), 2.2%; Baptist, 1.0%; Seventh-day Adventists, 0.9%; Full Gospel, 0.7%; and the Baháʼí Faith, 0.6%. Persons without any religious affiliation account for a very small percentage of the population. Islam is also present through Ahmadiyya Muslim Community which is based in Majuro, with the first mosque opening in the capital in September 2012
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# Communications in the Marshall Islands
The Marshall Islands is an island country in Oceania.
In 2010, the Majuro and Kwajalein Atoll were connected to the HANTRU-1 undersea communications cable to provide high-speed bandwidth. Faster internet service was rolled out to Majuro and Ebeye on April 1, 2010. The majority of communication is under the responsibility of *Marshall Islands National Telecommunications Authority*.
## Publications
Newspapers:
- The Marshall Islands Journal: tabloid
- The Marshall Islands Journal is a dual language, once a week publication. It is the newspaper of record for the Marshall Islands.
## Telephone
Telephones:
- main lines in use: 3,000 (1994)
- mobile cellular: 280 (1994)
Telex services:
- *domestic:* Majuro Atoll and Ebeye and Kwajalein islands have regular, seven-digit, direct-dial telephones; other islands interconnected by shortwave radio, telephone (used mostly for government purposes)
- *international:* satellite earth stations -- 2 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean); US Government satellite communications system on Kwajalein
## Radio
Radio broadcast stations: AM 3, FM 4, shortwave 0 (1998)
Stations included are:
- V7AB 1098 (State-run, by Marshalls Broadcasting Company, national coverage)
- V7AFN 1224 Kwajalein (military, NPR)
- V7EG 1170 Micronesia Heatwave (commercial) (formerly V7RR AM 1557)
- V7?? 90.7
- V7EMON 95.5
- V7AB 97.9
- V7EAGLE 99.9 Kwajalein (military, Country)
- V7DJ 101.1 Kwajalein (military, Active Rock)
- AFN 102.1 Kwajalein (military, Hot AC)
- V7AA 104.1 - Religious
- V7WU 105.0
## Television
**Broadcast stations:**
- MBC-TV
- CPN (AFN) -- Central Pacific Network (Channel 1)
- CPN (AFN) -- Central Pacific Network (Channel 2)
Several Honolulu local stations are available on cable (converted from ATSC to DVB-T): KHET (PBS), KHON-TV (Fox), KITV-TV (ABC), KHNL-TV (NBC) and KGMB-TV (CBS).
**Televisions:** NA
## Internet
Internet Service Providers: 1
Top level domain: The TLD of the Marshall Islands is .mh. However, it\'s registrar has been essentially defunct, with their website not resolving
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# Transportation in the Marshall Islands
**Railways:** 0 km **Highways:**\
*total:* NA km\
*paved:* 64.5 km\
*unpaved:* NA km\
*note:* paved roads on major islands (Majuro, Kwajalein), otherwise stone-, coral-, or laterite-surfaced roads and tracks (2002)
**Ports and harbors:** Majuro
**Merchant marine:**\
*total:* 342 ships (1,000 GT or over) totaling 14,471,690 GT/`{{DWT|23,802,896|metric|disp=long}}`{=mediawiki}\
*ships by type:* bulk 86, cargo 18, chemical tanker 31, combination bulk 4, combination ore/oil 7, container 69, liquified gas 8, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger 6, petroleum tanker 106, roll on/roll off 1, short-sea passenger 1, vehicle carrier 1 (2002 est.)\
*note:* a flag of convenience registry; includes the ships of People\'s Republic of China 1, Cyprus 1, Denmark 9, Germany 70, Greece 54, Hong Kong 2, Japan 4, Monaco 8, Netherlands 8, United Kingdom 3, United States 87, and Uruguay 1 (2002 est.)
**Airports:** 35 (2009), see list of airports in the Marshall Islands
**Airports - with paved runways:**\
*total:* 5\
*1,524 to 2,437 m:* 4 (Eniwetok, IATA airport code ENT; Kwajalein, KWA; and Marshall Islands International, MAJ; Rongelap, RNP)
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# Mass deacidification
**Mass deacidification** is a term used in library and information science as one possible measure against the degradation of paper in old books, the so-called \"slow fires\". The goal of the process is to increase the pH of acidic paper. Although acid-free paper has become more common, a large body of acidic paper still exists in books made after the 1850s; this is because of its cheaper and simpler production methods. Acidic paper, especially when exposed to light, air pollution, or high relative humidity, yellows and becomes brittle over time. During mass deacidification an alkaline agent is deposited in the paper to neutralize existing acid and prevent further decay. Mass deacidification is intended for objects on acidic paper that will be lost if no action is performed.
## History of research and process development {#history_of_research_and_process_development}
Mass deacidification---along with microfilm and lamination---was developed during the early and mid-20th century as a response to the chemical process of hydrolysis by which the fibers that constitute paper, providing its structure and strength, have their bonds broken, resulting in paper that becomes increasingly brittle over time. Environmental pollutants can react with paper to form acids that promote oxidation, creating more acid as a by-product, which results in a positive feedback loop of autocatalytic destruction. Supported in part by grants from the Council on Library Resources, William J. Barrow conducted research into paper decay and found that no more than three percent of books published between 1900 and 1949 would survive more than fifty years. In response to this, a Standing Committee on the Preservation of Research Library Materials was formed by the Association of Research Libraries (ARL) in 1960.
Barrow also invented an aqueous process to neutralize acid in paper while depositing an alkaline buffer that would slow the rate of decay. In addition to Barrow\'s original method, both non-aqueous---employing organic solvents---and vaporous---the Library of Congress\' DEZ (diethyl zinc) treatment---methods of achieving the same results have been researched in an attempt to reduce time, labor, and cost requirements.
One technique proposed is to place books in an evacuated chamber, then introduce diethylzinc (DEZ). In theory, the diethylzinc would react with acidic residues in the paper, leaving an alkaline residue that would protect the paper against further degradation. In practice, the heating required to remove trace water from the books before reaction (DEZ reacts violently with water) caused an accelerated degradation of the paper, a series of chemical reactions between DEZ and other components of the book (glues, bindings), caused further damage, and produced unpleasant aromas. In the 1980s, a pilot plant for mass deacidification, using this process, was constructed by NASA and was tested on books provided by the Library of Congress. In 1986 it was discovered that the DEZ had not been removed in one of the deacidification runs and pooled in the bottom of the chamber, possibly remaining within the plumbing. DEZ is violently flammable when it comes in contact with either oxygen or water vapor, so the vacuum chamber could not be opened to remove the books within. Eventually, explosives were used to rupture the suspect plumbing; suspicions of the presence of residual DEZ were confirmed by the subsequent fire that destroyed the plant. In his book *Double Fold*, Nicholson Baker discusses the failure of the NASA program at great length.
The chemical company AkzoNobel made later attempts at refining the process. The risks of fire and explosions were reduced by a better process design, however, damage and odors remained a problem. In the end, AkzoNobel determined the process was not a viable commercial proposition and shut down their research at the end of 1994.
## Goals
These are the results that the Library of Congress expected of an ideal mass deacidification treatment in 1994:
- neutralize acidic paper and add an alkaline reserve.
- produce a pH value between 6.8 and 10.4 that is evenly distributed throughout the book.
- should not cause any damage to adhesives, inks, or dyes.
- should not cause an odor or any change in the color of the paper.
- should not cause loss of pliancy or mechanical strength.
Faculty members of the Slovak University of Technology added these further requirements:
- the chemicals used have to be safe.
- the process has to be able to be applied to any kind of paper.
- the process can not cause swelling or warping of the paper.
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# Mass deacidification
## Effects
All of the processes imparted an adequately high pH in studies conducted by the European Commission on Preservation and Access, the Library of Congress, and a team of scientists from the Centre de Recherches sur la Conservation des Documents Graphiques in the early and mid-nineties. BookKeeper produced a pH of 9--10. CSC Book Saver yielded a pH of 8.78--10.5. Wei T\'o gives 7.5 to 10.4, and Papersave gives a pH of 7.5--9.
The same studies also found that the processes had adverse cosmetic side effects. BookKeeper left \"a palpable residue\", clamp marks on the covers, and caused some of the colored inks to rub off. CSC Book Saver left a \"white powdery deposit\" on books. Papersave caused \"discoloration, white deposit, Newton\'s rings, bleeding of inks and dyes, odor and different \'feel\' of the paper.\" Wei T\'o caused \"odor, white residues, rings, cockling, (yellow) discolorations and adhesive bleeding.\"
Conservators from the British Library acknowledge that the existing mass deacidification processes are still being developed and further research needs to be conducted on their chemical and mechanical effects.
## Services
Several commercial deacidification techniques are on the market `{{As of|2008|lc=y}}`{=mediawiki}:
- The BookKeeper process is a non-aqueous, liquid phase process that uses magnesium oxide. BookKeeper is available through Preservation Technologies, L.P. with plants in the U.S., Spain, Japan, Poland, The Netherlands, South Africa, Qatar. Another plant is available through Fratielivi in Italy.
- The CSC Book Saver uses carbonated magnesium propylate for deacidification. The CSC Book Saver is available in Europe through Conservación de Sustratos Celulósicos S.L. (CSC) (Barcelona, Spain).
- The Papersave process was developed by Battelle Ingenieurtechnik GmbH and is, therefore, sometimes referred to as \"the Battelle Process\". The process uses magnesium titanium alkoxide. The Papersave process is available in Europe through Nitrochemie Wimmis (Wimmis, Switzerland) under the name of Papersave Swiss and the Zentrum für Bucherhaltung (Leipzig, Germany).
- The Wei T\'o process uses methoxy magnesium methyl carbonate, or isopropoxy magnesium isopropyl carbonate, and new products are coming out in 2008. Wei T\'o is less commonly used for mass deacidification treatment than for single item deacidification. Wei T\'o products are available through Wei T\'o Associates Inc. (Matteson, US).
BookKeeper, CSC Booksaver, Papersave, and Wei T\'o are also available as hand-held sprays.
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# Mass deacidification
## Adoption and costs {#adoption_and_costs}
While deacidification has been adopted by major research libraries such as the Library of Congress and the New York Public Library, it is not clear whether many archives, particularly those in the United States, have followed suit. Some European national archives have tested deacidification techniques. The United States\' National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), which pioneered an aqueous technique that improved upon Barrow\'s, chose to invest its preservation dollars elsewhere. In 2000, the Chief of the NARA Document Conservation Laboratory defended the lack of a mass deacidification program by pointing to differences between library and archival collections. For example, noting that many of the papers coming to NARA were of a higher quality than those in library collections; that the Archives does not receive records from federal government agencies until they are at least 30 years old, by which time acidic paper will have already been irrevocably weakened, and that limited resources might best be applied elsewhere, such as climate control. Under the Archives\' Twenty-Year Preservation Plan, emphasis was placed on achieving the \"maximum benefit for the greatest number of records.\"
Though now dated, several sources estimate the costs and suitability of deacidification treatment. Studies conducted by the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center and the General State Archive of the Netherlands found the DEZ method might be particularly applicable to archival materials. It was estimated that deacidification costs, excluding transportation and handling, during the early 1990s was \$5--10 per volume. During 1995--1997, the Library of Congress received \$2 million in appropriations to deacidify 72,000 books using the Bookkeeper commercial method and evaluate alternative methods. The actual cost per book was \$11.70. Finally, a 2003 cost comparison with reformatting options per volume yielded \$125 for microfilming, \$50 for scanning and minimal indexing and, based on a New York Public Library project, \$16.20 for deacidification. However, already in 2004 Google Books was able to scan for only \$10-\$20 per book.
As of 2022, there were five mass deacidification plants in the world
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# Bruces' Philosophers Song
\"**Bruces\' Philosophers Song**\", also known as \"**The Bruces\' Song**\", is a Monty Python song written and composed by Eric Idle that was a feature of the group\'s stage appearances and its recordings.
## Origins
The Bruces\' Philosophers Song is sung by The Bruces, stereotypical \"ocker\" Australians of the period. The Bruces are kitted out in khakis, slouch hats and a cork hat, and are faculty members of the Philosophy Department at the fictional University of Woolamaloo (Woolloomooloo is an inner suburb of Sydney, although there is no university there).
The Bruces themselves first appeared in the Bruces sketch which featured in episode 22, \"How to Recognise Different Parts of the Body\", of the TV show *Monty Python\'s Flying Circus*, first broadcast on 24 November 1970. The sketch shows an English academic (played by Terry Jones) coming to a hot and perhaps remote part of Australia and being inducted by the Bruces (John Cleese, Graham Chapman, Eric Idle and Michael Palin) into their Philosophy Department, seemingly located in a simple wooden shack. The Bruces are lounging around a wooden table and soon start drinking cans of Foster\'s Lager.
The song was not part of the TV sketch; it first appeared on the Monty Python\'s 1973 album *Matching Tie and Handkerchief* as a coda for the album version of the sketch. The song was subsequently included in most of the Monty Python team\'s live shows, sometimes as a singalong with musical accompaniment provided by a Jew\'s harp.
## Lyrics
The song\'s lyrics make a series of scandalous allegations about a number of highly respected philosophers, usually with regard to their capacity or incapacity for imbibing alcoholic drinks.
The sixth line differs from version to version. While the studio recording on *Matching Tie and Handkerchief* refers solely to \"Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel\", live recordings (included in the *Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl* film and on the albums *Live at Drury Lane* and *Live at City Center*) mention \"Schopenhauer and Hegel.\"
## The philosophers {#the_philosophers}
All the philosophers whom the song mentions were dead by the time it appeared, apart from Martin Heidegger.
Philosophers mentioned in the song (in order):
1. Immanuel Kant (a real pissant who was very rarely stable)
2. Martin Heidegger (a boozy beggar who could think you under the table)
3. David Hume (able to out-consume G. W. F. Hegel)
4. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (out-consumed by Hume)
5. Arthur Schopenhauer (in some versions also out-consumed by Hume)
6. Ludwig Wittgenstein (a beery swine who was just as \"sloshed\", i.e. drunk, as Schlegel)
7. Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel and/or August Wilhelm Schlegel (Wittgenstein is alleged be just as sloshed as either of them)
8. Friedrich Nietzsche (particularly knowledgeable about \"the raising of the wrist\")
9. Socrates (mentioned twice in each refrain: permanently \"pissed\", i.e. drunk)
10. John Stuart Mill (particularly ill after half a pint of shandy)
11. Plato (said to regularly consume half a crate of whiskey daily)
12. Aristotle (a bugger for the bottle)
13. Thomas Hobbes (fond of his dram)
14. René Descartes (a drunken fart; drinks, therefore he is)
15
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# The Funniest Joke in the World
\"**The Funniest Joke in the World**\" (also \"**Joke Warfare**\" and \"**Killer Joke**\") is a Monty Python comedy sketch revolving around a joke that is so funny that anyone who reads or hears it promptly dies from laughter. Ernest Scribbler (Michael Palin), a British \"manufacturer of jokes\", writes the joke on a piece of paper only to die laughing. His mother (Eric Idle) also immediately dies laughing after reading it, as do the first constables on the scene. Eventually the joke is contained, weaponized, and deployed against Germany during World War II.
