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# Middle Ages
## Late Middle Ages {#late_middle_ages}
### Controversy within the Church {#controversy_within_the_church}
During the tumultuous 14th century, disputes within the leadership of the Church led to the Avignon Papacy of 1309--1376, also called the \"Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy\" (a reference to the Babylonian captivity of the Jews), and then to the Great Schism, lasting from 1378 to 1418, when there were two and later three rival popes, each supported by several states. Ecclesiastical officials convened at the Council of Constance in 1414, and in the following year the council deposed one of the rival popes leaving only two claimants. Further depositions followed, and in November 1417, the council elected Martin V (pope 1417--1431) as pope.
Besides the schism, the Western Church was riven by theological controversies, some of which became heresies. John Wycliffe (d. 1384), an English theologian, was condemned as a heretic in 1415 for teaching that the laity should have access to the text of the Bible as well as for holding views on the Eucharist that were contrary to Church doctrine. Wycliffe\'s teachings influenced two of the major heretical movements of the later Middle Ages: Lollardy in England and Hussitism in Bohemia. The Bohemian movement initiated with the teaching of Jan Hus, who was burned at the stake in 1415 after being condemned as a heretic by the Council of Constance. The Hussite Church, although the target of a crusade, survived beyond the Middle Ages. Other heresies were manufactured, such as the accusations against the Knights Templar that resulted in their suppression in 1312, and the division of their great wealth between the French King Philip IV (r. 1285--1314) and the Hospitallers.
The papacy further refined the practice in the Mass in the Late Middle Ages, holding that the clergy alone was allowed to partake of the wine in the Eucharist. This further distanced the secular laity from the clergy. The laity continued the practices of pilgrimages, veneration of relics, and belief in the power of the Devil. Mystics such as Meister Eckhart (d. 1327) and Thomas à Kempis (d. 1471) wrote works that taught the laity to focus on their inner spiritual life, which laid the groundwork for the Protestant Reformation. Besides mysticism, belief in witches and witchcraft became widespread. By the late 15th century, the Church had begun to lend credence to populist fears of witchcraft with its condemnation of witches in 1484 and the publication in 1486 of the *Malleus Maleficarum*, the most popular handbook for witch-hunters.
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# Middle Ages
## Late Middle Ages {#late_middle_ages}
### Scholars, intellectuals, and exploration {#scholars_intellectuals_and_exploration}
During the Later Middle Ages, theologians such as John Duns Scotus (d. 1308) and William of Ockham (d. c. 1348) led a reaction against intellectualist scholasticism, objecting to the application of reason to faith. Their efforts undermined the prevailing Platonic idea of universals. Ockham\'s insistence that reason operates independently of faith allowed science to be separated from theology and philosophy. Legal studies were marked by the steady advance of Roman law into areas of jurisprudence previously governed by customary law. England was the lone exception to this trend, where the common law remained pre-eminent. Other countries codified their laws; legal codes were promulgated in Castile, Poland, and Lithuania.
Education remained mostly focused on the training of future clergy. The basic learning of the letters and numbers remained the province of the family or a village priest, but the secondary subjects of the trivium---grammar, rhetoric, logic---were studied in cathedral schools or schools provided by cities. Commercial secondary schools spread, and some Italian towns had more than one such enterprise. Universities also spread throughout Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries. Lay literacy rates rose but were still low; one estimate gave a literacy rate of 10 percent of males and 1 percent of females in 1500.
The publication of vernacular literature increased, with Dante (d. 1321), Petrarch (d. 1374) and Giovanni Boccaccio (d. 1375) in 14th-century Italy, Geoffrey Chaucer (d. 1400) and William Langland (d. c. 1386) in England, and François Villon (d. 1464) and Christine de Pizan (d. c. 1430) in France. Much literature remained religious, and although a great deal of it continued to be written in Latin, a new demand developed for saints\' lives and other devotional tracts in the vernacular languages. This was fed by the growth of the *Devotio Moderna* movement, most prominently in the formation of the Brethren of the Common Life, but also in the works of German mystics such as Meister Eckhart and Johannes Tauler (d. 1361). Theatre also developed in the guise of miracle plays put on by the Church. At the end of the period, the development of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in about 1450 led to the establishment of publishing houses throughout Europe by 1500.
In the early 15th century, the countries of the Iberian Peninsula began to sponsor exploration beyond the boundaries of Europe. Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal (d. 1460) sent expeditions that discovered the Canary Islands, the Azores, and Cape Verde during his lifetime. After his death, exploration continued; Bartolomeu Dias (d. 1500) went around the Cape of Good Hope in 1486, and Vasco da Gama (d. 1524) sailed around Africa to India in 1498. The combined Spanish monarchies of Castile and Aragon sponsored the voyage of exploration by Christopher Columbus (d. 1506) in 1492 that discovered the Americas. The English crown under Henry VII sponsored the voyage of John Cabot (d. 1498) in 1497, which landed on Cape Breton Island.
### Technological and military developments {#technological_and_military_developments}
One of the major developments in the military sphere during the Late Middle Ages was the increased use of infantry and light cavalry. The English also employed longbowmen, but other countries were unable to create similar forces with the same success. Armour continued to advance, spurred by the increasing power of crossbows, and plate armour was developed to protect soldiers from crossbows as well as the hand-held guns that were developed. Pole arms reached new prominence with the development of the Flemish and Swiss infantry armed with pikes and other long spears.
In agriculture, the increased usage of sheep with long-fibred wool allowed a stronger thread to be spun. In addition, the spinning wheel replaced the traditional distaff for spinning wool, tripling production. A less technological refinement that still greatly affected daily life was the use of buttons as closures for garments, which allowed for better fitting without having to lace clothing on the wearer. Windmills were refined with the creation of the tower mill, allowing the upper part of the windmill to be spun around to face the direction from which the wind was blowing. The blast furnace appeared around 1350 in Sweden, increasing the quantity of iron produced and improving its quality. The first patent law in 1447 in Venice protected the rights of inventors to their inventions.
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# Middle Ages
## Late Middle Ages {#late_middle_ages}
### Late medieval art and architecture {#late_medieval_art_and_architecture}
thumb\|upright=0.8\|left\|February scene from the 15th-century illuminated manuscript Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry
The Late Middle Ages in Europe correspond to Italy\'s Trecento and Early Renaissance cultural periods. Northern Europe and Spain continued to use Gothic styles, which became increasingly elaborate in the 15th century until almost the end. International Gothic was a courtly style that reached much of Europe in the decades around 1400, producing masterpieces such as the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry. All over Europe secular art continued to increase in quantity and quality. In the 15th century, the mercantile classes of Italy and Flanders became important patrons, commissioning small portraits of themselves in oils as well as a growing range of luxury items such as jewellery, ivory caskets, cassone chests, and maiolica pottery. These objects also included the Hispano-Moresque ware produced by mostly Mudéjar potters in Spain. Although royalty owned huge plate collections, little survives except for the Royal Gold Cup. Italian silk manufacture developed so that Western churches and elites no longer needed to rely on imports from Byzantium or the Islamic world. In France and Flanders, tapestry weaving of sets like *The Lady and the Unicorn* became a major luxury industry.
The large external sculptural schemes of Early Gothic churches gave way to more sculpture inside the building, as tombs became more elaborate and other features such as pulpits were sometimes lavishly carved, as in the Pulpit by Giovanni Pisano in Sant\'Andrea. Painted or carved wooden relief altarpieces became common, especially as churches created many side-chapels. Early Netherlandish painting by artists such as Jan van Eyck (d. 1441) and Rogier van der Weyden (d. 1464) rivalled that of Italy, as did northern illuminated manuscripts, which in the 15th century began to be collected on a large scale by secular elites, who also commissioned secular books, especially histories. From about 1450, printed books rapidly became popular, though still expensive. There were around 30,000 different editions of incunabula, or works printed before 1500, by which time illuminated manuscripts were commissioned only by royalty and a few others. Very small woodcuts, nearly all religious, were affordable even by peasants in parts of Northern Europe from the middle of the 15th century. More expensive engravings supplied a wealthier market with various images.
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# Middle Ages
## Modern perceptions {#modern_perceptions}
thumb\|upright=0.8\|Medieval illustration of the spherical Earth in a 14th-century copy of *L\'Image du monde*
The medieval period is frequently caricatured as a \"time of ignorance and superstition\" that placed \"the word of religious authorities over personal experience and rational activity.\" This is a legacy from both the Renaissance and Enlightenment when scholars favourably contrasted their intellectual cultures with those of the medieval period. Renaissance scholars saw the Middle Ages as a period of decline from the high culture and civilisation of the Classical world. Enlightenment scholars saw reason as superior to faith and thus viewed the Middle Ages as a time of ignorance and superstition.
Others argue that reason was held in high regard during the Middle Ages. Science historian Edward Grant writes, \"If revolutionary rational thoughts were expressed \[in the 18th century\] , they were only made possible because of the long medieval tradition that established the use of reason as one of the most important of human activities\". Also, contrary to common belief, David Lindberg writes, \"the late medieval scholar rarely experienced the coercive power of the Church and would have regarded himself as free (particularly in the natural sciences) to follow reason and observation wherever they led\".
The caricature of the period is also reflected in some more specific notions. One misconception, first propagated in the 19th century and still very common, is that all people in the Middle Ages believed that the Earth was flat. This is untrue, as lecturers in medieval universities commonly argued that evidence showed the Earth was a sphere. Lindberg and Ronald Numbers, another scholar of the period, state that there \"was scarcely a Christian scholar of the Middle Ages who did not acknowledge \[Earth\'s\] sphericity and even know its approximate circumference\". Other misconceptions such as \"the Church prohibited autopsies and dissections during the Middle Ages\", \"the rise of Christianity killed off ancient science\", or \"the medieval Christian Church suppressed the growth of natural philosophy\", are all cited by Numbers as examples of widely popular myths that still pass as historical truth, although they are not supported by historical research
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# Marxist film theory
**Marxist film theory** is an approach to film theory centered on concepts that make a political understanding of the medium possible. `{{FV|date=December 2023|reason=Cited source never references "Marxist film theory"}}`{=mediawiki} An individual studying a Marxist representation in a film, might take special interest in its representations of political hierarchy and social injustices.
## Overview
Sergei Eisenstein and many other Soviet filmmakers in the 1920s expressed ideas of Marxism through film. The Hegelian dialectic was considered best displayed in film editing through the Kuleshov Experiment and the development of montage. While this structuralist approach to Marxism and filmmaking was used, the more outspoken complaint that the Russian filmmakers had, was with the narrative structure of the United States cinema.
Eisenstein\'s solution was to shun narrative structure by eliminating the individual protagonist and tell stories where the action is moved by the group and the story is told through a clash of one image against the next (whether in composition, motion, or idea) so that the audience is never lulled into believing that they are watching something that has not been worked over. Eisenstein himself was accused by the Soviet authorities under Joseph Stalin of \"formalist error\", of highlighting form as a thing of beauty instead of portraying the worker nobly.
French Marxist film makers, such as Jean-Luc Godard, employed radical editing and choice of subject matter as well as subversive parody to heighten class consciousness and promote Marxist ideas. Situationist film maker Guy Debord, author of *The Society of the Spectacle*, began his film *In girum imus nocte et consumimur igni* with a radical critique of the spectator who goes to the cinema to forget about their dispossessed daily life. Situationist film makers produced a number of important films, where the only contribution by the situationist film cooperative was the sound-track. In *Can dialectics break bricks?* (1973), a Chinese Kung Fu film was transformed by redubbing into an epistle on state capitalism and Proletarian revolution. The intellectual technique of using capitalism\'s own structures against itself is known as détournement
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# Mental event
A **mental event** is any event that happens within the mind of a conscious individual. Examples include thoughts, feelings, decisions, dreams, and realizations. These events often make up the conscious life that are associated with cognitive function.
Some believe that mental events are not limited to human thought but can be associated with animals and artificial intelligence as well. Whether mental events are identical to complex physical events, or whether such an identity even makes sense, is central to the mind--body problem.
## Relation to mind--body problem {#relation_to_mindbody_problem}
Some state that the mental and the physical are the very same property which cause any event(s). This view is known as substance monism. An opposing view is substance dualism, which claims that the mental and physical are fundamentally different and can exist independently. A third approach is Donald Davidson\'s *anomalous monism*. The Philosophy of Action states that every action is caused by prior thoughts or feelings, and understanding those mental events would in turn explain behavior.
Physicalism, a form of substance monism, states that everything that exists is either physical or depends on that which is physical. The existence of mental events has been used by philosophers as an argument against physicalism. For example, in his 1974 paper *What Is it Like to Be a Bat?*, Thomas Nagel argues that physicalist theories of mind cannot explain an organism\'s subjective experience because they cannot account for its mental events.
Epiphenomenalism, according to Stanford, \"Is the view that mental events are caused by physical events in the brain, but have no effect upon any physical events.\" This stance then brings up the idea of introspection. According to David Lieberman, introspection is the ability for a person to observe his or her own mental state or events. Mental events can happen consciously and subconsciously at any given point. All mental events take place due to external stimuli. Which then must be processed via working memory.
## Mental Events and Working Memory {#mental_events_and_working_memory}
Mental events must occur in the working memory of short term-store. Both working memory and short-term memory are essential to mental events and cognition. According to Lieberman (2021), Baddeley and Hitch (1974) proposed that working memory consists of three distinct subsystems: what are called a phonological loop, a visuo-spatial sketchpad, and central executive.
The phenological loop is responsible for holding speech-based sounds while the visuo-spatial sketchpad holds visual concepts in the mind. Both work independent of each other. Whereas the central executive is responsible for controlling both systems. The central executive is also responsible for aiding in tasks such as reasoning and understanding language.
In order for mental events to occur, in Homo sapiens, situations and events must be processed through working memory in order to be perceived as a mental event. Without this system of memory, situations cannot be stored as mental events. All thoughts, feelings, decisions, dreams, and realizations must cycle through this process indefinitely.
## Examples
- Mary is walking through a park and she sees and recognizes City Hall. This instance of seeing and recognizing City Hall is an instance of perception---something that happens in Mary\'s mind. That instance of perception is a mental event. It is an *event* because it is something that happens, and it is *mental* because it happens in Mary\'s mind.
- Mary feels happy after doing well on an exam and she smiles. This thought is a mental event. The smile is a physical event.
- An orca recognized a feeling of hunger. It eats a fish. The recognition of the feeling of hunger is a mental event. Eating the fish is the physical event.
- Mary is listening to her friend talk while admiring a painting she is looking at. Her visuo-spatial sketchpad is allowing her to think about the painting she likes, creating a mental event. Simultaneously, her phonological loop is allowing her to understand the conversation. Both systems are being operated by the central executive
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# Monopolistic competition
`{{Economics sidebar}}`{=mediawiki} **Monopolistic competition** is a type of imperfect competition such that there are many producers competing against each other but selling products that are differentiated from one another (e.g., branding, quality) and hence not perfect substitutes. For monopolistic competition, a company takes the prices charged by its rivals as given and ignores the effect of its own prices on the prices of other companies. If this happens in the presence of a coercive government, monopolistic competition make evolve into government-granted monopoly. Unlike perfect competition, the company may maintain spare capacity. Models of monopolistic competition are often used to model industries. Textbook examples of industries with market structures similar to monopolistic competition include restaurants, cereals, clothing, shoes, and service industries in large cities. The earliest developer of the theory of monopolistic competition is Edward Hastings Chamberlin, who wrote a pioneering book on the subject, *Theory of Monopolistic Competition* (1933). Joan Robinson\'s book *The Economics of Imperfect Competition* presents a comparable theme of distinguishing perfect from imperfect competition. Further work on monopolistic competition was performed by Dixit and Stiglitz who created the Dixit-Stiglitz model which has proved applicable used in the subtopics of international trade theory, macroeconomics and economic geography.
Monopolistically competitive markets have the characteristics following:
- There are many producers and many consumers in the market, and no business has total control over the market price.
- Consumers perceive that there are non-price differences among the competitors\' products.
- Companies operate with the knowledge that their actions will not affect other companies\' actions.
- There are few barriers to entry and exit.
- Producers have a degree of control of price.
- The principal goal of the company is to maximise its profits.
- Factor prices and technology are given.
- A company is assumed to behave as if it knew its demand and cost curves with certainty.
- The decision regarding price and output of any company does not affect the behaviour of other companies in a group, i.e., effect of the decision made by a single company is spread sufficiently evenly across the entire group. Thus, there is no conscious rivalry among the companies.
- Each company earns only normal profit in the long run.
- Each company spends substantial amount on advertisement. The publicity and advertisement costs are known as selling costs.
The long-run characteristics of a monopolistically competitive market are almost the same as a perfectly competitive market. Two differences between the two are that monopolistic competition produces heterogeneous products and that monopolistic competition involves a great deal of non-price competition, which is based on subtle product differentiation. A company making profits in the short run will nonetheless only break even in the long run because demand will decrease and average total cost will increase, meaning that in the long run, a monopolistically competitive company will make zero economic profit. This illustrates the amount of influence the company has over the market; because of brand loyalty, it can raise its prices without losing all of its customers. This means that an individual company\'s demand curve is downward sloping, in contrast to perfect competition, which has a perfectly elastic demand schedule.
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# Monopolistic competition
## Characteristics
There are eight characteristics of monopolistic competition (MC):
- Companies are price setters.
- Free movement of resources from one company to another.
- Product differentiation.
- Many companies.
- Freedom of entry and exit.
- Independent decision making.
- Some degree of market power.
- Buyers and sellers do not have perfect information.
### Product differentiation {#product_differentiation}
MC companies sell products that have real or perceived non-price differences. Examples of these differences could include physical aspects of the product, location from which it sells the product or intangible aspects of the product, among others. However, the differences are not so great as to eliminate other goods as substitutes. In technical terms, the cross price elasticity of demand between goods in such a market is large and positive. MC goods are best described as close but imperfect substitutes. The goods perform the same basic functions but have differences in qualities such as type, style, quality, reputation, appearance, and location that tend to distinguish them from each other. For example, the basic function of motor vehicles is the same---to move people and objects from point to point in reasonable comfort and safety. Yet there are many different types of motor vehicles such as motor scooters, motor cycles, trucks and cars, and many variations even within these categories.
### Many companies {#many_companies}
There are many companies in each MC product group and many companies on the side lines prepared to enter the market. A product group is a \"collection of similar products\". The fact that there are \"many companies\" means that each company has a small market share. This gives each MC company the freedom to set prices without engaging in strategic decision making regarding the prices of other companies (no mutual dependence) and each company\'s actions effect the market negligibly. For example, a company could reduce prices and increase sales without fear that its actions will prompt retaliatory responses from competitors.
The number of companies that an MC market structure will support at market equilibrium depends on factors such as fixed costs, economies of scale, and the degree of product differentiation. For example, the greater the fixed costs, the fewer companies the market will support.
### Freedom of entry and exit {#freedom_of_entry_and_exit}
Like perfect competition, with monopolistic competition also, the companies can enter or exit freely. The companies will enter when the existing companies are making super-normal profits. With the entry of new companies, the supply would increase which would reduce the price and hence the existing companies will be left only with normal profits. Similarly, if the existing companies are sustaining losses, some of the marginal companies will quit. It will reduce the supply due to which price would rise and the existing companies will be left only with normal profit.
### Independent decision-making {#independent_decision_making}
Each MC company independently sets the terms of exchange for its product. The company gives no consideration to what effect its decision may have on its competitors. The theory is that any action will have such a negligible effect on the overall market demand that an MC company can act without fear of prompting heightened competition. In other words, each company feels free to set prices as if it were a monopoly rather than an oligopoly.
### Market power {#market_power}
MC companies have some degree of market power, although relatively little. Market power means that the company has control over the terms and conditions of exchange. All MC companies are price makers. An MC companies can increase its prices without losing all its customers. The company can also decrease prices without triggering a potentially ruinous price competition with other companies. The source of an MC company\'s market power is not barriers to entry since they are low. Rather, an MC company has market power because it has relatively few competitors, those competitors do not engage in strategic decision making and the companies sells differentiated product. Market power also means that an MC company faces a downward sloping demand curve. In the long run, the demand curve is very elastic, meaning that it is sensitive to price changes, although it is not completely \"flat\". In the short run, economic profit is positive, but it approaches zero in the long run.
### Imperfect information {#imperfect_information}
No other sellers or buyers have complete market information, like market demand or market supply.
Market Structure Number of firms Market power Elasticity of demand Product differentiation Excess profits Efficiency Profit maximization condition Pricing power
-------------------------- ----------------- -------------- --------------------------- ------------------------------ ------------------------------ ------------ ------------------------------- ---------------
Perfect competition Infinite None Perfectly elastic None Short term yes, long term no Yes P=MR=MC Price taker
Monopolistic competition Many Low Highly elastic (long run) High Short term yes, long term no No MR=MC Price setter
Monopoly One High Relatively inelastic Absolute (across industries) Yes No MR=MC Price setter
: **Market structure comparison**
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# Monopolistic competition
## Inefficiency
There are two sources of inefficiency in the MC market structure. The first source of inefficiency is that, at its optimum output, the company charges a price that exceeds marginal costs. The MC company maximises profits where marginal revenue equals marginal cost. Since the MC company\'s demand curve is downwards-sloping, the company will charge a price that exceeds marginal costs. The monopoly power possessed by a MC company means that at its profit-maximising level of production, there will be a net loss of consumer (and producer) surplus. The second source of inefficiency is the fact that MC companies operate with excess capacity. That is that the MC company\'s profit-maximising output is less than the output associated with minimum average cost. Both an MC and PC company will operate at a point where demand or price equals average cost. For a PC company, this equilibrium condition occurs where the perfectly elastic demand curve equals minimum average cost. An MC company\'s demand curve is not flat but is downward-sloping. Thus, the demand curve will be tangential to the long-run average cost curve at a point to the left of its minimum. The result is excess capacity.
### Socially undesirable aspects compared to perfect competition {#socially_undesirable_aspects_compared_to_perfect_competition}
- *Selling costs*: Producers under monopolistic competition often spend substantial amounts on advertising and publicity. Much of this expenditure is wasteful from the social point of view. The producer can reduce the price of the product instead of spending on publicity.
- *Excess capacity*: Under imperfect competition, the installed capacity of every firm is large but not fully used. Total output is, therefore, less than the output which is socially desirable. Since production capacity is not fully used, the resources lie idle. Therefore, the production under monopolistic competition is below the full capacity level.
- *Unemployment*: Idle capacity under monopolistic competition expenditure leads to unemployment. In particular, unemployment of workers leads to poverty and misery in the society. If idle capacity is fully used, the problem of unemployment can be solved to some extent.
- *Cross transport*: Under monopolistic competition expenditure is incurred on cross transportation. If the goods are sold locally, wasteful expenditure on cross transport could be avoided.
- *Lack of specialisation*: Under monopolistic competition, there is little scope for specialisation or standardisation. Product differentiation practised under this competition leads to wasteful expenditure. It is argued that instead of producing too many similar products, only a few standardised products may be produced. This would ensure better allocation of resources and would promote the economic success of the society.
- *Inefficiency*: Under perfect competition, an inefficient company is thrown out of the industry. But under monopolistic competition, inefficient companies continue to survive.
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# Monopolistic competition
## Problems
Monopolistically-competitive companies are inefficient, it is usually the case that the costs of regulating prices for products sold in monopolistic competition exceed the benefits of such regulation. A monopolistically-competitive company might be said to be marginally inefficient because the company produces at an output where average total cost is not a minimum. A monopolistically competitive market is a productively inefficient market structure because marginal cost is less than price in the long run. Monopolistically-competitive markets are also allocative-inefficient, as the company charges prices that exceed marginal cost. Product differentiation increases total utility by better meeting people\'s wants than homogenous products in a perfectly competitive market.
Another concern is that monopolistic competition fosters advertising. There are two main ways to conceive how advertising works under a monopolistic competition framework. Advertising can cause either a company\'s perceived demand curve to become more inelastic or demand for the company\'s product to increase. In either case, a successful advertising campaign may allow a company to sell a greater quantity or to charge a higher price, or both, and thus increase its profits. This allows the creation of brand names. Advertising induces customers into spending more on products because of the name associated with them rather than because of rational factors. Defenders of advertising dispute this, arguing that brand names can represent a guarantee of quality and that advertising helps reduce the cost to consumers of weighing the trade-offs of numerous competing brands. There are unique information and information processing costs associated with selecting a brand in a monopolistically competitive environment. In a monopoly market, the consumer is faced with a single brand, making information gathering relatively inexpensive. In a perfectly competitive industry, the consumer is faced with many brands, but because the brands are virtually identical information gathering is also relatively inexpensive. In a monopolistically competitive market, the consumer must collect and process information on a large number of different brands to be able to select the best of them. In many cases, the cost of gathering information necessary to selecting the best brand can exceed the benefit of consuming the best brand instead of a randomly selected brand. The result is that the consumer is confused. Some brands gain prestige value and can extract an additional price for that.
Evidence suggests that consumers use information obtained from advertising not only to assess the single brand advertised, but also to infer the possible existence of brands that the consumer has, heretofore, not observed, as well as to infer consumer satisfaction with brands similar to the advertised brand.
## Examples
In many markets, such as toothpaste, soap, air conditioning, smartphones and toilet paper, food, producers practice product differentiation by altering the physical composition of products, using special packaging, or simply claiming to have superior products based on brand images or advertising
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# Morton Downey Jr.
**Morton Downey Jr.** (December 9, 1932 -- March 12, 2001), born **Sean Morton Downey**, was an American television talk show host and actor who pioneered the \"trash TV\" format in the late 1980s on his program *The Morton Downey Jr. Show*.
## Early life {#early_life}
Downey\'s roots were in show business; his father, Morton Downey, was a popular singer, and his mother, Barbara Bennett, was a stage and film actress and singer and dancer. His aunts included Hollywood film stars Constance and Joan Bennett, and his maternal grandfather was matinée idol Richard Bennett. His wealthy family spent their summers next door to the Kennedy compound in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts. Downey attended New York University.
## Career
Downey worked as a program director and announcer at radio station WPOP in Hartford, Connecticut, in the 1950s.`{{fact|date=April 2025}}`{=mediawiki} He went on to work as a disc jockey, sometimes using the moniker \"Doc\" Downey, in various markets around the U.S., including Phoenix (KRIZ), Miami (WFUN), Kansas City (KUDL), San Diego (KDEO) and Seattle (KJR). He had to resign from WFUN after drawing ire from the FCC for announcing a competing disc jockey\'s home phone number on the air and insulting his wife.`{{fact|date=April 2025}}`{=mediawiki} Like his father, Downey pursued a career in music, recording in both pop and country styles.`{{fact|date=April 2025}}`{=mediawiki} He sang on a few records and then began to write songs, several of which were popular in the 1950s and 1960s.`{{fact|date=April 2025}}`{=mediawiki} In 1958, he recorded \"Boulevard of Broken Dreams\", which he sang on national television on a set that resembled a dark street with one street light.`{{fact|date=April 2025}}`{=mediawiki} In 1981, \"Green Eyed Girl\" charted on the *Billboard* country chart, peaking at No. 95.`{{fact|date=April 2025}}`{=mediawiki}
In the 1980s, Downey became a talk show host at KFBK-AM in Sacramento, California, where he employed an abrasive style.`{{fact|date=April 2025}}`{=mediawiki} He was fired in 1984, and was subsequently replaced by Rush Limbaugh. He also had a stint on WMAQ-AM in Chicago where he unsuccessfully tried to get other on air radio personalities to submit to drug testing. Downey\'s largest effect on American culture came from his popular, yet short-lived, syndicated late-1980s television talk show, *The Morton Downey Jr. Show*.
### Anti-abortion activism {#anti_abortion_activism}
On January 22, 1980, Downey, a devoted anti-abortionist, hosted the California State Rally for Life at the invitation of the California ProLife Council and United Students for Life. At that time, he was also running for President of the United States, as a Democrat.`{{fact|date=April 2025}}`{=mediawiki}`{{clarify|The table below says American Independent Party, but this says Democratic|date=April 2025}}`{=mediawiki} The United Students for Life, at California State University, Sacramento helped organize his California presidential rallies. Downey worked to help promote anti-abortion candidates in California and around the country.
American Independent Party -- California Presidential Primary, 1980
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Candidate
**Morton Downey Jr.**
John R. Rarick
Others
**Total**
### Television
Downey headed to Secaucus, New Jersey, where his television program *The Morton Downey Jr. Show* was taped. Starting as a local program on New York--New Jersey superstation WWOR-TV in October 1987, it expanded into national syndication in early 1988. The program featured screaming matches among Downey, his guests, and audience members. Using a large silver bowl for an ashtray, he would chainsmoke during the show and blow smoke in his guests\' faces. Downey\'s fans became known as \"Loudmouths\", patterned after the studio lecterns decorated with gaping cartoon mouths, from which Downey\'s guests would go head-to-head against each other on their respective issues.
On a few occasions, his attempts to provoke outbursts on his show resulted in physical confrontations. One such incident occurred on a 1988 show taped at the Apollo Theater, involving Al Sharpton and CORE National Chairman Roy Innis. The exchange between the two men culminated in Innis shoving Sharpton and knocking him to the floor, and Downey intervening to separate the pair.
Because of the controversial format and content of the show, distributor MCA Television had problems selling the show to a number of stations and advertisers. Even Downey\'s affiliates, many of which were low-rated independent television stations in small to medium markets, were so fearful of advertiser and viewer backlash that they would air one or even two local disclaimers during the broadcast.
During one controversial episode Downey introduced his gay brother, Tony Downey, to his studio audience and informed them Tony was HIV positive. During the episode Downey stated he was afraid his audience would abandon him if they knew he had a gay brother, but then said he did not care.
*The Washington Post* wrote about him, \"Suppose a maniac got hold of a talk show. Or need we suppose?\" David Letterman said, \"I\'m always amazed at what people will fall for. We see this every ten or twelve years, an attempt at this, and I guess from that standpoint I don\'t quite understand why everybody\'s falling over backwards over the guy.\"`{{VN|date=April 2025}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Morton Downey Jr.
## Career
### Celebrity, cancellation, and bankruptcy {#celebrity_cancellation_and_bankruptcy}
The success of the show made Downey a pop culture celebrity, leading to appearances on *Saturday Night Live* in 1988, WrestleMania V in 1989 in which he traded insults with Roddy Piper and Brother Love on *Piper\'s Pit*, and later roles in movies such as *Predator 2* and *Revenge of the Nerds III: The Next Generation*. He was also cast in several television roles, often playing tabloid TV hosts or other obnoxious media types. Downey notably starred in the *Tales from the Crypt* episode \"Television Terror\" which utilized several scenes shot by characters within the story, a format which became popular in horror films a decade later with the found-footage genre.
In 1989, Downey released an album of songs based on his show entitled *Morton Downey Jr. Sings*. The album\'s single, \"Zip It!\" (a catch-phrase from the TV show, used to quiet an irate guest), became a surprise hit on some college radio stations. However, over the course of the 1988--89 television season, his TV show suffered a decline in viewership, resulting in many markets downgrading its time slot; even flagship station WWOR moved Downey\'s program from its original 9:00 p.m. slot to 11:30 p.m. in the fall of 1988. Beginning in January 1989, the time slot immediately following Downey\'s program was given to the then-new *Arsenio Hall Show*. Following Hall\'s strong early ratings, however, the two series swapped time slots several weeks later, thus relegating Downey to 12:30 a.m. in the number-one television market.
In late April 1989, Downey was involved in an incident in a San Francisco International Airport restroom in which he claimed to have been attacked by neo-Nazis who painted a swastika on his face and attempted to shave his head. Some inconsistencies in Downey\'s account (e.g., the swastika was painted in reverse, suggesting that Downey had drawn it himself in a mirror), and the failure of the police to find supportive evidence, led many to suspect the incident was a hoax and a ploy for attention. In July 1989, his show was canceled, with the owners of the show announcing that the last episode had been taped on June 30, and that no new shows would air after September 15, 1989.
At the time of its cancellation, the show was airing on a total of 70 stations across the country, and its advertisers had been reduced primarily to \"direct-response\" ads (such as 900 chat-line and phone sex numbers). In February 1990, Downey filed for bankruptcy in the US Bankruptcy Court for the District of New Jersey.
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# Morton Downey Jr.
## Career
### Later career {#later_career}
In 1990, Downey resurfaced on CNBC with an interview program called *Showdown*, which was followed by three attempted talk radio comebacks: first in 1992 on Washington, D.C. radio station WWRC; then in 1993 on Dallas radio station KGBS, where he would scream insults at his callers. He was also hired as the station\'s VP of Operations. The following year, he returned to CNBC with a short-lived television show, *Downey*, which was also carried by some broadcast stations; in one episode, Downey claimed to have had a psychic communication with O. J. Simpson\'s murdered ex-wife, Nicole Brown Simpson.
His third---and final---attempt at a talk radio comeback occurred in 1997 on Cleveland radio station WTAM in a late evening time slot. It marked his return to the Cleveland market, where Downey had been a host for crosstown radio station WERE in the early 1980s prior to joining KFBK. This stint came shortly after the surgery for lung cancer that removed one of his lungs. At WTAM, Downey abandoned the confrontational schtick of his TV and previous radio shows, and conducted this program in a much more conversational and jovial manner.
On August 30, 1997, Downey quit his WTAM show to focus on pursuing legal action against Howard Stern. Downey had accused Stern of spreading rumors that he had resumed his smoking habit, to which publicist Les Schecter retorted, \"He hasn\'t picked up a cigarette.\" His replacement was former WERE host Rick Gilmour.
Following his death, news reports and obituaries incorrectly (according to the *Orange County Register*) credited him as the composer of \"Wipe Out.\" As of 2008, Downey\'s official website (and others) continue to make this claim. Prior to Downey\'s death, *Spin* in April 1989 had identified the *Wipe Out* authorship as a myth.
### Controversies
In 1984, at KFBK radio, Downey used the word \"Chinaman\" while telling a joke. His use of the word upset portions of the sizable Asian community in Sacramento. One Asian-American city councilman called for an apology and pressured the station for Downey\'s resignation. Downey refused to apologize and was forced to resign.