The sketch appeared in the first episode of the television show *Monty Python\'s Flying Circus* (\"Whither Canada\"), first shown on 5 October 1969. It appeared in altered forms in several later Python works. The German translation of the joke in the sketch is made of various meaningless, German-sounding nonsense words, and so it does not have an English translation.
## Synopsis
The sketch is framed in a documentary style and opens with Ernest Scribbler (Michael Palin), a British \"manufacturer of jokes\", creating and writing the funniest joke in the world on a piece of paper, only to die laughing. His mother (Eric Idle) finds the joke, thinks it is a suicide note, reads it and also immediately dies laughing. Aware of the deadly nature of the joke, a brave Scotland Yard inspector (Graham Chapman) attempts to retrieve the joke, aided by the playing of very somber music on gramophone records and the chanting of laments by fellow policemen to create a depressing atmosphere. The inspector leaves the house with the joke in hand, but also dies from laughter.
The British Army are soon eager to determine \"the military potential of the Killer Joke\". They test the joke on a short-sighted rifleman (Terry Jones), who suppresses a laugh and falls dead on the range. After confirming its \"devastating effectiveness at a range of up to 50 yards\", they then translate it into German, with each translator working on only one word of the joke for their own safety (one translator saw two words of the joke and had to be hospitalised for several weeks). The German \"translation\" (in reality mostly just nonsense words) is used for the first time on 8 July 1944 in the Ardennes, causing German soldiers to fall down dead from laughter: `{{blockquote|Wenn ist das Nunstück git und Slotermeyer? Ja! Beiherhund das Oder die Flipperwaldt gersput!<ref name="words"/>{{rp|12}}}}`{=mediawiki}
The German version is described as being \"over 60,000 times as powerful as Britain\'s great pre-war joke\" (at this point a newsreel of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain waving his \"piece of paper\" appears on screen). The joke is then used in open warfare, with Tommies running through an open field amid artillery fire while shouting the joke at the Germans, who die laughing in response. Afterward, a German field hospital is shown with bandaged German soldiers on stretchers, convulsing with laughter, presumably having heard some parts of the joke. In a subsequent scene, a British officer from the Joke Brigade (Palin) has been taken prisoner and is being interrogated by Gestapo officers. The British officer uses the joke to escape as his German captors die laughing, with one German officer (Cleese) insisting that the joke isn\'t funny. He then cracks up and utters a Woody Woodpecker-style laugh, before expiring.
The Germans attempt counter-jokes, but each attempt is found unsuccessful, with unamused Gestapo officers executing the hapless scientists as a consequence. For example, a film is shown of Adolf Hitler supposedly telling the joke while giving a speech. It is translated to \"My dog has no nose\", then a German soldier asking \"How does he smell?\", with Hitler replying, \"Awful!\". Eventually their best \"V-joke\" (in reference to the V-weapons) is attempted on a radio broadcast to British households: \"Der ver zwei peanuts, valking down der Straße, und von vas assaulted\...peanut. Ohohohoho!\" Although the joke is followed triumphantly by the German anthem \"Deutschland über alles\", the attack is ineffective, and merely confuses any Britons listening.
The British joke is said to have been laid to rest when \"peace broke out\" at the end of the war, and countries agree to a joke warfare ban at the Geneva Convention. In 1950, the last copy of the joke is sealed under a monument in the Berkshire countryside, bearing the inscription \"To the Unknown Joke\". Thus, the English version of the joke is never revealed to the audience.
## Hitler footage from the sketch in reality {#hitler_footage_from_the_sketch_in_reality}
The footage of Adolf Hitler is taken from Leni Riefenstahl\'s film *Triumph of the Will*. The section (about 34 minutes into the film) where Konstantin Hierl presents the Reichsarbeitsdienst to Hitler is the source of the speech used for the joke. The first clip shows Hitler saying **Insbesondere keiner mehr in Deutschland leben wird\...** (\"In particular, no one will live in Germany anymore \[without working for their country\]\"), subtitled \"My dog has no nose\". The crowd (led by Hitler Youth leader Baldur von Schirach) saying: \"How does he smell?\" is from a scene just before Hitler\'s speech; the original German is **Wir sind des Reiches junge Mannschaft!**, \"We are the Reich\'s young men!\" The punchline of the joke \"Awful\" is the next shot that shows Hitler\'s face. The original words are **eure Schule**, from \"\[The whole nation will go through\] your school\".
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# The Funniest Joke in the World
## Influence, and other works {#influence_and_other_works}
Jim Carrey is a fan of Monty Python. He described how Ernest Scribbler, played by Michael Palin, laughing himself to death in the sketch, had a huge effect on his early years.
The sketch was later remade in a shorter version for the film *And Now for Something Completely Different*. It is also available on the CD-ROM video game version of the film *Monty Python\'s The Meaning of Life*
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# The Spanish Inquisition (Monty Python)
thumb\|upright=1.2\|Terry Gilliam, Michael Palin and Terry Jones playing \"The Spanish Inquisition\" in *Monty Python Live (Mostly)*, London, 2014
\"**The Spanish Inquisition**\" is an episode and recurring segment in the British sketch comedy TV series *Monty Python\'s Flying Circus*, specifically series 2 episode 2 (first broadcast 22 September 1970), that satirises the Spanish Inquisition. The sketches are notable for the catchphrase, \"Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition!\", which has been frequently quoted and become an Internet meme. The final instance of the catchphrase in the episode uses the musical composition \"Devil\'s Galop\" by Charles Williams. Rewritten audio versions of the sketches were included on *Another Monty Python Record* in 1971.
## Plot synopsis {#plot_synopsis}
This recurring sketch is predicated on a seemingly unrelated narrative bit in which someone exclaims that they \"didn\'t expect a Spanish Inquisition!\", often in irritation at being vigorously questioned by another. The first appearance of Monty Python\'s \"Spanish Inquisition\" characters occurs in a drawing room set in \"Jarrow, 1912\", with a title card featuring a modern British urban area with a nuclear power plant. A mill worker (Graham Chapman) enters the room and tells a woman sitting on a couch knitting (Carol Cleveland) in a thick accent that \"one of the cross beams has gone out askew on the treadle\". When Cleveland says that she cannot understand what he\'s talking about, Chapman repeats the line without the thick accent. The woman says, \"Well, what on earth does that mean?\" Chapman becomes defensive and says, \"I didn\'t expect a kind of Spanish Inquisition!\" Suddenly, the Inquisition{{\--}}consisting of Cardinal Ximénez (Michael Palin) and his assistants, Cardinal Biggles (Terry Jones) (who resembles his namesake Biggles wearing a leather aviator\'s helmet and goggles) and Cardinal Fang (Terry Gilliam){{\--}}bursts into the room to the sound of a jarring musical sting. Ximénez shouts, with a particular and high-pitched emphasis on the first word: \"*No*-body expects the Spanish Inquisition!\".
After entering, Ximénez begins enumerating their weapons, but interrupts himself as he keeps forgetting to mention additional weapons and has to begin numbering his list over again. After several attempts, Ximénez states that he will come in again and herds the Inquisition back off the set. The straight man mill worker repeats the cue line, the Inquisition bursts back in (complete with jarring chord), and the introduction is tried anew. But Ximénez fails again and tries to get Cardinal Biggles to do the introduction, but Biggles is also unsuccessful.
Ximénez decides to forget the introduction and has Cardinal Fang read out charges of heresy against Cleveland, who pleads \"innocent\", and the cardinals respond with \"diabolical laughter\" and threats. Ximénez intends to torture the woman with \"the rack\", but Cardinal Biggles instead produces a dish-drying rack. This rack is tied to Cleveland and Biggles pretends to turn a lever, but it has no effect whatsoever. As they work, Chapman answers the door to find a BBC employee (John Cleese) requesting him to open a door for a gag on \"the neighboring sketch\", leading into the \"Jokes and Novelties Salesman\" segment.
The Inquisition returns in a later sketch as an older woman (Marjorie Wilde) shares photographs from a scrapbook with another woman (Cleveland), who rips them up as they are handed to her. When the older woman presents a photo of the Spanish Inquisition hiding behind the coal shed, Cleveland says, \"I didn\'t expect the Spanish Inquisition!\" The three cardinals then reappear and take the older woman away to a dungeon.
Biggles tries to torture the woman by poking her repeatedly with soft cushions. When this fails, Ximénez orders Fang to get \"the comfy chair\", which is brought out and the woman placed in it. Ximénez states that she must stay in the chair \"until lunch time with only a cup of coffee at 11\", and begins to shout at her to confess{{\--}}only to have Biggles break down and confess. This frustrates Ximénez, but he cannot complain about it since he is distracted by a cartoon character from the next scene.
At the end of the show, in the \"Court Charades\" sketch, a judge (Jones) who is also a defendant in an obscenity trial at the Old Bailey is casually sentenced by another judge (Chapman) to be burned at the stake. The convicted judge responds, \"Blimey, I didn\'t expect the Spanish Inquisition!\" The whole court rises and looks expectantly at the witness entrance door. As the closing credits of the episode begin, the Inquisitors race out of a house and hop on a double-decker bus to the Old Bailey, all to the tune of \"Devil\'s Galop\". As the Inquisitors ride in the bus, they comment worriedly that they are running out of credits and are panicked that the episode will soon end. The bus reaches the courthouse and the cardinals charge up the steps of the Old Bailey. They finally burst into the courtroom and Ximénez begins to shout, \"NO-body expects the Span\...,\" but a black title card with the words, \"THE END\", interrupts him. In resignation, he says, \"Oh, bugger\", and the episode concludes.
In the *Monty Python Live (Mostly)* stage show, the sketch ends when Ximénez orders Biggles to \"torture\" the victim (who is sitting in the comfy chair) by giving her a glass of cold milk from the fridge. When Biggles opens the door, the Man in the Fridge (Eric Idle) emerges and begins singing the \"Galaxy Song\" to the victim, while the Inquisition exit through the fridge.
## Related sketches {#related_sketches}
Cardinal Ximénez briefly appears two episodes later (\"The Buzz Aldrin Show\") in a vox pop, again displaying difficulty counting (in this instance, the kinds of aftershave he uses). Later in that episode during the \"Police Constable Pan Am Sketch\", the policeman tells a chemist \"one more peep out of you and I\'ll do you for heresy\", with the chemist (played by Palin) responding that he \"didn\'t expect the Spanish Inquisition\"; PC Pan Am (played by Graham Chapman) tells the chemist to shut up
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# Demographics of Martinique
This is a list of the **demographics of Martinique**, a Caribbean island and an overseas department/region and single territorial collectivity of France.`{{Historical populations
|type =
|footnote = Source:<ref name=INSEE>{{Cite web|url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques|title=Résultats de la recherche | Insee|website=www.insee.fr}}</ref>
|title = Census population and average annual growth rate
|percentages =
|1961|290679
|1967|320030
|1974|324832
|1982|328556
|1990|359572
|1999|381325
|2009|396404
}}`{=mediawiki}
## Population
According to INSEE Martinique has an estimated population of 390,371 on 1 January 2012. Life expectancy at birth is 78.9 years for males and 84.8 for females (figures for 2011).