Downey was sued for allegedly appropriating the words and music to his theme song from two songwriters. He was sued for \$40 million after bringing then-stripper Kellie Everts onto the show and calling her a \"slut\", a \"pig\", a \"hooker\", and a \"tramp\", saying she had venereal diseases, and banging his pelvis against hers.
In April 1988, he was arraigned on criminal charges for allegedly attacking a gay guest on his show, in a never-aired segment. In another lawsuit, he was accused of slandering a newscaster (a former colleague), and of indecently exposing himself to her and slapping her. Downey punched Stuttering John during an interview done for *The Howard Stern Show*, while also shouting verbal insults at John, referring to him as an \"uneducated slob\". The situation then began to evolve into a brawl between the two until Downey had to be pulled off of John by security; the entire incident was caught on camera. When an *Inside Edition* camera crew approached Downey in 1989 to question him about his involvement in an alleged business scam, Downey grabbed the boom mike and struck the soundman\'s head with it.
In his later years, Downey expressed remorse for some of the extreme theatrics of his TV show, as well as various incidents outside the studio, including the *Inside Edition* confrontation. However, he also said his show was of a higher quality than and not as \"sleazy\" as Jerry Springer\'s show.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Downey was married four times and had four children from three of those marriages. With wife Helen, he had daughter, Melissa; with Joan, he had daughters, Tracey and Kelli; and, with fourth wife Lori, he had daughter, Seanna Micaela. He and Lori met when she appeared as a dancer in a show he attended in Atlantic City. According to Terry Pluto\'s book, *Loose Balls*, Downey (going by Sean at the time) was one of the owners of the New Orleans Buccaneers basketball team in the American Basketball Association in the late 1960s. He was also president and co-founder of the proposed World Baseball Association in 1974.
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# Morton Downey Jr.
## Legacy
In 1998, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs, California, Walk of Stars was dedicated to him.
## Death
In June 1996, while being treated for pneumonia, Downey was diagnosed with lung cancer and had part of his right lung removed. His views on tobacco use changed substantially, going from a one-time member of the National Smokers Alliance to a staunch anti-smoking activist. He continued to speak against smoking until his death from lung cancer and pneumonia on March 12, 2001.
After being diagnosed with lung cancer, he commented: `{{cquote|I had spawned a generation of kids to think it was cool to smoke a cigarette. Kids walked up to me until a matter of weeks ago, they'd have a cigarette in their hand and they'd say, 'Hey, Mort,' or, 'Hey, Mouth, autograph my cigarette.' And I'd do it.<ref name="CNNObit"/>}}`{=mediawiki} He also blamed tobacco companies for lying to consumers about cigarettes.
## *Évocateur: The Morton Downey Jr. Movie* {#évocateur_the_morton_downey_jr._movie}
Released in 2012, the documentary film *Évocateur: The Morton Downey Jr. Movie* touches upon Downey\'s upbringing and formative years in radio and politics before launching into the history of *The Morton Downey Jr. Show* and Downey\'s influence on trash TV. The film also looks at Downey\'s relationship with Al Sharpton and other important 80s figures
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# Microphotonics
**Microphotonics** is a branch of technology that deals with directing light on a microscopic scale and is used in optical networking. Particularly, it refers to the branch of technology that deals with wafer-level integrated devices and systems that emit, transmit, detect, and process light along with other forms of radiant energy with photon as the quantum unit.
Microphotonics employs at least two different materials with a large differential index of refraction to squeeze the light down to a small size. Generally speaking, virtually all of microphotonics relies on Fresnel reflection to guide the light. If the photons reside mainly in the higher index material, the confinement is due to total internal reflection. If the confinement is due many distributed Fresnel reflections, the device is termed a photonic crystal. There are many different types of geometries used in microphotonics including optical waveguides, optical microcavities, and Arrayed waveguide gratings.
## Photonic crystals {#photonic_crystals}
Photonic crystals are non-conducting materials that reflect various wavelengths of light almost perfectly. Such a crystal can be referred to as a perfect mirror. Other devices employed in microphotonics include micromirrors and photonic wire waveguides. These tools are used to \"mold the flow of light\", a famous phrase for describing the goal of microphotonics. The crystals serve as structures that allow the manipulation, confinement, and control of light in one, two, or three dimensions of space.
## Microdisks, microtoroids, and microspheres {#microdisks_microtoroids_and_microspheres}
An optical microdisk, optical microtoroid, or optical microsphere uses internal reflection in a circular geometry to hold on to the photons. This type of circularly symmetric optical resonance is called a Whispering gallery mode, after Lord Rayleigh coined the term.
## Application
Microphotonics has biological applications and these can be demonstrated in the case of the \"biophotonic chips\", which are developed to increase efficiency in terms of \"photonic yield\" or the collected luminescent signal emitted by fluorescent markers used in biological chips.
Currently, microphotonics technology is also being developed to replace electronics devices and bio-compatible intracellular devices. For instance, the long-standing goal of an all-optical router would eliminate electronic bottlenecks, speeding up the network. Perfect mirrors are being developed for use in fiber-optic cables
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# Modus tollens
In propositional logic, ***modus tollens*** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|oʊ|d|ə|s|_|ˈ|t|ɒ|l|ɛ|n|z}}`{=mediawiki}) (**MT**), also known as ***modus tollendo tollens*** (Latin for \"mode that by denying denies\") and **denying the consequent**, is a deductive argument form and a rule of inference. *Modus tollens* is a mixed hypothetical syllogism that takes the form of \"If *P*, then *Q*. Not *Q*. Therefore, not *P*.\" It is an application of the general truth that if a statement is true, then so is its contrapositive. The form shows that inference from *P implies Q* to *the negation of Q implies the negation of P* is a valid argument.
The history of the inference rule *modus tollens* goes back to antiquity. The first to explicitly describe the argument form *modus tollens* was Theophrastus.
*Modus tollens* is closely related to *modus ponens*. There are two similar, but invalid, forms of argument: affirming the consequent and denying the antecedent. See also contraposition and proof by contrapositive.
## Explanation
The form of a *modus tollens* argument is a mixed hypothetical syllogism, with two premises and a conclusion:
: If *P*, then *Q*.
: Not *Q*.
: Therefore, not *P*.
The first premise is a conditional (\"if-then\") claim, such as *P* implies *Q*. The second premise is an assertion that *Q*, the consequent of the conditional claim, is not the case. From these two premises it can be logically concluded that *P*, the antecedent of the conditional claim, is also not the case.
For example:
: If the dog detects an intruder, the dog will bark.
: The dog did not bark.
: Therefore, no intruder was detected by the dog.
Supposing that the premises are both true (the dog will bark if it detects an intruder, and does indeed not bark), it logically follows that no intruder has been detected. This is a valid argument since it is not possible for the conclusion to be false if the premises are true. (It is conceivable that there may have been an intruder that the dog did not detect, but that does not invalidate the argument; the first premise is \"if the dog *detects* an intruder\". The thing of importance is that the dog detects or does not detect an intruder, not whether there is one.)
Example 1:
: If I am the burglar, then I can crack a safe.
: I cannot crack a safe.
: Therefore, I am not the burglar.
Example 2:
: If Rex is a chicken, then he is a bird.
: Rex is not a bird.
: Therefore, Rex is not a chicken.
## Relation to *modus ponens* {#relation_to_modus_ponens}
Every use of *modus tollens* can be converted to a use of *modus ponens* and one use of transposition to the premise which is a material implication. For example:
: If *P*, then *Q*. (premise -- material implication)
: If not *Q*, then not *P*. (derived by transposition)
: Not *Q* . (premise)
: Therefore, not *P*. (derived by *modus ponens*)
Likewise, every use of *modus ponens* can be converted to a use of *modus tollens* and transposition.
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# Modus tollens
## Formal notation {#formal_notation}
The *modus tollens* rule can be stated formally as:
$$\frac{P \to Q, \neg Q}{\therefore \neg P}$$
where $P \to Q$ stands for the statement \"P implies Q\". $\neg Q$ stands for \"it is not the case that Q\" (or in brief \"not Q\"). Then, whenever \"$P \to Q$\" and \"$\neg Q$\" each appear by themselves as a line of a proof, then \"$\neg P$\" can validly be placed on a subsequent line.
The *modus tollens* rule may be written in sequent notation:
$$P\to Q, \neg Q \vdash \neg P$$
where $\vdash$ is a metalogical symbol meaning that $\neg P$ is a syntactic consequence of $P \to Q$ and $\neg Q$ in some logical system;
or as the statement of a functional tautology or theorem of propositional logic:
$$((P \to Q) \land \neg Q) \to \neg P$$
where $P$ and $Q$ are propositions expressed in some formal system;
or including assumptions:
$$\frac{\Gamma \vdash P\to Q ~~~ \Gamma \vdash \neg Q}{\Gamma \vdash \neg P}$$
though since the rule does not change the set of assumptions, this is not strictly necessary.
More complex rewritings involving *modus tollens* are often seen, for instance in set theory:
$$P\subseteq Q$$
$$x\notin Q$$
$$\therefore x\notin P$$
(\"P is a subset of Q. x is not in Q. Therefore, x is not in P.\")
Also in first-order predicate logic:
$$\forall x:~P(x) \to Q(x)$$
$$\neg Q(y)$$
$$\therefore ~\neg P(y)$$
(\"For all x if x is P then x is Q. y is not Q. Therefore, y is not P.\")
Strictly speaking these are not instances of *modus tollens*, but they may be derived from *modus tollens* using a few extra steps.
## Justification via truth table {#justification_via_truth_table}
The validity of *modus tollens* can be clearly demonstrated through a truth table.
p q p → q
--- --- -------
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
In instances of *modus tollens* we assume as premises that p → q is true and q is false. There is only one line of the truth table---the fourth line---which satisfies these two conditions. In this line, p is false. Therefore, in every instance in which p → q is true and q is false, p must also be false.
## Formal proof {#formal_proof}
### Via disjunctive syllogism {#via_disjunctive_syllogism}
*Step* *Proposition* *Derivation*
-------- ------------------ -----------------------------
1 $P\rightarrow Q$ Given
2 $\neg Q$ Given
3 $\neg P\lor Q$ Material implication (1)
4 $\neg P$ Disjunctive syllogism (3,2)
### Via *reductio ad absurdum* {#via_reductio_ad_absurdum}
*Step* *Proposition* *Derivation*
-------- ------------------ --------------------------------
1 $P\rightarrow Q$ Given
2 $\neg Q$ Given
3 $P$ Assumption
4 $Q$ Modus ponens (1,3)
5 $Q \land \neg Q$ Conjunction introduction (2,4)
6 $\neg P$ *Reductio ad absurdum* (3,5)
### Via contraposition {#via_contraposition}
*Step* *Proposition* *Derivation*
-------- ---------------------------- --------------------
1 $P\rightarrow Q$ Given
2 $\neg Q$ Given
3 $\neg Q\rightarrow \neg P$ Contraposition (1)
4 $\neg P$ Modus ponens (2,3)
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# Modus tollens
## Correspondence to other mathematical frameworks {#correspondence_to_other_mathematical_frameworks}
### Probability calculus {#probability_calculus}
*Modus tollens* represents an instance of the law of total probability combined with Bayes\' theorem expressed as:
$\Pr(P)=\Pr(P\mid Q)\Pr(Q)+\Pr(P\mid \lnot Q)\Pr(\lnot Q)\,,$
where the conditionals $\Pr(P\mid Q)$ and $\Pr(P\mid \lnot Q)$ are obtained with (the extended form of) Bayes\' theorem expressed as:
$\Pr(P\mid Q) = \frac{\Pr(Q \mid P)\,a(P)}{\Pr(Q\mid P)\,a(P)+\Pr(Q\mid \lnot P)\,a(\lnot P)}\;\;\;$ and $\Pr(P\mid \lnot Q) = \frac{\Pr(\lnot Q \mid P)\,a(P)}{\Pr(\lnot Q\mid P)\,a(P)+\Pr(\lnot Q\mid \lnot P)\,a(\lnot P)}.$
In the equations above $\Pr(Q)$ denotes the probability of $Q$, and $a(P)$ denotes the base rate (aka. prior probability) of $P$. The conditional probability $\Pr(Q\mid P)$ generalizes the logical statement $P \to Q$, i.e. in addition to assigning TRUE or FALSE we can also assign any probability to the statement. Assume that $\Pr(Q) = 1$ is equivalent to $Q$ being TRUE, and that $\Pr(Q) = 0$ is equivalent to $Q$ being FALSE. It is then easy to see that $\Pr(P) = 0$ when $\Pr(Q\mid P) = 1$ and $\Pr(Q) = 0$. This is because $\Pr(\lnot Q\mid P) = 1 - \Pr(Q\mid P) = 0$ so that $\Pr(P\mid \lnot Q) = 0$ in the last equation. Therefore, the product terms in the first equation always have a zero factor so that $\Pr(P) = 0$ which is equivalent to $P$ being FALSE. Hence, the law of total probability combined with Bayes\' theorem represents a generalization of *modus tollens*.
### Subjective logic {#subjective_logic}
*Modus tollens* represents an instance of the abduction operator in subjective logic expressed as:
$\omega^{A}_{P\tilde{\|}Q}= (\omega^{A}_{Q|P},\omega^{A}_{Q|\lnot P})\widetilde{\circledcirc} (a_{P},\,\omega^{A}_{Q})\,,$
where $\omega^{A}_{Q}$ denotes the subjective opinion about $Q$, and $(\omega^{A}_{Q|P},\omega^{A}_{Q|\lnot P})$ denotes a pair of binomial conditional opinions, as expressed by source $A$. The parameter $a_{P}$ denotes the base rate (aka. the prior probability) of $P$. The abduced marginal opinion on $P$ is denoted $\omega^{A}_{P\tilde{\|}Q}$. The conditional opinion $\omega^{A}_{Q|P}$ generalizes the logical statement $P \to Q$, i.e. in addition to assigning TRUE or FALSE the source $A$ can assign any subjective opinion to the statement. The case where $\omega^{A}_{Q}$ is an absolute TRUE opinion is equivalent to source $A$ saying that $Q$ is TRUE, and the case where $\omega^{A}_{Q}$ is an absolute FALSE opinion is equivalent to source $A$ saying that $Q$ is FALSE. The abduction operator $\widetilde{\circledcirc}$ of subjective logic produces an absolute FALSE abduced opinion $\omega^{A}_{P\widetilde{\|}Q}$ when the conditional opinion $\omega^{A}_{Q|P}$ is absolute TRUE and the consequent opinion $\omega^{A}_{Q}$ is absolute FALSE. Hence, subjective logic abduction represents a generalization of both *modus tollens* and of the Law of total probability combined with Bayes\' theorem
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# Microfluidics
**Microfluidics** refers to a system that manipulates a small amount of fluids (10^−9^ to 10^−18^ liters) using small channels with sizes of ten to hundreds of micrometres. It is a multidisciplinary field that involves molecular analysis, molecular biology, and microelectronics. It has practical applications in the design of systems that process low volumes of fluids to achieve multiplexing, automation, and high-throughput screening. Microfluidics emerged in the beginning of the 1980s and is used in the development of inkjet printheads, DNA chips, lab-on-a-chip technology, micro-propulsion, and micro-thermal technologies.
Typically, micro means one of the following features:
- Small volumes (μL, nL, pL, fL)
- Small size
- Low energy consumption
- Microdomain effects
Typically microfluidic systems transport, mix, separate, or otherwise process fluids. Various applications rely on passive fluid control using capillary forces, in the form of capillary flow modifying elements, akin to flow resistors and flow accelerators. In some applications, external actuation means are additionally used for a directed transport of the media. Examples are rotary drives applying centrifugal forces for the fluid transport on the passive chips. **Active microfluidics** refers to the defined manipulation of the working fluid by active (micro) components such as micropumps or microvalves. Micropumps supply fluids in a continuous manner or are used for dosing. Microvalves determine the flow direction or the mode of movement of pumped liquids. Often, processes normally carried out in a lab are miniaturised on a single chip, which enhances efficiency and mobility, and reduces sample and reagent volumes.
## Microscale behaviour of fluids {#microscale_behaviour_of_fluids}
The behaviour of fluids at the microscale can differ from \"macrofluidic\" behaviour in that factors such as surface tension, energy dissipation, and fluidic resistance start to dominate the system. Microfluidics studies how these behaviours change, and how they can be worked around, or exploited for new uses.
At small scales (channel size of around 100 nanometers to 500 micrometers) some unintuitive properties appear. In particular, the Reynolds number (which compares the effect of the momentum of a fluid to the effect of viscosity) can become very low. One consequence is co-flowing fluids do not necessarily mix in the traditional sense, as flow becomes laminar rather than turbulent; molecular transport between them must often be through diffusion.
High specificity of chemical and physical properties (concentration, pH, temperature, shear force, etc.) can also be ensured resulting in more uniform reaction conditions and higher grade products in single and multi-step reactions.
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# Microfluidics
## Various kinds of microfluidic flows {#various_kinds_of_microfluidic_flows}
Microfluidic flows need only be constrained by geometrical length scale -- the modalities and methods used to achieve such a geometrical constraint are highly dependent on the targeted application. Traditionally, microfluidic flows have been generated inside closed channels with the channel cross section being in the order of 10 μm x 10 μm. Each of these methods has its own associated techniques to maintain robust fluid flow which have matured over several years.
### Open microfluidics {#open_microfluidics}
The behavior of fluids and their control in open microchannels came into focus around 2005 and applied in air-to-liquid sample collection and chromatography. In open microfluidics, at least one boundary of the system is removed, exposing the fluid to air or another interface (i.e. liquid). Advantages of open microfluidics include accessibility to the flowing liquid for intervention, larger liquid-gas surface area, and minimized bubble formation. Another advantage of open microfluidics is the ability to integrate open systems with surface-tension driven fluid flow, which eliminates the need for external pumping methods such as peristaltic or syringe pumps. Open microfluidic devices are also easy and inexpensive to fabricate by milling, thermoforming, and hot embossing. In addition, open microfluidics eliminates the need to glue or bond a cover for devices, which could be detrimental to capillary flows. Examples of open microfluidics include open-channel microfluidics, rail-based microfluidics, paper-based, and thread-based microfluidics. Disadvantages to open systems include susceptibility to evaporation, contamination, and limited flow rate.
### Continuous-flow microfluidics {#continuous_flow_microfluidics}
Continuous flow microfluidics rely on the control of a steady state liquid flow through narrow channels or porous media predominantly by accelerating or hindering fluid flow in capillary elements. In paper based microfluidics, capillary elements can be achieved through the simple variation of section geometry. In general, the actuation of liquid flow is implemented either by external pressure sources, external mechanical pumps, integrated mechanical micropumps, or by combinations of capillary forces and electrokinetic mechanisms. Continuous-flow microfluidic operation is the mainstream approach because it is easy to implement and less sensitive to protein fouling problems. Continuous-flow devices are adequate for many well-defined and simple biochemical applications, and for certain tasks such as chemical separation, but they are less suitable for tasks requiring a high degree of flexibility or fluid manipulations. These closed-channel systems are inherently difficult to integrate and scale because the parameters that govern flow field vary along the flow path making the fluid flow at any one location dependent on the properties of the entire system. Permanently etched microstructures also lead to limited reconfigurability and poor fault tolerance capability. Process monitoring capabilities in continuous-flow systems can be achieved with highly sensitive microfluidic flow sensors based on MEMS technology, which offers resolutions down to the nanoliter range.
### Droplet-based microfluidics {#droplet_based_microfluidics}
Droplet-based microfluidics is differs from continuous microfluidics; droplet-based microfluidics manipulates discrete volumes of fluids in immiscible phases with low Reynolds number and laminar flow regimes. Interest in droplet-based microfluidics systems has been growing substantially in past decades. Microdroplets allow for handling miniature volumes (μL to fL) of fluids conveniently, provide better mixing, encapsulation, sorting, and sensing, and suit high throughput experiments. Exploiting the benefits of droplet-based microfluidics efficiently requires a deep understanding of droplet generation to perform various logical operations such as droplet manipulation, droplet sorting, droplet merging, and droplet breakup.
### Digital microfluidics {#digital_microfluidics}
Alternatives to the above closed-channel continuous-flow systems include novel open structures, where discrete, independently controllable droplets are manipulated on a substrate using electrowetting. Following the analogy of digital microelectronics, this approach is referred to as digital microfluidics. Le Pesant et al. pioneered the use of electrocapillary forces to move droplets on a digital track. The \"fluid transistor\" pioneered by Cytonix also played a role. The technology was subsequently commercialised by Duke University. By using discrete unit-volume droplets, a microfluidic function can be reduced to a set of repeated basic operations, i.e., moving one unit of fluid over one unit of distance. This \"digitisation\" method facilitates the use of a hierarchical and cell-based approach for microfluidic biochip design. Therefore, digital microfluidics offers a flexible and scalable system architecture as well as high fault-tolerance capability. Moreover, because each droplet can be controlled independently, these systems also have dynamic reconfigurability, whereby groups of unit cells in a microfluidic array can be reconfigured to change their functionality during the concurrent execution of a set of bioassays. Although droplets are manipulated in confined microfluidic channels, since the control on droplets is not independent, it should not be confused as \"digital microfluidics\". One common actuation method for digital microfluidics is electrowetting-on-dielectric (EWOD). Many lab-on-a-chip applications have been demonstrated within the digital microfluidics paradigm using electrowetting.
### Paper-based microfluidics {#paper_based_microfluidics}
Paper-based microfluidic devices are proposed to provide portable, cheap, and user-friendly medical diagnostic systems. Paper based microfluidics rely on the phenomenon of capillary penetration in porous media. To tune fluid penetration in porous substrates such as paper in two and three dimensions, the pore structure, wettability and geometry of the microfluidic devices can be controlled while the viscosity and evaporation rate of the liquid play a further significant role. Many such devices feature hydrophobic barriers on hydrophilic paper that passively transport aqueous solutions to outlets where biological reactions take place. Paper-based microfluidics are considered as portable point-of-care biosensors used in a remote setting where advanced medical diagnostic tools are not accessible. Current applications include portable glucose detection and environmental testing, with hopes of reaching areas that lack advanced medical diagnostic tools.
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# Microfluidics
## Various kinds of microfluidic flows {#various_kinds_of_microfluidic_flows}
### Particle detection microfluidics {#particle_detection_microfluidics}
One potential application area involves particle detection in fluids. Particle detection of small fluid-borne particles down to about 1 μm in diameter is typically achieved using a Coulter counter, in which electrical signals are generated when a weakly-conducting fluid such as in saline water is passed through a small (\~100 μm diameter) pore, so that an electrical signal is generated that is directly proportional to the ratio of the particle volume to the pore volume. The physics behind this is relatively simple, described in a classic paper by DeBlois and Bean, and the implementation first described in Coulter\'s original patent. This is the method used to e.g. size and count erythrocytes (red blood cells) as well as leukocytes (white blood cells) for standard blood analysis. The generic term for this method is resistive pulse sensing (RPS); Coulter counting is a trademark term. However, the RPS method does not work well for particles below 1 μm diameter, as the signal-to-noise ratio falls below the reliably detectable limit, set mostly by the size of the pore in which the analyte passes and the input noise of the first-stage amplifier.
The limit on the pore size in traditional RPS Coulter counters is set by the method used to make the pores, which while a trade secret, most likely`{{according to whom|date=October 2020}}`{=mediawiki} uses traditional mechanical methods. This is where microfluidics can have an impact: The lithography-based production of microfluidic devices, or more likely the production of reusable molds for making microfluidic devices using a molding process, is limited to sizes much smaller than traditional machining. Critical dimensions down to 1 μm are easily fabricated, and with a bit more effort and expense, feature sizes below 100 nm can be patterned reliably as well. This enables the inexpensive production of pores integrated in a microfluidic circuit where the pore diameters can reach sizes of order 100 nm, with a concomitant reduction in the minimum particle diameters by several orders of magnitude.
As a result, there has been some university-based development of microfluidic particle counting and sizing with the accompanying commercialization of this technology. This method has been termed microfluidic resistive pulse sensing (MRPS).
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# Microfluidics
## Various kinds of microfluidic flows {#various_kinds_of_microfluidic_flows}
### Microfluidic-assisted magnetophoresis {#microfluidic_assisted_magnetophoresis}
One application for microfluidic devices is the separation and sorting of different fluids or cell types. Microfluidic devices have been integrated with magnetophoresis: the migration of particles by a magnetic field. This can be accomplished by sending a fluid containing at least one magnetic component through a microfluidic channel that has a magnet positioned along the length of the channel. This creates a magnetic field inside the microfluidic channel which draws magnetically active substances towards it, effectively separating the magnetic and non-magnetic components of the fluid. This technique can be readily utilized in industrial settings where the fluid at hand already contains magnetically active material. For example, a handful of metallic impurities can find their way into certain consumable liquids, namely milk and other dairy products. Conveniently, in the case of milk, many of these metal contaminants exhibit paramagnetism. Therefore, before packaging, milk can be flowed through channels with magnetic gradients as a means of purifying out the metal contaminants.
cell separations are of interest in microfluidics. This is accomplished. First, a paramagnetic substance (usually micro/nanoparticles or a paramagnetic fluid) needs to be functionalized to target the cell type of interest. This can be accomplished by identifying a transmembranal protein unique to the cell type of interest and subsequently functionalizing magnetic particles with the complementary antigen or antibody. Once the magnetic particles are functionalized, they are dispersed in a cell mixture where they bind to only the cells of interest. The resulting cell/particle mixture can then be flowed through a microfluidic device with a magnetic field to separate the targeted cells from the rest.
Conversely, microfluidic-assisted magnetophoresis may be used to facilitate efficient mixing within microdroplets or plugs. To accomplish this, microdroplets are injected with paramagnetic nanoparticles and are flowed through a straight channel which passes through rapidly alternating magnetic fields. This causes the magnetic particles to be quickly pushed from side to side within the droplet and results in the mixing of the microdroplet contents. This eliminates the need for tedious engineering considerations that are necessary for traditional, channel-based droplet mixing. Other research has also shown that the label-free separation of cells may be possible by suspending cells in a paramagnetic fluid and taking advantage of the magneto-Archimedes effect. While this does eliminate the complexity of particle functionalization, more research is needed to fully understand the magneto-Archimedes phenomenon and how it can be used to this end. This is not an exhaustive list of the various applications of microfluidic-assisted magnetophoresis; the above examples merely highlight the versatility of this separation technique in both current and future applications.
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# Microfluidics
## Key application areas {#key_application_areas}
Microfluidic structures include micropneumatic systems, i.e. microsystems for the handling of off-chip fluids (liquid pumps, gas valves, etc.), and microfluidic structures for the on-chip handling of nanoliter (nl) and picoliter (pl) volumes. To date, the most successful commercial application of microfluidics is the inkjet printhead. Additionally, microfluidic manufacturing advances mean that makers can produce the devices in low-cost plastics such as polymethymethacrylate (PMMA), polystyrene, cyclic olefin polymer (COP) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and automatically verify part quality.
Advances in microfluidics technology promise to improve molecular biology procedures for enzymatic analysis (e.g., glucose and lactate assays), DNA analysis (e.g., polymerase chain reaction and high-throughput sequencing), proteomics, and in chemical synthesis. Microfluidic biochips integrate assay operations such as detection, with sample pre-treatment and sample preparation.
A promising application area for biochips is clinical pathology, especially the point-of-care diagnosis of diseases. In addition, microfluidics-based devices, capable of continuous sampling and real-time testing of air/water samples for biochemical toxins and other dangerous pathogens, can serve as an always-on \"bio-smoke alarm\" for early warning.
Microfluidic technology has provide tools for biologists to control the cellular environment. Potential advantages of this technology for microbiology are listed below:
- General single cell studies including growth
- Cellular aging: microfluidic devices such as the \"mother machine\" allow tracking of thousands of individual cells for many generations until they die
- Microenvironmental control: ranging from mechanical environment to chemical environment
- Precise spatiotemporal concentration gradients by incorporating multiple chemical inputs to a single device
- Force measurements of adherent cells or confined chromosomes: objects trapped in a microfluidic device can be directly manipulated using optical tweezers or other force-generating methods
- Confining cells and exerting controlled forces by coupling with external force-generation methods such as Stokes flow, optical tweezer, or controlled deformation of the PDMS (Polydimethylsiloxane) device
- Electric field integration
- Plant on a chip and plant tissue culture
- Antibiotic resistance: microfluidic devices can be used as heterogeneous environments for microorganisms. In a heterogeneous environment, it is easier for a microorganism to evolve. This can be useful for testing the acceleration of evolution of a microorganism / for testing the development of antibiotic resistance.
- Viral fusion: these devices also allow the study of the several steps and conditions required for viruses to bind and enter host cells. Information regarding efficiency, kinetics and specific steps of the binding and fusion processes can be obtained using microfluidic flow cells.
- Organ on a chip applications: For example organoids can be used to model diseases with cells derived from patients or they can be used to investigate the development of different tissues (for example the nervous system) in humans and other animals.
Some of these areas are further elaborated in the sections below:
### DNA chips (microarrays) {#dna_chips_microarrays}
Early biochips were based on the idea of a DNA microarray, e.g., the GeneChip DNAarray from Affymetrix, which is a piece of glass, plastic or silicon substrate, on which pieces of DNA (probes) are affixed in a microscopic array. Similar to a DNA microarray, a protein array is a miniature array where a multitude of different capture agents, most frequently monoclonal antibodies, are deposited on a chip surface; they are used to determine the presence and/or amount of proteins in biological samples, e.g., blood. A drawback of DNA and protein arrays is that they are neither reconfigurable nor scalable after manufacture. Digital microfluidics has been described as a means for carrying out Digital PCR.
### Molecular biology {#molecular_biology}
In addition to microarrays, biochips have been designed for two-dimensional electrophoresis, transcriptome analysis, and PCR amplification. Other applications include various electrophoresis and liquid chromatography applications for proteins and DNA, cell separation, in particular, blood cell separation, protein analysis, cell manipulation and analysis including cell viability analysis and microorganism capturing.
### Evolutionary biology {#evolutionary_biology}
By combining microfluidics with landscape ecology and nanofluidics, a nano/micro fabricated fluidic landscape can be constructed by building local patches of bacterial habitat and connecting them by dispersal corridors. The resulting landscapes can be used as physical implementations of an adaptive landscape, by generating a spatial mosaic of patches of opportunity distributed in space and time. The patchy nature of these fluidic landscapes allows for the study of adapting bacterial cells in a metapopulation system. The evolutionary ecology of these bacterial systems in these synthetic ecosystems allows for using biophysics to address questions in evolutionary biology.
### Cell behavior {#cell_behavior}
The ability to create precise and carefully controlled chemoattractant gradients makes microfluidics the ideal tool to study motility, chemotaxis and the ability to evolve / develop resistance to antibiotics in small populations of microorganisms and in a short period of time. These microorganisms including bacteria and the broad range of organisms that form the marine microbial loop, responsible for regulating much of the oceans\' biogeochemistry.
Microfluidics has also greatly aided the study of durotaxis by facilitating the creation of durotactic (stiffness) gradients.
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# Microfluidics
## Key application areas {#key_application_areas}
### Cellular biophysics {#cellular_biophysics}
By rectifying the motion of individual swimming bacteria, microfluidic structures can be used to extract mechanical motion from a population of motile bacterial cells. This way, bacteria-powered rotors can be built.
### Optics
The merger of microfluidics and optics is typical known as optofluidics. Examples of optofluidic devices are tunable microlens arrays and optofluidic microscopes.
Microfluidic flow enables fast sample throughput, automated imaging of large sample populations, as well as 3D capabilities, or superresolution.
### Photonics Lab on a Chip (PhLOC) {#photonics_lab_on_a_chip_phloc}
Due to the increase in safety concerns and operating costs of common analytic methods (ICP-MS, ICP-AAS, and ICP-OES), the Photonics Lab on a Chip (PhLOC) is becoming an increasingly popular tool for the analysis of actinides and nitrates in spent nuclear waste. The PhLOC is based on the simultaneous application of Raman and UV-Vis-NIR spectroscopy, which allows for the analysis of more complex mixtures which contain several actinides at different oxidation states. Measurements made with these methods have been validated at the bulk level for industrial tests, and are observed to have a much lower variance at the micro-scale. This approach has been found to have molar extinction coefficients (UV-Vis) in line with known literature values over a comparatively large concentration span for 150 μL via elongation of the measurement channel, and obeys Beer\'s Law at the micro-scale for U(IV). Through the development of a spectrophotometric approach to analyzing spent fuel, an on-line method for measurement of reactant quantities is created, increasing the rate at which samples can be analyzed and thus decreasing the size of deviations detectable within reprocessing.
Through the application of the PhLOC, flexibility and safety of operational methods are increased. Since the analysis of spent nuclear fuel involves extremely harsh conditions, the application of disposable and rapidly produced devices (Based on castable and/or engravable materials such as PDMS, PMMA, and glass) is advantageous, although material integrity must be considered under specific harsh conditions. Through the usage of fiber optic coupling, the device can be isolated from instrumentation, preventing irradiative damage and minimizing the exposure of lab personnel to potentially harmful radiation, something not possible on the lab scale nor with the previous standard of analysis. The shrinkage of the device also allows for lower amounts of analyte to be used, decreasing the amount of waste generated and exposure to hazardous materials.
Expansion of the PhLOC to miniaturize research of the full nuclear fuel cycle is currently being evaluated, with steps of the PUREX process successfully being demonstrated at the micro-scale. Likewise, the microfluidic technology developed for the analysis of spent nuclear fuel is predicted to expand horizontally to analysis of other actinide, lanthanides, and transition metals with little to no modification.
### High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) {#high_performance_liquid_chromatography_hplc}
HPLC in the field of microfluidics comes in two different forms. Early designs included running liquid through the HPLC column then transferring the eluted liquid to microfluidic chips and attaching HPLC columns to the microfluidic chip directly. The early methods had the advantage of easier detection from certain machines like those that measure fluorescence. HPLC columns have been integrated into microfluidic chips. The main advantage of integrating HPLC columns into microfluidic devices is the smaller form factor that can be achieved, which allows for additional features to be combined within one microfluidic chip. Integrated chips can also be fabricated from multiple different materials, including glass and polyimide which are quite different from the standard material of PDMS used in many different droplet-based microfluidic devices. This is an important feature because different applications of HPLC microfluidic chips may call for different pressures. PDMS fails in comparison for high-pressure uses compared to glass and polyimide. High versatility of HPLC integration ensures robustness by avoiding connections and fittings between the column and chip. The ability to build off said designs in the future allows the field of microfluidics to continue expanding its potential applications.
The potential applications surrounding integrated HPLC columns within microfluidic devices have proven expansive over the last 10--15 years. The integration of such columns allows for experiments to be run where materials were in low availability or very expensive, like in biological analysis of proteins. This reduction in reagent volumes allows for new experiments like single-cell protein analysis, which due to size limitations of prior devices, previously came with great difficulty. The coupling of HPLC-chip devices with other spectrometry methods like mass-spectrometry allow for enhanced confidence in identification of desired species, like proteins. Microfluidic chips have also been created with internal delay-lines that allow for gradient generation to further improve HPLC, which can reduce the need for further separations. Some other practical applications of integrated HPLC chips include the determination of drug presence in a person through their hair and the labeling of peptides through reverse phase liquid chromatography.
### Acoustic droplet ejection (ADE) {#acoustic_droplet_ejection_ade}
Acoustic droplet ejection uses a pulse of ultrasound to move low volumes of fluids (typically nanoliters or picoliters) without any physical contact. This technology focuses acoustic energy into a fluid sample to eject droplets as small as a millionth of a millionth of a litre (picoliter = 10^−12^ litre). ADE technology is a very gentle process, and it can be used to transfer proteins, high molecular weight DNA and live cells without damage or loss of viability. This feature makes the technology suitable for a wide variety of applications including proteomics and cell-based assays.
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# Microfluidics
## Key application areas {#key_application_areas}
### Fuel cells {#fuel_cells}
Microfluidic fuel cells can use laminar flow to separate the fuel and its oxidant to control the interaction of the two fluids without the physical barrier that conventional fuel cells require.
### Astrobiology
To understand the prospects for life to exist elsewhere in the universe, astrobiologists are interested in measuring the chemical composition of extraplanetary bodies. Because of their small size and wide-ranging functionality, microfluidic devices are uniquely suited for these remote sample analyses. From an extraterrestrial sample, the organic content can be assessed using microchip capillary electrophoresis and selective fluorescent dyes. These devices are capable of detecting amino acids, peptides, fatty acids, and simple aldehydes, ketones, and thiols. These analyses coupled together could allow powerful detection of the key components of life, and hopefully inform our search for functioning extraterrestrial life.
### Food science {#food_science}
Microfluidic techniques such as droplet microfluidics, paper microfluidics, and lab-on-a-chip are used in the realm of food science in a variety of categories. Research in nutrition, food processing, and food safety benefit from microfluidic technique because experiments can be done with less reagents.
Food processing requires the ability to enable shelf stability in foods, such as emulsions or additions of preservatives. Techniques such as droplet microfluidics are used to create emulsions that are more controlled and complex than those created by traditional homogenization due to the precision of droplets that is achievable. Using microfluidics for emulsions is also more energy efficient compared to homogenization in which "only 5% of the supplied energy is used to generate the emulsion, with the rest dissipated as heat" . Although these methods have benefits, they currently lack the ability to be produced at large scale that is needed for commercialization. Microfluidics are also used in research as they allow for innovation in food chemistry and food processing. An example in food engineering research is a novel micro-3D-printed device fabricated to research production of droplets for potential food processing industry use, particularly in work with enhancing emulsions.
Paper and droplet microfluidics allow for devices that can detect small amounts of unwanted bacteria or chemicals, making them useful in food safety and analysis. Paper-based microfluidic devices are often referred to as microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (μPADs) and can detect such things as nitrate, preservatives, or antibiotics in meat by a colorimetric reaction that can be detected with a smartphone. These methods are being researched because they use less reactants, space, and time compared to traditional techniques such as liquid chromatography. μPADs also make home detection tests possible, which is of interest to those with allergies and intolerances. In addition to paper-based methods, research demonstrates droplet-based microfluidics shows promise in drastically shortening the time necessary to confirm viable bacterial contamination in agricultural waters in the domestic and international food industry.
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# Microfluidics
## Key application areas {#key_application_areas}
### Future directions {#future_directions}
#### Microfluidics for personalized cancer treatment {#microfluidics_for_personalized_cancer_treatment}
Personalized cancer treatment is a tuned method based on the patient\'s diagnosis and background. Microfluidic technology offers sensitive detection with higher throughput, as well as reduced time and costs. For personalized cancer treatment, tumor composition and drug sensitivities are very important.
A patient\'s drug response can be predicted based on the status of biomarkers, or the severity and progression of the disease can be predicted based on the atypical presence of specific cells. Drop-qPCR is a droplet microfluidic technology in which droplets are transported in a reusable capillary and alternately flow through two areas maintained at different constant temperatures and fluorescence detection. It can be efficient with a low contamination risk to detect Her2. A digital droplet‐based PCR method can be used to detect the KRAS mutations with TaqMan probes, to enhance detection of the mutative gene ratio. In addition, accurate prediction of postoperative disease progression in breast or prostate cancer patients is essential for determining post-surgery treatment. A simple microfluidic chamber, coated with a carefully formulated extracellular matrix mixture is used for cells obtained from tumor biopsy after 72 hours of growth and a thorough evaluation of cells by imaging.
Microfluidics is also suitable for circulating tumor cells (CTCs) and non-CTCs liquid biopsy analysis. Beads conjugate to anti‐epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) antibodies for positive selection in the CTCs isolation chip (iCHIP). CTCs can also be detected by using the acidification of the tumor microenvironment and the difference in membrane capacitance. CTCs are isolated from blood by a microfluidic device, and are cultured on-chip, which can be a method to capture more biological information in a single analysis. For example, it can be used to test the cell survival rate of 40 different drugs or drug combinations. Tumor‐derived extracellular vesicles can be isolated from urine and detected by an integrated double‐filtration microfluidic device; they also can be isolated from blood and detected by electrochemical sensing method with a two‐level amplification enzymatic assay.
Tumor materials can directly be used for detection through microfluidic devices. To screen primary cells for drugs, it is often necessary to distinguish cancerous cells from non-cancerous cells. A microfluidic chip based on the capacity of cells to pass small constrictions can sort the cell types, metastases. Droplet‐based microfluidic devices have the potential to screen different drugs or combinations of drugs, directly on the primary tumor sample with high accuracy. To improve this strategy, the microfluidic program with a sequential manner of drug cocktails, coupled with fluorescent barcodes, is more efficient. Another advanced strategy is detecting growth rates of single-cell by using suspended microchannel resonators, which can predict drug sensitivities of rare CTCs.
Microfluidics devices also can simulate the tumor microenvironment, to help to test anticancer drugs. Microfluidic devices with 2D or 3D cell cultures can be used to analyze spheroids for different cancer systems (such as lung cancer and ovarian cancer), and are essential for multiple anti-cancer drugs and toxicity tests. This strategy can be improved by increasing the throughput and production of spheroids. For example, one droplet-based microfluidic device for 3D cell culture produces 500 spheroids per chip. These spheroids can be cultured longer in different surroundings to analyze and monitor. The other advanced technology is organs‐on‐a‐chip, and it can be used to simulate several organs to determine the drug metabolism and activity based on vessels mimicking, as well as mimic pH, oxygen\... to analyze the relationship between drugs and human organ surroundings.
One strategy relevant to single-cell chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChiP)‐Sequencing is droplets, which operates by combining droplet‐based single cell RNA sequencing with DNA‐barcoded antibodies, possibly to explore the tumor heterogeneity by the genotype and phenotype to select the personalized anti-cancer drugs and prevent the cancer relapse.
### Advancements in Capillary Electrophoresis (CE) Systems {#advancements_in_capillary_electrophoresis_ce_systems}
One significant advancement in the field is the development of integrated capillary electrophoresis (CE) systems on microchips, as demonstrated by Z. Hugh Fan and D. Jed. Harrison. They created a planar glass chip incorporating a sample injector and separation channels using micromachining techniques. This setup allowed for the rapid separation of amino acids in just a few seconds, achieving high separation efficiencies with up to 6800 theoretical plates. The use of high electric fields, possible due to the thermal mass and conductivity of glass, minimized Joule heating effects, making the system highly efficient and fast. Such innovations highlight the potential of microfluidic devices in analytical chemistry, particularly in applications requiring quick and precise analyses
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# Mount Logan
**Mount Logan** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|oʊ|g|ən}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|LOH|ghən}}`{=mediawiki}) is the highest mountain in Canada and the second-highest peak in North America after Denali (McKinley). The mountain was named after Sir William Edmond Logan, a Canadian geologist and founder of the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC). Mount Logan is located within Kluane National Park and Reserve in southwestern Yukon, less than 40 km north of the Yukon--Alaska border. Mount Logan is the source of the Hubbard and Logan glaciers. Although many shield volcanoes are much larger in size and mass, Mount Logan is believed to have the largest base circumference of any non-volcanic mountain on Earth, including a massif with eleven peaks over 5000 m. Mount Logan is the 6th most topographically prominent peak on Earth.
Due to active tectonic uplifting, Mount Logan is still rising in height (approximately 0.35 mm per year). Before 1992, the exact elevation of Mount Logan was unknown and measurements ranged from 5959 to. In May 1992, a GSC expedition climbed Mount Logan and fixed the current height of 5959 m using GPS.
Temperatures are extremely low on and near Mount Logan. On the 5000 m plateau, air temperature hovers around -45 C in the winter and reaches near freezing in summer with the median temperature for the year around -27 C. Minimal snow melt leads to a significant ice cap, almost 300 m thick in certain spots.
## Peaks of the massif {#peaks_of_the_massif}
The Mount Logan massif is considered to contain all the surrounding peaks with less than 500 m of prominence, as listed below:
Peak Height Prominence Coordinates
------------------------------- -------- ---------------------------- -------------
Main 5250 m above Mentasta Pass
Philippe Peak (West) 265 m
Logan East Peak (Stuart Peak) 198 m
Houston\'s Peak 100 m
Prospector Peak 344 m
AINA Peak 130 m
Russell Peak 80 m
Tudor Peak (Logan North Peak) 219 m
Saxon Peak (Northeast) 80 m
Queen Peak 160 m
Capet Peak (Northwest) 240 m
Catenary Peak 397 m
Teddy Peak 456 m
## Discovery and naming {#discovery_and_naming}
Mount Logan is not readily visible from the surrounding lowlands or the coast, due to its position in the heart of the Saint Elias Mountains, although it can be seen from 125 mi out to sea. Pictures taken across Yakutat Bay to the south southeast suggest it is visible from near Yakutat. Its first reported sighting was in 1890 by American geologist Israel C. Russell, during an expedition to nearby Mount Saint Elias, from the crest of the Pinnacle Pass Hills (60 9.5 N 140 18 W). Russel wrote: \"The clouds parting toward the northeast revealed several giant peaks not before seen\... One stranger, rising in three white domes far above the clouds, was especially magnificent\". Russell gave the mountain its present name.
In 1894, Mount Logan\'s elevation was determined to be about 19500 ft, making it the highest known peak in North America at the time. In 1898, Denali was determined to be higher.
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# Mount Logan
## Ascent attempts {#ascent_attempts}
### First ascent {#first_ascent}
In 1922, a geologist approached the Alpine Club of Canada with the suggestion that the club send a team to the mountain to reach the summit for the first time. An international team of Canadian, British and American climbers was assembled the following year, initially planning an attempt in 1924 but forced by funding and preparation delays to postpone the trip until 1925. The international team of climbers began their journey in early May, crossing the mainland from the Pacific coast by train. They then walked the remaining 200 km to within 10 km of the Logan Glacier where they established base camp. In the early evening of June 23, 1925, Albert H. MacCarthy (leader), H.F. Lambart, Allen Carpé, Norman H. Read, W.W. Foster, and Andy Taylor stood on top of the summit for the first time. It had taken them 65 days to approach the mountain from the nearest town (McCarthy across the border in Alaska), reach the summit, and return, with all climbers intact, although some of them suffered severe frostbite.
### Subsequent notable ascents and attempts {#subsequent_notable_ascents_and_attempts}
- 1957 *East Ridge*. Don Monk, Gil Roberts and three others (US) reached the East Peak on July 19 after a 24-day climb.
- 1959 *East Ridge*, second ascent and first alpine-style ascent, Hans Gmoser and five others (Canada). Starting from Kluane Lake, they hiked and skied 100 mi to reach the base of the mountain. They climbed the ridge in six days and summited the East Peak on June 12.
- 1965 *Hummingbird Ridge* (South Ridge). Dick Long, Allen Steck, John Evans, Jim Wilson, Franklin Coale Sr., and Paul Bacon (US) over 30 days, mid-July to Mid-August. Fred Beckey remarked: \"When they got back we just couldn\'t believe that they had climbed that thing. We didn\'t think they had a chance\". This climb is featured in *Fifty Classic Climbs of North America*. As of 2023, the climb remains unrepeated.
- 1967, July, the first traverse of Mt. Logan was made by Vin Hoemann and Will Harrison, starting at the \"HubSew\" ridge over the main summit. Team members Alexander Bittenbinder, David Shaw, and Edward Ward joined them via the East Ridge.
- 1967, August, the first ski descent of the mountain was made in two stages by Daniel C. Taylor main summit to the Kluane glacier
- 1977 *Warbler Ridge*. Dave Jones, Frank Baumann, Fred Thiessen, Jay Page (all from Canada) and Rene Bucher (Swiss) in 22 days.
- 1978 *West Ridge*. Steve Davis (WA), Jon Waterman, George Sievewright, Roger Hurt (NH). Climbed ridge in 27 days \"capsule-style\".
- 1979 *Northwest Ridge* Michael Down (CA), Paul Kindree, John Howe, Reid Carter and John Wittmayer climbed to the summit over 22 days, topping out on June 19.
- 1979 *South-Southwest Ridge*. Raymond Jotterand (CA), Alan Burgess, Jim Elzinga and John Lauchlan reached the summit after 15 days of climbing on June 30 and July 1.
- 1986 First winter ascent by Todd Frankiewicz, Willy Hersman, Steve Koslow, George Rooney, Vernon Tejas and John Bauman via the *King's Trench Route* on March 16.
- 1987 David Cheesmond and Catherine Freer disappeared while attempting to repeat the *Hummingbird Ridge*. Their bodies were not found until 2000. Due to the remoteness of *Hummingbird Ridge* and more crucially the precarious spot where the bodies are located, they have not been able to be recovered.
- 1992 June 6, an expedition sponsored by the Royal Canadian Geographic Society confirmed the height of Mount Logan using GPS. The leader was Michael Schmidt, with Lisel Currie, Leo Nadeay, Charlie Roots, J-C. Lavergne, Roger Laurilla, Patrick Morrow, Karl Nagy, Sue Gould, Alan Björn, Lloyd Freese, Kevin McLaughlin and Rick Staley.
- 2005 late May. Three climbers from the Vancouver-based North Shore Rescue team became stranded on the mountain. A joint operation by Canadian and American forces rescued the three climbers and took them to Anchorage, Alaska for treatment of frostbite.
- 2017 May 23. 15-year-old Naomi Prohaska reached the summit, the youngest person to do so. She was part of a team led by her father.
- 2018 June 14. The first all-US veteran team reached the summit. The six-person team was unguided and part of the US non-profit organization Veterans Expeditions.
thumb\|upright=1.1\|Mount Logan 3D view
## Climbing rules {#climbing_rules}
In January 2020, due to the cost of search and rescue operations in recent years, Parks Canada announced new rules for climbing Mount Logan:
- No solo expeditions
- No winter expeditions (which also includes all of Kluane National Park)
- Climbers must have insurance to cover the cost of search and rescue.
There had been eight rescue missions in the previous seven years in Kluane National Park. Each mission typically cost between \$60,000 to \$100,000 CAD which is paid for by Canadian taxpayers. A Parks Canada spokesperson said the new rules are to help reduce the financial burden to taxpayers.
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# Mount Logan
## Proposed renaming {#proposed_renaming}
Following the death of Pierre Trudeau, former Prime Minister of Canada, in 2000, then Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, a close friend of Trudeau, proposed renaming the mountain Mount Trudeau. However opposition from Yukoners, mountaineers, geologists, Trudeau\'s political critics, and many other Canadians forced the plan to be dropped. A mountain in the Premier Range of British Columbia was named Mount Pierre Elliott Trudeau instead.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
*X-Men* writer Chris Claremont was inspired by Mount Logan for the adopted name of the superhero Wolverine; Claremont said in an interview that \"the idea was the tallest mountain being the name of the shortest character\"
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# Emergency contraception
**Emergency contraception** (**EC**) is a birth control measure, used after sexual intercourse to prevent pregnancy.
There are different forms of EC. Emergency contraceptive pills (ECPs), sometimes simply referred to as emergency contraceptives (ECs), or the **morning-after pill**, are medications intended to disrupt or delay ovulation or fertilization, which are necessary for pregnancy.
Intrauterine devices (IUDs)`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}usually used as a primary contraceptive method`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}are sometimes used as the most effective form of emergency contraception. However, the use of IUDs for emergency contraception is relatively rare. `{{TOC limit}}`{=mediawiki}
## Definition
Emergency contraception is a birth control measure taken to reduce the risk of pregnancy following unprotected sexual intercourse or when other regular contraceptive measures have not worked properly or have not been used correctly. It is intended to be used occasionally and is not the same as medical abortion. Emergency contraception is offered to women who do not wish to conceive but have had unprotected sex on any day of the menstrual cycle, from day 21 after giving birth, or from day five after abortion or miscarriage. Emergency contraception measures include tablets taken by mouth or the insertion of a copper intrauterine device.
Emergency contraception is not related to medical abortion, which is a drug regimen administered to terminate pregnancies in any trimester.
## Emergency contraceptive pills {#emergency_contraceptive_pills}
Emergency contraceptive pills (ECPs) are sometimes referred to as emergency hormonal contraception (EHC). They are taken after unprotected sexual intercourse or the breakage of a condom.
### Types
A variety of emergency contraceptive pills are available, including combined estrogen and progestin pills; progestin-only (levonorgestrel, LNG) pills; and antiprogestin (ulipristal acetate or mifepristone) pills. Progestin-only and anti-progestin pills are available as specifically packaged pills for use as emergency contraceptive pills. Emergency contraceptive pills originally contained higher doses of the same hormones (estrogens, progestins, or both) found in regular combined oral contraceptive pills. Combined estrogen and progestin pills are no longer recommended as dedicated emergency contraceptive pills (because this regimen is less effective and caused more nausea), but certain regular combined oral contraceptive pills (taken 2--5 at a time in what was called \"the Yuzpe regimen\") have also been shown to be effective as emergency contraceptive pills.
Progestin-only emergency contraceptive pills contain levonorgestrel, either as a single tablet (or historically, as a split dose of two tablets taken 12 hours apart), effective up to 72 hours after intercourse. Progestin-only ECPs are sold under many different brand names. Progestin-only ECPs are available over-the-counter (OTC) in many countries (e.g. Australia, Bangladesh, Bulgaria, Canada, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, India, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, South Africa, Sweden, United States), from a pharmacist without a prescription, and available with a prescription in some other countries.
The antiprogestin ulipristal acetate is available as a micronized emergency contraceptive tablet, effective up to 120 hours after intercourse. Ulipristal acetate ECPs developed by HRA Pharma are available over the counter in Europe and by prescription in over 50 countries under the brand names ellaOne, ella (marketed by Watson Pharmaceuticals in the United States), Duprisal 30, Ulipristal 30, and UPRIS.
The antiprogestin mifepristone (also known as RU-486) is available in five countries as a low-dose or mid-dose emergency contraceptive tablet, effective up to 120 hours after intercourse. Low-dose mifepristone ECPs are available by prescription in Armenia, Russia, Ukraine, and Vietnam and from a pharmacist without a prescription in China. Mid-dose mifepristone ECPs are available by prescription in China and Vietnam.
Combined estrogen (ethinylestradiol) and progestin (levonorgestrel or norgestrel) pills used to be available as dedicated emergency contraceptive pills under several brand names: *Schering PC4*, *Tetragynon*, *Neoprimavlar*, and *Preven* (in the United States) but were withdrawn after more effective dedicated progestin-only (levonorgestrel) emergency contraceptive pills with fewer side effects became available. If other more effective dedicated emergency contraceptive pills (levonorgestrel, ulipristal acetate, or mifepristone) are not available, specific combinations of regular combined oral contraceptive pills can be taken in split doses 12 hours apart (the Yuzpe regimen), effective up to 72 hours after intercourse.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved this off-label use of certain brands of regular combined oral contraceptive pills in 1997. As of 2014, there are 26 brands of regular combined oral contraceptive pills containing levonorgestrel or norgestrel available in the United States that can be used in the emergency contraceptive Yuzpe regimen, when none of the more effective and better-tolerated options are available.
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# Emergency contraception
## Emergency contraceptive pills {#emergency_contraceptive_pills}
### Effectiveness
Ulipristal acetate, and mid-dose mifepristone are both more effective than levonorgestrel, which is more effective than the Yuzpe method.
The effectiveness of emergency contraception is expressed as a percentage reduction in pregnancy rate for a single use of EC. Using an example of \"75% effective\", the effectiveness calculation thus: `{{blockquote|... these numbers do not translate into a pregnancy rate of 25 percent. Rather, they mean that if 1,000 women have unprotected intercourse in the middle two weeks of their menstrual cycles, approximately 80 will become pregnant. Use of emergency contraceptive pills would reduce this number by 75 percent, to 20 women.<ref name="weismiller">{{cite journal | vauthors = Weismiller DG | title = Emergency contraception | journal = American Family Physician | volume = 70 | issue = 4 | pages = 707–714 | date = August 2004 | pmid = 15338783 |url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/20040815/707.html | access-date = 2006-12-01 | url-status = dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929100133/http://www.aafp.org/afp/20040815/707.html | archive-date = 2007-09-29 }}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
The progestin-only regimen (using levonorgestrel) has an 89% effectiveness. `{{As of|2006}}`{=mediawiki}, the labeling on the U.S. brand Plan B explained this effectiveness rate by stating, \"Seven out of every eight women who would have gotten pregnant will not become pregnant.\"
In 1999, a meta-analysis of eight studies of the combined (Yuzpe) regimen concluded that the best point estimate of effectiveness was 74%. A 2003 analysis of two of the largest combined (Yuzpe) regimen studies, using a different calculation method, found effectiveness estimates of 47% and 53%.
For both the progestin-only and Yuzpe regimens, the effectiveness of emergency contraception is highest when taken within 12 hours of intercourse and declines over time. The World Health Organization (WHO) suggested that reasonable effectiveness may continue for up to 120 hours (5 days) after intercourse.
For 10 mg of mifepristone taken up to 120 hours (5 days) after intercourse, the combined estimate from three trials was an effectiveness of 83%. A review found that a moderate dose of mifepristone is better than LNG or Yuzpe, with delayed return of menstruation being the main adverse effect of most regimes.
HRA Pharma changed its packaging information for Norlevo (levonorgestrel 1.5 mg, which is identical to many other EHCs) in November 2013 warning that according to studies the drug loses effectiveness in women who weigh more than 75 kg (165 lb) and is completely ineffective for women who weigh over 80 kg (176 lb). After a review by European Medicines Agency, the statement was deleted from the leaflet. The agency communicated that levonorgestrel is safe and effective method of emergency contraception, regardless of body weight.
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# Emergency contraception
## Emergency contraceptive pills {#emergency_contraceptive_pills}
### Safety
The most common side effect reported by users of emergency contraceptive pills was nausea, reported by 14 to 23% of levonorgestrel-only users and 50.5% of Yuzpe regimen users. Vomiting is much less common and unusual with levonorgestrel-only ECPs (5.6% of levonorgestrel-only users vs 18.8% of 979 Yuzpe regimen users in 1998 WHO trial; 1.4% of 2,720 levonorgestrel-only users in the 2002 WHO trial). Anti-emetics are not routinely recommended with levonorgestrel-only ECPs. If a woman vomits within 2 hours of taking a levonorgestrel-only ECP, she should take a further dose as soon as possible.
Other common side effects (each reported by less than 20% of levonorgestrel-only users in both the 1998 and 2002 WHO trials) were abdominal pain, fatigue, headache, dizziness, and breast tenderness. Side effects generally resolve within 24 hours, although temporary disruption of the menstrual cycle is commonly experienced. If taken before ovulation, the high doses of progestogen in levonorgestrel treatments may induce progestogen withdrawal bleeding a few days after the pills are taken.
One study found that about half of women who used levonorgestrel ECPs experienced bleeding within 7 days of taking the pills. If levonorgestrel is taken after ovulation, it may increase the length of the luteal phase, thus delaying menstruation by a few days. Mifepristone, if taken before ovulation, may delay ovulation by 3--4 days (delayed ovulation may result in a delayed menstruation). These disruptions only occur in the cycle in which ECPs were taken; subsequent cycle length is not significantly affected. If a woman\'s menstrual period is delayed by two weeks or more, it is advised that she take a pregnancy test. (Earlier testing may not give accurate results.)
Existing pregnancy is not a contraindication in terms of safety, as there is no known harm to the woman, the course of her pregnancy, or the fetus if progestin-only or combined emergency contraception pills are accidentally used, but EC is not indicated for a woman with a known or suspected pregnancy because it is not effective in women who are already pregnant.
The World Health Organization (WHO) lists no medical condition for which the risks of emergency contraceptive pills outweigh the benefits. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) and experts on emergency contraception have concluded that progestin-only ECPs are preferable to combined ECPs containing estrogen for all women, and particularly those with a history of blood clots, stroke, or migraine.
There are no medical conditions in which progestin-only ECPs are contraindicated. Current venous thromboembolism, current or history of breast cancer, inflammatory bowel disease, and acute intermittent porphyria are conditions where the advantages of using emergency contraceptive pills generally outweigh the theoretical or proven risks.
ECPs, like all other contraceptives, reduce the absolute risk of ectopic pregnancy by preventing pregnancies and there is no increase in the relative risk of ectopic pregnancy in women who become pregnant after using progestin-only ECPs.
## Interactions
The herbal preparation of St John\'s wort and some enzyme-inducing drugs (e.g. anticonvulsants or rifampicin) may reduce the effectiveness of ECP, and a larger dose may be required, especially in women who weigh more than 165 lbs.
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# Emergency contraception
## Intrauterine device {#intrauterine_device}
An effective emergency contraception measure is the copper-T intrauterine device (IUD) which is generally recommended up to 5 days after unprotected intercourse or up to 5 days after probable ovulation. Some studies have found it to be effective up to 10 days after unprotected intercourse to prevent pregnancy. A 2021 study found that the hormonal IUD was as effective at emergency contraception as the copper IUD, though it is not offered by clinicians at the moment due to the lack of research done into the subject.
Insertion of an IUD is more effective than the use of emergency contraceptive pills`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}pregnancy rates when used as emergency contraception are the same as with normal IUD use. Unlike emergency contraceptive pills, which work by delaying ovulation, the copper-T IUD works by interfering with sperm motility. Therefore, the copper IUD is equally effective as emergency contraception at all weight ranges. IUDs may be left in place following the subsequent menstruation to provide ongoing contraception for as long as desired (12+ years).
## As regular contraception {#as_regular_contraception}
One brand of levonorgestrel pills was marketed as an ongoing method of postcoital contraception. However, with typical use, failure rates are expected to be higher than with the use of other birth control methods.
Like all hormonal methods, postcoital high-dose progestin-only oral contraceptive pills do not protect against sexually transmitted infections.
ECPs are generally recommended for backup or \"emergency\" use`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}for example, if a woman has forgotten to take a birth control pill or when a condom is torn during sex. However, for women facing reproductive coercion, who are not able to use regular birth control, repeated use of EC pills may be the most viable option available.
## High-risk sex and abortion {#high_risk_sex_and_abortion}
Making ECPs more widely available does not increase sexual risk-taking. While they are effective for individuals who use them in a timely fashion, the availability of EC pills does not appear to decrease abortion rates at the population level.
In 2012 the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) stated: \"Despite multiple studies showing no increased risk behaviour and evidence that hormonal emergency contraception will not disrupt an established pregnancy, public and medical discourse reflects that personal values of physicians and pharmacists continue to affect emergency-contraception access, particularly for adolescents.\"
## EC and sexual assault {#ec_and_sexual_assault}
Beginning in the 1960s, women who had been sexually assaulted were offered diethylstilbestrol (DES). Currently, the standard of care is to offer ulipristal or prompt placement of a copper IUD which is the most effective form of EC. However, adherence to these best practices varies by the emergency department. Before these EC options were available (in 1996), pregnancy rates among females of child-bearing age who had been raped were around 5%. Although EC is recommended following sexual assault, room for improvement in clinical practice remains.
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# Emergency contraception
## Mechanism of action {#mechanism_of_action}
The primary mechanism of action of progestogen-only emergency contraceptive pills is to prevent fertilization by inhibition of ovulation. The best available evidence is that they do not have any post-fertilization effects such as the prevention of implantation. The U.S. FDA-approved labels and European EMA-approved labels (except for HRA Pharma\'s *NorLevo*) levonorgestrel emergency contraceptive pills (based on labels for regular oral contraceptive pills) say they may cause endometrial changes that discourage implantation. Daily use of regular oral contraceptive pills can alter the endometrium (although this has not been proven to interfere with implantation), but the isolated use of a levonorgestrel emergency contraceptive pill does not have time to alter the endometrium.
In March 2011, the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) issued a statement that: \"review of the evidence suggests that LNG \[levonorgestreol\] ECPs cannot prevent implantation of a fertilized egg. Language on implantation should not be included in LNG ECP product labeling.\" In June 2012, a *New York Times* editorial called on the FDA to remove from the label the unsupported suggestion that levonorgestrel emergency contraceptive pills inhibit implantation. In November 2013, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) approved a change to the label for HRA Pharma\'s *NorLevo* saying it cannot prevent implantation of a fertilized egg.
Progestogen-only emergency contraceptive does not appear to affect the function of the fallopian tubes or increase the rate of ectopic pregnancies.
The primary mechanism of action of progesterone receptor modulator emergency contraceptive pills like low-dose and mid-dose mifepristone and ulipristal acetate is to prevent fertilization by inhibition or delay of ovulation. One clinical study found that post-ovulatory administration of ulipristal acetate altered the endometrium, but whether the changes would inhibit implantation is unknown. The European EMA-approved labels for ulipristal acetate emergency contraceptive pills do not mention an effect on implantation, but the U.S. FDA-approved label says: \"alterations to the endometrium that may affect implantation may also contribute to efficacy.\"
The primary mechanism of action of copper-releasing intrauterine devices (IUDs) as emergency contraceptives is to prevent fertilization because of copper toxicity to sperm and ova. The very high effectiveness of copper-releasing IUDs as emergency contraceptives implies that they must also prevent some pregnancies by post-fertilization effects such as prevention of implantation.
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# Emergency contraception
## History
In 1966, gynecologist John McLean Morris and biologist Gertrude Van Wagenen at the Yale School of Medicine, reported the successful use of oral high-dose estrogen pills as post-coital contraceptives in women and rhesus macaque monkeys, respectively. A few different drugs were studied, with a focus on high-dose estrogens, and it was originally hoped that postcoital contraception would prove viable as an ongoing contraceptive method.
The first widely used methods were five-day treatments with high-dose estrogens, using diethylstilbestrol (DES) in the US and ethinylestradiol in the Netherlands by Haspels.
In the early 1970s, the Yuzpe regimen was developed by A. Albert Yuzpe in 1974; progestin-only postcoital contraception was investigated (1975); and the copper IUD was first studied for use as emergency contraception (1975). Danazol was tested in the early 1980s in the hopes that it would have fewer side effects than Yuzpe, but was found to be ineffective.
The Yuzpe regimen became the standard course of treatment for postcoital contraception in many countries in the 1980s. The first prescription-only combined estrogen-progestin dedicated product, Schering PC4 (ethinylestradiol and norgestrel), was approved in the UK in January 1984 and first marketed in October 1984. Schering introduced a second prescription-only combined product, Tetragynon (ethinylestradiol and levonorgestrel) in Germany in 1985. By 1997, Schering AG dedicated prescription-only combined products had been approved in only 9 countries: the UK (Schering PC4), New Zealand (Schering PC4), South Africa (E-Gen-C), Germany (Tetragynon), Switzerland (Tetragynon), Denmark (Tetragynon), Norway (Tetragynon), Sweden (Tetragynon) and Finland (Neoprimavlar); and had been withdrawn from marketing in New Zealand in 1997 to prevent it being sold over-the-counter. Regular combined oral contraceptive pills (which were less expensive and more widely available) were more commonly used for the Yuzpe regimen even in countries where dedicated products were available.
Over time, interest in progestin-only treatments increased. The Special Program on Human Reproduction (HRP), an international organization whose members include the World Bank and World Health Organization, \"played a pioneering role in emergency contraception\" by \"confirming the effectiveness of levonorgestrel.\" After the WHO conducted a large trial comparing Yuzpe and levonorgestrel in 1998, combined estrogen-progestin products were gradually withdrawn from some markets (*Preven* in the United States discontinued May 2004, *Schering PC4* in the UK discontinued October 2001, and *Tetragynon* in France) in favor of progestin-only EC, although prescription-only dedicated Yuzpe regimen products are still available in some countries.
In 2002, China became the first country in which mifepristone was registered for use as EC.
In 2020, Japan announced it would consider easing regulations on the sale of emergency contraceptive pills without a prescription. Non-profit groups submitted a petition to the health ministry calling for prescription-free access to the pill. They had collected more than 100,000 signatures.
### Calculating effectiveness {#calculating_effectiveness}
Early studies of emergency contraceptives did not attempt to calculate a failure rate; they simply reported the number of women who became pregnant after using an emergency contraceptive. Since 1980, clinical trials of emergency contraception have first calculated probable pregnancies in the study group if no treatment were given. The effectiveness is calculated by dividing observed pregnancies by the estimated number of pregnancies without treatment.