### Structure of the population {#structure_of_the_population}
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- --------- --------- --------- ---------
Total 182 644 213 664 396 308 100
0-4 12 113 11 573 23 686 5.98
5-9 13 174 13 236 26 410 6.66
10-14 14 074 13 562 27 636 6.97
15-19 14 763 14 658 29 421 7.42
20-24 11 099 11 488 22 587 5.70
25-29 7 989 10 199 18 188 4.59
30-34 8 326 11 584 19 910 5.02
35-39 11 585 15 995 27 580 6.96
40-44 14 036 18 055 32 091 8.10
45-49 15 044 18 076 33 120 8.36
50-54 13 186 15 504 28 690 7.24
55-59 11 376 13 554 24 930 6.29
60-64 10 057 11 596 21 653 5.46
65-69 7 816 9 145 16 961 4.28
70-74 7 038 8 377 15 415 3.89
75-79 4 898 6 525 11 423 2.88
80-84 3 461 5 003 8 464 2.14
85-89 1 785 3 308 5 093 1.29
90-94 593 1 532 2 125 0.54
95+ 231 694 925 0.23
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0-14 39 361 38 371 77 732 19.61
15-64 117 461 140 709 258 170 65.14
65+ 25 822 34 584 60 406 15.24
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- --------- --------- --------- ---------
Total 176 328 204 549 380 877 100
0--4 9 968 9 545 19 514 5.12
5--9 11 841 11 338 23 179 6.09
10--14 12 616 12 229 24 846 6.52
15--19 12 913 12 152 25 065 6.58
20--24 9 758 9 157 18 914 4.97
25--29 8 092 9 886 17 978 4.72
30--34 7 651 10 233 17 884 4.70
35--39 8 508 11 474 19 983 5.25
40--44 11 391 14 984 26 375 6.92
45--49 13 979 17 073 31 052 8.15
50--54 14 886 17 891 32 777 8.61
55--59 13 462 15 101 28 564 7.50
60--64 11 229 13 609 24 838 6.52
65-69 9 408 11 084 20 492 5.38
70-74 7 148 8 638 15 786 4.14
75-79 6 019 7 582 13 601 3.57
80-84 4 090 5 710 9 800 2.57
85-89 2 174 3 836 6 010 1.58
90-94 895 2 067 2 962 0.78
95-99 241 731 971 0.25
100+ 59 228 287 0.08
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 34 425 33 112 67 537 17.73
15--64 111 869 131 561 243 430 63.91
65+ 30 034 39 876 69 910 18.36
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- --------- --------- --------- ---------
Total 162 310 193 719 356 029 100
0--4 8 196 7 868 16 064 4.51
5--9 8 896 9 008 17 904 5.03
10--14 10 595 10 353 20 948 5.88
15--19 10 819 10 682 21 501 6.04
20--24 8 965 8 519 17 484 4.91
25--29 6 985 8 407 15 392 4.32
30--34 7 420 9 856 17 276 4.85
35--39 7 381 10 175 17 556 4.93
40--44 7 153 10 212 17 365 4.88
45--49 10 044 13 700 23 744 6.67
50--54 12 864 16 287 29 151 8.19
55--59 14 470 17 451 31 921 8.97
60--64 13 510 15 187 28 697 8.06
65-69 11 067 13 016 24 083 6.76
70-74 8 892 10 594 19 486 5.47
75-79 6 193 7 905 14 098 3.96
80-84 4 612 6 607 11 219 3.15
85-89 2 789 4 366 7 155 2.01
90-94 1 107 2 355 3 462 0.97
95-99 327 897 1 224 0.34
100-104 25 197 222 0.06
105-109 0 73 73 0.02
110+ 0 4 4 \<0.01
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 27 687 27 229 54 916 15.42
15--64 99 611 120 476 220 087 61.82
65+ 35 012 46 014 81 026 22.76
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# Demographics of Martinique
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
Year Population (x1000) (01.01) Live births Deaths Natural change Crude birth rate (per 1000) Crude death rate (per 1000) Natural change (per 1000) Total fertility rate
------ ---------------------------- ------------- -------- ---------------- ----------------------------- ----------------------------- --------------------------- ----------------------
1950 222 8 420 2 987 5 433 37.3 13.7 23.7
1951 224 8 750 3 356 5 394 38.8 14.2 24.6
1952 228 8 712 3 193 5 519 38.3 14.3 24.0
1953 233 9 409 2 455 6 954 39.6 11.6 27.9
1954 239 9 558 2 499 7 059 39.4 11.0 28.5
1955 246 9 770 2 660 7 110 39.8 11.2 28.6
1956 253 10 146 2 529 7 617 39.8 10.0 29.8
1957 260 10 502 2 533 7 969 39.1 10.6 28.5
1958 267 10 295 2 754 7 541 38.4 9.9 28.4
1959 274 10 435 2 347 8 088 37.5 8.7 28.8
1960 282 10 661 2 678 7 983 38.4 9.7 28.7
1961 288 10 573 2 289 8 284 36.5 8.2 28.3
1962 295 10 663 2 546 8 117 37.3 8.5 28.8
1963 301 10 217 2 514 7 703 35.4 8.3 27.1
1964 306 10 337 2 523 7 814 34.4 8.1 26.4
1965 311 10 747 2 389 8 358 34.8 8.1 26.8
1966 315 10 094 2 435 7 659 33.7 7.9 25.7
1967 319 9 877 2 377 7 500 31.7 7.9 23.8
1968 321 9 848 2 290 7 558 31.9 7.6 24.3
1969 323 8 893 2 493 6 400 29.0 7.7 21.3
1970 325 9 275 2 559 6 716 28.9 7.8 21.1
1971 326 9 214 2 230 6 984 29.7 7.0 22.6
1972 327 8 657 2 280 6 377 28.4 7.3 21.2
1973 328 7 683 2 382 5 301 26.3 7.4 18.9
1974 328 7 317 2 427 4 890 24.6 7.4 17.2
1975 328 6 741 2 300 4 441 22.9 7.1 15.8
1976 327 5 873 2 344 3 529 19.5 7.2 12.3
1977 326 5 409 2 173 3 236 17.9 6.8 11.1
1978 325 5 065 2 188 2 877 16.4 6.7 9.7
1979 325 5 439 2 120 3 319 17.2 6.5 10.7
1980 325 5 363 2 164 3 199 18.1 6.6 11.5
1981 327 5 406 2 041 3 365 18.2 6.4 11.8
1982 329 5 376 2 113 3 263 18.2 6.4 11.8
1983 333 5 641 2 207 3 434 18.5 6.6 11.9
1984 336 5 712 2 072 3 640 18.3 6.4 11.9
1985 340 5 711 2 132 3 579 18.2 6.5 11.7
1986 344 5 969 2 112 3 857 17.7 6.2 11.5
1987 348 6 328 2 149 4 179 18.6 6.2 12.4
1988 352 6 386 2 092 4 294 18.7 6.0 12.7
1989 355 6 565 2 162 4 403 19.3 6.1 13.2
1990 358.406 6 437 2 228 4 209 18.0 6.2 11.7
1991 359.774 6 316 2 181 4 135 17.5 6.0 11.5
1992 361.420 6 315 2 182 4 133 17.4 6.0 11.4
1993 363.344 5 901 2 226 3 675 16.2 6.1 10.1
1994 365.554 5 698 2 216 3 482 15.5 6.0 9.5
1995 368.045 5 644 2 338 3 306 15.3 6.3 9.0
1996 370.818 5 669 2 290 3 379 15.3 6.2 9.1
1997 373.873 5 735 2 403 3 332 15.3 6.4 8.9
1998 377.221 5 793 2 530 3 263 15.3 6.7 8.6 1.90
1999 380.863 5 766 2 551 3 215 15.1 6.7 8.4 1.91
2000 383.575 5 890 2 639 3 251 15.3 6.9 8.5 2.00
2001 386.542 5 774 2 734 3 040 14.9 7.1 7.9 1.98
2002 389.302 5 446 2 649 2 797 14.0 6.8 7.2 1.89
2003 391.676 5 430 2 727 2 703 13.8 7.0 6.9 1.92
2004 393.852 5 255 2 645 2 610 13.3 6.7 6.6 1.91
2005 395.982 5 032 2 610 2 422 12.7 6.6 6.1 1.86
2006 397.732 5 370 2 663 2 707 13.5 6.7 6.8 2.04
2007 397.730 5 317 2 830 2 487 13.3 7.1 6.2 2.05
2008 397.693 5 333 2 793 2 540 13.4 7.0 6.4 2.10
2009 396.404 5 174 2 771 2 403 12.9 6.9 6.0 2.07
2010 394.173 4 888 2 843 2 045 12.4 7.2 5.2 2.02
2011 392.291 4 475 2 741 1 734 11.5 7.0 4.5 1.91
2012 388.364 4 458 2 816 1 642 11.5 7.3 4.2 1.99
2013 385.551 4 128 2 902 1 226 10.7 7.5 3.2 1.91
2014 383.911 4 367 3 319 1 048 11.4 8.7 2.7 2.08
2015 380.877 3 972 3 057 915 10.5 8.1 2.4 1.94
2016 376.480 3 782 3 284 498 10.0 8.7 1.3 1.90
2017 372.594 3 640 3 217 423 9.8 8.7 1.1 1.87
2018 368.783 3 670 3 292 378 10.0 9.0 1.0 1.90
2019 364.508 3 749 3 559 190 10.3 9.8 0.5 1.97
2020 361.225 3 529 3 586 -57 9.8 9.9 -0.1 1.85
2021 360.749 3 627 4 642 -1 015 10.1 12.9 -2.8 1.89
2022 361.019 3 493 4 188 -695 9.7 11.6 -1.9 1.85
2023 359.202 3 335 3 820 -485 9.3 10.7 -1.4 1.79
2024 357.590 \| 7.9 10.7 -2.8 1.52
2025 355.459 \| \|
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# Demographics of Martinique
## Ethnic groups {#ethnic_groups}
African Martinicans and African-White-Indian mixture 80%; Indo-Martiniquais 10%; White Martinicans 5%; Lebanese, Jewish, Syrian, and Chinese Martinicans comprise less than 5% of the population. Note that French government forbids ethnic censuses. Those numbers are not official and may be inaccurate.
## Languages
French is the official language and is understood by the majority of the population. Martinican Creole, a form of Antillean Creole, is also spoken by most of the population.
## Religion
Martinique\'s population is predominantly Christian, with 96.5% of Martinicans identifying as such. A much smaller number of Martinicans identify as unaffiliated with any religion, accounting for 2.3% of the population. Hinduism, Judaism, and Islam all have a presence on the island, each accounting for less than 1% of the population. Muslims account for 0.5% or 1751 person, out of population of 350,373
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# Government of Martinique
Martinique is an overseas Territorial collectivity of France, with the same political status as regions and departments in mainland France. The administrative centre of Martinique is located in Fort-de-France.
During the referendum of 24 January 2010, the residents of Martinique approved by 68.4% the creation of a new and unique territorial collectivity which is governed by the section 73 of the French Constitution. The territorial collectivity of Martinique replaces and exercises all the related power and duties of the department\'s General Council and the Regional Council.
*Gran Sanblé pou ba peyi an chans*, a coalition of the Martinican Independence Movement and right-wing parties, led by Alfred Marie-Jeanne defeated *Ensemble pour une Martinique Nouvelle*, a coalition of left-wing parties, led by Serge Letchimy, winning 33 seats out of 51 seats of the new Territorial Collectivity\'s assembly during the election held on December 13, 2015 in Martinique.
On December 18, 2015 Alfred Marie-Jeanne was elected the first president of the Executive Council of the Territorial Collectivity of Martinique.
## Assembly of Martinique {#assembly_of_martinique}
The Assembly of the Territorial Collectivity of Martinique is composed of 51 members elected by proportional representation in two rounds with each list having an equal number of male and female candidates. The term of the Assembly is 6 years. The current president of the assembly is Serge Letchimy.
Party
------- ---------------------------------------
• Gran Sanblé pou pa peyi an chans
Ensemble pour une Martinique Nouvelle
## General Council of Martinique {#general_council_of_martinique}
The General Council of Martinique was composed of 45 seats whose members were elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms. The last President of the General Council was Josette Manin.
Party
------- ----------------------------------
• Miscellaneous Left
• Martinican Progressive Party
Miscellaneous Right
Union for a Popular Movement
Other regionalists
Martinican Independence Movement
Socialist Party
: **Composition**
## Regional Council of Martinique {#regional_council_of_martinique}
The Regional Council was composed of 41 seats whose members were elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms. The last President of the Regional Council was Serge Letchimy.
Party
------- ----------------------------------
• Martinican Independence Movement
Martinican Progressive Party
UDF (FMP)
: **Composition**
## Parliamentary representation {#parliamentary_representation}
: *Notable representatives may be found in :Category:Martiniquais politicians*
### French Senate, 2 seats {#french_senate_2_seats}
Martinique elects 2 seats to the French Senate; indirect elections were last held in September 2004. The Martinican Progressive Party won 1 senator and one other left-wing candidate was elected.
### French National Assembly, 4 seats {#french_national_assembly_4_seats}
Martinique also elects 4 seats to the French National Assembly, the last elections were held in June 2007. The Union for a Popular Movement elected 1 deputy (Alfred Almont), the Socialist Party elected 1 (Louis-Joseph Manscour), the nationalist Martinican Independence Movement elected 1 (Alfred Marie-Jeanne), and the Martinican Progressive Party also elected 1 (Serge Letchimy, mayor of Fort de France).
Constituency Member
-------------- ----- -----------------------
1st Louis-Joseph Manscour
2nd Alfred Almont
3rd Serge Letchimy
4th Alfred Marie-Jeanne
: **Current Deputies**
## Judicial system {#judicial_system}
In Martinique, the French system of justice is in force with there being two lower courts (*tribunaux d'instance*), one higher court (*tribunal de grande instance*), one administrative court, a commercial court, and a court of appeal at Fort-de-France.
With regard to the legal profession, it is known that women have been practicing law since 1945 when Andrée Pierre-Rose Bocaly became an attorney. She would be followed by Marcelle Yang-ting, Marie-Thérèse Yoyo-Likao, and Marie-Alice André-Jaccoulet (1969) in sequence
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# Economy of Martinique
The **economy of Martinique** is mostly based in the services sector. Agriculture accounts for about 6% of Martinique\'s GDP and the small industrial sector for 11%. Sugar production has declined, with most of the sugarcane now used for the production of rum. Banana exports are increasing, going mostly to France. The bulk of meat, vegetable, and grain requirements must be imported, contributing to a chronic trade deficit that requires large annual transfers of aid from France. Tourism has become more important than agricultural exports as a source of foreign exchange. The majority of the work force is employed in the service sector and in administration.
## Gross domestic product {#gross_domestic_product}
**GDP:** real exchange rate - US\$9.61 billion (in 2006)
**GDP - real growth rate:** 2.8% (in 2006)
**GDP - per capita:** real exchange rate - US\$24,118 (in 2006)
**GDP - composition by sector:**\
*agriculture:* 6%\
*industry:* 11%\
*services:* 83% (1997 est.)
## Demographics
**Population below poverty line:** NA%
**Household income or consumption by percentage share:**\
*lowest 10%:* NA%\
*highest 10%:* NA%
**Labor force:** 165 900 (1998)
**Labor force - by occupation:** agriculture 7%, industry 20%, services 73% (1997)
**Unemployment rate:** 12,9% (2021)
**Budget:**\
*revenues:* \$900 million\
*expenditures:* \$2.5 billion, including capital expenditures of \$140 million (1996)
## Industries
**Industries:** construction, rum, cement, petroleum refining, sugar, tourism
**Industrial production growth rate:** NA%
## Infrastructure
**Electricity - production:** 1,205 GWh (2003)
**Electricity - production by source:**\
*fossil fuel:* 100%\
*hydro:* 0%\
*nuclear:* 0%\
*other:* 0% (1998)
**Electricity - consumption:** 1535430MHW (2016)
**Electricity - exports:** 0 kWh (1998)
**Electricity - imports:** 0 kWh (1998)
## Agriculture
**Agricultural products:** pineapples, avocados, bananas, flowers, vegetables, sugarcane
**Exports:** US\$957 million (in 2005)
**Exports - commodities:** refined petroleum products, bananas, rum, pineapples
**Exports - partners:** Mainland France 45%, Guadeloupe 28% (1997)
**Imports:** US\$3,098 billion (in 2005)
**Imports - commodities:** petroleum products, crude oil, foodstuffs, construction materials, vehicles, clothing and other consumer goods
**Imports - partners:** Mainland France 62%, Venezuela 6%, Germany 4%, Italy 4%, US 3% (1997)
**Debt - external:** \$180 million (1994)
**Economic aid - recipient:** Martinique receives substantial annual aid from the French state.
## Economics
**Currency** 1 euro (€) = 100 cents
**Exchange rates:** euros per US\$1 -- 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); French francs (F) per US\$1 -- 5.65 (January 1999), 5.8995 (1998), 5.8367 (1997), 5.1155 (1996), 4
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# Transport in Martinique
Martinique is a small Caribbean island that is an overseas department/region and single territorial collectivity of France. An integral part of the French Republic, Martinique is located in the Lesser Antilles of the West Indies in the eastern Caribbean Sea. It has a land area of 1128 km2 and a population of 376,480 inhabitants as of January 2016. One of the Windward Islands, it is directly north of Saint Lucia, northwest of Barbados and south of Dominica. Martinique is also an Outermost Region (OMR) of the European Union and a special territory of the European Union; the currency in use is the euro. Virtually the entire population speaks both French (the sole official language) and Martinican Creole.
Given its geography, the balance of its transport network is unusual: there are three airports, only 2.5 km of heritage railway, and 2,105 km of paved highways (in 2000). Sea transport is also important, and there are two harbours at Fort-de-France and La Trinité.
## Road transport {#road_transport}
As of 2000, Martinique had 2,105 km of paved highways.
There is a part of the N5 road that has been upgraded to a **motorway**, running from the capital Fort-de-France through Lamentin, Ducos and Rivière Salée until Les Coteaux.
## Rail transport {#rail_transport}
Martininique has now^(2018)^ only one railway line in operation: The little-known 2.5 km long Le Train des Plantations is a heritage railway that runs from the Rhum Museum in Sainte-Marie through some sugarcane and banana plantations over two Bailey bridges to the Banana Museum.
In former times several narrow gauge sugarcane railways existed. Saint-Pierre had horse-drawn trams, which had an unusually narrow gauge. At least two steam locomotives are preserved in an optically refurbished condition, but not operational.
## Air transport {#air_transport}
It has three airports, the main one being Martinique Aimé Césaire International Airport. See List of Airports in Martinique
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# History of Mauritania
The original inhabitants of Mauritania were the Bafour, presumably a Mande ethnic group, connected to the contemporary Arabized minor social group of *Imraguen* (\"fishermen\") on the Atlantic coast.
The territory of Mauritania was on the fringe of geographical knowledge of Libya in classical antiquity. Berber immigration took place from about the 3rd century. Mauritania takes its name from the ancient Berber kingdom and later Roman province of Mauretania, and thus ultimately from the Mauri people, even though the respective territories do not overlap, historical Mauritania being considerably further north than modern Mauritania.