Placebo-controlled trials that could give a precise measure of the pregnancy rate without treatment would be unethical, so the effectiveness percentage is based on estimated pregnancy rates. These are currently estimated using variants of the calendar method. Women with irregular cycles for any reason (including recent hormone use such as oral contraceptives and breastfeeding) must be excluded from such calculations. Even for women included in the calculation, the limitations of calendar methods of fertility determination have long been recognized. In their February 2014 emergency review article, Trussell and Raymond note: `{{blockquote|Calculation of effectiveness, and particularly the denominator of the fraction, involves many assumptions that are difficult to validate. The risk of pregnancy for women requesting ECPs appears to be lower than assumed in the estimates of ECP efficacy, which are consequently likely to be overestimates. Yet, precise estimates of efficacy may not be highly relevant to many women who have had unprotected intercourse, since ECPs are often the only available treatment.<ref name="Trussell 2014"/>}}`{=mediawiki}
In 1999, hormonal assay was suggested as a more accurate method of estimating fertility for EC studies.
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# Emergency contraception
## History
### United States {#united_states}
#### DES
- In 1971, a *New England Journal of Medicine* editorial calling attention to previously published studies on the use of DES as a postcoital contraceptive at Yale University, and a large study published in *JAMA* on the use of DES as a postcoital contraceptive at the University of Michigan, led to off-label use of DES as a postcoital contraceptive becoming prevalent at many university health services.
- In May 1973, in an attempt to restrict off-label use of DES as a postcoital contraceptive to emergency situations such as rape, a *FDA Drug Bulletin* was sent to all U.S. physicians and pharmacists that said the FDA had approved, under restricted conditions, postcoital contraceptive use of DES. (In February 1975, the FDA Commissioner testified that the only error in the May 1973 *FDA Drug Bulletin* was that the FDA had **not** approved postcoital contraceptive use of DES).
- In September 1973, the FDA published a proposed rule specifying patient labeling and special packaging requirements for any manufacturer seeking FDA approval to market DES as a postcoital contraceptive, inviting manufacturers to submit abbreviated new drug applications (ANDAs) for that indication, and notifying manufacturers that the FDA intended to order the withdrawal of DES 25 mg tablets (which were being used off-label as postcoital contraceptives).
- In late 1973, Eli Lilly, the largest U.S. manufacturer of DES, discontinued its DES 25 mg tablets and in March 1974 sent a letter to all U.S. physicians and pharmacists telling them it did not recommend use of DES as a postcoital contraceptive.
- Only one pharmaceutical company, Tablicaps, Inc., a small manufacturer of generic drugs, ever submitted (in January 1974) an ANDA for use of DES as an emergency postcoital contraceptive, and the FDA never approved it.
- In February 1975, the FDA said it had not yet approved DES as a postcoital contraceptive, but would after March 8, 1975, permit marketing of DES for that indication in emergency situations such as rape or incest *if* a manufacturer obtained an approved ANDA that provided patient labeling and special packaging as set out in a FDA final rule published in February 1975. To discourage off-label use of DES as a postcoital contraceptive, in February 1975 the FDA ordered DES 25 mg (and higher) tablets removed from the market and ordered the labeling of lower doses (5 mg and lower) of DES still approved for other indications be changed to state: \"THIS DRUG PRODUCT SHOULD *not* BE USED AS A POSTCOITAL CONTRACEPTIVE\" in block capital letters on the first line of the physician prescribing information package insert and in a prominent and conspicuous location of the container and carton label.
- In March 1978, a *FDA Drug Bulletin* was sent to all U.S. physicians and pharmacists which said: \"FDA has not yet given approval for any manufacturer to market DES as a postcoital contraceptive. The Agency, however, will approve this indication for emergency situations such as rape or incest if a manufacturer provides patient labeling and special packaging. To discourage \'morning after\' use of DES without patient labeling, FDA has removed from the market the 25 mg tablets of DES, formerly used for this purpose.\"
- In the 1980s, off-label use of the Yuzpe regimen superseded off-label use of DES for postcoital contraception.
- DES is no longer commercially available in the U.S.; Eli Lilly, the last U.S. manufacturer, ceased production in spring 1997.
#### Preven
- On February 25, 1997, the FDA posted a notice in the *Federal Register* saying it had concluded that the Yuzpe regimen was safe and effective for off-label use as postcoital EC, was prepared to accept NDAs for COCPs labeled as ECPs, and listed 6 then available COCPs (there are now 22) that could be used as ECPs.
- On September 1, 1998, the FDA approved the prescription Yuzpe regimen Preven Emergency Contraception Kit (which contained a urine pregnancy test and 4 COCPs). Preven was discontinued in May 2004.
#### Plan B {#plan_b}
- On July 28, 1999, the FDA approved the prescription progestin-only Plan B (two 750 μg levonorgestrel pills) emergency contraceptive.
- On August 24, 2006, the FDA approved nonprescription behind-the-counter access to Plan B from pharmacies staffed by a licensed pharmacist for women 18 or older; a prescription-only form of Plan B was made available for younger females aged 17 and younger.
- On November 6, 2006, Barr Pharmaceuticals announced that its subsidiary, Duramed Pharmaceuticals, had initiated shipment of dual-label Plan B OTC/Rx and it would be available in pharmacies across the U.S. by mid-November 2006.
- On March 23, 2009, a US judge ordered the FDA to allow 17-year-olds to acquire Plan B without a prescription. This now changes the August 24, 2006, ruling and Plan B is now available \"behind the counter\" for men and women. There is a prescription method available for girls under 17.
- On April 30, 2013, the FDA approved (with three-year marketing exclusivity) Teva Pharmaceutical Industries\' Plan B One-Step for sale without a prescription to anyone age 15 or over who can show proof of age such as a driver\'s license, birth certificate, or passport to a drug store retail clerk. Generic one-pill levonorgestrel emergency contraceptives and all two-pill levonorgestrel emergency contraceptives will remain restricted to sale from a pharmacist---without a prescription to anyone age 17 or over who can show proof of age.
- On June 10, 2013, the Obama administration ceased trying to block over-the-counter availability of the pill. With this reversal it means that any person will be able to purchase the Plan B One-Step without a prescription.
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# Emergency contraception
## Availability
The COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom was reported to have caused \"significant disruption\" to contraceptive services in the United Kingdom.
### United States {#united_states_1}
After *Roe v. Wade* and *Doe v. Bolton* resulted in the U.S. Supreme Court\'s 1973 ruling to legalize abortion, both Federal and State laws were created to allow medical professionals and institutions the right to deny reproductive health services without financial, professional, or legal penalty. *Roe v. Wade* caused a historical survey to be conducted and concluded that right to privacy cases such as *Griswold v. Connecticut* allowed women to have parental control over childrearing, including the use of contraception for reproductive autonomy. After this, women became more informed about contraceptives and began requesting them more often.
Almost all 50 states have implemented policies on sterilization, contraceptives, and abortion services. Since the late 1990s, due to rights given by specific policies, the dispensation of emergency contraceptives on issues of religious and moral objections of providing care has extended from doctors, nurses, and hospitals to pharmacies and individual pharmacists. Furthermore, many states have insurance policies that cover contraceptives alongside all other prescription drugs, but may have exemptions for employers or private insurers on religious grounds. Different state legislatures have taken different routes in broadening access to emergency contraceptives. In some states, if a woman has been sexually assaulted, it is mandatory to provide her access to EC. In other states, women have been allowed various amounts of access, including the ability to access EC without a prescription from a physician, creation of policies limiting the ability of pharmacists to deny EC on religious and moral grounds, and creation of policies discouraging pharmacists from denying to fill contraceptive prescriptions. One state even requires all pharmacies to stock and fill every method of contraception. However, other states have restricted access of emergency contraception from state Medicaid family planning eligibility expansions or contraceptive coverage mandates, or by allowing the refusal of providing contraceptive services by healthcare professionals.
Under federal law, a provision of the Affordable Care Act of 2010 has guaranteed coverage of contraceptives, applying to most private health plans nationwide. The provision has also specifically required coverage for 18 methods of contraception used by women, related counselling and services, and requires the coverage provided not to be an out-of-pocket cost to the people. In October 2017, however, the Trump administration made it easier for employers that offer health care plans to exclude contraceptive coverage. The two regulations that allow employers to reject contraceptive coverage are religious and moral objection, but the courts have blocked the enforcement of these regulations. As of today, 29 states require that if insurance covers prescription drugs, it has to provide FDA-approved prescription contraceptive drugs and devices. 10 states prohibit the restriction and delay by insurers or medical management techniques to access contraceptives, and 8 states do not permit refusal on religious or moral grounds by any employers or insurerers. However, 21 states do allow the refusal to comply with the contraceptive coverage mandates, and 14 states prohibit cost sharing for contraceptives.
Emergency contraceptives are the most common prescription drug denied by a pharmacist due to their religious or moral beliefs. There have been cases where hormones, drugs and devices used to treat human immunodeficiency virus and diabetic medication have also been denied. This topic continues to be fought upon on different levels; for example, Stormans, Inc v Wiesman challenged Washington state regulations on providing all lawfully prescribed pharmaceuticals, including EC. They were challenging Washington state regulations on providing all lawfully prescribed pharmaceuticals. Courts have been warned that if pharmacists are allowed to deny EC prescriptions on religious or moral beliefs, it can affect public health and set a dangerous precedent with respect to \"critical, life-saving preventative care\". The court denied the claim, stating that all pharmacies, even if the owner has a religious objection, must provide all prescribed medication, including EC. The pharmacy in question tried to appeal the case to the Supreme Court, but the appeal was rejected, leaving the lower court\'s ruling in place. Wal-Mart, the third largest U.S. pharmacy chain, refused to carry EC from 1997 to 2006, which shows that accessibility may still be an issue in areas dependent on single pharmacies with no alternatives
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# 2001 Mars Odyssey
***2001 Mars Odyssey*** is a robotic spacecraft orbiting the planet Mars. The project was developed by NASA, and contracted out to Lockheed Martin, with an expected cost for the entire mission of US\$297 million. Its mission is to use spectrometers and a thermal imager to detect evidence of past or present water and ice, as well as study the planet\'s geology and radiation environment. The data *Odyssey* obtains is intended to help answer the question of whether life once existed on Mars and create a risk-assessment of the radiation that future astronauts on Mars might experience. It also acts as a relay for communications between the *Curiosity* rover, and previously the Mars Exploration Rovers and *Phoenix* lander, to Earth. The mission was named as a tribute to Arthur C. Clarke, evoking the name of his and Stanley Kubrick\'s 1968 film *2001: A Space Odyssey*.
*Odyssey* was launched April 7, 2001, on a Delta II rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, and reached Mars orbit on October 24, 2001, at 02:30 UTC (October 23, 19:30 PDT, 22:30 EDT). As of March 2025, it is still collecting data, and is estimated to have enough propellant to function until the end of 2025. It currently holds the record for the longest-surviving continually active spacecraft in orbit around a planet other than Earth, ahead of the Pioneer Venus Orbiter (served 14 years) and the *Mars Express* (serving over 20 years), at `{{Age in years, months and days| year=2001| month=10| day=24}}`{=mediawiki}. `{{As of|2019|10}}`{=mediawiki} it is in a polar orbit around Mars with a semi-major axis of about 3,800 km or 2,400 miles.
On May 28, 2002 (sol `{{age in sols|2001|10|24|2002|05|28}}`{=mediawiki}), NASA reported that *Odyssey*{{\'}}s GRS instrument had detected large amounts of hydrogen, a sign that there must be ice lying within a meter of the planet\'s surface, and proceeded to map the distribution of water below the shallow surface. The orbiter also discovered vast deposits of bulk water ice near the surface of equatorial regions.
*Odyssey* has also served as the primary means of communications for NASA\'s Mars surface explorers in the past decade, up to the *Curiosity* rover.
## Naming
In August 2000, NASA solicited candidate names for the mission. Out of 200 names submitted, the committee chose Astrobiological Reconnaissance and Elemental Surveyor, abbreviated ARES (a tribute to Ares, the Greek god of war). Faced with criticism that this name was not very compelling, and too aggressive, the naming committee reconvened. The candidate name \"2001 Mars Odyssey\" had earlier been rejected because of copyright and trademark concerns. However, NASA e-mailed Arthur C. Clarke in Sri Lanka, who responded that he would be delighted to have the mission named after his books, and he had no objections. On September 20, NASA associate administrator Ed Weiler wrote to the associate administrator for public affairs recommending a name change from ARES to *2001 Mars Odyssey*. Peggy Wilhide then approved the name change.
## Mission objectives {#mission_objectives}
- Mapping the levels of elements across the entire Martian surface
- Determine how much hydrogen exists within the \"shallow subsurface\"
- Develop a library of high-resolution images and spectroscopy for the mineral composition of the Martian surface
- Provide information on the morphology of the Martian surface
- Identify the \"radiation-induced risk to human explorers\" through a characterization of the \"near-space radiation environment\" on the Martian surface
## Scientific instruments {#scientific_instruments}
The three primary instruments *Odyssey* uses are the:
- **Thermal Emission Imaging System** (THEMIS). It is an onboard camera that provides visible and infrared imaging to characterize how minerals are distributed on the surface of Mars.
- **Gamma Ray Spectrometer** (GRS), including the **High Energy Neutron Detector** (HEND), provided by Russia. **GRS** is a collaboration between University of Arizona\'s Lunar and Planetary Lab., the Los Alamos National Laboratory, and Russia\'s Space Research Institute. It is a spectrometer focussed on the gamma-ray portion of the spectrum in order to search for various elements in the Martian atmosphere, including carbon, silicon, iron and magnesium.
- **Mars Radiation Environment Experiment** (MARIE). An \"energetic particle spectrometer\", measuring the radiation levels around Mars.
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# 2001 Mars Odyssey
## Mission
*Mars Odyssey* launched from Cape Canaveral on April 7, 2001, and arrived at Mars about 200 days later on October 24. Upon arrival, the spacecraft\'s main engine fired in order to decelerate, which allowed it to be captured into orbit around Mars. *Odyssey* then spent about 76 days aerobraking, using aerodynamic drag from the upper reaches of the Martian atmosphere to gradually slow down and reduce and circularize its orbit. By planning to use the atmosphere of Mars to slow the spacecraft in its orbit rather than firing its engine or thrusters, *Odyssey* did not need an additional 200 kilograms (440 lb) of propellant on board. This reduction in spacecraft weight allowed the mission to be launched on a Delta II 7925 launch vehicle, rather than a larger, more expensive launcher.
Aerobraking ended in January 2002, and Odyssey began its science mapping mission on February 19, 2002. *Odyssey*{{\'}}s original, nominal mission lasted until August 2004, but repeated mission extensions have kept the mission active.
The payload\'s MARIE radiation experiment stopped taking measurements after a large solar event bombarded the *Odyssey* spacecraft on October 28, 2003. Engineers believe the most likely cause is that a computer chip was damaged by a solar particle smashing into the MARIE computer board.
About 85% of images and other data from NASA\'s twin Mars Exploration Rovers, *Spirit* and *Opportunity*, have reached Earth via communications relay by *Odyssey*. The orbiter helped analyze potential landing sites for the rovers and performed the same task for NASA\'s Phoenix mission, which landed on Mars in May 2008. *Odyssey* aided NASA\'s *Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter*, which reached Mars in March 2006, by monitoring atmospheric conditions during months when the newly arrived orbiter used aerobraking to alter its orbit into the desired shape.
*Odyssey* is in a Sun-synchronous orbit, which provides consistent lighting for its photographs. On September 30, 2008 (sol `{{age in sols|2001|10|24|2008|09|30}}`{=mediawiki}) the spacecraft altered its orbit to gain better sensitivity for its infrared mapping of Martian minerals. The new orbit eliminated the use of the gamma ray detector, due to the potential for overheating the instrument at the new orbit.
By December 15, 2010, it broke the record for longest serving spacecraft at Mars, with 3,340 days of operation.
The orbiter\'s orientation is controlled by a set of three reaction wheels and a spare. When one failed in June 2012, the fourth was spun up and successfully brought into service. Since July 2012, *Odyssey* has been back in full, nominal operation mode following three weeks of \'safe\' mode on remote maintenance.
*Mars Odyssey*{{\'}}s THEMIS instrument was used to help select a landing site for the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL). Several days before MSL\'s landing in August 2012, *Odyssey*{{\'}}s orbit was altered to ensure that it would be able to capture signals from the rover during its first few minutes on the Martian surface. *Odyssey* also acted as a relay for UHF radio signals from the (MSL) rover *Curiosity*. Because *Odyssey* is in a Sun-synchronous orbit, it passes over *Curiosity*{{\'}}s location twice per day, enabling regular contact with Earth.
On February 11, 2014, mission control accelerated *Odyssey*{{\'}}s drift toward a morning-daylight orbit to \"enable observation of changing ground temperatures after sunrise and after sunset in thousands of places on Mars\". The orbital change occurred gradually until November 2015. Those observations could yield insight about the composition of the ground and about temperature-driven processes, such as warm seasonal flows observed on some slopes, and geysers fed by spring thawing of carbon dioxide (CO~2~) ice near Mars\' poles.
On October 19, 2014, NASA reported that the *Mars Odyssey* Orbiter, as well as the *Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter* and *MAVEN*, were healthy after the Comet Siding Spring flyby.
In 2010, a spokesman for NASA\'s Jet Propulsion Laboratory stated that *Odyssey* could continue operating until at least 2016. This estimate has since been extended to the end of 2025.
<File:Animation> of 2001 Mars Odyssey trajectory around Sun.gif\|Animation of *2001 Mars Odyssey*{{\'}}s trajectory around Sun\
`{{legend2|magenta|''2001 Mars Odyssey''}}`{=mediawiki}{{·}}`{{legend2|RoyalBlue|Earth}}`{=mediawiki}{{·}}`{{legend2|Lime|Mars}}`{=mediawiki} <File:Animation> of 2001 Mars Odyssey trajectory around Mars.gif\|Animation of *2001 Mars Odyssey*{{\'s}} trajectory around Mars from October 24, 2001, to October 24, 2002\
`{{legend2|magenta| ''2001 Mars Odyssey''}}`{=mediawiki}{{·}}`{{legend2| Lime|[[Mars]]}}`{=mediawiki} Image:Mgs odyssey.gif\|*Mars Odyssey* as imaged by *Mars Global Surveyor* Image:Mars Radiation Environment Experiment.jpg\|MARIE hardware, designed to measure radiation
### Major discoveries {#major_discoveries}
By 2008, *Mars Odyssey* had mapped the basic distribution of water below the shallow surface. The ground truth for its measurements came on July 31, 2008, when NASA announced that the Phoenix lander confirmed the presence of water on Mars, as predicted in 2002 based on data from the *Odyssey* orbiter. The science team is trying to determine whether the water ice ever thaws enough to be available for microscopic life, and if carbon-containing chemicals and other raw materials for life are present.
The orbiter also discovered vast deposits of bulk water ice near the surface of equatorial regions. Evidence for equatorial hydration is both morphological and compositional and is seen at both the Medusae Fossae formation and the Tharsis Montes.
\[\[<File:PIA26203-Mars-HorizonViews-OdysseyTHEMIS-20230509
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# Malvales
The **Malvales** are an order of flowering plants. As circumscribed by APG II-system, the order includes about 6000 species within nine families. The order is placed in the eurosids II, which are part of the eudicots.
The plants are mostly shrubs and trees; most of its families have a cosmopolitan distribution in the tropics and subtropics, with limited expansion into temperate regions. An interesting distribution occurs in Madagascar, where three endemic families of Malvales (Sphaerosepalaceae, Sarcolaenaceae and Diegodendraceae) occur.
Many species of Malvaceae, *sensu lato* (in the broad sense), are valued for their wood, with that of *Ochroma* (balsa) being known for its lightness, and that of *Tilia* (lime, linden, or basswood) as a popular wood for carving. Fruit of the cacao tree (*Theobroma cacao*) are used as an ingredient for chocolate. Kola nuts (genus *Cola*) are notable for their high caffeine content and were commonly used in the past in preparation of various cola drinks. They are still in use as a stimulant, particularly in West Africa where they are chewed for this effect. Other well-known members of Malvales in the APG II sense are daphnes, hibiscus, hollyhocks, okra, jute, baobab trees, cotton, kapok (which mostly comes from *Ceiba pentandra*, but also from other \"Kapok trees\" also of Malvales, such as *Bombax ceiba*), and durian.
## Description
The morphology of Malvales is diverse, with few common characteristics. Among those most commonly encountered are leaf shapes in palmate form, sepals which are connate, and a specific structure and chemical composition of the seeds. The cortex is often fibrous, built of soft phloem layers.
## Taxonomy
Early classifications such as that of Dahlgren placed the Malvales in the superorder Malviflorae (also called Malvanae). Family boundaries and circumscriptions of the \"core\" Malvales families, Malvaceae, Bombacaceae, Tiliaceae, and Sterculiaceae, have long been problematic. A close relationship among these families, and particularly Malvaceae and Bombacaceae, has generally been recognized, although until recently most classification systems have maintained them as separate families. With numerous molecular phylogenies showing Sterculiaceae, Bombacaceae, and Tiliaceae as traditionally defined are either paraphyletic or polyphyletic, a consensus has been emerging for a trend to expand Malvaceae to include these three families. This expanded circumscription of Malvaceae has been recognized in the most recent version of the Thorne system, by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, and in the most recent comprehensive treatment of vascular plant families and genera, the Kubitzki system.
The dominant family in the APG II-system is the extended Malvaceae (Malvaceae *sensu lato*) with over 4225 species, followed by Thymelaeaceae with 898 species. This expanded circumscription of Malvaceae is taken to include the families Bombacaceae, Sterculiaceae and Tiliaceae. Under the older Cronquist system the order contained these four \"core Malvales\" families plus the Elaeocarpaceae and was placed among the Dilleniidae. Some of the currently included families were placed by Cronquist in the Violales.
## Phylogeny
The APG IV gives the following cladogram for Malvales phylogeny
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# Myrtales
The **Myrtales** are an order of flowering plants in the malvid clade of the rosid group of dicotyledons. Well-known members of Myrtales include: myrtle, pōhutukawa, bay rum tree, clove, guava, acca (feijoa), allspice, eucalyptus, crape myrtles, henna tree, pomegranate, water caltrop, loosestrifes, cupheas (cigar plants), evening primroses, fuchsias, willowherbs, white mangrove, leadwood tree, African birch, Koster\'s curse, and velvet tree.
## Taxonomy
Myrtales include the following nine families, according to the APG III system of classification:
- Alzateaceae
- Combretaceae (leadwood family)
- Crypteroniaceae
- Lythraceae (loosestrife and pomegranate family)
- Melastomataceae (including Memecylaceae)
- Myrtaceae (myrtle family; including Heteropyxidaceae, Psiloxylaceae)
- Onagraceae (evening primrose and Fuchsia family)
- Penaeaceae (including Oliniaceae, Rhynchocalycaceae)
- Vochysiaceae
The APG III system places the order within the eurosids; this is corroborated by the placement of the Myrtales in the Malvid clade by the *One Thousand Plant Transcriptomes* Initiative.
Myrtales are placed as a sister to the eurosids II clade as of the publishing of the *Eucalyptus grandis* genome in June 2014.
The Cronquist system gives essentially the same composition, except the Vochysiaceae are removed to the order Polygalales, and the Thymelaeaceae are included. The families Sonneratiaceae, Trapaceae, and Punicaceae are removed from the Lythraceae. In the classification system of Dahlgren the Myrtales were in the superorder Myrtiflorae (also called Myrtanae). The APG III system agrees with the older Cronquist circumscriptions of treating Psiloxylaceae and Heteropyxidaceae within Myrtaceae, and Memecyclaceae within Melastomataceae.
Ellagitannins are reported in dicotyledoneous angiosperms, and notably in species in the order Myrtales.
## Origins
Myrtales is dated to around 89--99 million years ago (mya) in Australasia; however, there is some contention as to that date, which was obtained using nuclear DNA. When looking at chloroplast DNA, the myrtales\' ancestor is, instead, considered to have evolved during the mid-Cretaceous period (100 mya) in Southeast Africa, rather than in Australasia. Although the APG system classifies myrtales as within the eurosids, the recently published genome of *Eucalyptus grandis* places the order myrtales as a sister to the eurosids rather than inside them. The discrepancy is thought to have arisen due to the difference between using numerous taxa versus using various genes for constructing a phylogeny
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# Malpighiales
The **Malpighiales** comprise one of the largest orders of flowering plants. The order is very diverse, with well-known members including willows, violets, aspens and poplars, poinsettia, corpse flower, coca plant, cassava, flaxseed, castor bean, Saint John\'s wort, passionfruit, mangosteen, and manchineel tree.
The order is not part of any of the classification systems based only on plant morphology and the relationships of its diverse members can be hard to recognize except with molecular phylogenetic evidence. Molecular clock calculations estimate the origin of stem group Malpighiales at around 100 million years ago (Mya) and the origin of crown group Malpighiales at about 90 Mya.
The Malpighiales contain about 36 families and more than `{{formatnum:16000}}`{=mediawiki} species, about 7.8% of the eudicots.
## Taxonomy
The Malpighiales include the following 36 families, according to the APG IV system of classification:
- Achariaceae
- Balanopaceae
- Bonnetiaceae
- Calophyllaceae
- Caryocaraceae
- Centroplacaceae
- Chrysobalanaceae
- Clusiaceae
- Ctenolophonaceae
- Dichapetalaceae
- Elatinaceae
- Erythroxylaceae
- Euphorbiaceae
- Euphroniaceae
- Goupiaceae
- Humiriaceae
- Hypericaceae
- Irvingiaceae
- Ixonanthaceae
- Lacistemataceae
- Linaceae
- Lophopyxidaceae
- Malpighiaceae
- Ochnaceae
- Pandaceae
- Passifloraceae
- Peraceae
- Phyllanthaceae
- Picrodendraceae
- Podostemaceae
- Putranjivaceae
- Rafflesiaceae
- Rhizophoraceae
- Salicaceae
- Trigoniaceae
- Violaceae
In the APG III system, 35 families were recognized. Medusagynaceae, Quiinaceae, Peraceae, Malesherbiaceae, Turneraceae, Samydaceae, and Scyphostegiaceae were consolidated into other families. The largest family, by far, is the Euphorbiaceae, with about 7500 species in about 300 genera. Changes made in the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) classification of 2016 (APG IV) were the inclusion of Irvingiaceae, Peraceae, Euphorbiaceae and Ixonanthaceae, together with the transfer of the COM clade from the fabids (rosid I) to the malvids (rosid II).
## Phylogeny
The phylogenetic tree shown below is from Xi *et al.* (2012). The study presented a more resolved phylogenetic tree than previous studies through the use of data from a large number of genes. They included analyses of 82 plastid genes from 58 species (ignoring the problematic Rafflesiaceae), using partitions identified a posteriori by applying a Bayesian mixture model. Xi *et al.* identified 12 additional clades and three major, basal clades.
### 2009 (Older)
The older phylogenetic tree shown below is from Wurdack and Davis (2009). The DNA sequences of 13 genes, 42 families were placed into 16 groups, ranging in size from one to 10 families. The relationships among these 16 groups were poorly resolved. The statistical support for each branch is 100% bootstrap percentage and 100% posterior probability, except where labeled, with bootstrap percentage followed by posterior probability.
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# Malpighiales
## Circumscription
Malpighiales is monophyletic and in molecular phylogenetic studies, it receives strong statistical support. Since the APG II system was published in 2003, minor changes to the circumscription of the order have been made. The family Peridiscaceae has been expanded from two genera to three, and then to four, and transferred to Saxifragales.
The genera *Cyrillopsis* (Ixonanthaceae), *Centroplacus* (Centroplacaceae), *Bhesa* (Centroplacaceae), *Aneulophus* (Erythroxylaceae), *Ploiarium* (Bonnetiaceae), *Trichostephanus* (Samydaceae), *Sapria* (Rafflesiaceae), *Rhizanthes* (Rafflesiaceae), and *Rafflesia* (Rafflesiaceae) had been either added or confirmed as members of Malpighiales by the end of 2009.
Some family delimitations within the order have changed, as well, most notably, the segregation of Calophyllaceae from Clusiaceae *sensu lato* when it was shown that the latter is paraphyletic. Some differences of opinion on family delimitation exist, as well. For example, Samydaceae and Scyphostegiaceae may be recognized as families or included in a large version of Salicaceae.
The group is difficult to characterize phenotypically, due to sheer morphological diversity, ranging from tropical holoparasites with giant flowers, such as *Rafflesia*, to temperate trees and herbs with tiny, simple flowers, such as Salix. Members often have dentate leaves, with the teeth having a single vein running into a congested and often deciduous apex (i.e., violoid, salicoid, or theoid). Also, zeylanol has recently been discovered in *Balanops* and *Dichapetalum* which are in the balanops clade (so-called Chrysobalanaceae s. l.). The so-called parietal suborder (the clusioid clade and Ochnaceae s. l. were also part of Parietales) corresponds with the traditional Violales as 8 (Achariaceae, Violaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Lacistemataceae, Scyphostegiaceae, Turneraceae, Malesherbiaceae, and Passifloraceae) of the order\'s 10 families along with Salicaceae, which have usually been assigned as a related order or suborder, are in this most derived malpighian suborder, so that eight of the 10 families of this suborder are Violales. The family Flacourtiaceae has proven to be polyphyletic as the cyanogenic members have been placed in Achariaceae and the ones with salicoid teeth were transferred to Salicaceae. Scyphostegiaceae, consisting of the single genus *Scyphostegia* has been merged into Salicaceae.
## Affinities
Malpighiales is a member of a supraordinal group called the COM clade, which consists of the orders Celastrales, Oxalidales, and Malpighiales. Some describe it as containing a fourth order, Huales, separating the family Huaceae into its own order, separate from Oxalidales.
Some recent studies have placed Malpighiales as sister to Oxalidales *sensu lato* (including Huaceae), while others have found a different topology for the COM clade.
The COM clade is part of an unranked group known as malvids (rosid II), though formally placed in Fabidae (rosid I). These in turn are part of a group that has long been recognized, namely, the rosids.
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# Malpighiales
## History
The French botanist Charles Plumier named the genus *Malpighia* in honor of Marcello Malpighi\'s work on plants; *Malpighia* is the type genus for the Malpighiaceae, a family of tropical and subtropical flowering plants.
The family Malpighiaceae was the type family for one of the orders created by Jussieu in his 1789 work *Genera Plantarum*. Friedrich von Berchtold and Jan Presl described such an order in 1820. Unlike modern taxonomists, these authors did not use the suffix \"ales\" in naming their orders. The name \"Malpighiales\" is attributed by some to Carl von Martius. In the 20th century, it was usually associated with John Hutchinson, who used it in all three editions of his book, *The Families of Flowering Plants*. The name was not used by those who wrote later, in the 1970s, \'80s, and \'90s.
The taxon was largely presaged by Hans Hallier in 1912 in an article in the *Archiv. Néerl. Sci. Exact. Nat.* titled \"L\'Origine et le système phylétique des angiospermes\", in which his Passionales and Polygalinae were derived from Linaceae (in Guttales), with Passionales containing seven (of eight) families that also appear in the current Malpighiales, namely Passifloraceae, Salicaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Achariaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Malesherbiaceae, and Turneraceae, and Polygalinae containing four (of 10) families that also appear in the current Malpighiales, namely Malpighiaceae, Violaceae, Dichapetalaceae, and Trigoniaceae.
The molecular phylogenetic revolution led to a major restructuring of the order. The first semblance of Malpighiales as now known came from a phylogeny of seed plants published in 1993 and based upon DNA sequences of the gene *rbcL*. This study recovered a group of rosids unlike any group found in any previous system of plant classification. To make a clear break with classification systems being used at that time, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group resurrected Hutchinson\'s name, though his concept of Malpighiales included much of what is now in Celastrales and Oxalidales.
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# Malpighiales
## Gallery of type genera {#gallery_of_type_genera}
Annals of natural history (18226028760).jpg \|*Acharia tragodes* (chaulmoogra family) \|alt=\"botanical illustration\" Balanops australiana (13813866135).jpg \|*Balanops australiana* (pimplebark family) \|alt=\"fruit and foliage\" Bonnetia stricta (Nees) Nees & Mart. (2038118904).jpg \|*Bonnetia stricta* (cascarilla family) \|alt=\"flower\" Summerflowergua.jpg \|*Calophyllum brasiliense* (takamaka family) \|alt=\"flowers and foliage\" Caryocar brasiliense 2015-09-27 (084236).jpg \|*Caryocar brasiliense* (souari-tree family) \|alt=\"flowers\" Botanische Jahrbücher für Systematik, Pflanzengeschichte und Pflanzengeographie (1907) (20394368832).jpg \|*Centroplacus glaucinus* (biku-biku family) \|alt=botanical illustration Chrysobalanus icaco (Chrysobalanaceae) 01.jpg \|*Chrysobalanus icaco* (cocoplum family) \|alt=fruit and foliage Starr 011025-0021 Clusia rosea.jpg \|*Clusia rosea* (mangosteen family) \|alt=flower Dichapetalum gelonioides 04774.jpg \|*Dichapetalum gelonioides* (ratbane family) \|alt=foliage Elatine hydropiper sl5.jpg \|*Elatine hydropiper* (waterwort family) \|alt=foliage Erythroxylum coca 002.JPG \|*Erythroxylum coca* (coca family) \|alt=flowers and foliage Euphorbia antiquorum (Euphorbia mayuranathanii) - Botanischer Garten - Heidelberg, Germany - DSC01386.jpg \|*Euphorbia antiquorum* (spurge family) \|alt=flowers Flickr - BioDivLibrary - n73 w1150.jpg \|*Euphronia hirtelloides* (euphronia family) \|alt=botanical illustration 13534-Goupia glabra-Caura.jpg \|*Goupia glabra* (kopi family) \|alt=fruit and foliage Área de Proteção Ambiental de Guadalupe Mauricio Cabral Periquito (11)Humiria balsamifera 20-01-2013.jpg \|*Humiria balsamifera* (umiri family) \|alt=flowers and foliage Hypericum canariense kz2.JPG \|*Hypericum canariense* (St.-John\'s-wort family) \|alt=flowers Irvingia smithii01.jpg \|*Irvingia smithii* (ogbono-nut family) \|alt=flowers Ixonanthes reticulata.jpg \|*Ixonanthes reticulata* (twentymen-tree family) \|alt=tree Lacistema hasslerianum Chodat - Flickr - Alex Popovkin, Bahia, Brazil (1).jpg \|*Lacistema hasslerianum* (cemp-wood family) \|alt=fruit and foliage A Common Flax or Linseed (Linum usitatissimum) flower. Chapeltoun North Ayrshire.jpg \|*Linum usitatissimum* (flax family) \|alt=flower Maloighia glabra \'Acerola\' (Malphigiaceae) flower.jpg \|*Malpighia glabra* (acerola family) \|alt=flowers Ochna species 5.jpg \|*Ochna thomasiana* (Mickey-Mouse-plant family) \|alt=flowers Panda oleosa - Kyoto University Museum - DSC06432.JPG \|*Panda oleosa* (kana-nut family) \|alt=fruit Flickr - ggallice - Purple Passionflower.jpg \|*Passiflora incarnata* (passionfruit family) \|alt=flower Flickr - João de Deus Medeiros - Pera glabrata (1).jpg \|*Pera glabrata* (lightning-bush family) \|alt=fruit Kizhaarnelli flowers.JPG \|*Phyllanthus niruri* (leafflower family) \|alt=flowers Petalostigma pubescens foliage and flowers.jpg \|*Petalostigma pubescens* (hollyspurge family; type genus *Picrodendron* not shown) \|alt=flowers Podostemum ceratophyllum (20277018311).jpg \|*Podostemum ceratophyllum* (riverweed family) \|alt=foliage Child\'s Amulet tree (4428811907).jpg \|*Putranjiva roxburghii* (childlife-tree family) \|alt=flowers Rafflesia Arnoldii Batang Palupuah Indonesia.jpg \|*Rafflesia Arnoldii* (corpse-flower family) \|alt=flowers Mangrove at 9 mile pond (5643479815).jpg \|*Rhizophora mangle* (mangrove family) \|alt=mangroves 20170328Salix alba1.jpg \|*Salix alba* (willow family) \|alt=trees Trigonia nivea Cambess. var. pubescens (Cambess.) Lleras - Flickr - Alex Popovkin, Bahia, Brazil (1).jpg \|*Trigonia nivea* (triangle-vine family) \|alt=fruits Maiden\'s jealousy (Tristellateia australasiae) 1.jpg\|*Tristellateia australasiae* (Malpighiaceae family)\|alt=flower and foliage 20150324Viola odorata2.jpg \|*Viola odorata* (violet family) \|alt=flower
\"Litoh family\" is a common name for Ctenolophonaceae, and \"koteb family\" for Lophopyxidaceae
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# Miranda warning
You Have the Right to Remain Silent}} `{{Italic title|string=Miranda}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2015}}`{=mediawiki}
In the United States, the ***Miranda* warning** is a type of notification customarily given by police to criminal suspects in police custody (or in a custodial interrogation) advising them of their right to silence and, in effect, protection from self-incrimination; that is, their right to refuse to answer questions or provide information to law enforcement or other officials. Named for the U.S. Supreme Court\'s 1966 decision *Miranda v. Arizona*, these rights are often referred to as ***Miranda* rights**. The purpose of such notification is to preserve the admissibility of their statements made during custodial interrogation in later criminal proceedings. The idea came from law professor Yale Kamisar, who subsequently was dubbed \"the father of *Miranda*.\"
The language used in *Miranda* warnings derives from the Supreme Court\'s opinion in its *Miranda* decision. But the specific language used in the warnings varies between jurisdictions, and the warning is deemed adequate as long as the defendant\'s rights are properly disclosed such that any waiver of those rights by the defendant is knowing, voluntary, and intelligent. For example, the warning may be phrased as follows:
The *Miranda* warning is part of a preventive criminal procedure rule that law enforcement are required to administer to protect an individual who is in custody and subject to direct questioning or its functional equivalent from a violation of their Fifth Amendment right against compelled self-incrimination. In *Miranda v. Arizona*, the Supreme Court held that the admission of an elicited incriminating statement by a suspect not informed of these rights violates the Fifth Amendment and the Sixth Amendment right to counsel, through the incorporation of these rights into state law.{{#tag:ref\|The 2004 United States Supreme Court ruling *Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada* upheld state \"stop-and-identify\" laws, allowing police in those jurisdictions engaging in a Terry stop to require biographical information such as name and address, without arresting suspects or providing them Miranda warnings.\|group=\"Note\"}} Thus, if law enforcement officials decline to offer a *Miranda* warning to an individual in their custody, they may interrogate that person and act upon the knowledge gained, but may not ordinarily use that person\'s statements as evidence against them in a criminal trial.
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# Miranda warning
## Origin and development of *Miranda* rights {#origin_and_development_of_miranda_rights}
The concept of \"*Miranda* rights\" was enshrined in U.S. law following the 1966 *Miranda v. Arizona* Supreme Court decision, which found that the Fifth and Sixth Amendment rights of Ernesto Arturo Miranda had been violated during his arrest and trial for armed robbery, kidnapping, and rape of a young woman.
Miranda was subsequently retried and convicted, based primarily on his estranged ex-partner, who had been tracked down by the original arresting officer via Miranda\'s own parents, suddenly claiming that Miranda had confessed to her when she had visited him in jail. Miranda\'s lawyer later confessed that he \'goofed\' the case by focusing too much on the constitutional issues (and losing sight of the jury and guilt or innocence).
The circumstances triggering the *Miranda* safeguards, i.e. *Miranda* rights, are \"custody\" and \"interrogation\". Custody means formal arrest or the deprivation of freedom to an extent associated with formal arrest. Interrogation means explicit questioning or actions that are reasonably likely to elicit an incriminating response. The Supreme Court did not specify the exact wording to use when informing a suspect of their rights. However, the Court did create a set of guidelines that must be followed. The ruling states:
From *Miranda rights*, American English developed the verb *Mirandize*, meaning \"read the *Miranda* rights to\".
In *Berkemer v. McCarty* (1984), the Supreme Court decided that a person subjected to custodial interrogation is entitled to the benefit of the procedural safeguards enunciated in *Miranda*, regardless of the nature or severity of the offense of which they are suspected or for which they were arrested.
Notably, the *Miranda* rights need not be read in any particular order, and they need not precisely match the language of the *Miranda* case as long as they are adequately and fully conveyed (*California v. Prysock*, `{{ussc|453|355|1981}}`{=mediawiki}).
In *Berghuis v. Thompkins* (2010), the Supreme Court held that unless a suspect expressly states that they are invoking this right, subsequent voluntary statements made to an officer can be used against them in court, and police can continue to interact with (or question) the alleged criminal.
In *Vega v. Tekoh* (2022), the Supreme Court held that police may not be sued for failing to administer *Miranda* warnings, and that the remedy for such a failure is the exclusion of the acquired statements at trial.
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# Miranda warning
## The warnings {#the_warnings}
Every U.S. jurisdiction has its own regulations regarding what, precisely, must be said to a person arrested or placed in a custodial situation. The typical warning states:
- You have the right to remain silent and refuse to answer questions.
- If you give up the right to remain silent, anything you say can and will be used against you in a court of law.
- You have the right to consult an attorney before speaking to the police and to have an attorney present during questioning now or in the future.
- If you cannot afford an attorney, one will be appointed for you before any questioning if you wish.
- If you decide to answer questions now without an attorney present, you will still have the right to stop answering at any time until you talk to an attorney.
- Knowing and understanding your rights as I have explained them to you, are you willing to answer my questions without an attorney present?
The courts have since ruled that the warning must be \"meaningful\", so it is usually required that the suspect be asked if they understand their rights. Sometimes, firm answers of \"yes\" are required. Some departments and jurisdictions require that an officer ask \"do you understand?\" after every sentence in the warning. An arrestee\'s silence is not a waiver, but in Berghuis v. Thompkins (2010), the Supreme Court ruled 5--4 that police are allowed to interrogate suspects who have invoked or waived their rights ambiguously, and any statement given during questioning prior to invocation or waiving is admissible as evidence. Evidence has in some cases been ruled inadmissible because of an arrestee\'s poor knowledge of English and the failure of arresting officers to provide the warning in the arrestee\'s language.
While the exact language above is not required by *Miranda*, the police must advise the suspect that:
1. they have the right to remain silent;
2. anything the suspect *does* say can and may be used against them in a court of law;
3. they have the right to have an attorney present before and during the questioning; and
4. they have the right, if they cannot afford the services of an attorney, to have one appointed, at public expense and without cost to them, to represent them before and during the questioning.`{{refn|group="Note"|State and Federal courts have consistently rejected challenges to Miranda warnings on grounds that defendant was not advised of additional rights. See, e.g., ''United States v. Coldwell'', 954 F.2d 496(8th Cir. 1992) For example, police are not required to advise a suspect that if he decides to answer questions without an attorney present, he still has the right to stop answering at any time until he talks to an attorney. The Miranda warnings are not part of the arrest procedure. There is no constitutional requirement that the officer advise the defendant of their Miranda rights when they place the defendant under arrest.}}`{=mediawiki}
There is no precise language that must be used in advising a suspect of their *Miranda* rights. The point is that whatever language is used the substance of the rights outlined above must be communicated to the suspect. The suspect may be advised of their rights orally or in writing. Also, officers must make sure the suspect understands what the officer is saying, taking into account potential education levels. It may be necessary to \"translate\" to the suspect\'s level of understanding. Courts have ruled this admissible as long as the original waiver is said and the \"translation\" is recorded either on paper or on tape.
The Supreme Court has resisted efforts to require officers to more fully advise suspects of their rights. For example, the police are not required to advise the suspect that they can stop the interrogation at any time, that the decision to exercise the right cannot be used against the suspect, or that they have a right to talk to a lawyer before being asked any questions. Nor have the courts required to explain the rights. For example, the standard *Miranda* right to counsel states *You have a right to have an attorney present during the questioning*. Police are not required to explain that this right is not merely a right to have a lawyer present while the suspect is being questioned. The right to counsel includes:
- the right to talk to a lawyer before deciding whether to talk to police,
- if the defendant decides to talk to the police, the right to consult with a lawyer before being interrogated,
- the right to answer police only through an attorney.
### Circumstances triggering the *Miranda* requisites {#circumstances_triggering_the_miranda_requisites}
The circumstances triggering the *Miranda* safeguards, i.e. *Miranda* warnings, are \"custody\" and \"interrogation\". Custody means formal arrest or the deprivation of freedom to an extent associated with formal arrest. Interrogation means explicit questioning or actions that are reasonably likely to elicit an incriminating response. Suspects in \"custody\" who are about to be interrogated must be properly advised of their *Miranda* rights---namely, the Fifth Amendment right against compelled self incrimination (and, in furtherance of this right, the right to counsel while in custody). The Sixth Amendment right to counsel means that the suspect has the right to consult with an attorney before questioning begins and have an attorney present during the interrogation. The Fifth Amendment right against compelled self incrimination is the right to remain silent---the right to refuse to answer questions or to otherwise communicate information.
The duty to warn only arises when police officers conduct custodial interrogations. The Constitution does not require that a defendant be advised of the *Miranda* rights as part of the arrest procedure, or once an officer has probable cause to arrest, or if the defendant has become a suspect of the focus of an investigation. Custody and interrogation are the events that trigger the duty to warn.
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# Miranda warning
## The warnings {#the_warnings}
### Use in various U.S. state jurisdictions {#use_in_various_u.s._state_jurisdictions}
Some jurisdictions provide the right of a juvenile to remain silent if their parent or guardian is not present. Some departments in New Jersey, Nevada, Oklahoma, and Alaska modify the \"providing an attorney\" clause as follows:
Even though this sentence may be somewhat ambiguous to some laypersons, who can, and who *have* actually interpreted it as meaning that they will not get a lawyer until they confess and are arraigned in court, the U.S. Supreme Court has approved of it as an accurate description of the procedure in those states.
In Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California---the four states that border Mexico---suspects who are not United States citizens are given an additional warning:
After issuance of Miranda warnings, the police may ask waiver questions. Common waiver questions, which may be included on a written warning card or document, are,
An affirmative answer to both of the above questions waives the rights. If the suspect responds \"no\" to the first question, the officer is required to re-read the *Miranda* warning, while saying \"no\" to the second question invokes the right at that moment; in either case the interviewing officer or officers cannot question the suspect until the rights are waived.
Generally, when defendants invoke their Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination and refuse to testify or submit to cross-examination at trial, the prosecutor cannot indirectly punish them for the exercise of a constitutional right by commenting on their silence and insinuating that it is an implicit admission of guilt. Since *Miranda* rights are simply a judicial gloss upon the Fifth Amendment which protects against coercive interrogations, the same rule also prevents prosecutors from commenting about the post-arrest silence of suspects who invoke their *Miranda* rights immediately after arrest. However, neither the Fifth Amendment nor *Miranda* extend to *pre-arrest* silence, which means that if a defendant takes the witness stand at trial (meaning he just waived his Fifth Amendment right to remain silent), the prosecutor can attack his credibility with his pre-arrest silence (based on his failure to immediately turn himself in and confess to the things he voluntarily testified about at trial).
Under the Uniform Code of Military Justice, Article 31 provides for the right against compelled self-incrimination. Interrogation subjects under Army jurisdiction must first be given Department of the Army Form 3881, which informs them of the charges and their rights, and the subjects must sign the form. The United States Navy and United States Marine Corps require that all arrested personnel be read the \"rights of the accused\" and must sign a form waiving those rights if they so desire; a verbal waiver is not sufficient.
It is unclear whether a *Miranda* warning---if spoken or in writing---could be appropriately given to disabled persons. For example, \"the right to remain silent\" means little to a deaf individual and the word \"constitutional\" may not be understood by people with only an elementary education. In one case, a deaf murder suspect was kept at a therapy station until he was able to understand the meaning of the *Miranda* warning and other judicial proceedings.
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# Miranda warning
## The six rules {#the_six_rules}
The *Miranda* rule applies to the use of testimonial evidence in criminal proceedings that is the product of custodial police interrogation. The *Miranda* right to counsel and right to remain silent are derived from the self-incrimination clause of the Fifth Amendment.`{{refn|group="Note"|The Miranda rule is not an element of a valid arrest. The Fifth Amendment does not require an officer to give an arrestee his Miranda rights as part of the arrest procedure. The Miranda rights are triggered by custody and interrogation. At the time the Supreme Court decided Miranda the Fifth Amendment had already been applied to the states in ''Malloy v. Hogan'', 378 U.S. 1 (1964).}}`{=mediawiki} Therefore, for the *Miranda* to apply, six requirements must be fulfilled:
1\. Evidence must have been gathered.
: If the suspect did not make a statement during the interrogation the fact that he was not advised of his *Miranda* rights is of no importance.`{{refn|group="Note"|Post-warning silence cannot be used as evidence of guilt or to impeach the defendant's trial testimony.<ref>''Doyle v. Ohio'', 426 U.S. 610 (1976).</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} Nor can the state offer evidence that the defendant asserted his rights---that he refused to talk.
2\. The evidence must be testimonial.
: *Miranda* applies only to \"testimonial\" evidence as that term is defined under the Fifth Amendment. For purposes of the Fifth Amendment, testimonial statements mean communications that explicitly or implicitly relate a factual assertion \[an assertion of fact or belief\] or disclose information. The *Miranda* rule does not prohibit compelling a person to engage in non-assertive conduct that is incriminating or may produce incriminating evidence. Thus, requiring a suspect to participate in identification procedures such as giving handwriting or voice exemplars, fingerprints, DNA samples, hair samples, and dental impressions is not within the Miranda rule. Such physical or real evidence is non-testimonial and not protected by the Fifth Amendment self-incrimination clause. On the other hand, certain non-verbal conduct may be testimonial. For example, if the suspect nodded their head up and down in response to the question \"did you kill the victim\", the conduct is testimonial; it is the same as saying \"yes I did\", and Miranda would apply.
3\. The evidence must have been obtained while the suspect was in custody.
: The evidence must have been obtained while the suspect was in custody. This limitation follows from the fact that *Miranda*\'s purpose is to protect suspects from the compulsion inherent in the police-dominated atmosphere attendant to arrest. Custody means either that the suspect was under arrest or that his freedom of movement was restrained to an extent \"associated with a formal arrest\".`{{refn|group="Note"|Some courts phrased the requirement as the defendant did not believe that he was "free to leave". This standard is comparable to the detention standard for purposes of the fourth amendment—not the functional arrest standard for purposes of the fifth amendment.<!-- Unable to verify 'detention standard' annotation in cited cases. -->}}`{=mediawiki} A formal arrest occurs when an officer, with the intent to make an arrest, takes a person into custody by the use of physical force or the person submits to the control of an officer who has indicated his intention to arrest the person. Telling a person he is \"under arrest\" is sufficient to satisfy this requirement even though the person may not be otherwise physically restrained. Absent a formal arrest, the issue is whether a reasonable person in the suspect\'s position would have believed that he was under \"full custodial\" arrest.`{{refn|group="Note"|In deciding whether a person is in "constructive custody" the courts use a totality of the circumstances test. Factors frequently examined include
# the location of the interrogation
# the force used to stop or detain the suspect
# the number officer and police vehicles involved
# whether the officers were in uniform
# whether the officers were visibly armed
# the tone of officer's voice
# whether the suspect was told they were free to leave
# the length of the detention and/or interrogation
# whether the suspect was confronted with incriminating evidence and
# whether the accused was the focus of the investigation.}}`{=mediawiki} Applying this objective test, the Court has held Miranda does not apply to roadside questioning of a stopped motorist or to questioning of a person briefly detained on the street---a Terry stop. Even though neither the motorist nor the pedestrian is free to leave, this interference with the freedom of action is not considered actual arrest or its functional equivalent for purposes of the Fifth Amendment. The court has similarly held that a person who voluntarily comes to the police station for purposes of questioning is not in custody and thus not entitled to Miranda warnings particularly when the police advise the suspect that he is not under arrest and free to leave.`{{refn|group="Note"|Miranda is not offense or investigation-specific. Therefore, absent a valid waiver, a person in custody cannot be interrogated about the offense they are held in custody for, or any other offense.}}`{=mediawiki}
4\. The evidence must have been the product of interrogation.
: The evidence must have been the product of interrogation. A defendant who seeks to challenge the admissibility of a statement under *Miranda* must show that the statement was \"prompted by police conduct that constituted \'interrogation\'\". A volunteered statement by a person in custody does not implicate *Miranda*. In *Rhode Island v. Innis*, the Supreme Court defined interrogation as express questioning and \"any words or actions on the part of the police (other than those normally attendant to arrest and custody) that the police should know are reasonably likely to elicit an incriminating response from the suspect\". Thus, a practice that the police \"should know is reasonably likely to evoke an incriminating response from a suspect \... amounts to interrogation\". For example, confronting the suspect with incriminating evidence may be sufficiently evocative to amount to interrogation because the police are implicitly communicating a question: \"How do you explain this?\" On the other hand, \"unforeseeable results of police words or actions\" do not constitute interrogation. Under this definition, routine statements made during the administration of sobriety tests would not implicate Miranda. For example, a police officer arrests a person for impaired driving and takes him to the police station to administer an intoxilyzer test. While at the station the officer also asks the defendant to perform certain psycho-physical tests such as the walk and turn, one leg stand or finger to nose test. It is standard practice to instruct the arrestee on how to perform the test and to demonstrate the test. (The police *will not* tell the person that they have the right to refuse to perform the test, and the refusal cannot be used in evidence against them, nor can they be in any way punished for refusing to perform it, same as the police will not tell someone that they may refuse to perform a roadside sobriety test without penalty). An incriminating statement made by an arrestee during the instruction, \"I couldn\'t do that even if I were sober\", would not be the product of interrogation. Similarly, incriminating statements made in response to requests for consent to search a vehicle or other property are not considered to be the product of interrogation.
5\. The interrogation must have been conducted by state-agents.
: To establish a violation of the defendant\'s Fifth Amendment rights, the defendant must show state action, so the interrogation must have been conducted by state-agents.`{{refn|group="Note"|According to Kamisar, LaFave & Israel, Basic Criminal Procedure 598 (6th ed. 1986): "[W]hatever may lurk in the heart or mind of the fellow prisoner ..., if it is not 'custodial police interrogation' ''in the eye of the beholder'', then it is not ... interrogation within the meaning of Miranda".<ref name="Latzer1" />{{rp|97}}}}`{=mediawiki} If the interrogation was conducted by a person known by the suspect to be a law enforcement officer the state action requirement is unquestionably met. On the other hand, where a private citizen obtains a statement there is no state action regardless of the custodial circumstances surrounding the statement. A confession obtained through the interrogation by an undercover police officer or a paid informant does not violate *Miranda* because there is no coercion, no police dominated atmosphere if the suspect does not know that they are being questioned by the police. Private security guards and \"private\" police present special problems. They are generally not regarded as state-agents. However, an interrogation conducted by a police officer moonlighting as a security guard may well trigger *Miranda*\'s safeguards since an officer is considered to be \"on duty\" at all times.
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# Miranda warning
## The six rules {#the_six_rules}
6\. The evidence must be offered by the state during a criminal prosecution.`{{refn|group="Note"|The Fifth Amendment applies only to compelled statements used in criminal proceedings.}}`{=mediawiki}
: The evidence is being offered during a criminal proceeding. Under the exclusionary rule, a *Miranda*-defective statement cannot be used by the prosecution as substantive evidence of guilt. However, the Fifth Amendment exclusionary rule applies only to criminal proceedings. In determining whether a particular proceeding is criminal, the courts look at the punitive nature of the sanctions that could be imposed. Labels are irrelevant. The question is whether the consequences of an outcome adverse to the defendant could be characterized as punishment. Clearly a criminal trial is a criminal proceeding since if convicted the defendant could be fined or imprisoned. However, the possibility of loss of liberty does not make the proceeding criminal in nature. For example, commitment proceedings are not criminal proceedings even though they can result in long confinement because the confinement is considered rehabilitative in nature and not punishment. Similarly, *Miranda* does not apply directly to probation revocation proceedings because the evidence is not being used as a basis for imposing additional punishment.
### Application of the prerequisites {#application_of_the_prerequisites}
Assuming that the six requirements are present and *Miranda* applies, the statement will be subject to suppression unless the prosecution can demonstrate:
- that the suspect was advised of their *Miranda* rights, and
- that the suspect voluntarily waived those rights or that the circumstances fit an exception to the *Miranda* rule.
The defendant may also be able to challenge the admissibility of the statement under provisions of state constitutions and state criminal procedure statutes.`{{refn|group="Note"|Other bases for exclusion include that the confession was the product of an unconstitutional arrest [See Brown v. Illinois, 422 U.S. 590 (1975); [[Dunaway v. New York]], 442 U.S. 200 (1979)], the confession was obtained in violation of the defendant's sixth amendment right to counsel or the confession was involuntary under the due process clause of the fifth and fourteenth amendments.}}`{=mediawiki}
Immigrants who live in the United States illegally are also protected and should receive their *Miranda* warnings as well when being interrogated or placed under arrest. \"Aliens receive constitutional protections when they have come within the territory of the United States and \[have\] developed substantial connections with this country\".
The Fifth Amendment right to counsel, a component of the *Miranda* Rule, is different from the Sixth Amendment right to counsel. In the context of the law of confessions the Sixth Amendment right to counsel is defined by the Massiah Doctrine.
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# Miranda warning
## Waiver
Simply advising the suspect of their rights does not fully comply with the *Miranda* rule. The suspect must also voluntarily waive their *Miranda* rights before questioning can proceed. An express waiver is not necessary. However, most law enforcement agencies use written waiver forms. These include questions designed to establish that the suspect expressly waived their rights. Typical waiver questions are
- \"Do you understand each of these rights?\"
and
- \"Understanding each of these rights, do you now wish to speak to the police without a lawyer being present?\"
The waiver must be \"knowing and intelligent\" and it must be \"voluntary\". These are separate requirements. To satisfy the first requirement the state must show that the suspect generally understood their rights (right to remain silent and right to counsel) and the consequences of forgoing those rights (that anything they said could be used against them in court). To show that the waiver was \"voluntary\" the state must show that the decision to waive the rights was not the product of police coercion. If police coercion is shown or evident, then the court proceeds to determine the voluntariness of the waiver under the totality of circumstances test focusing on the personal characteristics of the accused and the particulars of the coercive nature of the police conduct. The ultimate issue is whether the coercive police conduct was sufficient to overcome the will of a person under the totality of the circumstances. Courts traditionally focused on two categories of factors in making this determination: (1) the personal characteristics of the suspect and (2) the circumstances attendant to the waiver. However, the Supreme Court significantly altered the voluntariness standard in the case of *Colorado v. Connelly*. In *Connelly*, the Court held that \"Coercive police activity is a necessary predicate to a finding that a confession is not \'voluntary\' within the meaning of the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.\" The Court has applied this same standard of voluntariness in determining whether a waiver of a suspect\'s Fifth Amendment *Miranda* rights was voluntary. Thus, a waiver of *Miranda* rights is voluntary unless the defendant can show that their decision to waive their rights and speak to the police was the product of police misconduct and coercion that overcame the defendant\'s free will. After *Connelly*, the traditional totality of circumstances analysis is not even reached unless the defendant can first show such coercion by the police. Under *Connelly*, a suspect\'s decisions need not be the product of rational deliberations. In addition to showing that the waiver was \"voluntary\", the prosecution must also show that the waiver was \"knowing\" and \"intelligent\". Essentially this means the prosecution must prove that the suspect had a basic understanding of their rights and an appreciation of the consequences of forgoing those rights. The focus of the analysis is directly on the personal characteristics of the suspect. If the suspect was under the influence of alcohol or other drugs, or suffered from an emotional or mental condition that substantially impaired their capacity to make rational decisions, the courts may well decide that the suspect\'s waiver was not knowing and intelligent.
A waiver must also be clear and unequivocal. An equivocal statement is ineffective as a waiver and the police may not proceed with the interrogation until the suspect\'s intentions are made clear. The requirement that a waiver be unequivocal must be distinguished from situations in which the suspect made an equivocal assertion of their *Miranda* rights after the interrogation began. Any post-waiver assertion of a suspect\'s *Miranda* rights must be clear and unequivocal. Any ambiguity or equivocation will be ineffective. If the suspect\'s assertion is ambiguous, the interrogating officers are permitted to ask questions to clarify the suspect\'s intentions, although they are not required to. In other words, if a suspect\'s assertion is ambiguous, the police may either attempt to clarify the suspect\'s intentions or they may simply ignore the ineffective assertion and continue with the interrogation. The timing of the assertion is significant. Requesting an attorney prior to arrest is of no consequence because *Miranda* applies only to custodial interrogations. The police may simply ignore the request and continue with the questioning; however, the suspect is also free to leave.
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# Miranda warning
## Assertion
If the defendant asserts his right to remain silent, all interrogation must immediately stop and the police may not resume the interrogation unless they have \"scrupulously honored\" the defendant\'s assertion and subsequently obtained a valid waiver before resuming the interrogation.`{{refn|group="Note"|"Once warnings have been given, the subsequent procedure is clear: if the individual indicates, in any manner, at any time prior to or during questioning, that he wishes to remain silent, the interrogation must cease. At this point, he has shown that he intends to exercise his Fifth Amendment privilege; any statement taken after the person invokes his privilege cannot be other than the product of compulsion, subtle or otherwise. Without the right to cut off questioning, the setting of in-custody."<ref>''Michigan v. Moseley'', 423 U.S. 96 (1975) quoting ''Miranda v. Arizona'', 384 U. S. 436 (1966) at 384 U.S. 473–74.</ref> Note the defendant's assertion of their fifth amendment [[right to silence]] cannot be used as substantive evidence of guilt, or to impeach the defendant's testimony.<ref>''Doyle v. Ohio''</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} In determining whether the police \"scrupulously honored\" the assertion the courts apply a totality of the circumstances test. The most important factors are the length of time between termination of the original interrogation and the commencement of the second, and issuing a new set of *Miranda* warnings before resumption of interrogation.
The consequences of assertion of the right to counsel are stricter.`{{refn|group="Note"|A request to speak to a third person who is not an attorney does not invoke right to counsel.<ref>''Fare v. Michael C.'', 442 U.S. 707 (1979)</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} The police must immediately cease all interrogation and the police cannot reinitiate interrogation unless counsel is present (merely consulting with counsel is insufficient) or the defendant of his own volition contacts the police.`{{refn|group="Note"|The Supreme Court held in ''[[Maryland v. Shatzer]]'' that the protections afforded by the Edwards rule last 14 days.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Liptak |first1=Adam |title=Court Says Miranda Rights Don't Bar Requestioning |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/25/us/25scotus.html |access-date=21 October 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=25 February 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230113024851/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/25/us/25scotus.html|archive-date=January 13, 2023}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} If the defendant does reinitiate contact, a valid waiver must be obtained before interrogation may resume.
In *Berghuis v. Thompkins* (2010), the Supreme Court declared in a 5--4 decision that criminal defendants who have been read their *Miranda* rights (and who have indicated they understand them and have not already waived them), must explicitly state during or before an interrogation begins that they wish to be silent and not speak to police for that protection against self-incrimination to apply. If they speak to police about the incident before invoking the *Miranda* right to remain silent, or afterwards at any point during the interrogation or detention, the words they speak may be used against them if they have not stated they do not want to speak to police. Those who oppose the ruling contend that the requirement that the defendant must speak to indicate his intention to remain silent further erodes the ability of the defendant to stay completely silent about the case. This opposition must be put in context with the second option offered by the majority opinion, which allowed that the defendant had the option of remaining silent, saying: \"Had he wanted to remain silent, he could have said nothing in response or unambiguously invoked his Miranda rights, ending the interrogation.\" Thus, having been \"*Mirand*ized\", a suspect may avow explicitly the invocation of these rights, or, alternatively, simply remain silent. Absent the former, \"anything \[said\] can and will be used against \[the defendant\] in a court of law\".
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# Miranda warning
## Exceptions
Assuming that the six factors are present, the *Miranda* rule would apply unless the prosecution can establish that the statement falls within an exception to the *Miranda* rule.`{{refn|group="Note"|The statement of the defendant is admissible when offered by the state as substantive evidence of guilt as an admission of a party opponent. This exception or exemption from the hearsay rules is not available to the defendant—the defendant must resort to some other exception if he attempts to offer his own statement into evidence. Further if the defendant is successful in offering his own statement as substantive evidence, then the defendant is the hearsay declarant and the state can impeach the defendant as it would any other witness including the use of potentially devastating evidence of prior convictions.}}`{=mediawiki} The three exceptions are:
1. the routine booking question exception
2. the jail house informant exception
3. the public safety exception.
Arguably only the last is a true exception---the first two can better be viewed as consistent with the *Miranda* factors. For example, questions that are routinely asked as part of the administrative process of arrest and custodial commitment are not considered \"interrogation\" under *Miranda* because they are not intended or likely to produce incriminating responses. Nonetheless, all three circumstances are treated as exceptions to the rule. The jail house informant exception applies to situations where the suspect does not know that he is speaking to a state-agent; either a police officer posing as a fellow inmate, a cellmate working as an agent for the state or a family member or friend who has agreed to cooperate with the state in obtaining incriminating information.
### Public safety exception {#public_safety_exception}
The \"public safety\" exception is a limited and case-specific exception, allowing certain unadvised statements (given without *Miranda* warnings) to be admissible into evidence at trial when they were elicited in circumstances where there was great danger to public safety; thus, the *Miranda* rule provides some elasticity.
The public safety exception derives from *New York v. Quarles* (1984), a case in which the Supreme Court considered the admissibility of a statement elicited by a police officer who apprehended a rape suspect who was thought to be carrying a firearm. The arrest took place during the middle of the night in a supermarket that was open to the public but apparently deserted except for the clerks at the checkout counter. When the officer arrested the suspect, he found an empty shoulder holster, handcuffed the suspect, and asked him where the gun was. The suspect nodded in the direction of the gun (which was near some empty cartons) and said, \"The gun is over there.\" The Supreme Court found that such an unadvised statement was admissible in evidence because \"\[i\]n a kaleidoscopic situation such as the one confronting these officers, where spontaneity rather than adherence to a police manual is necessarily the order of the day, the application of the exception we recognize today should not be made to depend on *post hoc* findings at a suppression hearing concerning the subjective motivation of the police officer.\" Thus, the jurisprudential rule of *Miranda* must yield in \"a situation where concern for public safety must be paramount to adherence to the literal language of the prophylactic rules enunciated in *Miranda*.\"
Under this exception, to be admissible in the government\'s direct case at a trial, the questioning must not be \"actually compelled by police conduct which overcame his will to resist,\" and must be focused and limited, involving a situation \"in which police officers ask questions reasonably prompted by a concern for the public safety.\"
In 2010, the Federal Bureau of Investigation encouraged agents to use a broad interpretation of public safety-related questions in terrorism cases, stating that the \"magnitude and complexity\" of terrorist threats justified \"a significantly more extensive public safety interrogation without *Miranda* warnings than would be permissible in an ordinary criminal case,\" continuing to list such examples as: \"questions about possible impending or coordinated terrorist attacks; the location, nature and threat posed by weapons that might pose an imminent danger to the public; and the identities, locations, and activities or intentions of accomplices who may be plotting additional imminent attacks.\" A Department of Justice spokesman described this position as not altering the constitutional right, but as clarifying existing flexibility in the rule.
Prosecutors initially argued that Tsarnaev\'s pre-*Miranda* statements should be admissible under this exception. However, the exception was not considered by the court because the prosecutors later decided not to use any of that evidence in their case against Tsarnaev.
The New York Court of Appeals upheld the exception in a 2013 murder case, *People v Doll*, where a man with blood on his clothes was detained and questioned.