The Umayyads were the first Arab Muslims to enter Mauritania. During the Islamic conquests, they made incursions into Mauritania and were present in the region by the end of the 7th century. Many Berber tribes in Mauritania fled the arrival of the Arabs to the Gao region in Mali.
The European colonial powers of the 19th century had little interest in Mauritania. The French Republic was mostly interested in the territory for strategic reason, as a connection between their possessions in North and in West Africa. Mauritania thus became part of French West Africa in 1904, but colonial control was mostly limited to the coast and the Saharan trade routes, and there were territories nominally within French West Africa which were not reached by European control as late as 1955.
In 1960, the Islamic Republic of Mauritania became Independent of France. The conflict over the former Spanish territory of Western Sahara in 1976 resulted in partial annexation by Mauritania, withdrawn in favour of Morocco in 1979. The long-serving President Maaouya Ould Sid\'Ahmed Taya was ousted by the military of Mauritania and replaced by the Military Council for Justice and Democracy in a coup d\'état in 2005. A new constitution was passed in 2006. An indecisive election in 2007 triggered another coup in 2008. A leader of the 2005 coup, Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz, was elected president in 2009. After his ten-year presidency, Mohamed Ould Ghazouani\'s victory in the 2019 Mauritanian presidential election was presented as having been the country\'s first peaceful transition of power since independence.
## Early history {#early_history}
The Sahara has linked rather than divided the peoples who inhabit it and has served as an avenue for migration and conquest. Mauritania, lying next to the Atlantic coast at the western edge of the desert, received and assimilated into its complex society many waves of these migrants and conquerors.
What is now Mauritania was a dry savanna area during classical antiquity, where independent tribes like the Pharusii and the Perorsi (and the Nigritae near the Niger river) lived a semi-nomadic lifestyle facing growing desertification.
The Romans explored toward this area and probably reached, with Suetonius Paulinus, the area of Adrar. There is evidence (coins, fibulas) of Roman commerce in Akjoujt and Tamkartkart near Tichit.
Berbers moved south to Mauritania beginning in the 3rd century, followed by Arabs in the late 7th century, subjugating and assimilating Mauritania\'s original inhabitants. From the 8th through the 15th century, black kingdoms of the western Sudan, such as Ghana, Mali, and Songhai, brought their political culture from the south.
The divisive tendencies of the various groups within Mauritanian society have always worked against the development of Mauritanian unity. Both the Sanhadja Confederation, at its height from the 8th to the 10th century, and the Almoravid Empire, from the 11th to the 12th century, were weakened by internecine warfare, and both succumbed to further invasions from the Ghana Empire and the Almohad Empire, respectively.
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# History of Mauritania
## Islamization
The Umayyads were the first Arab Muslims to enter Mauritania. During the Islamic conquests, they made incursions into Mauritania and were present in the region by the end of the 7th century. Many Berber tribes in Mauritania fled the arrival of the Arabs to the Gao region in Mali. By the 11th century, Islamization had reached the region around the Senegal River.
In the 11th century, several nomadic Berber confederations in the desert regions overlapping present-day Mauritania joined together to form the Almoravid movement. They expanded north and south, spawning an important empire that stretched from the Sahara to the Iberian Peninsula in Europe. However, the legacy of the southern Almoravids in the Sahara is less well-documented and understood than their subsequent operations in the north. Arabic sources record that Abu Bakr, one of the early leaders of the Almoravids, made Azuggi his base after he left Marrakesh and the northern Almoravids under the control of Yusuf Ibn Tashfin. According to Arabic sources, he also led the Almoravids further south to conquer the ancient and extensive Ghana Empire around 1076, but this narrative has been disputed and debated by modern historians.
The decline of the Almoravids after this is not documented. From the 13th century onward, the Banu Ma\'qil, an Arab tribal confederation of Yemeni origin, migrated into the Maghreb and into what is now Morocco. Some of them progressively moved south into the Sahara, identifying themselves as the Beni Ḥassān or Awlad Hassan. From 1644 to 1674, the indigenous peoples of the area that is modern Mauritania made what became their final effort to repel the Ma\'qil Arabs who were invading their territory. This effort, which was unsuccessful, is known as the Char Bouba War. The invaders were led by the Beni Ḥassān tribe. The descendants of the Beni Hassan warriors became the upper stratum of society. Hassaniya, a bedouin Arabic dialect named for the Beni Hassan, became the dominant language among the largely nomadic population.
From the 15th to the 19th century, European contact with Mauritania was dominated by the trade for gum arabic. Rivalries among European powers enabled the Arab-Berber population to maintain their independence and later to exact annual payments from France, whose sovereignty over the Senegal River and the Mauritanian coast was recognized by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Although penetration beyond the coast and the Senegal River began in earnest under Louis Faidherbe, governor of Senegal in the mid-19th century, European conquest or \"pacification\" of the entire country did not begin until 1900. Because extensive European contact began so late in the country\'s history, the traditional social structure carried over into modern times with little change.
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# History of Mauritania
## French colonization {#french_colonization}
The history of French colonial policy in Mauritania is closely tied to that of the other French possessions in West Africa, particularly to that of Senegal, on which Mauritania was economically, politically, and administratively dependent until independence. The French policy of assimilation and direct rule, however, was never applied with any vigor in Mauritania, where a system that corresponded more to indirectly ruling the colony developed. Colonial administrators relied extensively on Islamic religious leaders and the traditional warrior groups to maintain their rule and carry out their policies. Moreover, little attempt was made to develop the country\'s economy.
After World War II, Mauritania, along with the rest of French West Africa, was involved in a series of reforms of the French colonial system, culminating in independence in November 1960. These reforms were part of a trend away from the official policies of assimilation and direct rule in favor of administrative decentralization and internal autonomy. Although the nationalistic fervor sweeping French West Africa at this time was largely absent in Mauritania, continuous politicking (averaging one election every eighteen months between 1946 and 1958) provided training for political leaders and awakened a political consciousness among the populace. On 28 July 1960 France agreed to Mauritania becoming fully independent. Nevertheless, when Mauritania declared its independence on 28 November 1960, its level of political as well as economic development was, at best, embryonic.
## Independence, Ould Daddah era, and the Saharan War {#independence_ould_daddah_era_and_the_saharan_war}
As the country gained Independence on November 28, 1960, the capital city, Nouakchott, was founded at the site of a small village founded during the colonial period, the Ksar, while 90% of the population was still nomadic. With independence, larger numbers of ethnic Sub-Saharan Africans (Haalpulaar, Soninke, and Wolof) entered Mauritania, moving into the area north of the Senegal River. As before independence, the sedentary lifestyle of these groups made them more receptive to and useful in state formation, and they quickly came to dominate state administration, even if the Moorish groups built up by the French remained in charge of the political process. Moors reacted to this change by increasing pressures for Arabization, to Arabicize many aspects of Mauritanian life, such as law and language, and ethnic tension built up -- helped by a common memory of warfare and slave raids.
President Moktar Ould Daddah, originally assisted to the post by the French, rapidly reformed Mauritania into an authoritarian one-party state in 1964, with his new Mauritanian constitution. Daddah\'s own *Parti du Peuple Mauritanien* (PPM) became the ruling organization. The President justified this decision on the grounds that he considered Mauritania unready for western-style multi-party democracy. Under this one-party constitution, Daddah was reelected in uncontested elections in 1966, 1971 and 1976.
To take advantage of the country\'s sizable iron ore deposits in Zouérat, the new Government built a 675-km railway and a mining port. Production began in 1963. The mines were operated by a foreign owned consortium that paid its approximately 3,000 expatriate workers handsomely -- their salaries accounted for two-thirds of the country\'s entire wages bill. When the Mauritanian miners went on a two-month strike in the late 1960s the army intervened and eight miners were killed. Left-wing opposition to the government mounted and some miners formed a clandestine Marxist union in 1973. President Ould Daddah survived the challenge from left-wing opponents by nationalizing the company in 1974 and withdrawing from the franc zone, substituting the ouguiya for the CFA.
In 1975, partly for nationalist reasons and partly for fear of Moroccan expansionism, [1](http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+mr0123)) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917101939/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+mr0123) |date=2008-09-17 }}`{=mediawiki} Mauritania invaded and annexed the southern third of the former Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara) in 1975, renaming it Tiris al-Gharbiyya. However, after nearly three years of raids by the Sahrawi guerrillas of the Polisario Front, Mauritania\'s economic and political stability began to crumble. Despite French and Moroccan military aid[2](http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+mr0135)) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917103646/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID%20mr0135%29 |date=2008-09-17 }}`{=mediawiki}, Polisario raids against the Zouerate railway and mines threatened to bring about economic collapse, and there were deep misgivings in the military about the Saharan adventure. Ethnic unrest contributed to the disarray. Black Africans from the south were conscripted as front-line soldiers, after the northern Sahrawi minorities and their Moorish kin had proven unreliable in the fight against Polisario, but many of the southerners rebelled against having to fight what they considered an inter-Arab war. After the government quarters in Nouakchott had twice been shelled by Polisario forces, unrest simmered, but Daddah\'s only response was to further tighten his hold on power.
On July 10, 1978, Col. Mustafa Ould Salek led a bloodless coup d\'état that ousted the President, who would later go into exile in France. Power passed to the military strongmen of the Military Committee for National Recovery (CMRN). Polisario immediately declared a cease-fire, and peace negotiations began under the sponsorship of Polisario\'s main backer, Algeria. With the CMRN\'s leader reluctant to break with France and Morocco, the country refused to give in to Polisario demands for a troop retreat, and Ould Salek\'s careless handling of the ethnic issue (massively discriminating against Black Africans in nominating for government posts [3](http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+mr0036)) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917103856/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID%20mr0036%29 |date=2008-09-17 }}`{=mediawiki}) contributed to further unrest. In early 1979, he was pushed aside by another group of officers, who renamed the junta the Military Committee for National Salvation (CMSN). Col. Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidalla soon emerged as its main strongman.
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# History of Mauritania
## 1978 to 1984 {#to_1984}
In 1979, Polisario broke off the cease-fire and unleashed a string of new attacks on military and government targets. Mauritania, under its new government, immediately returned to the table to meet Polisario\'s goals, declaring full peace, a complete troop retreat, relinquishing their portion of Western Sahara and recognizing the Front as the Sahrawi people\'s sole representative.[4](http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+mr0037)) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917102551/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+mr0037) |date=2008-09-17 }}`{=mediawiki}
Morocco, occupying the northern half of Western Sahara and also involved in combat against Polisario, reacted with outrage, and launched a failed 1981 coup against the CMSN. Mauritania broke off relations with Rabat in protest, although ties were later restored.[5](http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/2483315.stm) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051214133448/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/2483315.stm |date=2005-12-14 }}`{=mediawiki}[6](http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+mr0038)) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917102407/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+mr0038) |date=2008-09-17 }}`{=mediawiki}
In interior policy, Ould Haidallah sought to improve relations between White Moors and Black Moors, among other things officially decreeing the ban of slavery for the first time in the country\'s history, but he neither tried nor achieved a radical break with the sectarian and discriminating policies of previous regimes. An attempt to reinstate civilian rule was abandoned after the above-mentioned Moroccan-sponsored coup attempt nearly brought down the regime; foreign-backed plots also involved Persian Gulf countries and Libya, and the country several times appeared to be under military threat from Morocco.[7](http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+mr0038)) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917102407/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+mr0038) |date=2008-09-17 }}`{=mediawiki}
With Ould Haidallah\'s ambitious political and social reform program undone by continuing instability, regime inefficiency and a plethora of coup attempts and intrigues from within the military establishment, the CMSN Chairman turned increasingly autocratic, excluding other *junta* officers from power, and provoking discontent by frequently reshuffling the power hierarchy to prevent threats to his position.
On December 12, 1984, Col. Maaouya Ould Sid\'Ahmed Taya deposed Haidallah and declared himself Chairman of the CMSN. Like other rulers before him, he promised a swift transfer to democracy, but then made little of these promises.
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# History of Mauritania
## 1984 to present {#to_present}
The discord between conflicting visions of Mauritanian society as either black or Arab, again rose to the surface during the inter-communal violence that broke out in April 1989 (the \"1989 Events\"), when a Mauritania--Senegal border dispute escalated into violence between the two communities. Tens of thousands of black Mauritanians fled or were expelled from the country,[8](https://www.hrw.org/reports/1989/WR89/Mauritan.htm) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170213134011/https://www.hrw.org/reports/1989/WR89/Mauritan.htm |date=2017-02-13 }}`{=mediawiki} and many remain in Senegal as refugees. This is also where the black Mauritanian movement FLAM is based. Although tension has since subsided, the Arab-African racial tension remains an important feature of the political dialogue today. The country continues to experience ethnic tensions between its black minority population and the dominant Maure (Arab--Berber) populace. A significant number from both groups, however, seek a more diverse, pluralistic society.
Opposition parties were legalized, and a new Constitution approved in 1991 which put an end to formal military rule. However, Ould Taya\'s election wins were dismissed as fraudulent by both opposition groups and some external observers. In 1998, Mauritania became the third Arab country to recognize Israel, despite strong internal opposition.
In 2001, elections incorporated more safeguards against voter fraud, but opposition candidate (and former leader) Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidallah was nevertheless arrested prior to election day on charges of planning a coup, released the same day and rearrested after the election. Attempted military coups and unrest instigated by Islamist opponents of the regime marred the early years of the 21st century, and the Taya regime\'s heavy-handed crackdowns were criticized by human rights groups.
On June 8, 2003, a failed coup attempt was made against President Maaouya Ould Sid\'Ahmed Taya by forces unhappy with his imprisonment of Islamic leaders in the wake of the United States-led invasion of Iraq and his establishment of full diplomatic relations with Israel. The coup was suppressed after two days of heavy fighting in the capital when pro-Taya military forces arrived from the countryside. A number of Government officials were detained after the coup including the head of the Supreme Court, Mahfoud Ould Lemrabott, and the Secretary of State for Women\'s Affairs, Mintata Mint Hedeid. The coup leader, Saleh Ould Hanenna, a former Army major sacked for opposing Taya\'s pro-Israel policies, was not captured or killed during the coup, he initially escaped capture. (See this [BBC article](http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/2986016.stm) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040407223747/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/2986016.stm |date=2004-04-07 }}`{=mediawiki} on theories behind the coup.)
On August 3, 2005, the Mauritanian military, including members of the Presidential guard (BASEP), seized control of key points in the capital of Nouakchott, performing a coup against the Government of President Maaouya Ould Sid\'Ahmed Taya who was out of the country attending the funeral of Saudi King Fahd. The officers released the following statement:
*The national armed forces and security forces have unanimously decided to put a definitive end to the oppressive activities of the defunct authority, which our people have suffered from during the past years.* [(BBC)](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4741243.stm) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080807024632/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4741243.stm |date=2008-08-07 }}`{=mediawiki}
Taya was never able to return to the country and remains in exile. The new junta called itself the *Military Council for Justice and Democracy*, and democracy and rule of law. Col. Ely Ould Mohamed Vall emerged as leader at an early stage. Dissidents were released, and the political climate relaxed. A new constitution was approved in June 2006. Elections were held in March 2007, Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi was elected president and Vall stood down.