The window of opportunity for the exception is small. Once the suspect is formally charged, the Sixth Amendment right to counsel would attach and surreptitious interrogation would be prohibited. The public safety exception applies where circumstances present a clear and present danger to the public\'s safety and the officers have reason to believe that the suspect has information that can end the emergency.
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# Miranda warning
## Consequences of violation {#consequences_of_violation}
Assuming that a *Miranda* violation occurred---the six factors are present and no exception applies---the statement will be subject to suppression under the *Miranda* exclusionary rule.`{{refn|group="Note"|A common misconception is that a violation of a defendant's constitutional rights warrants dismissal of the charges. Generally, a violation of a defendant's constitutional rights will not result in dismissal of the charges unless the defendant can show that the violation was especially egregious.}}`{=mediawiki} That is, if the defendant objects or files a motion to suppress, the exclusionary rule would prohibit the prosecution from offering the statement as proof of guilt. However, the statement can be used to impeach the defendant\'s testimony.`{{refn|group="Note"|The statement must be "voluntary" under the due process clauses of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments. An involuntary statement cannot be used for any purpose.}}`{=mediawiki} Further, the fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine does not apply to Miranda violations.`{{refn|group="Note"|If the seizure of the defendant violated the fourth amendment any confession that resulted from the seizure would be subject to suppression. For example, an officer stops a defendant because the officer has a "gut feeling" that the defendant is driving while impaired. After the stop the officer asks the defendant if he had been drinking and the defendant says: "Yes". The officer then arrests the defendant and takes him to the law enforcement center to administer a breathalyzer test. While in the breathalyzer room the officer asks the defendant the questions on his alcohol influence report. The defendant's responses are incriminating. Under this scenario because the initial stop was unconstitutional all evidence that resulted from the stop would be subject to suppression.}}`{=mediawiki} Therefore, the exclusionary rule exceptions, attenuation, independent source and inevitable discovery, do not come into play, and derivative evidence would be fully admissible. For example, suppose the police continue with a custodial interrogation after the suspect has asserted his right to silence. During his post-assertion statement the suspect tells the police the location of the gun he used in the murder. Using this information the police find the gun. Forensic testing identifies the gun as the murder weapon, and fingerprints lifted from the gun match the suspect\'s. The contents of the Miranda-defective statement could not be offered by the prosecution as substantive evidence, but the gun itself and all related forensic evidence could be used as evidence at trial.
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# Miranda warning
## Consequences of violation {#consequences_of_violation}
### Procedural requirements {#procedural_requirements}
Although the rules vary by jurisdiction, generally a person who wishes to contest the admissibility of evidence`{{refn|group="Note"|Evidence includes physical evidence, confessions and identification evidence. Derivative evidence may also be excluded. See Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure 12(b), 41(e) and 41(f) respectively.}}`{=mediawiki} on the grounds that it was obtained in violation of his constitutional rights`{{refn|group="Note"|Most motions to suppress are based on violations of Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Amendments and the due process clauses of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments.}}`{=mediawiki} must comply with the following procedural requirements:
1. The defendant must file a motion.
2. The motion must be in writing.`{{refn|group="Note"|Fed. R. Crim. P. 12 allows motions to be made orally or in writing in the court's discretion. But many courts have local rules of practice requiring written motions.}}`{=mediawiki}
3. The motion must be filed before trial.
4. The motion must allege the factual and legal grounds on which the defendant seeks suppression of evidence.`{{refn|group="Note"|The defendant should state with some specificity the legal grounds on which he challenges the admissibility of the evidence and should assert all available grounds. Failure to assert a ground may be treated as waiver. The defendant must also assert facts that show that a substantial claim exists. The assertion must be specific, detailed, definite and nonconjectural. Adams & Blinka, ''Pretrial Motions in Criminal Prosecutions'', 2nd ed. (Lexis 1998) at 7. citing ''United States v. Calderon'', 77 F.3rd 6, 9 (1st Cir. 1996) Conclusory statements such as the defendant was "coerced" or "under duress" carry little weight.}}`{=mediawiki}
5. The motion must be supported by affidavits or other documentary evidence.`{{refn|group="Note"|North Carolina requires that the affidavit be based on first hand knowledge or on information and belief. If information and belief, the affiant must state the source of his information and the reason for his belief that it is true. Attorney are reluctant for the defendant be the affiant. Although statements from the defendant in support of a motion to suppress cannot be used as substantive evidence of guilt, the statements can be used to impeach the defendant's testimony.}}`{=mediawiki}
6. The motion must be served on the state.
Failure to comply with a procedural requirement may result in summary dismissal of the motion. If the defendant meets the procedural requirement, the motion will normally be considered by the judge outside the presence of the jury. The judge hears evidence, determines the facts, makes conclusions of law and enters an order allowing or denying the motion.
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# Miranda warning
## Related doctrines {#related_doctrines}
In addition to *Miranda*, confession may be challenged under the *Massiah* Doctrine, the voluntariness standard, provisions of federal and state rules of criminal procedure and state constitutional provisions.
### *Massiah* Doctrine {#massiah_doctrine}
The *Massiah* Doctrine (established by *Massiah v. United States*) prohibits the admission of a confession obtained in violation of the defendant\'s Sixth Amendment right to counsel. Specifically, the *Massiah* rule applies to the use of testimonial evidence in criminal proceedings deliberately elicited by the police from a defendant after formal charges have been filed. The events that trigger the Sixth Amendment safeguards under *Massiah* are (1) the commencement of adversarial criminal proceedings and (2) deliberate elicitation of information from the defendant by governmental agents.
The Sixth Amendment guarantees a defendant a right to counsel in all criminal prosecutions. The purposes of the Sixth Amendment right to counsel are to protect a defendant\'s right to a fair trial and to assure that the adversarial system of justice functions properly by providing competent counsel as an advocate for the defendant in his contest against the \"prosecutorial forces\" of the state.
#### Commencement of adversarial criminal proceedings {#commencement_of_adversarial_criminal_proceedings}
The Sixth Amendment right \"attaches\" once the government has committed itself to the prosecution of the case by the initiation of adversarial judicial proceedings \"by way of formal charge, preliminary hearing, indictment, information or arraignment\".`{{refn|group="Note"|"In a line of constitutional cases in this Court stemming back to the Court's landmark opinion in ''Powell v. Alabama'', 287 U.S. 45, it has been firmly established that a person's Sixth and Fourteenth Amendment right to counsel attaches only at or after the time that adversary judicial proceedings have been initiated against him. See ''Powell v. Alabama'', supra; ''Johnson v. Zerbst'', 304 U.S. 458; ''Hamilton v. Alabama'', 368 U.S. 52; ''Gideon v. Wainwright'', 372 U.S. 335; ''White v. Maryland'', 373 U.S. 59; ''Massiah v. United States'', 377 U.S. 201; ''United States v. Wade'', 388 U.S. 218; ''Gilbert v. California'', 388 U.S. 263; ''Coleman v. Alabama'', 399 U.S. 1." "... [W]hile members of the Court have differed as to the existence of the right to counsel in the contexts of some of the above cases, all of those cases have involved points of time at or after the initiation of adversary judicial criminal proceedings—whether by way of formal charge, preliminary hearing, indictment, information, or arraignment."<ref>''United States v. Gouveia'' quoting ''Kirby v. Illinois''.</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} Determining whether a particular event or proceeding constitutes the commencement of adversarial criminal proceedings requires both an examination of the rules of criminal procedure for the jurisdiction in which the crime is charged and the Supreme Court cases dealing with the issue of when formal prosecution begins.`{{refn|group="Note"|In ''Maine v. Moulton'' the court stated "By its very terms, it becomes applicable only when the government's role shifts from investigation to accusation. For it is only then that the assistance of one versed in the intricacies ... of law," ibid., is needed to assure that the prosecution's case encounters "the crucible of meaningful adversarial testing". The Sixth Amendment right to counsel does not attach until such time as the "government has committed itself to prosecute, and ... the adverse positions of government and defendant have solidified ...'".<ref>''Kirby v. Illinois'', 406 U. S. 689 (1972).</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} Once adversarial criminal proceedings commence the right to counsel applies to all critical stages of the prosecution and investigation. A critical stage is \"any stage of the prosecution, formal or informal, in court or out, where counsel\'s absence might derogate from the accused\'s right to a fair trial\".`{{refn|group="Note"|Under the critical stage analysis, virtually every phase of the criminal trial is a critical stage. Additionally courts have generally held that pretrial hearings regarding conditions of pretrial release and suppression of evidence are considered critical stages.<ref>''Smith v. Lockhart'', 923 F.2d 1314 (8th Cir. 1991)</ref> On the other hand, courts have generally held that certain pre-trial post accusation investigative procedures are not critical stages. Analysis of fingerprints, blood samples, clothing, hair, handwriting, and voice samples have all been ruled to be noncritical stages.<ref>FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, (2001)</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Government attempts to obtain incriminating statement related to the offense charged from the defendant by overt interrogation or surreptitious means is a critical stage and any information thus obtained is subject to suppression unless the government can show that an attorney was present or the defendant knowingly, voluntarily and intelligently waived his right to counsel.
#### Deliberate elicitation of information from the defendant by governmental agents {#deliberate_elicitation_of_information_from_the_defendant_by_governmental_agents}
Deliberate elicitation is defined as the intentional creation of circumstances by government agents that are likely to produce incriminating information from the defendant. Clearly express questioning (interrogation) would qualify but the concept also extends to surreptitious attempts to acquire information from the defendant through the use of undercover agents or paid informants.`{{refn|group="Note"|''Massiah'' does not prohibit the government's use of a cellmate as a "silent listening post"—a person who is simply placed in a position to hear any incriminating statements the defendant might make about the charged offense but who does not do anything to coax or induce the defendant to talk about the charged crime.<ref>Kuhlmann v. Wilson, 477 U.S. 436 (1986).</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
The definition of \"deliberate elicitation\" is not the same as the definition of \"interrogation\" under the *Miranda* rule. *Miranda* interrogation includes express questioning and any actions or statements that an officer would reasonably foresee as likely to cause an incriminating response. *Massiah* applies to express questioning and any attempt to deliberately and intentionally obtain incriminating information from the defendant regarding the crime charged. The difference is purposeful creation of an environment likely to produce incriminating information (*Massiah*) and action likely to induce an incriminating response even if that was not the officer\'s purpose or intent (*Miranda*).
The Sixth Amendment right to counsel is offense-specific -- the right only applies to post-commencement attempts to obtain information relating to the crime charged.`{{refn|group="Note"|Lower federal courts has extended the Sixth Amendment right to counsel to factually related offenses. In Texas v. Cobb, the Supreme Court made clear that the right to counsel applied only to the crime charged and did not apply to attempts to gather information about "other offenses 'closely related factually' to the charged offense".<ref name="Texas v. Cobb 2001">''Texas v. Cobb'', 121 S. Ct. 1335 (2001).</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} The right does not extend to uncharged offenses if factually related to the charged crime.
Information obtained in violation of the defendant\'s Sixth Amendment right to counsel is subject to suppression unless the government can establish that the defendant waived his right to counsel. The waiver must be knowing, intelligent and voluntary. A valid *Miranda* waiver operates as a waiver of Sixth Amendment right.
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# Miranda warning
## Related doctrines {#related_doctrines}
### *Massiah* Doctrine {#massiah_doctrine}
#### *Miranda* and *Massiah* compared {#miranda_and_massiah_compared}
1. **Constitutional basis**:
- *Miranda* is based on the Sixth Amendment right to counsel and the Fifth Amendment right to remain silent.
- *Massiah* is based on the Sixth Amendment right to counsel.
2. **Attachment**:
- *Miranda*: Custody + interrogation (charging status irrelevant).
- *Massiah*: Formally charged + deliberate elicitation (custodial status irrelevant).
3. **Scope**:
- a\. *Miranda* applies to custodial interrogation by known governmental agents. Surreptitious acquisition of incriminating information allowed.
- a\. *Massiah* applies to overt and surreptitious interrogation.
- b\. *Miranda* is not offense specific.
- b\. *Massiah* is offense specific.
- c\. *Miranda*: interrogation + \"functional equivalent\"
- c\. *Massiah*: interrogation + \"deliberate elicitation\"
4. **Waiver**: Both *Miranda* and *Massiah* rights may be waived.
5. **Assertion**: In each case, the assertion must be clear and unequivocal. The effects of assertion are not identical. For purposes of *Miranda*, the police must immediately cease the interrogation and cannot resume interrogating the defendant about any offense charged or uncharged unless counsel is present or the defendant initiates contact for purposes of resuming interrogation and valid waiver obtained. Because *Massiah* is offense-specific, an assertion of the sixth amendment right to counsel requires the police to cease interrogating the defendant about any charged offense. Apparently the police could continue questioning the defendant about uncharged crimes assuming that the defendant was not in custody. The defendant\'s remedy would be to leave or to refuse to answer questions.`{{refn|group="Note"|Under ''Michigan v. Jackson'', a defendant's request for counsel at a preliminary hearing constituted an assertion of his sixth amendment right to counsel. However, ''Michigan v. Jackson'' was overruled by ''Montejo v. Louisiana .''}}`{=mediawiki}
6. **Remedy for violation**: The remedy for violation of Fifth and Sixth Amendment rights to counsel is identical: the statements and testimonial information are subject to suppression. Derivative evidence is not subject to suppression under *Miranda *-- fruit of poisonous tree doctrine may apply to *Massiah* violation. Both *Miranda* and *Massiah* defective statements can be used for impeachment purposes.
7. **Exceptions**: The primary exceptions to *Miranda* are (1) the routine booking questions exception (2) the jail house informant exception and (3) the public safety exception. In *Moulton v. Maine,* the Supreme Court refused to recognize a public safety exception to the *Massiah* rule. *Massiah* allows for the use of jail house informants provided the informants serve merely as \"passive listeners\".`{{refn|group="Note"|The due process clauses of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments provide another basis for challenging the admissibility of confessions. The test is whether the statement was "voluntary". A statement is not voluntary if it was the product of police misconduct. That is, a due process claim requires that the defendant establish that there was police misconduct and that this misconduct induced the confession. The "voluntariness" test is implicated in any police interrogation—neither Miranda "custody" nor Massiah "commencement of formal criminal proceedings" is a necessary condition (state action is required). Further, there are no issues of waiver or assertion. Finally, the remedy is complete—an involuntary statement cannot be used for any purpose.}}`{=mediawiki}
### The voluntariness standard {#the_voluntariness_standard}
The voluntariness standard applies to all police interrogations regardless of the custodial status of the suspect and regardless of whether the suspect has been formally charged. The remedy for a violation of the standard is complete suppression of the statement and any evidence derived from the statement. The statement cannot be used as either substantive evidence of guilt or to impeach the defendant\'s testimony.`{{refn|group="Note"|Originally Miranda was regarded as a "prophylactic" rule—the rule itself was not a constitutional right but a " judicially–created enforcement mechanism" devised to protect the underlying constitutional rights. In Dickerson v. United States, the Court "constitutionalized" the Miranda rule—although the decision did not perforce change the rule concerning the use of a Miranda-defective statement for impeachment purposes.}}`{=mediawiki} The reason for the strictness is the common law\'s aversion to the use of coerced confessions because of their inherent unreliability. Further the rights to be free from coerced confession cannot be waived nor is it necessary that the victim of coercive police conduct assert his right. In considering the voluntariness standard one must consider the Supreme Court\'s decision in *Colorado v. Connelly*. Although federal courts\' application of the *Connelly* rule has been inconsistent and state courts have often failed to appreciate the consequences of the case, *Connelly* clearly marked a significant change in the application of the voluntariness standard. Before *Connelly,* the test was whether the confession was voluntary considering the totality of the circumstances. \"Voluntary\" carried its everyday meaning: the confession had to be a product of the exercise of the defendant\'s free will rather than police coercion. After *Connelly,* the totality of circumstances test is not even triggered unless the defendant can show coercive police conduct. Questions of free will and rational decision making are irrelevant to a due process claim unless police misconduct existed and a causal connection can be shown between the misconduct and the confession.
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# Miranda warning
## Related doctrines {#related_doctrines}
### State constitutional challenges {#state_constitutional_challenges}
Every state constitution has articles and provision guaranteeing individual rights. In most cases the subject matter is similar to the federal bill of rights.`{{refn|group="Note"|This similarity is hardly surprising since the federal constitution and many state constitutions had common sources the state constitutions of some of the more important states such as Virginia.}}`{=mediawiki} Most state courts interpretation of their constitution is consistent with the interpretation federal court\'s of analogous provisions of the federal constitution. With regard to *Miranda* issues, state courts have exhibited significant resistance to incorporating into their state jurisprudence some of the limitations on the *Miranda* rule that have been created by the federal courts. As a consequence a defendant may be able to circumvent the federal limitation on the *Miranda* rule and successfully challenge the admissibility under state constitutional provisions. Practically every aspect of the *Miranda* rule has drawn state court criticism. However the primary point of contention involve the following limitations on the scope of the *Miranda* rule: (1) the *Harris* exception`{{refn|group="Note"|In ''Harris'' the United States Supreme Court allowed a ''Miranda''-defective statement to be used to impeach the trial testimony of a defendant. Note the ''Harris'' rule does not permit the use of a statement that fails to meet the voluntariness standards of the due process clause to be used for any purpose. The basis for the distinction is that a ''Miranda''-defective statement does not raise the questions of unreliability as does an involuntary statement.}}`{=mediawiki} (2) the *Burbine* rule`{{refn|group="Note"|In ''Moran v. Burbine'', 475 U.S. 412 (1986) the Court held that officers are not required to tell a suspect in custody that third parties had retained an attorney for the suspect. The failure of the police to inform the suspect of this fact did not render the waiver involuntary. ''Burbine'' decision was not well-received by the state courts. Six states specifically rejected the Burbine rule.}}`{=mediawiki} and (3) the *Fare* rule.`{{refn|group="Note"|The specific holding in Fare was that a juvenile's request to have his probation officer present during an interrogation was not an invocation of the juvenile's right to counsel. The Supreme Court stated that juveniles were essentially to be treated the same as adults for the purposes of Miranda. Many states adopted special rules concerning police interrogation of juveniles.}}`{=mediawiki}
### State statutory challenges {#state_statutory_challenges}
In addition to constitutionally based challenge, states permit a defendant to challenge the admissibility of a confession on the grounds that the confession was obtained in violation of a defendant\'s statutory rights. For example, North Carolina Criminal Procedure Act permits a defendant to move to suppress evidence obtained as a result of a \"substantial\" violation of the provision of the North Carolina Rules of Criminal Procedure.
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# Miranda warning
## Confusion regarding use {#confusion_regarding_use}
Due to the prevalence of American television programs and motion pictures in which the police characters frequently read suspects their rights, it has become an expected element of arrest procedure---in the 2000 *Dickerson* decision, Chief Justice William Rehnquist wrote that *Miranda* warnings had \"become embedded in routine police practice to the point where the warnings have become part of our national culture\".
While arrests and interrogations can legally occur without the *Miranda* warning being given, this procedure would generally make the arrestee\'s pre-*Miranda* statements inadmissible at trial. (However, pursuant to the plurality opinion in *United States v. Patane*, physical evidence obtained as a result of pre-*Miranda* statements may still be admitted. There was no majority opinion of the Court in that case.)
In some jurisdictions,`{{where|date=July 2011}}`{=mediawiki} a *detention* differs at law from an *arrest*, and police are not required to give the *Miranda* warning until the person is arrested for a crime. In those situations, a person\'s statements made to police are generally admissible even though the person was not advised of their rights. Similarly, statements made while an arrest is in progress before the *Miranda* warning was given or completed are also generally admissible.
Because *Miranda* applies only to custodial interrogations, it does not protect detainees from standard booking questions such as name and address. Because it is a protective measure intended to safeguard the Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination, it does not prevent the police from taking blood without a warrant from persons suspected of driving under the influence of alcohol. (Such evidence may be self-incriminatory, but are not considered statements of self-incrimination.)
If an inmate is in jail and invoked *Miranda* on one case, it is unclear whether this extends to any other cases that they may be charged with while in custody. For example, a subject is arrested, charged with cattle raiding, and is held in county jail awaiting trial. He invokes his *Miranda* rights on the cattle case. While in custody, he is involved in a fight where a staff member loses his ability to walk. He speaks to the custodial staff regarding the fight without first invoking *Miranda*. It is unclear if this statement is admissible because of the original *Miranda* statement.
Many police departments give special training to interrogators with regard to the *Miranda* warning; specifically, how to influence a suspect\'s decision to waive the right. For instance, the officer may be required to specifically ask if the rights are understood and if the suspect wishes to talk. The officer is allowed, before asking the suspect a question, to speak at length about evidence collected, witness statements, etc. The officer will *then* ask if the suspect wishes to talk, and the suspect is then more likely to talk in an attempt to refute the evidence presented. Another tactic commonly taught is never to ask a question; the officer may simply sit the suspect down in an interrogation room, sit across from him and do paperwork, and wait for the suspect to begin talking. These tactics are intended to mitigate the restrictions placed on law officers against compelling a suspect to give evidence, and have stood up in court as valid lawful tactics. Nevertheless, such tactics are condemned by legal rights groups as deceptive.
### Exemption for interrogations conducted by undercover agents {#exemption_for_interrogations_conducted_by_undercover_agents}
In *Illinois v. Perkins*, 496 U.S. 292 (1990), the United States Supreme Court held that undercover officers are not required to give suspects a *Miranda* warning prior to asking questions that may elicit incriminating responses. In this case, an undercover agent posed as an inmate and carried on a 35-minute conversation with another inmate that he suspected of committing a murder that was being investigated. During this conversation, the suspect implicated himself in the murder that the undercover agent was investigating.
The Supreme Court came to this conclusion despite the government\'s admission that a custodial interrogation had been conducted by a government agent.
### Report of warnings being given to detainees in Afghanistan {#report_of_warnings_being_given_to_detainees_in_afghanistan}
Beginning in 2009, some detainees captured in Afghanistan have been read their *Miranda* rights by the FBI, according to Congressman Michael Rogers of Michigan, who claims to have witnessed this himself. According to the Justice Department, \"There has been no policy change nor blanket instruction for FBI agents to *Mirandize* detainees overseas. While there have been specific cases in which FBI agents have *Mirandized* suspects overseas at both Bagram and in other situations, in order to preserve the quality of evidence obtained, there has been no overall policy change with respect to detainees.\"
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# Miranda warning
## Equivalent rights in other countries {#equivalent_rights_in_other_countries}
Whether arising from their constitutions, common law, or statute, many nations recognize a defendant\'s right to silence
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# Minix
**MINIX** is a Unix-like operating system based on a microkernel architecture, first released in 1987 and written by American-Dutch computer scientist Andrew S. Tanenbaum. It was designed as a clone of the Unix operating system and one that could run on affordable, Intel 8086-based home computers; MINIX was targeted for use in classrooms by computer science students at universities.
Its name comes from *mini-Unix*. MINIX was initially proprietary source-available, but was relicensed under the BSD 3-Clause to become free and open-source in 2000. MINIX was ported to various additional platforms in the 1990s, and version 2.0 was released in 1997 and was the first to be POSIX compliant. Starting with MINIX 3, released in 2005, the primary aim of development shifted from education to the creation of a highly reliable and self-healing microkernel OS.
## Implementation
### MINIX 1.0 {#minix_1.0}
Andrew S. Tanenbaum created MINIX at Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam to exemplify the principles conveyed in his textbook, *Operating Systems: Design and Implementation* (1987). (Despite sharing a name, it has no relation to the older MINIX from Digital Systems House, Inc. based on AT&T Unix code.)
An abridged 12,010 lines of the C source code of the kernel, memory manager, and file system of MINIX 1.0 are printed in the book. Prentice-Hall also released MINIX source code and binaries on floppy disk with a reference manual. MINIX 1 was system-call compatible with Seventh Edition Unix.
Tanenbaum originally developed MINIX for compatibility with the IBM PC and IBM PC/AT 8088 microcomputers available at the time.
### MINIX 1.4 {#minix_1.4}
There is a version of MINIX floating around that supports the Peripheral Technology PT68K-2 and PT68K-4 computers. The PT68K-2 and the PT68K-4 are both 68000 based computers with a standard 8 bit IBM PC ISA bus that has 6 connectors on the main board. It was ported to the PT68K machines by Gary Mills and Sidney Thompson. The port was adapted from the Atari port since it too is a 68000 based machine. The PT68K version has added support for the PT XT-IDE card from Peripheral Technology. It currently only supports the MDA display adapter (no CGA, EGA or VGA). For this reason, it has not yet been ported to the PT68K-5 (aka CDS68020). There is an SD Card image available from <https://github.com/mevenson/minix-for-the-PT68K-2-4>.
### MINIX 1.5 {#minix_1.5}
MINIX 1.5, released in 1991, included support for MicroChannel IBM PS/2 systems and was also ported to the Motorola 68000 and SPARC architectures, supporting the Atari ST, Amiga, Macintosh, and Sun SPARCstation computer platforms. There were also unofficial ports to Intel 386 PC compatibles (in 32-bit protected mode), National Semiconductor NS32532, ARM and Inmos transputer processors. Meiko Scientific used an early version of MINIX as the basis for the MeikOS operating system for its transputer-based Computing Surface parallel computers.
### MINIX 2.0 {#minix_2.0}
Demand for the 68k-architectures waned, however, and MINIX 2.0, released in 1997, was only available for the x86 and Solaris-hosted SPARC architectures. It was the subject of the second edition of Tanenbaum\'s textbook, cowritten with Albert Woodhull and was distributed on a CD-ROM included with the book. MINIX 2.0 added POSIX.1 compliance, support for 386 and later processors in 32-bit mode and replaced the Amoeba network protocols included in MINIX 1.5 with a TCP/IP stack. A version of MINIX running as a user process under SunOS and Solaris was also available, a simulator named SMX (operating system) or just *SMX* for short.
Version 2.0.3 was released in May 2001. It was the first version after MINIX had been relicensed under the BSD-3-Clause license, which was retroactively applied to all previous versions.
#### Minix-vmd {#minix_vmd}
Minix-vmd is a variant of MINIX 2.0 for Intel IA-32-compatible processors, created by two Vrije Universiteit researchers, which adds virtual memory and support for the X Window System.
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# Minix
## Implementation
### MINIX 3 {#minix_3}
MINIX 3 was publicly announced on 24 October 2005 by Tanenbaum during his keynote speech at the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) Symposium on Operating Systems Principles (SOSP). Although it still serves as an example for the new edition of Tanenbaum\'s textbook, coauthored by Albert S. Woodhull, it is comprehensively redesigned to be \"usable as a serious system on resource-limited and embedded computers and for applications requiring high reliability.\"
MINIX 3 currently supports IA-32 and ARM architecture systems. It is available in a live CD format that allows it to be used on a computer without installing it on the hard drive, and in versions compatible with hardware emulating and virtualizing systems, including Bochs, QEMU, VMware Workstation and Fusion, VirtualBox, and Microsoft Virtual PC.
Version 3.1.2 was released on 18 April 2006. It was the first version after MINIX had been relicensed under the BSD-3-Clause license with a new fourth clause.
upright=1.1\|thumb\|right\|MINIX 3.1.7 running X11 with the EDE Version 3.1.5 was released on 5 November 2009. It contains X11, emacs, vi, cc, gcc, perl, python, ash, bash, zsh, ftp, ssh, telnet, pine, and over 400 other common Unix utility programs. With the addition of X11, this version marks the transition away from a text-only system. In many cases it can automatically restart a crashed driver without affecting running processes. In this way, MINIX is self-healing and can be used in applications demanding high reliability. MINIX 3 also has support for virtual memory management, making it suitable for desktop OS use. Desktop applications such as Firefox and OpenOffice.org are not yet available for MINIX 3 however.
As of version 3.2.0, the userland was mostly replaced by that of NetBSD and support from pkgsrc became possible, increasing the available software applications that MINIX can use. Clang replaced the prior compiler (with GCC now having to be manually compiled), and GDB, the GNU debugger, was ported.
MINIX 3.3.0, released in September 2014, brought ARM support.
MINIX 3.4.0RC, Release Candidates became available in January 2016. However, a stable release of MINIX 3.4.0 is yet to be announced, and MINIX development has been dormant since 2018.
MINIX supports many programming languages, including C, C++, FORTRAN, Modula-2, Pascal, Perl, Python, and Tcl.
Over 50 people attended MINIXCon 2016, a conference to discuss the history and future of MINIX.
All Intel chipsets post-2015 are running MINIX 3 internally as the software component of the Intel Management Engine.
## Relationship with Linux {#relationship_with_linux}
### Early influence {#early_influence}
Linus Torvalds used and appreciated MINIX, but his design deviated from the MINIX architecture in significant ways, most notably by employing a monolithic kernel instead of a microkernel. This was disapproved of by Tanenbaum in the Tanenbaum--Torvalds debate. Tanenbaum explained again his rationale for using a microkernel in May 2006.
Early Linux kernel development was done on a MINIX host system, which led to Linux inheriting various features from MINIX, such as the MINIX file system. Eric Raymond claimed that Linus hasn\'t actually written Linux from scratch, but rather reused source code of MINIX itself to have working codebase. As the development progressed, MINIX code was gradually phased out completely.
### *Samizdat* claims {#samizdat_claims}
In May 2004, Kenneth Brown of the Alexis de Tocqueville Institution made the accusation that major parts of the Linux kernel had been copied from the MINIX codebase, in a book named *Samizdat*. These accusations were rebutted universally---most prominently by Tanenbaum, who strongly criticised Brown and published a long rebuttal on his own personal Web site, also claiming that Brown was funded by Microsoft.
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# Minix
## Licensing
At the time of MINIX\'s original development, its license was relatively liberal. Its licensing fee was very small (\$69) relative to those of other operating systems. Tanenbaum wished for MINIX to be as accessible as possible to students, but his publisher was unwilling to offer material (such as the source code) that could be copied freely, so a restrictive license requiring a nominal fee (included in the price of Tanenbaum\'s book) was applied as a compromise. This prevented the use of MINIX as the basis for a freely distributed software system.
When free and open-source Unix-like operating systems such as Linux and 386BSD became available in the early 1990s, many volunteer software developers abandoned MINIX in favor of these. In April 2000, MINIX became free and open-source software under the BSD-3-Clause license, which was retroactively applied to all previous versions. However, by this time other operating systems had surpassed its capabilities, and it remained primarily an operating system for students and hobbyists. In late 2005, MINIX was relicensed with a fourth clause added to the BSD-3-Clause license
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# Merlot
**Merlot** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɜr|l|oʊ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Respell|MUR|loh}}`{=mediawiki}) is a dark-blue-colored wine grape variety that is used as both a blending grape and for varietal wines. The name *Merlot* is thought to be a diminutive of *merle*, the French name for the blackbird, probably a reference to the color of the grape. Its softness and \"fleshiness\", combined with its earlier ripening, make Merlot a popular grape for blending with the sterner, later-ripening Cabernet Sauvignon, which tends to be higher in tannin.
Along with Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Malbec, and Petit Verdot, Merlot is one of the primary grapes used in Bordeaux wine, and it is the most widely planted grape in the Bordeaux wine regions. Merlot is also one of the most popular red wine varietals in many markets. This flexibility has helped to make it one of the world\'s most planted grape varieties. As of 2004, Merlot was estimated to be the third most grown variety at 260000 ha globally. The area dedicated to Merlot has continued to increase, with 266000 ha in 2015.
While Merlot is made across the globe, there tend to be two main styles. The \"International style\" favored by many New World wine regions tends to emphasize late harvesting to gain physiological ripeness and produce inky, purple-colored wines that are full in body with high alcohol and lush, velvety tannins with hints of plum and blackberry. While this international style is practiced by many Bordeaux wine producers, the traditional \"Bordeaux-style\" of Merlot involves harvesting Merlot earlier. This maintains the acidity and produces more medium-bodied wines with moderate alcohol levels that have fresh, red fruit flavors (raspberries, strawberries) and potentially leafy, vegetal notes.
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# Merlot
## History and name {#history_and_name}
The earliest recorded mention of Merlot (under the synonym of *Merlau*) was in the notes of a local Bordeaux official who in 1784 labeled wine made from the grape in the Libournais region as one of the area\'s best. In 1824, the word *Merlot* itself appeared in an article on Médoc wine which mentioned that the grape was named after the local black bird (called *merlau* in the local variant of Occitan language, *merle* in standard French) who liked eating the ripe grapes on the vine. Other descriptions of the grape from the 19th century called the variety *lou seme doù flube* (meaning \"the seedling from the river\") with the grape thought to have originated on one of the islands found along the Garonne river.
By the 19th century it was being regularly planted in the Médoc on the \"Left Bank\" of the Gironde. After a series of setbacks that included a severe frost in 1956 and several vintages in the 1960s lost to rot, French authorities in Bordeaux banned new plantings of Merlot vines between 1970 and 1975.
It was first recorded in Italy around Venice under the synonym *Bordò* in 1855. The grape was introduced to the Swiss, from Bordeaux, sometime in the 19th century and was recorded in the Swiss canton of Ticino between 1905 and 1910. In the 1990s, Merlot saw an upswing of popularity in the United States. Red wine consumption, in general, increased in the US following the airing of the *60 Minutes* report on the French Paradox and the potential health benefits of wine and, possibly, the chemical resveratrol. The popularity of Merlot stemmed in part from the relative ease in pronouncing the name`{{clarify|date=September 2017}}`{=mediawiki} of the wine as well as its softer, fruity profile that made it more approachable to some wine drinkers.
### Parentage and relationship to other grapes {#parentage_and_relationship_to_other_grapes}
In the late 1990s, researchers at the University of California, Davis, showed that Merlot is an offspring of Cabernet Franc and is a half-sibling of Carménère, Malbec, and Cabernet Sauvignon. The identity of the second parent of Merlot wouldn\'t be discovered till the late 2000s when an obscure and unnamed variety, first sampled in 1996 from vines growing in an abandoned vineyard in Saint-Suliac in Brittany, was shown by DNA analysis to be the mother of Merlot.
This grape, later discovered in front of houses as a decorative vine in the villages of Figers, Mainxe, Saint-Savinien, and Tanzac in the Poitou-Charentes, was colloquially known as *Madeleina* or *Raisin de La Madeleine* due to its propensity to be fully ripe and ready for harvest around the July 22nd feast day of Mary Magdalene. As the connection to Merlot became known, the grape was formally registered under the name Magdeleine Noire des Charentes. Through its relationship with Magdeleine Noire des Charentes, Merlot is related to the Southwest France wine grape Abouriou, though the exact nature of that relationship (with Abouriou potentially being either a parent of Magdeleine Noire or an offspring) is not yet known.
Grape breeders have used Merlot crossed with other grapes to create several new varieties including Carmine (an Olmo grape made by crossing a Carignan x Cabernet Sauvignon cross with Merlot), Ederena (with Abouriou), Evmolpia (with Mavrud), Fertilia (with Raboso Veronese), Mamaia (a Romanian wine grape made by crossing a Muscat Ottonel x Babeasca negra cross with Merlot), Nigra (with Barbera), Prodest (with Barbera), and Rebo (with Teroldego).
Over the years, Merlot has spawned a color mutation that is used commercially, a pink-skinned variety known as *Merlot gris*. However, unlike the relationship between Grenache noir and Grenache blanc or Pinot noir and Pinot blanc, the variety known as Merlot blanc is not a color mutation but rather an offspring variety of Merlot crossing with Folle blanche.
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# Merlot
## Viticulture
Merlot grapes are identified by their loose bunches of large berries. The color has less of a blue/black hue than Cabernet Sauvignon grapes and with a thinner skin and fewer tannins per unit volume. It normally ripens up to two weeks earlier than Cabernet Sauvignon. Also compared to Cabernet, Merlot grapes tend to have a higher sugar content and lower malic acid. Ampelographer J.M. Boursiquot has noted that Merlot has seemed to inherit some of the best characteristics from its parent varieties---its fertility and easy ripening ability from Magdeleine Noire des Charentes and its color, tannin and flavor phenolic potential from Cabernet Franc.
Merlot thrives in cold soil, particularly ferrous clay. The vine tends to bud early which gives it some risk to cold frost and its thinner skin increases its susceptibility to the viticultural hazard of Botrytis bunch rot. If bad weather occurs during flowering, the Merlot vine is prone to develop coulure. The vine can also be susceptible to downy mildew (though it has better resistance to powdery mildew than other Bordeaux varieties) and to infection by leafhopper insect varieties.
Water stress is important to the vine with it thriving in well-drained soil more so than at base of a slope. Pruning is a major component to the quality of the wine that is produced with some producers believing it is best to prune the vine \"short\" (cutting back to only a few buds). Wine consultant Michel Rolland is a major proponent of reducing the yields of Merlot grapes to improve quality. The age of the vine is also important, with older vines contributing character to the resulting wine. A characteristic of the Merlot grape is the propensity to quickly overripen once it hits its initial ripeness level, sometimes in a matter of a few days. There are two schools of thought on the right time to harvest Merlot. The wine makers of Château Pétrus favor early picking to best maintain the wine\'s acidity and finesse as well as its potential for aging. Others, such as Rolland, favor late picking and the added fruit body that comes with a little bit of over-ripeness.
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# Merlot
## Wine regions {#wine_regions}
Merlot is one of the world\'s most widely planted grape variety with plantings of the vine outpacing even the more well-known Cabernet Sauvignon in many regions, including the grape\'s homeland of France. Here, France is home to nearly two thirds of the world\'s total plantings of Merlot. Beyond France it is also grown in Italy (where it is the country\'s 5th most planted grape), Algeria, California, Romania, Australia, Argentina, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, Greece, New Zealand, South Africa, Switzerland, Croatia, Hungary, Montenegro, Slovenia, Mexico, and other parts of the United States such as Washington, Virginia, and Long Island. It grows in many regions that also grow Cabernet Sauvignon but tends to be cultivated in the cooler portions of those areas. In areas that are too warm, Merlot will ripen too early.
In places like Israel, Merlot is the second most widely planted grape variety after Cabernet Sauvignon with 1000 ha in cultivation, making very \"New World-style\" wines. The grape can also be found in Turkey (429 ha in 2010), Malta, and Cyprus.
### France
Merlot is the most commonly grown grape variety in France. In 2004, total French plantations stood at 115000 ha. By 2017, that number had dropped slightly to 112,000 ha. It is most prominent in Southwest France in regions like Bordeaux, Bergerac, and Cahors, where it is often blended with Malbec. The largest recent increase in Merlot plantations has occurred in the south of France, such as Languedoc-Roussillon, where it is often made under the designation of *Vin de Pays* wine. Here, Merlot accounted for 29,914 ha, more than doubling the 11,000 ha devoted to Cabernet Sauvignon in the Languedoc.
In the traditional Bordeaux blend, Merlot\'s role is to add body and softness. Despite accounting for 50-60% of overall plantings in Bordeaux, the grape tends to account for an average of 25% of the blends---especially in the Bordeaux wine regions of Graves and Médoc. Of these Left Bank regions, the commune of St-Estephe uses the highest percentage of Merlot in the blends. However, Merlot is much more prominent on the Right Bank of the Gironde in the regions of Pomerol and Saint-Émilion, where it will commonly comprise the majority of the blend. One of the most famous and rare wines in the world, Château Pétrus, is almost all Merlot. In Pomerol, where Merlot usually accounts for around 80% of the blend, the iron-clay soils of the region give Merlot more of a tannic backbone than what is found in other Bordeaux regions. It was in Pomerol that the *garagistes* movement began with small-scale production of highly sought after Merlot-based wines. In the sandy, clay-limestone-based soils of Saint-Émilion, Merlot accounts for around 60% of the blend and is usually blended with Cabernet Franc. In limestone, Merlot tends to develop more perfume notes while in sandy soils the wines are generally softer than Merlot grown in clay dominant soils. Merlot can also be found in significant quantities in Provence, Loire Valley, Savoie, Ardèche, Charente, Corrèze, Drôme, Isère and Vienne.
### Italy
In Italy, there were 25,614 ha of the grape planted in 2000 with more than two-thirds of Italian Merlot being used in *Indicazione geografica tipica* (IGT) blends (such as the so-called \"Super Tuscans\") versus being used in classified *Denominazione di origine controllata* (DOC) or *Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita* (DOCG) wines. A large portion of Merlot is planted in the Friuli wine region where it is made as a varietal or sometimes blended with Cabernet Sauvignon or Cabernet Franc. In other parts of Italy, such as the Maremma coast in Tuscany, it is often blended with Sangiovese to give the wine a similar softening effect as the Bordeaux blends.
Italian Merlots are often characterized by their light bodies and herbal notes. Merlot\'s low acidity serves as a balance for the higher acidity in many Italian wine grapes with the grape often being used in blends in the Veneto, Alto Adige, and Umbria regions. Global warming is potentially having an influence on Italian Merlot as more cooler-climate regions in northern Italy are being able to ripen the grape successfully while other regions already planted are encountering issues with over-ripeness.
According to Master of Wine Jancis Robinson, some of the higher quality Italian Merlots are often from vineyards planted with cuttings sourced from France. Robinson describes the style of Friuli Merlots from regarded estates as having potentially a \"Pomerol-quality\" to them while Merlots from the warm plains of the Veneto can often be over-ripe with high yields giving them a \"sweet and sour\" quality. Robinson notes that the Merlots from Trentino-Alto-Adige can fall somewhere between those of Friuli and the Veneto. The *Strada del Merlot* is a popular tourist route through Italian Merlot regions along the Isonzo river.
### Spain
In the hot continental climate of many of Spain\'s major wine regions, Merlot is less valued than it is in the damp maritime climate of Bordeaux or the warm Mediterranean climate of the Tuscan coast. But as the popularity of international varieties continue to grow on the world wine market, Spanish wine producers have been experimenting with the variety with even winemakers in Rioja petitioning authorities to allow Merlot to be a permitted grape to be blended with Tempranillo in the red wines of the region.
In 2008, there were 13,325 ha of Merlot, a significant increase from the 8700 ha that were being cultivated in the country only four years earlier. In 2015, this had dropped slightly to 13,044 ha, making Merlot the eighth most planted red grape variety in Spain. The largest concentration of the grape is in the Mediterranean climate of Catalonia and the continental climate of Castilla--La Mancha, with significant plantings also in Navarra and Aragon. In Costers del Segre, the grape is often used in Bordeaux-style blends while in Aragon, Navarra, and Castilla-La Mancha it is sometimes blended with Tempranillo and other local Spanish wine grape varieties.
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# Merlot
## Wine regions {#wine_regions}
### Central Europe {#central_europe}
In Germany, there were 450 ha of Merlot growing in 2008 with the grape mostly planted in the warmer German wine regions of the Palatinate and Rheinhessen.
In Switzerland, Merlot accounts for nearly 85% of the wine production in Ticino where it is often made in a pale \"white Merlot\" style. In 2009, there were 1028 ha plantings of Swiss Merlot.
Plantings of Merlot have increased in recent years in the Austrian wine region of Burgenland where vineyards previously growing Welschriesling are being uprooted to make room for more plantings. The grape still lags behind its parent variety, Cabernet Franc, with 112 ha in cultivation in 2008. Outside of Burgenland, nearly half of all Austrian Merlot plantings are found in Lower Austria.
### Rest of Europe {#rest_of_europe}
In the Eastern European countries of Bulgaria, Moldova, Croatia, and Romania, Merlot is often produced as a full bodied wine that can be very similar to Cabernet Sauvignon. In Bulgaria, plantings of Merlot lag slightly behind Cabernet Sauvignon with 15202 ha in 2009 while Croatia had 1105 ha. In the Czech Republic, most of the country\'s 87 ha were found in Moravia while Moldova had 8123 ha in 2009.
In Slovenia, Merlot was the most widely planted grape variety of any color in the Vipava Valley in the Slovene Littoral and the second most widely planted variety in the Gorizia Hills located across the Italian border from Friuli. In the Slovene Littoral, collectively, Merlot accounts for around 15% of total vineyard plantings with 1019 ha of Merlot in cultivation across Slovenia in 2009.
In Hungary, Merlot complements Kékfrankos, Kékoportó, and Kadarka as a component in Bull\'s Blood. It is also made into varietal wine known as *Egri Médoc Noir* which is noted for its balanced acid levels and sweet taste. In 2009, there were 1791 ha of Merlot planted across Hungary. Most of these hectares can be found in the wine regions of Szekszárd and Villány on the warm Pannonian Basin with significant plantings also found in Kunság, Eger, and Balaton.
In Romania, Merlot is the most widely exported red wine grape variety with 10782 ha in cultivation in 2008. Most of these plantings are found along the Black Sea in Dobruja, further inland in the Muntenia region of Dealu Mare and in the western Romanian wine region of Drăgășani. Here the grape is often made a varietal but is sometimes blended with other international varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon and with local grape varieties such as Fetească neagră.
In 2009, Ukraine had 2820 ha of Merlot in cultivation.
Russia had 1588 ha.
Portugal, has only a very limited amount of Merlot compared to the abundance of native Portuguese grape varieties with 556 ha planted in 2010, mostly in the Portuguese wine regions along the Tagus river.
In Greece, Merlot is one of the top six grape varieties planted in the eastern wine regions of Macedonia (86 ha)and Western Thrace (243 ha). In central Greece, there were 74 ha of Merlot in cultivation as of 2012.
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# Merlot
## Wine regions {#wine_regions}
### United States {#united_states}
Merlot is grown across the United States---as of 2015, it is the fourth most planted wine grape---with California and Washington growing the most. Other regions producing significant quantities of Merlot include New York State with 365 ha in 2006 with most of it in the maritime climate of the Long Island AVA and multiple regions in Ohio. In Texas, Merlot is the second most widely planted red wine grape after Cabernet Sauvignon with 117 ha. In Virginia, the grape was the most widely planted red variety with 136 ha in 2010, most of it in the Monticello AVA and Shenandoah Valley AVA, while Oregon had 206 ha in 2008 with most planted in the Rogue Valley AVA.
#### California
In the early history of California wine, Merlot was used primarily as a 100% varietal wine until winemaker Warren Winiarski encouraged taking the grape back to its blending roots with Bordeaux style blends. Others saw its potential as a stand-alone labeled varietal: The first wineries to market Merlot as a varietal in the post WWII period were Louis M. Martini winery, which made a non-vintage dated Merlot, a blend of the 1968 and 1970 vintages, and Sterling Vineyards, which issued the first Merlot with a vintage, 1969 ---Sterling\'s winemaker, Ric Forman, was an early advocate of Merlot as a varietal bottling. Following the \"Merlot wine craze\" of the 1990s, sparked by *60 Minutes* French Paradox report, sales of Merlot spiked, with the grape plantings of over 20640 ha in 2004. A study published in *Wine and Vines* magazine indicated that the 2004 movie *Sideways*, where the lead character is a Pinot noir fan who expresses his disdain of Merlot, caused a decline in Merlot sales in the US after its release (and an even larger spike of interest in Pinot noir). By 2010, plantings of California Merlot had dropped slightly to 18924 ha. Following that dip, Merlot plantings rebounded, totaling approximately 39,000 acres in 2020.
In California, Merlot can range from very fruity simple wines (sometimes referred to by critics as a \"red Chardonnay\") to more serious, barrel aged examples. It can also be used as a primary component in Meritage blends.
While Merlot is grown throughout the state, it is particularly prominent in Napa, Monterey, and Sonoma County. In Napa, examples from Los Carneros, Mount Veeder, Oakville and Rutherford tend to show ripe blackberry and black raspberry notes. Sonoma Merlots from Alexander Valley, Carneros and Dry Creek Valley tend to show plum, tea leaf, and black cherry notes.
#### Washington State {#washington_state}
In the 1980s, Merlot helped put the Washington wine industry on the world\'s wine map. Prior to this period there was a general perception that the climate of Washington State was too cold to produce red wine varietals. Merlots from Leonetti Cellar, Andrew Will, Columbia Crest, and Chateau Ste. Michelle demonstrated that areas of the Eastern Washington were warm enough for red wine production. Today it is the second most widely grown red wine grape in the state (after Cabernet Sauvignon), following many years of being the most widely planted variety, and accounts for nearly one fifth of the state\'s entire production. In 2011, there were 3334 ha of Washington Merlot in cultivation.
It is widely planted throughout the Columbia Valley AVA but has earned particular notice from plantings grown in Walla Walla, Red Mountain, and the Horse Heaven Hills. Washington Merlots are noted for their deep color and balanced acidity. The state\'s climate lends itself towards long days and hours of sunshine with cool nights that contributes to a significant diurnal temperature variation and produces wines with New World fruitiness and Old World structure.
### Canada
In Canada, Merlot can be found across the country from the Short Hills Bench of the Niagara Peninsula Ontario, where there were 498 ha of the grape in 2008, to British Columbia, where the grape is the most widely planted wine grape variety of either color at 641 ha. Here Merlot accounts for almost a third of all red wine grape plantings and is used for both varietal and Bordeaux-style blends.
### Mexico
In Mexico, Merlot is cultivated primarily in the Valle de Guadalupe of Baja California, the country\'s main wine-producing area. Plantings have increased substantially since the 1980s, and cultivation has spread into the nearby areas of Ojos Negros and Santo Tomás. The grape can also be found in the north eastern Mexican wine region of Coahuila, across the border from Texas.
### Chile
In Chile, Merlot thrives in the Apalta region of Colchagua Province. It is also grown in significant quantities in Curicó, Casablanca, and the Maipo Valley. Until the early 1990s, the Chilean wine industry mistakenly sold a large quantity of wine made from the Carménère grape as Merlot. Following the discovery that many Chilean vineyards thought to be planted with Sauvignon blanc were actually Sauvignonasse, the owners of the Chilean winery Domaine Paul Bruno (who previously worked with Château Margaux and Château Cos d\'Estournel) invited ampelographers to comb through their vineyards to make sure that their wines were properly identified. Genetic studies discovered that much of what had been grown as Merlot was actually Carménère, an old French variety that had gone largely extinct in France due to its poor resistance to phylloxera. While the vines, leaves, and grapes look very similar, both grapes produce wines with distinct characteristics---Carménère being more strongly flavored with green pepper notes and Merlot having softer fruit with chocolate notes.
Today, \"true\" Merlot is the third most widely planted grape variety in Chile after Cabernet Sauvignon and Listán Prieto with 13280 ha in 2009. Most of these planting are in the Central Valley, with Colchagua leading the way with 3359 ha, followed by Maule Valley with 3019 ha and Curicó with 2911 ha.
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# Merlot
## Wine regions {#wine_regions}
### South America {#south_america}
In Uruguay, Merlot is often blended with Tannat and is the 2nd most widely planted red grape variety, representing around 10% of total vineyard plantings. More widely planted than Cabernet Sauvignon, there were 853 ha of the grape in cultivation in 2009. Brazil is home to 1089 ha of Merlot (as of 2007) with most of them in the Rio Grande do Sul region that is across the border with Uruguay. Other South American wine regions growing Merlot include Bolivia with 30 ha as of 2012 and Peru.
### Argentina
In Argentina, Merlot plantings have been increasing in the Mendoza region with the grape showing an affinity to the Tupungato region of the Uco Valley. Argentine Merlots grown in the higher elevations of Tunpungato have shown a balance of ripe fruit, tannic structure, and acidity. The grape is not as widely planted here due to the natural fruity and fleshiness of the popular Malbec and Douce noir/Bonarda grapes that often don\'t need to be \"mellowed\" by Merlot as Cabernet Sauvignon and Cabernet Franc may benefit from. In 2008, there were 7142 ha of Merlot growing in Argentina, most of it in the Mendoza region and in the San Juan Province.
### Oceania, South Africa, and Asia {#oceania_south_africa_and_asia}
In New Zealand, plantings of Merlot have increased in the Hawke\'s Bay region, particularly in Gimblett Gravels where the grape has shown the ability to produce Bordeaux-style wine. The grape has been growing in favor among New Zealand producers due to its ability to ripen better, with less green flavors, than Cabernet Sauvignon. Other regions with significant plantings include Auckland, Marlborough, and Martinborough. In 2008, Merlot was the second most widely red grape variety (after Pinot noir) in New Zealand and accounted for nearly 5% of all the country\'s plantings with 1363 ha in cultivation.
In Australia, some vineyards labeled as \"Merlot\" were discovered to actually be Cabernet Franc. Merlot vines can also be found growing in the Barossa Valley, McLaren Vale, and Wrattonbully in South Australia. In 2008, it was the third most widely planted red grape variety after Syrah and Cabernet Sauvignon with 10537 ha. As in California, the global \"Merlot craze\" spurred an increase of plantings, most of it in the warm, irrigated regions of Murray Darling, Riverina, and Riverland, where the grape variety could be mass-produced. Recent plantings, such as those in the Margaret River area of Western Australia have been focusing on making more Bordeaux-style blends.
In South Africa, plantings of Merlot have focused on cooler sites within the Paarl and Stellenbosch regions. Here the grape is the third most widely planted red grape variety, accounting for nearly 15% of all red wine grape plantings, with 6614 ha of Merlot in cultivation in 2008. The majority of these plantings are found in the Stellenbosch region with 2105 ha and Paarl with 1289 ha. According to wine expert Jancis Robinson, South African Merlot tend to be made as a varietal in a \"chocolately, glossy California style\".
In Asia, Merlot is planted in emerging wine regions in India. It can also be found in Japan with 816 ha in 2009 and in China with 3204 ha.
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# Merlot
## Wines
As a varietal wine, Merlot can make soft, velvety wines with plum flavors. While Merlot wines tend to mature faster than Cabernet Sauvignon, some examples can continue to develop in the bottle for decades. There are three main styles of Merlot---a soft, fruity, smooth wine with very little tannins; a fruity wine with more tannic structure; and, finally, a brawny, highly tannic style made in the profile of Cabernet Sauvignon. Some of the fruit notes commonly associated with Merlot include cassis, black and red cherries, blackberry, blueberry, boysenberry, mulberry, ollalieberry, and plum. Vegetable and earthy notes include black and green olives, cola nut, bell pepper, fennel, humus, leather, mushrooms, rhubarb, and tobacco. Floral and herbal notes commonly associated with Merlot include green and black tea, eucalyptus, laurel, mint, oregano, pine, rosemary, sage, sarsaparilla, and thyme. When Merlot has spent significant time in oak, the wine may show notes of caramel, chocolate, coconut, coffee bean, dill weed, mocha, molasses, smoke, vanilla, and walnut.
### White Merlot {#white_merlot}
White Merlot is made the same way as White Zinfandel. The grapes are crushed, and after very brief skin contact, the resulting pink juice is run off the must and is then fermented. It normally has a hint of raspberry. White Merlot was reputedly first marketed in the late 1990s. In Switzerland, a type of White Merlot is made in the Ticino region but has been considered more a rosé.
White Merlot should not be confused with the grape variety Merlot blanc, which is a cross between Merlot and Folle blanche that was discovered in 1891, nor should it be confused with the white mutant variety of the Merlot grape.
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# Merlot
## Food pairing {#food_pairing}
In food and wine pairings, the diversity of Merlot can lend itself to a wide array of matching options. Cabernet-like Merlots pair well with many of the same things that Cabernet Sauvignon would pair well with, such as grilled and charred meats. Softer, fruitier Merlots (particularly those with higher acidity from cooler climate regions like Washington State and Northeastern Italy) share many of the same food-pairing affinities with Pinot noir and go well with dishes like salmon, mushroom-based dishes, and greens like chard and radicchio. Light-bodied Merlots can go well with shellfish like prawns or scallops, especially if wrapped in a protein-rich food such as bacon or prosciutto. Merlot tends not to go well with strong and blue-veined cheeses that can overwhelm the fruit flavors of the wine. The capsaicins of spicy foods can accentuate the perception of alcohol in Merlot and make it taste more tannic and bitter.
## Synonyms
Over the years, Merlot has been known under many synonyms across the globe, including Bégney, Bidal, Bidalhe, Bigney, Bigney rouge, Bini, Bini Ruzh, Bioney, Bordeleza belcha, Crabutet, Crabutet noir, Crabutet noir merlau, Hebigney, Higney, Higney rouge, Langon, Lecchumskij, Médoc noir, Merlau, Merlaut, Merlaut noir, Merle, Merle Petite, Merleau, Merlô, Merlot noir, Merlot black, Merlot blauer, Merlot crni, Merlot nero, Merlott, Merlou, Odzalesi, Odzhaleshi, Odzhaleshi Legkhumskii, Petit Merle, Picard, Pikard, Plan medre, Planet Medok, Plant du Médoc, Plant Médoc, Saint-Macaire, Same de la Canan, Same dou Flaube, Sème de la Canau, Sème Dou Flube, Semilhon rouge, Semilhoum rouge, Semilhoun rouge, Sémillon rouge, Sud des Graves, Vidal, Vini Ticinesi, Vitrai, and Vitraille
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# Motala ström
**Motala ström** is the river system that drains lake Vättern, the second largest lake in Sweden, into the Baltic Sea in Norrköping. It is named from the city Motala where it begins. In the early 19th century, the Göta Canal was constructed in parallel with Motala ström
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# Microserfs
***Microserfs*** is an epistolary novel by Douglas Coupland published by HarperCollins in 1995. It first appeared in short story form as the cover article for the January 1994 issue of *Wired* magazine and was subsequently expanded to full novel length. Set in the early 1990s, it captures the state of the technology industry before Windows 95, and anticipates the dot-com bubble of the late 1990s.
The novel is presented in the form of diary entries maintained on a PowerBook by the narrator, Daniel. Because of this, as well as its formatting and usage of emoticons, this novel is similar to what emerged a decade later as the blog format.
Coupland revisited many of the ideas in *Microserfs* in his 2006 novel *JPod*, which has been labeled \"*Microserfs* for the Google generation\".
## Plot
The plot of the novel has two distinct movements: the events at Microsoft in Redmond, Washington, and the move to Silicon Valley and the \"Oop!\" project.
The novel begins in Redmond as the characters are working on different projects at Microsoft\'s main campus. Life at the campus feels like a feudalistic society, with Bill Gates as the lord, and the employees the serfs. The majority of the main characters---Daniel (the narrator), Susan, Todd, Bug, Michael, and Abe---are living together in a \"geek house\", and their lives are dedicated to their projects and the company. Daniel\'s foundations are shaken when his father, a longtime employee of IBM, is laid off. The lifespan of a Microsoft coder weighs heavily on Daniel\'s mind.
The second movement of the novel begins when the characters are offered jobs in Silicon Valley working on a project for Michael, who has by then left Redmond. All of the housemates---some immediately, some after thought---decide to move to the Valley.
The characters\' lives change drastically once they leave the limited sphere of the Microsoft campus and enter the world of \"One-Point-Oh\". They begin to work on a project called \"Oop!\" (a reference to object-oriented programming). Oop! is a Lego-like design program, allowing dynamic creation of many objects, bearing a resemblance to 2009\'s *Minecraft* (Coupland appears on the rear cover of the novel\'s hardcover editions photographed in Denmark\'s Legoland Billund, holding a Lego 777.).
One of the undercurrents of the plot is Daniel and his family\'s relationship to Jed, Daniel\'s younger brother who died in a boating accident while they were children.
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# Microserfs
## Characters
Daniel Underwood
: The book\'s narrator and main character. Initially a software tester for Microsoft. His thoughts are funneled into the book through the epistolary format of the novel, and also as he records stream of consciousness lists of terms that he believes exist in a computer\'s subconscious.
Susan
: A programmer initially working for Microsoft. Throughout the novel, Susan attempts (not always successfully) to find and maintain a meaning to life outside of work. She eventually gains semi-celebrity status after founding Chyx, a feminist support group for Valley women who code.
Todd
: A tester and coworker of Daniel\'s who is obsessed with bodybuilding and is continually searching for something to believe in. His family is very Christian, while Todd has rejected his parents\' faith.
Bug Barbecue
: A tester and coworker of Daniel\'s; \"the World\'s Most Bitter Man\". He is older than most of the other characters, and likes to remind them of his greater experience in the software industry. Eventually he comes out of the closet. His primary reason for leaving Microsoft for Oop! was to \"leave the old me behind\" and start over.
Michael
: A gifted programmer with high-functioning autism (specifically developmental coordination disorder) initially working for Microsoft. Michael\'s decision to leave Microsoft and found a startup company is the impetus for the change in lives of the other characters. Michael lives on a \"Flatlander\" diet, meaning that he eats only things that are two dimensional; this began after a period during which he barred himself in his office, eating only what his co-workers slid under the door. His screen name is \"Kraft Singles\". Michael is addicted to Robitussin cough syrup, which contains the dissociative drug dextromethorphan.
Karla
: A coder, coworker, and girlfriend of Daniel. Karla\'s relationship with her family is tense, and she actively avoids contact with them. She begins the story as a closed-off person, but as the novel unfolds her character begins to be more open and understanding. She has a history of an eating disorder.
Abe
: MIT graduate coder and multimillionaire who stays with Microsoft when the rest of the characters leave for California. His email conversations with Daniel appear throughout the novel. Abe, who dearly missed his friends, eventually joins Oop! and saves the company from financial ruin.
Ethan
: President and co-founder of Oop!. Primarily business-minded, he has been a millionaire three times over with various (eventually failed) projects. He devotes his time to seeking venture capital for the startup company. Ethan\'s personality is diametrically opposed to the other characters, in part because of his relative lack of technical knowledge. He suffers from bad dandruff and his skin is pocked by scars from procedures to remove cancerous growths.
Dusty
: Female bodybuilder and coder who is introduced later in the novel. She is romantically involved with Todd, and they have a baby together (Lindsay). She becomes an employee at Oop!. She and Todd are obsessed with transforming their bodies into perfect \"machines\" by going to the gym every day and taking protein pills and drinks.
Amy
: A Canadian computer engineering student who is introduced later in the novel. She and Michael meet on the internet and fall in love despite never meeting in person or even knowing each other\'s genders. Due to Michael\'s fear of rejection, Daniel is sent to the University of Waterloo to meet her. Amy becomes engaged to Michael and joins the Oop! team after graduating from university.
Emmett
: Introduced later in the novel, Emmett is a meek and asthmatic storyboard artist hired by Oop! who enters into a submissive relationship with Susan. He collects manga despite his hatred of Japan\'s influence on American animation.
Anatole
: French coder who is Daniel\'s neighbor and used to work for Apple. Although not an Oop! employee, he visits the team often and accompanies them to Las Vegas for the CES convention. His accent becomes stronger around women.
Daniel Underwood\'s father
: A mid-level manager at IBM who represents an older generation of technical workers. After being laid off, he begins to work closely with Michael on a secret project that evokes feelings of jealousy from Daniel.
Daniel Underwood\'s mother
: A librarian with little technical knowledge, she serves to give the group insight into what the laypeople understand about technology.
Jed Underwood
: Daniel\'s younger brother who died in a childhood drowning accident. He is a looming presence in Daniel\'s mind throughout the novel.
Misty
: The Underwoods\' overweight golden retriever. She was originally trained to be a seeing eye dog, but failed the exam because she was too affectionate.
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# Microserfs
## Influences
### Microsoft, Silicon Valley, and geek culture {#microsoft_silicon_valley_and_geek_culture}
Coupland lived in Redmond, Washington for six weeks and Palo Alto, Silicon Valley for four months researching the lives of Microsoft workers. \"It was a \'Gorillas in the Mist\' kind of observation... What do they put in their glove compartments? What snack foods do they eat? What posters are on their bedroom walls?\" Friends from Microsoft and Apple also helped him with research.
The novel was a radical departure from Coupland\'s previous novel, *Life After God*. \"I wrote the two books under radically different mind-sets, and *Serfs* was a willful rerouting into a different realm\". Coupland first noticed that his art school friends were working in computers in 1992.
### Digital faith {#digital_faith}
Coupland\'s research turned up links to the themes of *Life After God*. \"What surprised me about Microsoft is that no one has any conception of an afterlife. There is so little thought given to eternal issues that their very absence make them pointedly there. These people are so locked into the world, by default some sort of transcendence is located elsewhere, and obviously machines become the totem they imbue with sacred properties, wishes, hopes, goals, desires, dreams. That sounds like 1940s SF, but it\'s become the world.\"
### Allusions to history, geography, and science {#allusions_to_history_geography_and_science}
The book takes place first at Microsoft in Redmond, Washington (near Seattle) and then Silicon Valley (near San Francisco). The time period is 1993--1995, at a time when Microsoft has reached dominance in the software industry and emerged victorious from the \"Look & Feel\" lawsuit by Apple Inc., a company that had at times seemed in danger of falling apart. The Northridge earthquake takes place during the story. The earthquake has a profound effect on Ethan, who eventually constructs a replica highway interchange out of Lego pieces to honor the infrastructure destroyed by the earthquake.
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# Microserfs
## History
Coupland\'s interest in the world of Microsoft and technology workers began with the publication of a short story in *Wired* magazine in 1994. The story would later be expanded into the novel.
Shortly before the publication of *Microserfs*, Coupland began to distance himself from his label as spokesperson for Generation X.
Coupland\'s novel anticipated the outcome of the late-1990s dot-com bubble with his depiction of the Oop! project\'s search for capital.
The abridged audiobook for *Microserfs* was read by Matthew Perry.
## Coded messages {#coded_messages}
Several coded messages are included within the text:
- On pages 104--105, there is an encoded binary message that reads, when decoded:
This message is an adapted version of the Rifleman\'s Creed.
- On pages 308--309, consonants appear on one page and vowels on the other. This text is taken from a letter written by Patty Hearst to her parents when she was kidnapped
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# Measurement
}} `{{Use British English|date=November 2014}}`{=mediawiki}
**Measurement** is the quantification of attributes of an object or event, which can be used to compare with other objects or events. In other words, measurement is a process of determining how large or small a physical quantity is as compared to a basic reference quantity of the same kind. The scope and application of measurement are dependent on the context and discipline. In natural sciences and engineering, measurements do not apply to nominal properties of objects or events, which is consistent with the guidelines of the International Vocabulary of Metrology (VIM) published by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM). However, in other fields such as statistics as well as the social and behavioural sciences, measurements can have multiple levels, which would include nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales.
Measurement is a cornerstone of trade, science, technology and quantitative research in many disciplines. Historically, many measurement systems existed for the varied fields of human existence to facilitate comparisons in these fields. Often these were achieved by local agreements between trading partners or collaborators. Since the 18th century, developments progressed towards unifying, widely accepted standards that resulted in the modern International System of Units (SI). This system reduces all physical measurements to a mathematical combination of seven base units. The science of measurement is pursued in the field of metrology.
Measurement is defined as the process of comparison of an unknown quantity with a known or standard quantity.
## History
## Methodology
The measurement of a property may be categorized by the following criteria: type, magnitude, unit, and uncertainty. They enable unambiguous comparisons between measurements.
- The *level* of measurement is a taxonomy for the methodological character of a comparison. For example, two states of a property may be compared by ratio, difference, or ordinal preference. The type is commonly not explicitly expressed, but implicit in the definition of a measurement procedure.
- The *magnitude* is the numerical value of the characterization, usually obtained with a suitably chosen measuring instrument.
- A *unit* assigns a mathematical weighting factor to the magnitude that is derived as a ratio to the property of an artifact used as standard or a natural physical quantity.
- An *uncertainty* represents the random and systemic errors of the measurement procedure; it indicates a confidence level in the measurement. Errors are evaluated by methodically repeating measurements and considering the accuracy and precision of the measuring instrument.
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# Measurement
## Standardization of measurement units {#standardization_of_measurement_units}
Measurements most commonly use the International System of Units (SI) as a comparison framework. The system defines seven fundamental units: kilogram, metre, candela, second, ampere, kelvin, and mole. All of these units are defined without reference to a particular physical object which would serve as a standard. Artifact-free definitions fix measurements at an exact value related to a physical constant or other invariable natural phenomenon, in contrast to reliance on standard artifacts which are subject to deterioration or destruction. Instead, the measurement unit can only ever change through increased accuracy in determining the value of the constant it is tied to.