On August 6, 2008, Mauritania\'s presidential spokesman Abdoulaye Mamadouba said President Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi, Prime Minister Yahya Ould Ahmed El Waghef and the Interior minister were arrested by renegade Senior Mauritanian army officers, unknown troops and a group of generals and were held under house arrest at the Presidential palace in Nouakchott. In the apparently successful and bloodless coup d\'état, Abdallahi\'s daughter, Amal Mint Cheikh Abdallahi said: \"The security agents of the BASEP (Presidential Security Battalion) came to our home and took away my father.\" The coup plotters are top fired Mauritania\'s security forces, which include General Muhammad Ould \'Abd Al-\'Aziz, General Muhammad Ould Al-Ghazwani, General Philippe Swikri, and Brigadier-General (Aqid) Ahmed Ould Bakri. Mauritanian lawmaker, Mohammed Al Mukhtar, announced that \"many of the country\'s people were supporting the takeover attempt\" and the government is \"an authoritarian regime\" and that the president had \"marginalized the majority in parliament.\"
In August 2019, former General Mohamed Ould Ghazouani was sworn in as Mauritania's tenth president since its independence from France in 1960. His predecessor Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz ruled the country for 10 years. The ruling party Union for the Republic (UPR) was founded by Aziz in 2009.
In December 2023, former president Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz was arrested and sentenced to 5 years in prison for corruption.
In June 2024, President Ghazouani was re-elected for a second term
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# Demographics of Mauritania
Demographic features of the population of Mauritania (*التركيبة السكانية في موريتانيا*) include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects.
## Population
According to `{{UN_Population|source}}`{=mediawiki}, the total population was `{{UN_Population|Mauritania}}`{=mediawiki} in `{{UN_Population|Year}}`{=mediawiki}, compared to only 657 000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 39.9%, 57.4% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 2.7% was 65 years or older.
Total population (x 1000) Population aged 0--14 (%) Population aged 15--64 (%) Population aged 65+ (%)
------ --------------------------- --------------------------- ---------------------------- -------------------------
1950 657 43.8 54.8 1.4
1955 744 43.6 54.7 1.6
1960 854 44.3 53.8 1.8
1965 984 45.2 52.8 2.0
1970 1 134 45.8 52.1 2.2
1975 1 312 45.8 51.9 2.3
1980 1 518 45.6 51.9 2.4
1985 1 748 45.3 52.2 2.5
1990 1 996 44.9 52.5 2.6
1995 2 292 44.0 53.4 2.7
2000 2 643 42.7 54.6 2.7
2005 3 047 41.2 56.1 2.7
2010 3 460 39.9 57.4 2.7
### Structure of the population {#structure_of_the_population}
Structure of the population (Census 24.II.2013):
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ---------
Total 1 743 074 1 794 294 3 537 368 100
0--4 316 217 298 475 614 692 17.38
5--9 263 263 256 839 520 102 14.70
10--14 212 838 216 667 429 505 12.14
15--19 176 116 185 288 361 404 10.22
20--24 144 478 157 962 302 440 8.55
25--29 121 586 135 767 257 353 7.28
30--34 99 834 113 691 213 525 6.04
35--39 83 578 95 379 178 957 5.06
40--44 72 108 79 228 151 336 4.28
45--49 60 297 64 516 124 813 3.53
50--54 50 739 51 751 102 490 2.90
55--59 41 075 40 645 81 720 2.31
60--64 31 660 30 459 62 119 1.76
65--69 24 120 23 055 47 175 1.33
70--74 18 167 17 129 35 296 1.00
75--79 12 670 12 231 24 901 0.70
80--84 8 080 8 584 16 664 0.47
85+ 6 248 6 628 12 876 0.36
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 792 318 771 981 1 564 299 44.22
15--64 881 471 954 686 1 836 157 51.91
65+ 69 285 67 627 136 912 3.87
Population by Age Group (Estimates 1.VII.2016) (Data refer to national projections.):
Age Group Total \%
----------- ----------- ---------
Total 3 782 701 100
0--4 579 832 15.33
5--9 567 643 15.01
10--14 478 293 12.64
15--19 396 650 10.49
20--24 333 473 8.82
25--29 280 531 7.42
30--34 236 864 6.26
35--39 196 168 5.19
40--44 164 707 4.35
45--49 137 439 3.63
50--54 111 936 2.96
55--59 90 008 2.38
60--64 68 836 1.82
65--69 50 266 1.33
70--74 36 188 0.96
75--79 24 540 0.65
80+ 29 328 0.78
Age group Total Percent
0--14 1 625 768 42.98
15--64 2 016 611 53.31
65+ 140 322 3.71
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# Demographics of Mauritania
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
Registration of vital events in Mauritania is incomplete. The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.
Mid-year population (thousands) Live births (thousands) Deaths (thousands) Natural change (thousands) Crude birth rate (per 1000) Crude death rate (per 1000) Natural change (per 1000) Total fertility rate (TFR) Infant mortality (per 1000 live births) Life expectancy (in years)
------ --------------------------------- ------------------------- -------------------- ---------------------------- ----------------------------- ----------------------------- --------------------------- ---------------------------- ----------------------------------------- ----------------------------
1950 659 30 15 15 45.2 23.0 22.2 6.12 157.1 38.74
1951 673 31 15 15 45.3 22.5 22.8 6.13 155.0 39.29
1952 689 31 15 16 45.2 22.1 23.1 6.13 152.8 39.77
1953 705 32 15 16 45.2 21.8 23.4 6.13 150.7 40.21
1954 721 33 15 17 45.3 21.4 23.9 6.16 148.4 40.78
1955 739 34 16 18 45.4 21.0 24.4 6.18 146.1 41.41
1956 757 35 16 19 45.6 20.7 24.9 6.21 143.6 41.94
1957 776 36 16 20 45.8 20.4 25.4 6.24 141.1 42.50
1958 796 37 16 21 46.0 20.0 26.0 6.28 138.4 43.16
1959 816 38 16 22 46.1 19.6 26.6 6.32 135.7 43.88
1960 838 39 16 23 46.3 19.0 27.3 6.35 133.0 44.77
1961 862 40 16 24 46.6 18.6 28.0 6.40 130.1 45.44
1962 886 41 16 25 46.6 18.3 28.3 6.43 127.3 46.05
1963 911 43 16 26 46.7 17.9 28.8 6.48 124.5 46.69
1964 938 44 16 28 46.8 17.4 29.4 6.53 121.7 47.45
1965 966 45 16 29 46.9 17.0 29.9 6.59 118.9 48.06
1966 995 47 17 30 47.0 16.6 30.3 6.64 116.1 48.73
1967 1 025 48 17 31 46.8 16.2 30.6 6.67 113.3 49.37
1968 1 056 49 17 32 46.5 15.8 30.7 6.68 110.6 50.04
1969 1 089 50 17 34 46.3 15.4 30.9 6.69 108.4 50.63
1970 1 122 52 17 35 46.0 15.1 30.8 6.69 107.0 51.04
1971 1 156 53 17 36 45.6 14.9 30.8 6.69 106.2 51.39
1972 1 191 54 18 37 45.5 14.7 30.7 6.70 105.8 51.66
1973 1 227 56 18 38 45.3 14.6 30.7 6.70 105.4 51.90
1974 1 264 57 18 39 45.1 14.4 30.7 6.70 104.9 52.18
1975 1 302 59 18 40 44.9 14.1 30.8 6.68 104.0 52.65
1976 1 342 60 19 41 44.7 13.9 30.8 6.67 102.6 52.92
1977 1 381 62 19 43 44.6 13.6 30.9 6.68 100.7 53.37
1978 1 422 63 19 44 44.3 13.3 31.0 6.67 98.5 53.86
1979 1 464 64 19 45 43.8 12.9 30.9 6.65 96.2 54.47
1980 1 507 66 19 47 43.8 12.6 31.2 6.62 94.0 55.06
1981 1 552 68 19 49 43.7 12.2 31.5 6.58 91.8 55.66
1982 1 598 69 19 50 43.3 11.8 31.5 6.53 89.6 56.28
1983 1 646 71 19 52 42.9 11.6 31.4 6.48 87.2 56.68
1984 1 696 72 19 53 42.5 11.2 31.2 6.41 84.6 57.16
1985 1 746 73 19 54 41.9 10.9 31.0 6.34 81.8 57.58
1986 1 798 74 19 55 41.4 10.6 30.7 6.25 79.1 57.99
1987 1 851 76 19 57 41.0 10.3 30.7 6.16 76.5 58.58
1988 1 906 78 19 59 40.7 10.0 30.7 6.11 74.2 59.14
1989 1 955 80 19 61 40.7 9.8 30.9 6.08 72.6 59.32
1990 2 006 82 19 62 40.6 9.6 31.0 6.06 71.0 59.77
1991 2 066 84 20 64 40.6 9.5 31.1 6.04 70.1 59.94
1992 2 148 87 20 67 40.6 9.4 31.3 6.04 69.5 60.26
1993 2 237 93 21 72 41.5 9.4 32.1 6.04 69.1 60.38
1994 2 315 95 22 73 40.9 9.4 31.6 5.92 68.9 60.34
1995 2 380 97 22 75 40.7 9.4 31.3 5.85 68.9 60.26
1996 2 429 97 23 74 39.6 9.4 30.2 5.71 69.1 60.06
1997 2 484 97 23 74 39.0 9.2 29.8 5.66 68.9 60.45
1998 2 551 98 23 75 38.4 9.1 29.4 5.57 68.8 60.61
1999 2 621 100 24 77 38.2 9.0 29.3 5.54 68.7 60.82
2000 2 695 102 24 78 37.8 8.9 28.9 5.46 68.5 61.03
2001 2 762 104 24 80 37.5 8.8 28.7 5.38 68.2 61.19
2002 2 822 105 25 80 37.0 8.7 28.3 5.29 68.0 61.27
2003 2 883 106 25 81 36.7 8.6 28.1 5.23 67.7 61.35
2004 2 947 109 25 84 36.8 8.5 28.2 5.19 67.0 61.59
2005 3 012 112 26 86 36.9 8.5 28.4 5.19 66.3 61.66
2006 3 081 115 26 89 37.1 8.4 28.7 5.19 65.2 61.89
2007 3 154 117 26 91 37.1 8.3 28.8 5.15 64.1 62.23
2008 3 233 121 27 94 37.2 8.2 29.0 5.15 62.7 62.40
2009 3 323 123 27 95 36.9 8.2 28.7 5.08 61.3 62.80
2010 3 419 126 28 97 36.8 8.3 28.4 5.04 59.8 63.11
2011 3 524 129 30 99 36.7 8.5 28.3 5.03 58.5 63.35
2012 3 636 132 31 101 36.4 8.6 27.8 4.99 57.2 63.58
2013 3 743 134 32 102 35.8 8.7 27.2 4.94 55.8 63.91
2014 3 843 137 32 105 35.5 8.3 27.2 4.89 54.4 64.16
2015 3 946 139 32 107 35.2 8.0 27.2 4.81 53.0 64.49
2016 4 052 141 31 110 34.8 7.7 27.1 4.74 51.7 64.77
2017 4 160 143 31 112 34.4 7.4 27.0 4.66 50.3 65.08
2018 4 271 146 31 115 34.2 7.2 26.9 4.61 49.1 65.31
2019 4 384 148 31 117 33.7 7.0 26.7 4.52 47.8 65.69
2020 4 533 164 29 135 35.7 6.4 29.3 4.91 33.7 66.8
2021 4 667 167 30 138 35.3 6.3 29.1 4.85 32.7 66.8
2022 4 803 170 27 142 34.8 5.6 29.2 4.77 31.7 64.53
2023 4 948 173 28 145 34.4 5.5 28.9 4.70 30.8 68.5
### Demographic and Health Surveys {#demographic_and_health_surveys}
Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR):
Year Total Urban
------------ ------- ----------- -------
CBR TFR CBR TFR
2000--2001 32.1 4.7 (4.3) 31.9
2003--2004 4.6
2019--2021 35.5 5.2 (4.5) 30.3
Fertility data as of 2010 (DHS Program):
Zone Total fertility rate Percentage of women age 15-49 currently pregnant Mean number of children ever born to women age 40--49
------------ ---------------------- -------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------
Nouakchott 4.3 8.0 5.7
Sud-Est 5.0 10.4 5.2
Fleuve 5.1 8.5 6.0
Nord 4.6 7.1 6.5
Centre 4.0 6.7 6.1
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# Demographics of Mauritania
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
### Life expectancy {#life_expectancy}
+------------+---------------------+
| Period | Life expectancy in\ |
| | Years |
+============+=====================+
| 1950--1955 | 41.72 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1955--1960 | 45.19 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1960--1965 | 47.93 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1965--1970 | 50.28 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1970--1975 | 52.73 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1975--1980 | 55.76 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1980--1985 | 57.77 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1985--1990 | 58.89 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1990--1995 | 59.84 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1995--2000 | 60.27 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 2000--2005 | 61.32 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 2005--2010 | 62.64 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 2010--2015 | 63.43 |
+------------+---------------------+
## Religions
Muslim (official) 100%
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# Demographics of Mauritania
## Ethnic groups {#ethnic_groups}
40% Black Moors (Haratins), 30% sub-Saharan Mauritanians (non-Arabic speaking, largely resident in or originating from the Senegal River Valley, including Halpulaar, Fulani, Soninke, Wolof, Bambara, and Serer (est. 5000) ethnic groups 30%), and 30% White Moors (bidhanes).
## Languages
Arabic (official and national), French (widely used in media and among educated classes), Pulaar, Soninke, Wolof, and Serer
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# Politics of Mauritania
Mauritania is a presidential democracy, but has suffered from repeated military coups since its Independence in November 1960. For 18 years after independence, Mauritania was a one-party state under Moktar Ould Daddah. This was followed by decades of military rule. The first fully democratic presidential election in Mauritania occurred on 11 March 2007, which marked a transfer from military to civilian rule following the military coup in 2005. The election was won by Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi, who was ousted by another military coup in 2008 and replaced by general Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz. Mauritania underwent its first peaceful transition of power after the 2019 presidential election, although this was between two presidents of the ruling UPR party and former army generals.
Personalities have long exercised an important influence in the politics of Mauritania - the effective exercise of political power in the country depends on control over resources; perceived ability or integrity; and tribal, ethnic, family, and personal considerations. Conflict between white Moor, black Moor, and non-Moor ethnic groups, centering on language, land tenure, and other issues, continues to pose challenges to the idea of national unity.
## Political administration {#political_administration}
The government bureaucracy comprises traditional ministries, special agencies, and parastatal companies. The Ministry of Interior controls a system of regional governors and prefects modeled on the French system of local administration. Under this system, Mauritania has 13 regions (wilaya), including the capital district, Nouakchott.
Control remains tightly concentrated in the executive branch of the central government, but a series of national and municipal elections since 1992 have produced some limited decentralization.
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# Politics of Mauritania
## Political history {#political_history}
Mauritania achieved independence from the French colonial empire in 1960. After independence, President Moktar Ould Daddah, originally installed by the French, formalized Mauritania into a one-party state in 1964 with a new constitution, which set up an authoritarian presidential regime. Daddah\'s own Parti du Peuple Mauritanien (PPM) became the ruling organization. The President justified this decision on the grounds that he considered Mauritania unready for western-style multi-party democracy. Under this one-party constitution, Daddah was reelected in uncontested elections in 1966, 1971 and 1976. Daddah was ousted in a bloodless coup on July 10, 1978.
A committee of military officers governed Mauritania from July 1978 to April 1992. A popular referendum approved the current Constitution in July 1991.
### Maaouya Ould Sid\'Ahmed Taya\'s rule (1984-2005) {#maaouya_ould_sidahmed_tayas_rule_1984_2005}
The *Parti Républicain Démocratique et Social* (PRDS), led by President Maaouya Ould Sid\'Ahmed Taya, has dominated Mauritanian politics since the country\'s first multi-party elections in April 1992 following the approval by referendum of the current constitution in July 1991. President Taya, who won elections in 1992, 1997 and 2003, first became chief of state through a December 12, 1984, bloodless coup which made him Chairman of the committee of military officers that governed Mauritania from July 1978 to April 1992.
Political parties were legalized again in 1991. By April 1992, as civilian rule returned, 16 major political parties had been recognized; 12 major political parties were active in 2004. By April 1992, as civilian rule returned, 15 political parties had gained official recognition. Among the mostly small groupings, two main opposition parties emerged:
1. the Rally of Democratic Forces (RFD).
2. the Action for Change (AC)\--traditionally considered the party of the Haratines.
Most opposition parties boycotted the first legislative election in 1992, and for nearly a decade the Democratic and Social Republican Party (PRDS) dominated the Parliament. The opposition participated in municipal elections in January--February 1994 and in subsequent elections for the Senate, gaining representation at the local level as well as one seat in the Senate. Noting procedural changes and opposition gains in municipal and legislative contests, most local observers considered the October 2001 elections open and transparent. The opposition participated in municipal elections in January--February 1994 and subsequent Senate elections, most recently in April 2004, gaining representation at the local level as well as three seats in the Senate.
In October 2001, Mauritania held its third legislative and fifth municipal elections since the establishment of multi-party politics under the 1991 Constitution. In an effort to forestall the sort of widespread accusations of fraud and manipulation which had accompanied previous elections, the government introduced new safeguards, including published voter lists and a hard-to-falsify voter identification card. Reversing a trend of election boycotts, 15 opposition parties nominated candidates for more than 3,000 municipal posts and for the 81-member National Assembly. Four opposition parties won a combined 11 seats in the National Assembly and took 15% of the municipal posts. The ruling Democratic and Social Republican Party (PRDS), in conjunction with two coalition parties, won the remaining contests. See 2003 Mauritania election
Mauritania\'s presidential election, its third since adopting the democratic process in 1992, took place on November 7, 2003. Six candidates, including Mauritania\'s first female and first Haratine (former slave family) candidates, represented a wide variety of political goals and backgrounds. Incumbent President Maaouya Ould Sid\'Ahmed Taya won re-election with 67.02% of the popular vote, according to the Official figures, with ex-head-of-state Col. Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidalla finishing second.
Ould Sid\'Ahmed Taya recognized the State of Israel, and started cooperating with the United States in antiterrorism activities.
A group identifying itself as the Military Council for Justice and Democracy (CMJD) overthrew the Taya Government on 3 August 2005 during the absence of the President in Saudi Arabia for King Fahd\'s funeral. The military dictatorship said it would remain in power for two years in order to allow time for implementing democratic institutions.
### August 2005 military coup {#august_2005_military_coup}
In August 2005, a military coup led by Col. Ely Ould Mohamed Vall ended Maaouya Ould Sid\'Ahmed Taya\'s 21 years of strong-arm rule.
On August 3, the Mauritanian military, including members of the presidential guard (BASEP), seized control of key points in the capital of Nouakchott. They took advantage of President Taya\'s attendance at the funeral of Saudi King Fahd to organize the coup, which took place without loss of life. The officers, calling themselves the Military Council for Justice and Democracy, released the following statement:
: *The national armed forces and security forces have unanimously decided to put a definitive end to the oppressive activities of the defunct authority, which our people have suffered from during the past years.* [(BBC)](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4741243.stm)
The Military Council later issued another statement naming as president Col. Ould Mohamed Vall, Director of the national police force, the *Sûreté Nationale*, since 1987, and listing 16 other officers as members.
Col. Mohamed Vall was once regarded as a firm ally of the now-ousted president Sid\'Ahmed Taya, even aiding him in the original coup that brought him to power, and later serving as his security chief. This high-level betrayal of the former president suggests broad discontent within the branches of local government, which is further supported by the lack of bloodshed and the population\'s support of the rebel militaries.
Applauded by the Mauritanian people, but cautiously watched by the international community, the coup has since been generally accepted, while the military *junta* has promised to organize elections within two years.
Parliamentary and municipal elections were held on the 19 November 2006 [1](http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6165662.stm).
Israel\'s recognition by the Islamic Republic of Mauritania was maintained by the new regime.
### Dispute with Woodside Petroleum {#dispute_with_woodside_petroleum}
In February 2006, the new Mauritanian government denounced amendments to an oil contract made by former Leader Ould Taya with Woodside Petroleum, an Australian company. In 2004, Woodside had agreed to invest \$US 600 million in developing Mauritania\'s Chinguetti offshore oil project. The controversial amendments, which Mauritanian authorities declared had been signed \"outside the legal framework of normal practice, to the great detriment of our country\", could cost Mauritania up to \$200 million a year, according to *BBC News*. Signed by Woodside two weeks after the February 1, 2005, legislation authorizing the four amendments, they provided for a lower state quota in the *profit-oil*, and reduced taxes by 15 percent in certain zones. They also eased environmental constraints and extended the length and scope of the exploitation and exploration monopoly, among other measures.
The disputed amendments were signed by former Oil Minister Zeidane Ould Hmeida in February 2004 and March 2005. Hmeida was arrested in January 2006 on charges of \"serious crimes against the country\'s essential economic interests\".
Nouakchott\'s authorities declared that the government would likely seek international arbitration, which Woodside (which operated for Hardman, BG Group, Premier, ROC Oil, Fusion, Petronas, Dana Petroleum, Energy Africa and the Hydrocarbons Mauritanian Society) also contemplated.
Discovered in 2001, Chinguetti has proven reserves of about 120000000 oilbbl of oil. At the end of December 2005, authorities estimated that in 2006, the oil profits would be 47 billion *ouguiyas* (about US\$180 million) and represent a quarter of the state budget, according to *RFI*.
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# Politics of Mauritania
## Political history {#political_history}
### 2007 Presidential election {#presidential_election}
The first fully democratic Presidential election since 1960 occurred on 11 March 2007. The election is the final transfer from military to civilian rule following the military coup in 2005. This is the first time the president will have been selected by ballot in the country\'s history.
The election was won by Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi.
Slavery is still said to exist in Mauritania, some 100 years after slavery officially ended in the West and since it was officially abolished in the country in 1981.[2](https://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20070321/lf_nm/slavery_mauritania_dc_3)
### 2008 coup d\'état {#coup_détat}
On August 6, 2008, Mauritania\'s presidential spokesman Abdoulaye Mamadou Ba said President Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi, Prime Minister Yahya Ould Ahmed Waghef and the Interior minister, were arrested by renegade Senior Mauritanian army officers, unknown troops and a group of generals, and were held under house arrest at the Presidential palace in Nouakchott. In the apparently successful and bloodless coup d\'état, Abdallahi\'s daughter Amal Mint Cheikh Abdallahi said, \"The security agents of the BASEP (Presidential Security Battalion) came to our home and took away my father.\" The coup plotters are top fired Mauritania's security forces, which include General Muhammad Ould 'Abd Al-'Aziz, General Muhammad Ould Al-Ghazwani, General Philippe Swikri, and Brigadier General (Aqid) Ahmed Ould Bakri. Mauritanian lawmaker, Mohammed Al Mukhtar, announced that \"many of the country\'s people were supporting the takeover attempt and the government is \'an authoritarian regime\'\" and that the president had \"marginalized the majority in parliament.\"
### After the 2008 coup {#after_the_2008_coup}
In August 2019, former General Mohamed Ould Ghazouani was sworn in as Mauritania's tenth president since its independence from France in 1960. His predecessor Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz ran the African desert country for 10 years. The ruling party Union for the Republic (UPR) was founded by Aziz in 2009 and renamed to Equity Party in 2022. Mohamed Ould Ghazouani\'s victory in the 2019 Mauritanian presidential election was presented as having been the country\'s first peaceful transition of power since independence. In June 2024, President Ghazouani was re-elected for a second term.
## Executive branch {#executive_branch}
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# Politics of Mauritania
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
The Parliament (*Barlamane/Parlement*) has two chambers. The National Assembly (*Al Jamiya al-Wataniyah/Assemblée Nationale*) has 176 members, elected for a five-year term in single-seat constituencies. The Senate (*Majlis al-Shuyukh/Sénat*) has 56 members, 53 members elected for a six-year term by municipal councillors with one third renewed every two years and 3.
## Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
### Presidential elections {#presidential_elections}
{{#section-h:2019 Mauritanian presidential election\|Results}}
### Parliamentary elections {#parliamentary_elections}
## Administrative divisions {#administrative_divisions}
Mauritania is divided in 12 regions (regions, singular - region) and 1 capital district\*; Adrar, Assaba, Brakna, Dakhlet Nouadhibou, Gorgol, Guidimaka, Hodh Ech Chargui, Hodh El Gharbi, Inchiri, Nouakchott\*, Tagant, Tiris Zemmour, Trarza.
## International organization participation {#international_organization_participation}
ABEDA, ACCT (associate), ACP, AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, AMU, CAEU, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO (pending member), ILO, IMF, International Maritime Organization, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
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# Economy of Mauritania
The **economy of Mauritania** is still largely based on agriculture, mining and livestock, even though most of the nomads and many subsistence farmers were forced into the cities by recurring droughts in the 1970s and 1980s. Mauritania has extensive deposits of iron ore, which account for almost 50% of total exports. The decline in world demand for this ore, however, has led to cutbacks in production. With the current rise in metal prices, gold and copper mining companies are opening mines in the interior.
The nation\'s coastal waters are among the richest fishing areas in the world, but overexploitation by foreigners threatens this key source of revenue. The country\'s first deep water port opened near Nouakchott in 1986.
In recent years, drought and economic mismanagement have resulted in a buildup of foreign debt. In March 1999, the government signed an agreement with a joint World Bank-International Monetary Fund mission on a \$54 million enhanced structural adjustment facility (ESAF). The economic objectives have been set for 1999--2002. Privatization remains one of the key issues.
## Macro-economic trends {#macro_economic_trends}
This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Mauritania at market prices [estimated](http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/dbginim.cfm) by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Mauritanian Ouguiyas.
Year Gross Domestic Product US Dollar Exchange Inflation Index (2000=100)
------ ------------------------ -------------------- ----------------------------
1980 37,211 45.93 Ouguiyas 23
1985 60,197 77.07 Ouguiyas 36
1990 97,819 80.64 Ouguiyas 52
1995 158,443 129.76 Ouguiyas 73
2000 258,245 240.00 Ouguiyas 100
2005 514,642 265.55 Ouguiyas 144
[Current GDP per capita](https://web.archive.org/web/20080131140920/http://earthtrends.wri.org/text/economics-business/variable-638.html) of Mauritania grew 82% in the Sixties reaching a peak growth of 166% in the Seventies. But this proved unsustainable, and growth consequently scaled back to 14% in the Eighties. Finally, it shrank by 29% in the Nineties. Mean wages were \$0.97 per man-hour in 2009.
The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1990--2024.
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
| Year | GDP (in bil. US\$ PPP) | GDP per capita (in US\$ PPP) | GDP (in bil. US\$ nominal) | GDP growth\ | Inflation\ | Government debt\ |
| | | | | (real) | (in Percent) | (Percentage of GDP) |
+======+========================+==============================+============================+=============+==============+=====================+
| 1990 | 5.76 | 2,886 | 1.79 | \... | \... | \... |
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
| 1995 | 7.46 | 3,253 | 2.09 | 9.8% | 6.5% | \... |
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
| 2000 | 8.42 | 3,187 | 1.78 | −3.9% | 3.3% | 55.5% |
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
| 2005 | 11.55 | 3,790 | 2.94 | 8.6% | 12.1% | 71.1% |
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
| 2006 | 14.09 | 4,770 | 4.01 | 18.3% | 6.2% | 38.0% |
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
| 2007 | 14.18 | 4,672 | 4.33 | −2.0% | 7.3% | 61.5% |
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
| 2008 | 14.41 | 4,619 | 5.14 | −0.3% | 7.5% | 57.2% |
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
| 2009 | 14.51 | 4,532 | 4.73 | 0.1% | 2.1% | 54.3% |
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
| 2010 | 15.07 | 4,589 | 5.64 | 2.6% | 6.3% | 43.9% |
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
| 2011 | 16.03 | 4,756 | 6.78 | 4.2% | 5.7% | 38.8% |
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
| 2012 | 17.06 | 4,938 | 6.72 | 4.5% | 4.9% | 39.3% |
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
| 2013 | 18.07 | 5,107 | 7.33 | 4.2% | 4.1% | 40.7% |
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
| 2014 | 19.17 | 5,292 | 6.62 | 4.3% | 3.8% | 49.5% |
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
| 2015 | 20.38 | 5,500 | 6.18 | 5.4% | 0.5% | 59.9% |
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
| 2016 | 20.84 | 5,493 | 6.41 | 1.3% | 1.5% | 57.6% |
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
| 2017 | 22.54 | 5,807 | 6.83 | 6.3% | 2.3% | 55.7% |
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
| 2018 | 23.55 | 5,932 | 7.47 | 4.8% | 3.1% | 59.2% |
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
| 2019 | 25.06 | 6,176 | 7.89 | 3.1% | 2.3% | 57.7% |
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
| 2020 | 26.41 | 6,367 | 8.46 | −0.4% | 2.4% | 56.5% |
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
| 2021 | 27.64 | 6,518 | 9.13 | 0.7% | 3.6% | 54.5% |
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
| 2022 | 31.62 | 7,295 | 9.56 | 6.8% | 9.6% | 50.5% |
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
| 2023 | 34.89 | 7,875 | 10.65 | 6.5% | 4.9% | 48.2% |
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
| 2024 | 37.29 | 8,233 | 10.76 | 4.4% | 2.7% | 44.2% |
+------+------------------------+------------------------------+----------------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------------+
## Diversification
In 2007, mining industries accounted for well over 35 percent of the Mauritanian economy, with the fish industry so much as 54% (with big changes between these industries in the power relationship). Diversification of the economy into non-mining industries remains a long-term issue. Mauritania is a net importer of food, reportedly importing 70% of its domestic food needs.
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# Economy of Mauritania
## Natural Gas and the Tortue/Ahmeyim Project {#natural_gas_and_the_tortueahmeyim_project}
In 2015, Kosmos Energy made significant natural gas discoveries on the maritime border between Senegal and Mauritania, and in December 2016, it entered into partnership with British Petroleum. The two companies, along with Mauritanian and Senegalese governments and the two countries\' national oil companies, are optimistic about the potential of these gas discoveries. The Grand Tortue/Ahmeyim reserves are estimated at 15 trillion cubic feet. According to BP, \'that\'s equivalent to all of Africa\'s current gas production for nearly seven years.\' The production phase will begin in 2022, starting with 2.3 million tons annually.
## Dispute with Woodside Petroleum {#dispute_with_woodside_petroleum}
In February 2006, the new Mauritanian government denounced amendments to an oil contract made by former Leader Ould Taya with Woodside Petroleum, an Australian company. In 2004, Woodside had agreed to invest US\$600 million in developing Mauritania\'s Chinguetti offshore oil project. The controversial amendments, which Mauritanian authorities declared had been signed \"outside the legal framework of normal practice, to the great detriment of our country\", could cost Mauritania up to \$200 million a year, according to BBC News. Signed by Woodside two weeks after the February 1, 2005, legislation authorizing the four amendments, they provided for a lower state quota in the *profit-oil*, and reduced taxes by 15 percent in certain zones. They also eased environmental constraints and extended the length and scope of the exploitation and exploration monopoly, among other measures.
The disputed amendments were signed by former Oil Minister Zeidane Ould Hmeida in February 2004 and March 2005. Hmeida was arrested in January 2006 on charges of \"serious crimes against the country\'s essential economic interests\".
Nouakchott\'s authorities declared that the government would likely seek international arbitration, which Woodside (which operated for Hardman, BG Group, Premier Oil, ROC Oil, Fusion, Petronas, Dana Petroleum, Energy Africa and the Hydrocarbons Mauritanian Society) also contemplated.
Discovered in 2001, Chinguetti has proven reserves of about 120000000 oilbbl of oil. At the end of December 2005, authorities estimated that in 2006, the oil profits would be 47 billion *ouguiyas* (about US\$180 million) and represent a quarter of the state budget, according to *RFI*.
Some U.S. oil companies are alleged to be playing a part in Mauritania\'s oil related corruption.
## Electricity
Mauritania has 380 MW of generating capacity, of which 263 MW are fossil fuels and 117 MW are renewable. Its sunny weather makes solar power highly favorable, and eight plants totaling 16.6 MW were installed with the support of Masdar in 2016
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# Transport in Mauritania
Citizens of Mauritania have limited access to transportation. The single-line railroad serves mining interests with very occasional ad hoc passenger services. Apart from two infrastructural road developments there are few paved roads.`{{CIA}}`{=mediawiki}
## Railways
*Main article: Mauritania Railway*
- 717 km total of single track `{{RailGauge|1435mm}}`{=mediawiki} (standard gauge), owned and operated by a government mining company, Société Nationale Industrielle et Minière (National Mining and Industrial Company, SNIM). The railway goes from the mines at Zouérat and El Rhein, passes another mine at Fderik, and ends at the port of Nouadhibou/Cansado.
- One of the world\'s longest trains (up to 2.5 km long) runs here, with more than 200 wagons mainly transporting iron ore, and some carriages for passengers; alternatively, people sit on top of the iron piles.
There are no rail links with adjacent countries.
In 2008, a railway was proposed that would link Nouakchott with Tiguint, Mederdra, R\'Kiz, Leguatt, Leeleibatt, Menjem Boffal, Kaedi, and Bofal.
### Maps
-
-
### Timeline
#### 2007
- Sunday, August 5, 2007 - Sudan, China to Build \$630 Mln Mauritania Railway.
Sudan\'s Danfodio Holding and China\'s Transtech Engineering have signed an agreement to build a 460-million-euro (\$634 million) railway linking Mauritania\'s capital Nouakchott with southern phosphate deposits at Bofal. The 430 km line would run close to the southern frontier with Senegal. It is hoped that the new line would link with existing lines just across the border in Senegal, Mali. There is no through link to Burkina Faso. There are problems of choice of gauge.
#### 2008 {#section_1}
- May - 8 new EMD locomotives.
#### 2013 {#section_2}
- Proposed line for phosphate traffic - 430 km long railway line, Nouakchott and Kaedi, Mauritania\'s third city, through Tiguint, Mederdra, R\'Kiz, Leguatt, Leeleibatt and Menjem Boffal, is to be constructed in three years\' time.
#### 2014 {#section_3}
- Glencore Xstrata proposes branch lines to new mines at Askaf and Guelb El Aouj sharing infrastructure of SNIM.
## Motorway
There are 450 km of Motorway in Mauritania (in 2010), connecting Nouakchott to Nouadhibou along a coastal route. A motorway linking Nouakchott to Rosso is under construction (due for completion in 2012).
## Highways
Mauritania has only about 3000 km of surfaced roads, 710 km of unsurfaced roads, and 5,140 km of unimproved tracks.
The country\'s size and harsh climate make road maintenance and repair especially problematic. Overland travel is difficult and roadside assistance is almost nonexistent. Public transportation is not safe and road conditions in Mauritania are poor, particularly in the interior. Driving in Mauritania can be treacherous, and many Mauritanians drive without regard to traffic signs or rules. Roadway obstructions and hazards caused by drifting sand, animals, and poor roads often plague motorists.
### International highways {#international_highways}
The Cairo-Dakar Highway in the Trans-African Highway network passes through Mauritania, linking Nouakchott to Rabat, Tangiers, Algiers, and Tripoli. The section between the capital Nouakchott and the port of Nouadhibou was paved by 2018; only a few kilometers remain unpaved at the Moroccan border :fr:Transport en Mauritanie. From Dakar there are links throughout western Africa.
The north-western end of the Trans--West African Coastal Highway is considered by the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) to originate in Nouakchott.
## Waterways
- Mostly ferry traffic on the Senegal River.
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# Transport in Mauritania
## Ports and harbors {#ports_and_harbors}
### Atlantic Ocean {#atlantic_ocean}
(from north to south)
- Nouadhibou
- Nouakchott
### Senegal River {#senegal_river}
- Rosso
- Kaedi
- Bogue
## Merchant marine {#merchant_marine}
- None as of 2002.
## Airports (paved) {#airports_paved}
See Airports in Mauritania
- 9 in total (2002)
- 3 are of length 2,438 to 3,047 m
- 6 are of length 1,524 to 2,437 m
By city:
- Aioun el Atrouss
- Akjoujt
- Atar International
- Bir Moghrein
- Abbaye
- Boutilimit
- Dahara Airport
- Fderik
- Kaédi
- Kiffa
- Letfotar
- Néma
- Nouadhibou International
- Nouakchott (former airport)
- Nouakchott--Oumtounsy International
- Sélibaby
- Tamchakett
- Tichitt
- Tidjikja
- Timbedra
- Tazadit
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# Demographics of Mayotte
Demographic features of the population of Mayotte include population density, ethnicity, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
## Population
Mayotte\'s population density went from 62 persons per square kilometer in 1958 to 829 per square kilometer in 2023. Its capital, Dzaoudzi had a population of 5,865 according to the 1985 census; the island\'s largest town, Mamoudzou, had 12,026 people.
### Age structure {#age_structure}
Population by Sex and Age Group (Census 05.IX.2017) (Data from the main operation.):
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- --------- --------- --------- ---------
Total 122 261 134 257 256 518 100
0--4 20 359 19 946 40 305 15.71
5--9 18 523 19 126 37 649 14.68
10--14 16 910 17 392 34 302 13.37
15--19 12 391 13 234 25 625 9.99
20--24 6 959 9 583 16 542 6.45
25--29 6 882 10 211 17 093 6.66
30--34 7 252 10 307 17 559 6.85
35--39 7 561 9 469 17 030 6.64
40--44 6 723 7 574 14 297 5.57
45--49 6 064 5 443 11 507 4.49
50--54 3 823 3 653 7 476 2.91
55--59 3 142 2 921 6 063 2.36
60--64 2 231 1 981 4 212 1.64
65-69 1 540 1 344 2 884 1.12
70-74 788 842 1 630 0.64
75-79 546 600 1 146 0.45
80-84 315 318 633 0.25
85-89 143 179 322 0.13
90-94 58 63 121 0.05
95-99 30 37 67 0.03
100+ 21 32 53 0.02
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 55 792 56 464 112 256 43.76
15--64 63 028 74 378 137 406 53.57
65+ 3 441 3 415 6 856 2.67
## Births and deaths {#births_and_deaths}
Year Population Live births Deaths Natural increase Crude birth rate Crude death rate Rate of natural increase TFR
------ ------------ ------------- -------- ------------------ ------------------ ------------------ -------------------------- ------
2007 186,452 7,658 587 7,071 41.1 3.1 38.0
2014 223,713 7,306 590 6,716 32.1 2.6 29.5 4.12
2015 232,189 8,997 636 8,361 38.0 2.7 35.3 4.87
2016 240,987 9,496 705 8,791 38.7 2.9 35.8 4.95
2017 250,143 9,762 735 9,027 38.3 2.9 35.4 4.92
2018 259,621 9,590 758 8,832 36.2 2.9 33.3 4.66
2019 269,579 9,768 777 8,991 35.6 2.8 33.8 4.58
2020 279,696 9,184 967 8,217 32.3 3.4 28.9 4.16
2021 289,039 10,613 1,144 9,469 36.1 3.9 32.2 4.65
2022 299,634 10,773 970 9,803 35.3 3.2 32.1 4.55
2023 310,199 10,278 958 9,320 32.6 3.0 29.6 4.21
2024 320,282 27.7 3.1 24.6 3
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# Politics of Mayotte
The **politics of Mayotte** takes place in a framework of a French overseas region and department, until 2011 an overseas collectivity. Local politics takes place in a parliamentary representative democratic setting whereby the President of the General Council is the head of government, of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. The status of Mayotte changed in 2001 towards one very close to the status of the *départements* of mainland France, with the particular designation of *collectivité départementale*, although the island is still claimed by the Comoros. This change was approved by 73% in a referendum on Mayotte. After the constitutional reform of 2003 it became a *collectivité d\'outre-mer* while keeping the title *collectivité départementale de Mayotte*. Mayotte became an overseas department of France (*département d\'outre-mer*, DOM) on 31 March 2011 following the result of the March 2009 Mahoran status referendum, which was overwhelmingly approved by around 95% of voters.
## Executive branch {#executive_branch}
The head of state is the President of France as represented by prefect Thierry Suquet. The head of government is President of the General Council Soibahadine Ibrahim Ramadani.
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
The General Council (Conseil Général) has 19 members, elected for a three-year term in single seat constituencies. The island is represented by one deputy in the National Assembly of France
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# Telecommunications in Mayotte
There are **telecommunications in Mayotte**.
Vivendi Universal had small telecommunications networks in Mayotte in 2013.
## Telephones
The number of telephones was 400 in 1981 and 450 by 1989. The number of telephone main lines in use was 9,314 in 1997 and 10,000 in 2001 and 2002.
The number of mobile cellular phones was 21,700 in 2002 and 48,100 in 2004.
In 2001, the telephone system was small, and it was administered by French Department of Posts and Telecommunications. The international telephone system included microwave radio relay and HF radiotelephone communications to Comoros and other international connections. The international country code is 269.
## Radio
In 1998, there was one AM radio station.
The number of FM radio stations was four in 1998 and five in 2001.
## Television
Television broadcasting began in 1986 with RFO Mayotte (as it was then known). There were three television broadcast stations in 1997 and 2001. There were 3,500 televisions in 1994.
## Internet
The country code for the top-level domain is .yt.
There was one internet host in 2006
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# History of Moldova
The **history of Moldova** spans prehistoric cultures, ancient and medieval empires, and periods of foreign rule and modern independence.
Evidence of human habitation dates back 800,000--1.2 million years, with significant developments in agriculture, pottery, and settlement during the Neolithic and Bronze Ages. In antiquity, Moldova\'s location made it a crossroads for invasions by the Scythians, Goths, Huns, and other tribes, followed by periods of Roman and Byzantine control. The medieval Principality of Moldavia emerged in the 1350s, and was the medieval precursor of modern Moldova and Romania. It reached prominence under rulers like Stephen the Great before becoming a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire from 1538, until the 19th century.
In 1812, following one of several Russian--Turkish wars, the eastern half of the principality, Bessarabia, was annexed by the Russian Empire, marking the beginning of Russian influence in the region. In 1918, Bessarabia briefly became independent as the Moldavian Democratic Republic and, following the decision of the Parliament (Sfatul Țării), united with Romania. During the Second World War it was occupied by the Soviet Union which reclaimed it from Romania. It joined the Union in 1940 as the Moldavian SSR. During this period, policies of Russification and economic transformation deeply affected the region.
The dissolution of the USSR in 1991 led to declared independence, followed by the Transnistria War in 1992, a conflict that left the Transnistrian region as a de facto independent state. Moldova continues to navigate a complex relationship between pro-Western and pro-Russian factions. In recent years, it has pursued closer ties with the European Union, submitting a formal membership application in 2022.
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# History of Moldova
## Prehistory
In 2010, Oldowan flint tools were discovered at Dubasari on the lower Dniester that are 800,000--1.2 million years old demonstrating that early humans were present in Moldova during the early Paleolithic. During prehistoric times there was a succession of cultures that flourished in the land of present-day Moldova from the end of the ice age up through the Neolithic Age, the Copper Age, the Bronze Age, and the beginning of the Iron Age, when historical records begin to be made about the people who lived in these lands. These cultures included the Linear Pottery culture (ca. 5500--4500 BC), the Cucuteni--Trypillian culture (ca. 5500--2750 BC), and the Yamna culture (ca. 3600--2300 BC). During this period of time many innovations and advancements were made, including the practice of agriculture, animal husbandry, kiln-fired pottery, weaving, and the formation of large settlements and towns. Indeed, during the Cucuteni--Trypillian Culture, some of the settlements in this area were larger than anywhere on Earth at the time, and they predate even the earliest towns of Sumer in the Mesopotamia. The area, stretching from the Dnieper River in the east to the Iron Gate of the Danube in the west (which included the land now in Moldova), had a civilization as highly advanced as anywhere else on Earth during the Neolithic period.
The question as to why this area did not remain at the forefront of technological and social development lies in the subsequent history of its geographical location. At the end of the mostly peaceful Neolithic period, this area became a highway for invaders from the east moving into Europe. By the time the historical written record begins to cover this area, it has already seen a number of invasions sweep over it, leaving social and political upheaval in their wake. This trend was to continue on a fairly regular basis up until the 20th century. With so much destruction, it was difficult for the residents of this area to recover from each successive invasion before encountering the next.
## Antiquity and early Middle Ages {#antiquity_and_early_middle_ages}
In recorded antiquity Moldova\'s territory was inhabited by several tribes, mainly by Akatziri, and at different periods also by Bastarnae, Scythians and Sarmatians. Between the 1st and 7th centuries AD, the south was intermittently under the Roman, then Byzantine Empires. Due to its strategic location on a route between Asia and Europe, Moldova was repeatedly invaded by, among others, the Goths, Huns, Avars, Magyars, Pechenegs, Cumans, and the Mongols. Csaba\'s Khalyzian wife, mother of Ed and Edumen, was from the area. Although the First Bulgarian Empire ruled parts of Moldavia between the reign of Krum to Presian I, the territory of Moldova itself was never conquered by them. The Bulanids ruled the area from the 8th century to the 10th century. Constantine Porphyrogenitus in De Administrando Imperio refers to the territory specifically as Atelkuzu (Ατελκουζου), the Black Cuman land of the Khalyzians and Pechenegs. It was part of the Principality of Halych in the 12th and 13th centuries before falling to the Golden Horde in 1241 until the early 14th century. The colonists of the Genoa Republic also left a trace in this region. The Hypatian Chronicle mentioned the name of the Bolokhoveni (the 13th century) a purportedly Romanian population connected to Voloch, the East Slavic exonym of the Romanians. Alexandru V. Boldur identified the Bolohoveni as Romanians.
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# History of Moldova
## Principality of Moldavia {#principality_of_moldavia}
*Main article: Moldavia*
The medieval Principality of Moldavia was established in 1359 and covered the so-called Carpathian--Danube--Dniester area, stretching from Transylvania in the west to the Dniester River in the east. Its territory comprised the present-day territory of the Republic of Moldova, the eastern 8 of the 41 counties of Romania (a region still called *Moldova* by the local population), the Chernivtsi oblast and Budjak region of Ukraine. Its nucleus was in the northwestern part, the *Țara de Sus* (\"Upper Land\"), part of which later became known as Bukovina. The name of the principality originates from the Moldova River.
The foundation of Moldavia is attributed to the Vlach (an old exonym for Romanian) noblemen Dragoş of Bedeu, from the Voivodeship of Maramureș, who had been ordered in 1343 (1285 after other sources) by the Hungarian king to establish a defense for the historic Kingdom of Hungary against the Tatars, and Bogdan I of Cuhea, another Romanian from Maramureș, who became the first independent prince of Moldavia, when he rejected Hungarian authority in 1359. Bogdan I left his lands from Maramureș with his army and part of the Romanian population, by crossing the mountains to the east, after entering in conflict with the Hungarian rulers. From the 14th century onward, Turkic documents would refer to Moldova as \"Kara-Boğdan\", or \"Black Bogdan\", thanks to the success of his dynasty.
Moldova also had rich political relations with Poland. In 1387, the great hospodar of Moldova, Peter I, paid a feudal tribute to the Polish king. For the next one hundred and fifty years, relations between Moldova and Poland were periodically friendly, and only occasional conflicts.
The greatest Moldavian personality was prince Stephen the Great, who ruled from 1457 to 1504. He fought the Hungarian Kingdom, the Polish Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire, with success, for the most part of his rule.
Stephen III was succeeded by increasingly weaker princes, and in 1538 Moldavia became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, to which it owed a percentage of the internal revenue, that in time rose to 10%. Moldavia was forbidden to have foreign relations to the detriment of the Ottoman Empire (although at times the country managed to circumvent this interdiction), but was allowed internal autonomy, including sole authority over foreign trade. Turks were legally forbidden to own land or build religious establishments in Moldavia. In 1574, a major uprising took place there under the treachery of John III the Terrible. Despite a number of successes, he eventually died in the Battle of Cahul and the uprising was suppressed. Prince Vasile Lupu had secured the Moldavian throne in 1634 after a series of complicated intrigues, and managed to hold it for twenty years. Lupu was a capable administrator and a brilliant financier, and soon was the richest man in the Christian East. Judiciously placed gifts kept him on good terms with the Ottoman authorities.
In the 18th century, the territory of Moldavia often became a transit or war zone during conflicts between the Ottomans, Austrians, and Russians. In 1774, following a victory in a war against the Ottomans, Russia occupied Christian Moldavia, still a vassal of the Ottoman Empire at the time. In 1775, the Habsburg monarchy annexed ca 11% of the territory of Moldavia, which became known as Bukovina. By the Treaty of Bucharest following the Russo-Turkish War (1806--1812), Russia had annexed further 50% of its territory, which became known as Bessarabia.
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# History of Moldova
## Part of the Russian Empire {#part_of_the_russian_empire}
*Main article: Bessarabia Governorate*
With the notable exception of Transnistria, the territory of today\'s Republic of Moldova covers most of the historical region of Bessarabia. Until 1812, the term \"Bessarabia\" referred to the region between the Danube, Dniester, the Black Sea shores, and the Upper Trajan Wall, slightly larger than what today is called Budjak. By the Treaty of Bucharest of May 28, 1812 between the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire --- concluding the Russo-Turkish War (1806--1812) --- the latter annexed the eastern half of the Principality of Moldavia. That region was then called *Bessarabia*.
Initially, after being annexed by the Russian Empire, Bessarabia enjoyed a period of local autonomy until 1828. Organized as an imperial district (*oblast*), it was governed by a \"provisional government\" with two departments: a civil administration and a religious administration, the former led by the aged Moldavian boyar Scarlat Sturdza, the latter -- by the archbishop Gavriil Bănulescu-Bodoni. On top of these was the Russian military administration of Governor General Harting. However, already in 1813, the civil administration was handed to the Governor General. In 1818, reform-minded Russian tsar Alexander I passed a *Settlement of the establishment of the region of Bessarabia* which divided the legal power between the tsar-appointed Governor General (Bakhmetiev) and a 10-member *High Council of the Region* with 4 members appointed by the tsar and 6 elected by the local nobility. In lieu of the older 12 *lands*, the region was divided into 6, later 9 counties. In 1828 however, the conservative tsar Nikolai I abrogated the *Settlement* and passed a new regulation which endowed the Governor General with supreme power, with the regional council having only advisory functions and meeting twice a year. Article 63 of the regulation stated that all administrative personnel must know and perform their duties in Russian. Nevertheless, Romanian language would occasionally appear in documents up to 1854.
At the end of the Crimean War, in 1856, by the Treaty of Paris, the southern parts of Bessarabia (including a part of Budjak) were returned to Moldavia, which organized the territory into the districts of Cahul, Bolgrad and Ismail. Consequently, Russia lost access to the Danube river. In 1859, the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia united and formed the Romanian United Principalities, a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire.
In 1870, the institution of zemstva was instated in the Bessarabian oblast. Cities, communes, counties, and the entire region would elect each a local council representing noblemen, merchants and peasants. They had substantial authority in economic and sanitary areas, including roads, posts, food, public safety and education. On the other hand, political (including justice courts of all levels) and cultural matters remained an exclusive domain of the Governor General and were used as a vehicle of Russification. With the accomplishment of these introductions, in 1871, Bessarabia was transformed into a governorate.
The defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War (1877--1878) and the subsequent signing of the Treaty of Berlin granted independence to Romania. Although the treaty of alliance between Romania and Russia specified that Russia would defend the territorial integrity of Romania and not claim any part of Romania at the end of the war, the southern part of Bessarabia was re-annexed to Russia. In exchange, Romania was given Dobruja, which was at the time part of the Ottoman Empire.
Public education was entrusted to the religious establishment of the region, which since 1821 had only Russian archbishops, and later also to the zemstvos. Dimitrie Sulima (Archbishop in 1821--1855), and Antonie Shokotov (1855--1871) allowed the parallel usage of both Romanian and Russian in church, and did not take any measures to infringe upon the linguistic specifics of the region. With the appointment of Pavel Lebedev (1871--1882), the situation changed radically, and the language of the locals was soon purged from the church. To prevent the printing of religious literature in Romanian, Lebedev closed down the printing press in Chișinău, collected from the region and burned the already printed books in Romanian (in the Cyrillic alphabet). The following archbishops Sergey Lapidevsky, Isakyi Polozensky, Neofit Novodchikov eased some of Lebedev\'s measures to help quell the serious dissatisfaction of the population. The next Archbishop Iakov Pyatnitsky (1898--1904) discovered that his desire to popularize a Christian culture and a moral education faced a language barrier, and in 1900 convinced the Russian High Synod to allow the publication of religious pamphlets in Romanian, while his follower Archbishop Vladimir allowed the printing of books, and from 1908 even of a regular religious journal \"Luminătorul\" by Constantin Popovici and Gurie Grosu. The last Russian Archbishops, Serafim Chichyagov (1908--1914), Platon (1914--1915) and Anastasius (1915--1918) tried to preserve the privileged status of the Russian language in the church in Bessarabia, but did not introduce any new anti-Romanian measures. In 1918, after the installation of the Romanian administration in Bessarabia, Archbishop Anastasius refused to subordinate his eparchy to the Romanian Orthodox Church, and was forced into exile. The new authorities entrusted the archbishopric to the Bishop Nicodem de Huși from Romania, who appointed a local Archbishop Dionisie Erhan. Then the Clerical Congress on February 21, 1920, elected Gurie Botoșăneanu as the highest church official in Bessarabia, which afterwards was raised from Archbishop to Metropolitan.
Under the protection of Gavriil Bănulescu-Bodoni and Dimitrie Sulima a theological school and a seminary were opened in Chișinău, and public schools throughout the region: in the cities of Chișinău, Hotin, Cetatea Albă, Briceni, Bender, Bălți, Cahul, Soroca, Orhei, at the monasteries of Dobrușa and Hârjauca, and even in several villages (Rezeni, Mereni, Volcineț, Nisporeni, Hârtop). In 1835, the tsarist authorities declared a 7-year deadline to transfer the education from Romanian to Russian. Although the measure was implemented more gradually, since 1867, Romanian was purged entirely from the education. This had the effect of keeping the peasant population of Bessarabia backward, as witnessed by the fact that in 1912 Moldavians had a literacy rate of only 10.5%, lowest among all ethnic groups of the region (63% for Bessarabian Germans, 50% for Bessarabian Jews, 40% for Russians, 31% for Bessarabian Bulgarians), with a record low 1.7% literacy rate for Moldavian women. Of the 1709 primary schools in Bessarabia in 1912, none was in the language of the main ethnic group.
After 1812, the newly installed Russian authorities expelled the large Nogai Tatar population of Budjak (Little Tartary), and encouraged the settlement of Moldavians, Wallachians, Bulgarians, Ukrainians and others through various fiscal facilities and exemption from military service. The colonization was generated by the need to better exploit the resources of the land, and by the absence of serfdom in Bessarabia. German colonists from Switzerland (canton Lausanne), France, and Germany (Württemberg) settled in 27 localities (most newly settled) in Budjak, and by 1856 Bessarabian Germans were 42,216. Russian veterans of the 1828--1829 war with the Ottomans were settled in 10 localities in Budjak, and three other localities were settled by Cossacks from Dobrudja (which got there from the Dniepr region some 50 years earlier). Bessarabian Bulgarians and Gagauz arrived from modern eastern Bulgaria as early as the second half of the 18th century. In 1817, they numbered 482 families in 12 localities, in 1856 -- 115,000 people in 43 localities. Ukrainians had arrived Bessarabia since before 1812, and already in the 1820s they made up one third of the population of the most northern Hotin county. In the following decades more Ukrainians settled throughout the northern part of Bessarabia from Galicia and Podolia. Jews from Galicia, Podolia and Poland also settled in Bessarabia in the 19th century, but mostly in the cities and fairs; in some of these they eventually became a plurality. In 1856, there were 78,751 Bessarabian Jews and according to the Imperial Russian census of 1897, the capital Kishinev had a Jewish population of 50,000, or 46%, out of a total of approximately 110,000. There was even an attempt by the Russian authorities to create 16 Jewish agricultural colonies, where 10,589 people would settle. However within less than 2 generations, most of them sold the land to the local Moldavians and moved to the cities and fairs. The various population movements saw an increase of the Slavic population to more than a fifth of the total population by 1920, while the proportion of the Moldovan population steadily decreased. In absence of any official records on ethnic distribution until the late 19th century, various figures for the ethnic proportions of the region have been advanced. Thus, in the 1920s Romanian historian Ion Nistor alleged that, at the beginning of the Russian administration, Moldavians represented 86% of the population. While according to official statistics speakers of Moldovan and Romanian accounted for 47.8% in 1897, some authors proposed figures as high as 70% for the beginning of the 20th century.
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# History of Moldova
## Moldavian Democratic Republic and Union with Romania {#moldavian_democratic_republic_and_union_with_romania}
*Main article: Sfatul Țării, Moldavian Democratic Republic, Union of Bessarabia with Romania, Bessarabian question, Greater Romania*
After the Russian Revolution of 1905, a Romanian nationalist movement started to develop in Bessarabia. While it received a setback in 1906--1907, the movement re-emerged even stronger in 1917.
To quell the chaos brought about by the Russian revolutions of February and October 1917, a national council, Sfatul Țării, was established in Bessarabia, with 120 members elected in county meetings of peasants, and by political and professional organizations from Bessarabia. On December 15, 1917, the Council proclaimed the Moldavian Democratic Republic, as part of the Russian Republic, then formed the government of Moldavia. With the approval of the Allies and the Russian White general Dmitry Shcherbachev, commander-in-chief of the Russian forces on the Romanian Front, on January 26, 1918, Romanian troops entered Bessarabia, ostensibly as a temporary measure to maintain security, which had deteriorated due to large numbers of deserters from the Russian Army. While Romanian historiography generally asserts the intervention was done on the request of Sfatul Țării, the presence of the Romanian army in Bessarabia was protested by some of the republic\'s leaders, notably Ion Inculeț, president of *Sfatul Țării* and Pantelimon Erhan, head of the provisional Moldavian executive protesting against it. In particular they feared that big land owners-dominated Romanian Government could use the troops to prevent the envisaged Agrarian reform, a cornerstone priority of the Bessarabian government.
After this, the Council declared the independence of the Moldavian Democratic Republic on `{{OldStyleDate|February 6|1918|January 24}}`{=mediawiki}. Under pressure from the Romanian army, on `{{OldStyleDate|April 9|1918|March 27}}`{=mediawiki}, Sfatul Țării, by a vote of 86 to 3, with 36 abstentions, approved a conditional Union of Bessarabia with Romania. Conditions included territorial autonomy of Bessarabia, an agrarian reform, respect for human freedoms and general amnesty. Nevertheless, as early as the summer of 1918 the Romanian government began encroaching on the existing forms of local autonomy. Thus, the members of the zemstvos were appointed by royal decree, rather than being elected, as had been the case during the Russian rule. The province was subordinated to a royal-appointed General Commissar, and *Sfatul Țării* was relegated to a consultative position. Furthermore, the state of siege was declared throughout Bessarabia and censorship was instated. Under the pressure of the Romanian central government, worried about the growing dissatisfaction with its administration of the region and the strengthening of the autonomist current, the conditions were nominally dropped by the *Sfatul Țării* in December 1918. The vote was taken in the presence of only 44 of the 125 members, or, according to other sources, 48 of 160; lacking a quorum, the vote was judged to be illegitimate by some.
The union was recognized by Britain, France and Italy, but not by the Soviet government, which claimed the area as the Bessarabian Soviet Socialist Republic, and argued the union was made under conditions of Romanian military occupation by a Council that had not been elected by the people of Bessarabia in elections.
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