The first proposal to tie an SI base unit to an experimental standard independent of fiat`{{clarify|date=April 2025}}`{=mediawiki} was by Charles Sanders Peirce (1839--1914), who proposed to define the metre in terms of the wavelength of a spectral line. This directly influenced the Michelson--Morley experiment; Michelson and Morley cite Peirce, and improve on his method.
### Standards
With the exception of a few fundamental quantum constants, units of measurement are derived from historical agreements. Nothing inherent in nature dictates that an inch has to be a certain length, nor that a mile is a better measure of distance than a kilometre. Over the course of human history, however, first for convenience and then out of necessity, standards of measurement evolved so that communities would have certain common benchmarks. Laws regulating measurement were originally developed to prevent fraud in commerce.
Units of measurement are generally defined on a scientific basis, overseen by governmental or independent agencies, and established in international treaties, pre-eminent of which is the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM), established in 1875 by the Metre Convention, overseeing the International System of Units (SI). For example, the metre was redefined in 1983 by the CGPM in terms of the speed of light, the kilogram was redefined in 2019 in terms of the Planck constant and the international yard was defined in 1960 by the governments of the United States, United Kingdom, Australia and South Africa as being *exactly* 0.9144 metres.
In the United States, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), a division of the United States Department of Commerce, regulates commercial measurements. In the United Kingdom, the role is performed by the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), in Australia by the National Measurement Institute, in South Africa by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research and in India the National Physical Laboratory of India.
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# Measurement
## Units and systems {#units_and_systems}
A unit is a known or standard quantity in terms of which other physical quantities are measured.
### Imperial and US customary systems {#imperial_and_us_customary_systems}
Before SI units were widely adopted around the world, the British systems of English units and later imperial units were used in Britain, the Commonwealth and the United States. The system came to be known as U.S. customary units in the United States and is still in use there and in a few Caribbean countries. These various systems of measurement have at times been called *foot-pound-second* systems after the Imperial units for length, weight and time even though the tons, hundredweights, gallons, and nautical miles, for example, have different values in the U.S. and imperial systems. Many Imperial units remain in use in Britain, which has officially switched to the SI system, with a few exceptions such as road signs, where road distances are shown in miles (or in yards for short distances) and speed limits are in miles per hour. Draught beer and cider must be sold by the imperial pint, and milk in returnable bottles can be sold by the imperial pint. Many people measure their height in feet and inches and their weight in stone and pounds, to give just a few examples. Imperial units are used in many other places: for example, in many Commonwealth countries that are considered metricated, land area is measured in acres and floor space in square feet, particularly for commercial transactions (rather than government statistics). Similarly, gasoline is sold by the gallon in many countries that are considered metricated.
### Metric system {#metric_system}
The metric system is a decimal system of measurement based on its units for length, the metre and for mass, the kilogram. It exists in several variations, with different choices of base units, though these do not affect its day-to-day use. Since the 1960s, the International System of Units (SI) is the internationally recognised metric system. Metric units of mass, length, and electricity are widely used around the world for both everyday and scientific purposes.
#### International System of Units {#international_system_of_units}
The International System of Units (abbreviated as SI from the French language name *Système International d\'Unités*) is the modern revision of the metric system. It is the world\'s most widely used system of units, both in everyday commerce and in science. The SI was developed in 1960 from the metre--kilogram--second (MKS) system, rather than the centimetre--gram--second (CGS) system, which, in turn, had many variants. The SI units for the seven base physical quantities are:
Base quantity Base unit Symbol Defining constant
--------------------- ----------- -------- ------------------------------------------------
time second s hyperfine splitting in caesium-133
length metre m speed of light, *c*
mass kilogram kg Planck constant, *h*
electric current ampere A elementary charge, *e*
temperature kelvin K Boltzmann constant, *k*
amount of substance mol mol Avogadro constant, *N*~A~
luminous intensity candela cd luminous efficacy of a 540 THz source, *K*~cd~
In the SI, base units are the simple measurements for time, length, mass, temperature, amount of substance, electric current and light intensity. Derived units are constructed from the base units: for example, the watt, i.e. the unit for power, is defined from the base units as m^2^·kg·s^−3^. Other physical properties may be measured in compound units, such as material density, measured in kg·m^−3^.
##### Converting prefixes {#converting_prefixes}
The SI allows easy multiplication when switching among units having the same base but different prefixes. To convert from metres to centimetres it is only necessary to multiply the number of metres by 100, since there are 100 centimetres in a metre. Inversely, to switch from centimetres to metres one multiplies the number of centimetres by 0.01 or divides the number of centimetres by 100.
### Length
A ruler or rule is a tool used in, for example, geometry, technical drawing, engineering, and carpentry, to measure lengths or distances or to draw straight lines. Strictly speaking, the *ruler* is the instrument used to **rule** straight lines and the calibrated instrument used for determining length is called a *measure*, however common usage calls both instruments *rulers* and the special name *straightedge* is used for an unmarked rule. The use of the word *measure*, in the sense of a measuring instrument, only survives in the phrase *tape measure*, an instrument that can be used to measure but cannot be used to draw straight lines. As can be seen in the photographs on this page, a two-metre carpenter\'s rule can be folded down to a length of only 20 centimetres, to easily fit in a pocket, and a five-metre-long tape measure easily retracts to fit within a small housing.
### Time
Time is an abstract measurement of elemental changes over a non-spatial continuum. It is denoted by numbers and/or named periods such as hours, days, weeks, months and years. It is an apparently irreversible series of occurrences within this non spatial continuum. It is also used to denote an interval between two relative points on this continuum.
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# Measurement
## Units and systems {#units_and_systems}
### Mass
*Mass* refers to the intrinsic property of all material objects to resist changes in their momentum. *Weight*, on the other hand, refers to the downward force produced when a mass is in a gravitational field. In free fall (no net gravitational forces) objects lack weight but retain their mass. The Imperial units of mass include the ounce, pound, and ton. The metric units gram and kilogram are units of mass.
One device for measuring weight or mass is called a weighing scale or, often, simply a \"scale\". A spring scale measures force but not mass, a balance compares weight; both require a gravitational field to operate. Some of the most accurate instruments for measuring weight or mass are based on load cells with a digital read-out, but require a gravitational field to function and would not work in free fall.
### Economics
The measures used in economics are physical measures, nominal price value measures and real price measures. These measures differ from one another by the variables they measure and by the variables excluded from measurements.
### Survey research {#survey_research}
In the field of survey research, measures are taken from individual attitudes, values, and behavior using questionnaires as a measurement instrument. As all other measurements, measurement in survey research is also vulnerable to measurement error, i.e. the departure from the true value of the measurement and the value provided using the measurement instrument. In substantive survey research, measurement error can lead to biased conclusions and wrongly estimated effects. In order to get accurate results, when measurement errors appear, the results need to be corrected for measurement errors.
### Exactness designation {#exactness_designation}
The following rules generally apply for displaying the exactness of measurements:
- All non-0 digits and any 0s appearing between them are significant for the exactness of any number. For example, the number 12000 has two significant digits, and has implied limits of 11500 and 12500.
- Additional 0s may be added after a decimal separator to denote a greater exactness, increasing the number of decimals. For example, 1 has implied limits of 0.5 and 1.5 whereas 1.0 has implied limits 0.95 and 1.05.
## Difficulties
Since accurate measurement is essential in many fields, and since all measurements are necessarily approximations, a great deal of effort must be taken to make measurements as accurate as possible. For example, consider the problem of measuring the time it takes an object to fall a distance of one metre (about 39 in). Using physics, it can be shown that, in the gravitational field of the Earth, it should take any object about 0.45 second to fall one metre. However, the following are just some of the sources of error that arise:
- This computation used for the acceleration of gravity 9.8 m/s2. But neither of these two figures is exact, but only precise to two significant digits.
- The Earth\'s gravitational field varies slightly depending on height above sea level and other factors.
- The computation of 0.45 seconds involved extracting a square root, a mathematical operation that required rounding off to some number of significant digits, in this case two significant digits.
Additionally, other sources of experimental error include:
- carelessness,
- determining of the exact time at which the object is released and the exact time it hits the ground,
- measurement of the height and the measurement of the time both involve some error,
- air resistance,
- posture of human participants.
Scientific experiments must be carried out with great care to eliminate as much error as possible, and to keep error estimates realistic.
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# Measurement
## Definitions and theories {#definitions_and_theories}
### Classical definition {#classical_definition}
In the classical definition, which is standard throughout the physical sciences, *measurement* is the determination or estimation of ratios of quantities. Quantity and measurement are mutually defined: quantitative attributes are those possible to measure, at least in principle. The classical concept of quantity can be traced back to John Wallis and Isaac Newton, and was foreshadowed in Euclid\'s Elements.
### Representational theory {#representational_theory}
In the representational theory, *measurement* is defined as \"the correlation of numbers with entities that are not numbers\". The most technically elaborated form of representational theory is also known as additive conjoint measurement. In this form of representational theory, numbers are assigned based on correspondences or similarities between the structure of number systems and the structure of qualitative systems. A property is quantitative if such structural similarities can be established. In weaker forms of representational theory, such as that implicit within the work of Stanley Smith Stevens, numbers need only be assigned according to a rule.
The concept of measurement is often misunderstood as merely the assignment of a value, but it is possible to assign a value in a way that is not a measurement in terms of the requirements of additive conjoint measurement. One may assign a value to a person\'s height, but unless it can be established that there is a correlation between measurements of height and empirical relations, it is not a measurement according to additive conjoint measurement theory. Likewise, computing and assigning arbitrary values, like the \"book value\" of an asset in accounting, is not a measurement because it does not satisfy the necessary criteria.
Three type of representational theory
1.
Empirical relation : In science, an *empirical relationship* is a relationship or correlation based solely on observation rather than theory. An empirical relationship requires only confirmatory data irrespective of theoretical basis.
2.
The rule of mapping : The real world is the Domain of mapping, and the mathematical world is the range. when we map the attribute to mathematical system, we have many choice for mapping and the range.
3.
The representation condition of measurement :
### Theory
All data are inexact and statistical in nature. Thus the definition of measurement is: \"A set of observations that reduce uncertainty where the result is expressed as a quantity.\" This definition is implied in what scientists actually do when they measure something and report both the mean and statistics of the measurements. In practical terms, one begins with an initial guess as to the expected value of a quantity, and then, using various methods and instruments, reduces the uncertainty in the value. In this view, unlike the positivist representational theory, all measurements are uncertain, so instead of assigning one value, a range of values is assigned to a measurement. This also implies that there is not a clear or neat distinction between estimation and measurement.
### Quantum mechanics {#quantum_mechanics}
In quantum mechanics, a measurement is an action that determines a particular property (such as position, momentum, or energy) of a quantum system. Quantum measurements are always statistical samples from a probability distribution; the distribution for many quantum phenomena is discrete, not continuous. Quantum measurements alter quantum states and yet repeated measurements on a quantum state are reproducible. The measurement appears to act as a filter, changing the quantum state into one with the single measured quantum value. The unambiguous meaning of the quantum measurement is an unresolved fundamental problem in quantum mechanics; the most common interpretation is that when a measurement is performed, the wavefunction of the quantum system \"collapses\" to a single, definite value.
### Biology
In biology, there is generally no well established theory of measurement. However, the importance of the theoretical context is emphasized. Moreover, the theoretical context stemming from the theory of evolution leads to articulate the theory of measurement and historicity as a fundamental notion. Among the most developed fields of measurement in biology are the measurement of genetic diversity and species diversity
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# Mater lectionis
A ***mater lectionis*** (`{{IPAc-en|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Persent101-mater lectionis.wav|ˌ|m|eɪ|t|ər|_|ˌ|l|ɛ|k|t|i|ˈ|oʊ|n|ɪ|s}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|MAY|tər|_|LEK|tee|OH|niss}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|ɑː|t|ər|_|-}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|MAH|tər|_-}}`{=mediawiki}; `{{langnf|la||mother of reading}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{abbr|pl.|plural}}`{=mediawiki} ***matres lectionis*** `{{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|ɑː|t|r|eɪ|s|_|-}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|MAH|trayss|_-}}`{=mediawiki}; original *ʾēm qərîʾāh*) is any consonant letter that is used to indicate a vowel, primarily in the writing of Semitic languages such as Arabic, Hebrew and Syriac. The letters that do this in Hebrew are *aleph* *א*, *he* *ה*, *vav* *ו* and *yud* *י*, with the latter two in particular being more often vowels than they are consonants. In Arabic, the *matres lectionis* (though they are much less often referred to thus) are *ʾalif* *ا*, *wāw* *و* and *yāʾ* *ي*.
The original value of the *matres lectionis* corresponds closely to what are called in modern linguistics *glides* or *semivowels*.
## Overview
Because the scripts used to write some Semitic languages lack vowel letters, unambiguous reading of a text might be difficult. Therefore, to indicate vowels (mostly long), consonant letters are used. For example, in the Hebrew construct-state form *bēt*, meaning \"the house of\", the middle letter *\[\[י\]\]* in the spelling *בית* acts as a vowel, but in the corresponding absolute-state form *bayit* (\"house\"), which is spelled the same, the same letter represents a genuine consonant. *Matres lectionis* are extensively employed only in Hebrew, Aramaic, Syriac and Arabic, but the phenomenon is also found in the Ugaritic, Moabite, South Arabian and Phoenician alphabets.
## Origins and development {#origins_and_development}
Historically, the practice of using *matres lectionis* seems to have originated when `{{IPA|/aj/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/aw/}}`{=mediawiki} diphthongs, written with the *yod* *י* and the *waw* *ו* consonant letters respectively, monophthongized to simple long vowels `{{IPA|/eː/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/oː/}}`{=mediawiki}. This epiphenomenal association between consonant letters and vowel sounds was then seized upon and used in words without historic diphthongs.
In general terms, it is observable that early Phoenician texts have very few *matres lectionis*, and that during most of the 1st millennium BCE, Hebrew and Aramaic were quicker to develop *matres lectionis* than Phoenician. However, in its latest period of development in North Africa (referred to as \"Punic\"), Phoenician developed a very full use of *matres lectionis*, including the use of the letter *ayin* `{{Script/Hebrew|ע}}`{=mediawiki}, also used for this purpose much later in Yiddish orthography.
In pre-exilic Hebrew, there was a significant development of the use of the letter *he* *ה* to indicate word final vowels other than *ī* and *ū*. This was probably inspired by the phonological change of the third-person singular possessive suffix from `{{IPA|/ahuː/}}`{=mediawiki} \> `{{IPA|/aw/}}`{=mediawiki} \> `{{IPA|/oː/}}`{=mediawiki} in most environments. However, in later periods of Hebrew, the orthography was changed so word-final *ō* was no longer written with *ה*, except in a few archaically-spelled proper names, such as Solomon *שלמה* and Shiloh *שלה*. The difference between the spelling of the third-person singular possessive suffix (as attached to singular nouns) with *ה* in early Hebrew versus with *ו* in later Hebrew has become an issue in the authentication of the Jehoash Inscription.
According to Sass (5), already in the Middle Kingdom there were some cases of *matres lectionis*, i.e. consonant graphemes which were used to transcribe vowels in foreign words, namely in Punic (Jensen 290, Naveh 62), Aramaic, and Hebrew (*ה*, *ו*, *י*; sometimes even *aleph* *א*; Naveh 62). Naveh (ibid.) notes that the earliest Aramaic and Hebrew documents already used *matres lectionis*. Some scholars argue that the Greeks must therefore have borrowed their alphabet from the Arameans. However, the practice has older roots, as the Semitic cuneiform alphabet of Ugarit (13th century BC) already had *matres lectionis* (Naveh 138).
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# Mater lectionis
## Usage in different languages {#usage_in_different_languages}
### Hebrew
The earliest method of indicating some vowels in Hebrew writing was to use the consonant letters *yod* *י*, *waw* *ו*, *he* *ה*, and *aleph* *א* of the Hebrew alphabet to also write long vowels in some cases. Originally, *א* and *ה* were only used as matres lectiones at the end of words, and *י* and *ו* were used mainly to write the original diphthongs `{{IPA|/aw/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/aj/}}`{=mediawiki} as well as `{{IPA|/VjV/}}`{=mediawiki} sequences (`{{IPA|/j/}}`{=mediawiki} surrounded by two vowels, which sometimes simplified to plain long vowels). Gradually, as it was found to be insufficient for differentiating between similar nouns, *י* and *ו* were also inserted to mark some long vowels of non-diphthongal origin.
If words can be written with or without *matres lectionis*, spellings that include the letters are called *malē* (Hebrew) or *plene* (Latin), meaning \"full\", and spellings without them are called *ḥaser* or *defective*. In some verb forms, *matres lectionis* are almost always used. Around the 9th century CE it was decided that the system of *matres lectionis* did not suffice to indicate the vowels precisely enough for purposes of liturgical recitation of Biblical texts so a supplemental vowel pointing system (*niqqud*, diacritic symbols indicating vowel pronunciation and other important phonological features not written by the traditional basic consonantal orthography) joined *matres lectionis* as part of the Hebrew writing system.
In some words in Hebrew, there is a choice of whether to use a *mater lectionis* or not, and in modern printed texts *matres lectionis* are sometimes used even for short vowels, which is considered to be grammatically incorrect according to traditional norms, though instances are found as far back as Talmudic times. Such texts from Judaea and Galilee were noticeably more inclined to *malē* spellings than texts from Babylonia. Similarly, in the Middle Ages, Ashkenazi Jews tended to use *malē* spellings under the influence of European languages, but Sephardi Jews tended to use *ḥaser* spellings under the influence of Arabic.
Most commonly, *yod* *י* indicates *i* or *e*, while *waw* *ו* indicates *o* or *u*. *Aleph* *א* was not systematically developed as a *mater lectionis* in Hebrew (unlike in Aramaic and Arabic), but it is occasionally used to indicate an *a* vowel. (However, a silent *א*, indicating an original glottal stop consonant sound that has become silent in some contexts in Hebrew pronunciation, can occur after almost any vowel.) At the end of a word, *he* *ה* can also be used to indicate that the vowel *a* or *e* should be pronounced.
Examples:
: {\|class=\"wikitable\"
\|- ! rowspan=2 \| Symbol ! colspan=2 \| Name ! rowspan=2 \| Vowel formation ! rowspan=2 \| Vowel quality ! colspan=2 \| Example \|- ! Biblical ! Modern ! Hebrew ! Transliteration \|- \| style=\"text-align: center; font-family:SBL Hebrew, Ezra SIL SR, Ezra SIL, Cardo, Chrysanthi Unicode, TITUS Cyberbit Basic, Arial Unicode MS, Narkisim, Times New Roman;font-size:200%\" \| *י* \| style=\"text-align: center;\" \| Yod \|style=\"text-align: center;\" \| Yud \| î, ê, ệ \| ī, ē or ǣ \| *אמיר* \| Amir \|- \| style=\"text-align: center; font-family:SBL Hebrew, Ezra SIL SR, Ezra SIL, Cardo, Chrysanthi Unicode, TITUS Cyberbit Basic, Arial Unicode MS, Narkisim, Times New Roman;font-size:200%\" \| *א* \| colspan=2 style=\"text-align: center;\" \| Alef \| ê, ệ, ậ, â, ô \| mostly ā \| *פארן* \| Paran \|- \| style=\"text-align: center; font-family:SBL Hebrew, Ezra SIL SR, Ezra SIL, Cardo, Chrysanthi Unicode, TITUS Cyberbit Basic, Arial Unicode MS, Narkisim, Times New Roman; font-size:200%\" rowspan=2\| *ו* \| rowspan=2 style=\"text-align: center;\" \| Waw \| rowspan=2 style=\"text-align: center;\" \| Vav \| rowspan=2 \| ô, û \| rowspan=2 \| ō or ū \| *יואל* \| Yo\'el \|- \| *ברוך* \| Baruch
\|- \| style=\"text-align: center; font-family:SBL Hebrew, Ezra SIL SR, Ezra SIL, Cardo, Chrysanthi Unicode, TITUS Cyberbit Basic, Arial Unicode MS, Narkisim, Times New Roman;font-size:200%\" rowspan=2 \| *ה* \| rowspan=2 colspan=2 style=\"text-align: center;\" \| He \| rowspan=2 \| ê, ệ, ậ, â, ô \| rowspan=2 \|mostly ā or e \| *לאה* \| Leah \|- \| *משה* \| Moshe \|}
### Arabic
In Arabic, there is no choice, and the almost invariable rule is that a long vowel is written with a *mater lectionis* and a short vowel with a diacritic symbol, but the Uthmanic orthography, the one in which the Quran is traditionally written and printed, has some differences, which are not always consistent. Also, under influence from orthography of European languages, transliterating of vowels in borrowed words into Arabic is usually done using *matres lectionis* in place of diacritics, even when the vowel transliterated is short or when words from another Semitic language, such as Hebrew, are transliterated. That phenomenon is augmented by the neglect of diacritics in most printed forms since the beginning of mechanical printing.
The name given to the three *matres lectionis* by traditional Arabic grammar is `{{Transliteration|ar|ḥurūf al-līn wa-l-madd}}`{=mediawiki} (*حروف اللين والمدّ*, \'consonants of softness and lengthening\'), or `{{Transliteration|ar|ḥurūf al-ʿilla}}`{=mediawiki} (*حروف العلّة*, \'causal consonants\' or \'consonants of infirmity\', because as in Greek grammar, words with \'accidents\' were deemed to be afflicted, ill, in opposition to \'healthy\' words without accidents).
Informal orthographies of spoken varieties of Arabic also use *hāʾ* *ه* to indicate a shorter version of *alif* *ا* in final position, a usage augmented by the ambiguity of the use of *ه* and *tāʾ marbūṭah* *ة* in formal Arabic orthography. It is a formal orthography in other languages that use Arabic script, such as Kurdish alphabets.
### Syriac
Syriac-Aramaic vowels are classified into three groups: the *alap* (*ܐ*), the *waw* (*ܘ*), and the *yod* (*ܝ*). The *mater lectionis* was developed as early as the 6th century to represent long vowels, which were earlier denoted by a dot under the line. The most frequent ones are the *yod* and the *waw*, while the *alap* is mostly restricted to some transliterated words.
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# Mater lectionis
## Usage in different languages {#usage_in_different_languages}
### Mandaic
In the Mandaic alphabet, vowels are usually written out in full. The first letter, *a* (corresponding to *alaph*), is used to represent a range of open vowels. The sixth letter, *wa*, is used for close back vowels (*u* and *o*), and the tenth letter, *ya* is used for close front vowels (*i* and *e*). These last two can also serve as the consonants *w/v* and *y*. The eighth letter corresponds to the Semitic *heth*, and is called *eh*; it is pronounced as a long *i*-vowel but is used only as a suffix for the third person singular. The sixteenth letter, *e* (Aramaic *ayn*), usually represents *e* at the beginning of a word or, when followed by *wa* or *ya*, represents initial *u* or *i* respectively.
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# Mater lectionis
## Influence on other languages {#influence_on_other_languages}
Later, in some adaptations of the Arabic alphabet (such those sometimes used for Kurdish and Uyghur) and of the Hebrew alphabet (such as those used for Judeo-Arabic, Yiddish and Judaeo-Spanish), *matres lectionis* were generally used for all or most vowels, thus in effect becoming vowel letters: see Yiddish orthography. This tendency was taken to its logical conclusion in fully alphabetic scripts such as Greek, Latin, and Cyrillic. Many of the vowel letters in such languages historically go back to *matres lectionis* in the Phoenician script. For example, the letter `{{angle bracket|i}}`{=mediawiki} was originally derived from the consonant letter *yod*. Similarly the vowel letters in the Avestan alphabet were adapted from *matres lectionis* in the version of the Aramaic alphabet adapted as the Pahlavi scripts
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# Motala Municipality
**Motala Municipality** (*Motala kommun*) is a municipality in Östergötland County in southeast Sweden. Its seat is located in the city of Motala.
In 1971 Motala Municipality was formed by the amalgamation of the *City of Motala* with some of the adjacent rural municipalities. Three years later more entities were added, among them the former *City of Vadstena*. In 1980 a new Vadstena Municipality was split off.
Geographically, Motala is situated where Lake Vättern drains into the river system of Motala ström, which was of central importance to the massive industrialization of Sweden in the 19th century.
## Sights and museums {#sights_and_museums}
- Charlottenborg Castle
- Godegård manorhouse with the Swedish Porcelain Museum
- Göta Canal with locks
- Medevi 17th century spa, the oldest in Sweden
- Motala Church
- Motala Motor Museum
- The Museum of Motala Industrial History
- Nubbekullen, birthplace of artist August Malmström
- The Swedish Broadcasting Museum with the twin radio towers
- Ulvåsa, manorhouse and medieval ruins of St Bridget\'s home
- Varamon beach
- Västra Stenby Church and rune stone
- Övralid, manorhouse and home of author Verner von Heidenstam
## Localities
Figures as of 2000, from Statistics Sweden.
1. Motala 30,136 (seat)
2. Borensberg 2,667
3. Tjällmo 562
4. Fornåsa 446
5. Nykyrka 434
6. Fågelsta 334
7. Österstad 329
8. Klockrike 275
9. Godegård 200
The population decreased by approximately 2% in most of the localities between the earlier census 1995 and the one in 2000.
## Demographics
This is a demographic table based on Motala Municipality\'s electoral districts in the 2022 Swedish general election sourced from SVT\'s election platform, in turn taken from SCB official statistics.
In total there were 43,620 residents, including 33,347 Swedish citizens of voting age. 46.4% voted for the left coalition and 52.6% for the right coalition. Indicators are in percentage points except population totals and income.
Location
------------------------------ ------------------------------ -------------------------------- -------------------------------- ------------------------------ ------------------------------ ------------------------------ ------------------------------ ------------------------------ ----
data-sort-type=\"number\" \| data-sort-type=\"number\" \| data-sort-type=\"number\" \| % data-sort-type=\"number\" \| % data-sort-type=\"number\" \| data-sort-type=\"number\" \| data-sort-type=\"number\" \| data-sort-type=\"number\" \| data-sort-type=\"number\" \|
Bergsätter 1,997 1,547 51.4 48.1 85 86 14 25,719 31
Bispmotala 1,730 1,426 53.8 45.1 65 70 30 17,777 26
Borensberg V 2,217 1,713 48.7 50.3 88 95 5 28,406 47
Borensberg Ö 2,129 1,649 46.2 53.0 85 93 7 26,742 44
Borenshult 2,148 1,687 43.4 55.9 86 91 9 28,130 36
Brunnsvik 2,065 1,633 48.9 50.5 88 89 11 28,168 37
Bråstorp 1,981 1,526 43.5 56.1 83 88 12 27,310 38
Centrum 1,717 1,464 47.4 51.1 77 76 24 20,339 29
Charlottenborg 2,026 1,392 57.9 41.4 70 56 44 20,422 23
Ekenäs 1,623 1,138 54.1 44.1 70 64 36 20,932 26
Ekön 2,173 1,145 68.1 29.3 52 34 66 14,212 16
Fornåsa-Österstad 2,308 1,735 37.1 62.3 86 92 8 26,454 32
Fågelsta 1,272 984 39.1 60.2 83 92 8 26,794 28
Godegård 660 566 43.7 55.2 77 92 8 20,760 26
Holm 2,007 1,614 42.8 56.5 84 85 15 26,620 31
Hyddmarken 1,919 1,329 46.9 52.1 68 77 23 21,319 27
Marieberg V 1,638 1,294 45.6 53.5 84 83 17 26,381 38
Marieberg Ö 1,625 1,097 55.2 41.6 61 44 56 16,696 22
Mossen 2,007 1,632 42.7 56.9 79 82 18 24,766 30
Nykyrka 1,778 1,479 43.9 55.5 82 93 7 25,126 30
Samuelsberg 1,795 1,431 42.2 57.0 75 79 21 24,065 31
Söder 2,002 1,607 40.1 58.7 85 87 13 27,818 35
Tjällmo 1,123 917 41.2 57.3 81 93 7 23,391 25
Östermalm 1,680 1,342 45.4 53.7 81 89 11 26,144 37
Source: SVT
## Industry
The largest employer is the municipality itself, employing circa 3,400 people. The next is the county council with 1,775.
Of the private employers, Electrolux and Dometic have a total of 1,400; Autoliv 425; Hycop 325; Saab-Bofors Dynamics circa 300; And Motala Verkstad some 180. (source [1](https://web.archive.org/web/20051110035032/http://www.motala.se/templates/standardpage
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# Mormon (word)
The word ***Mormon*** most colloquially denotes an adherent, practitioner, follower, or constituent of Mormonism in restorationist Christianity. *Mormon* also commonly refers, specifically, to a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), which is often colloquially, but imprecisely, referred to as the *Mormon Church*. In addition, the term *Mormon* may refer to any of the relatively small sects of Mormon fundamentalism, and any branch of the Latter Day Saint movement that recognizes Brigham Young as the successor to founder Joseph Smith. The term *Mormon* applies to the religion of Mormonism, as well as its culture, texts, and art.
The term derives from the Book of Mormon, published in 1830 and regarded by the faith as a sacred text and supplemental testament to the Bible. Adherents believe that the book was translated from an ancient record by Smith by the gift and power of God. The text is said to be an ancient chronicle of a fallen and lost indigenous American nation, compiled by the prophet--historian and warrior, Mormon and his son, Moroni, the last of the Nephites.
The term *Mormon* was applied to members of the church Smith founded in the 1830s by those outside the faith due to early believers only calling themselves \"the Church of Christ\" and \"saints\", which was the same terminology used by the Campbellites only a few miles away. Therefore, like the Campbellites, the term \"Mormonite\" was applied to the new religious movement by outsiders to distinguish it from other Christian sects. The term \"Mormon\" was later embraced by members of the faith. Different denominations have made efforts in the years since to embrace the term \"Mormon\" as their own or distance themselves from it.
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# Mormon (word)
## Origin of the term {#origin_of_the_term}
The term *Mormon* is taken from the title of the Book of Mormon, a text adherents consider sacred and believe was translated from gold plates whose location was revealed by an angel to Joseph Smith and which was published in 1830. According to the text of the Book of Mormon, the word Mormon stems from the Land of Mormon,`{{BSN|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable ([[WP:NOTRS]]). It's a blog.|date=March 2023}}`{=mediawiki} where the prophet Alma preached the gospel and baptized converts. Mormon---who was named after the land---was a 4th-century prophet--historian who compiled and abridged many records of his ancestors into the Book of Mormon. The book is believed by Latter-day Saints to be a literal record of God\'s dealings with pre-Columbian civilizations in the Americas from approximately 2600 BC through AD 420, written by prophets and followers of Jesus Christ. The book records the teachings of Jesus Christ to the people in the Americas as well as Christ\'s personal ministry among the people of Nephi after his resurrection. The LDS Church teaches that the Book of Mormon is another witness of Jesus Christ, \"holy scripture comparable to the Bible\".
The terms *Mormonism*`{{BSN|reason=Appears to be Original Research|date=March 2023}}`{=mediawiki}and *Mormonite* were originally descriptive terms invented in 1831 by newspaper editors or contributors in Ohio and New York to describe the growing movement of \"proselytes of the Golden Bible\". Historian Ardis Parshall quotes an 1831 news item, appearing within the first year of the LDS Church\'s founding, as reading, \"In the sixth number of your paper I saw a notice of a sect of people called Mormonites; and thinking that a fuller history of their founder, Joseph Smith, Jr., might be interesting to your community \... I will take the trouble to make a few remarks on the character of that infamous imposter.\" The term *Mormon* developed as a shortened version of *Mormonite* a year or two later. By the 1840s the term was adopted by Mormon leaders to refer to themselves, though leaders occasionally used the term as early as 1833.`{{BSN|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable ([[WP:NOTRS]]). Appears to be original research.|date=March 2023}}`{=mediawiki} The term also started to be used pejoratively sometime before 1844`{{BSN|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable ([[WP:NOTRS]]). Appears to be original research|date=March 2023}}`{=mediawiki} with the coinage of the term Jack Mormon to describe non-Mormons sympathetic to the movement. Since that time the term *Mormon* has generally lost its pejorative status, as it became reappropriated. According to LDS Church historian Matthew Bowman, and by the end of the 1800s it was broadly used.
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# Mormon (word)
## Popular usage {#popular_usage}
Several schisms in the Latter Day Saint movement have resulted in dozens of denominations, each with their own preferred terminology. Today, the term *Mormon* is often used to refer to members of the largest denomination, the LDS Church, which rejects \"Mormon\" as a reference term as of 2018. The second-largest sect, the Community of Christ, also rejects the term \"Mormon\" due to its association with the practice of polygamy among Brighamite sects. Smaller sects often adopted the term, including adherents of Mormon fundamentalism. Due to the size and influence of the LDS Church, it tends to dominate discussions of how *Mormon* is used.
The term *Mormon* is frequently embraced by adherents of Mormon fundamentalism, who continue to believe in and practice plural marriage, and consider themselves to be the true successors of the LDS church or hide among the membership of the LDS church. Seeking to distance itself from polygamy and Mormon fundamentalism, prior to August 2018 the Church of Jesus Christ had taken the position that the term *Mormon* should only apply to itself and its members, and not other adherents who have adopted the term. It cited a now-obsolete *AP Stylebook* which stated, \"The term Mormon is not properly applied to the other Latter Day Saint churches that resulted from the split after \[Joseph\] Smith\'s death.\"
Despite the LDS Church requesting since August 2018 that all press and publications no longer refer to it as the Mormon Church or adherents as Mormons, the term is still in considerable use by journalists and non-journalists to refer to adherents of church and Mormon fundamentalists alike for brevity and due to their shared history of polygamy.
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# Mormon (word)
## Usage preferred by the LDS Church {#usage_preferred_by_the_lds_church}
The terminology preferred by the LDS Church has varied over time. At various points, the church has embraced the term *Mormon* and stated that other sects within the shared faith tradition should not be called Mormon. At other times, the church has rejected the term Mormon altogether except in extremely limited uses.
The LDS Church has made efforts, including in 1982, in 2001 prior to the 2002 Salt Lake City Olympics, in 2011 after *The Book of Mormon* appeared on Broadway, and again in 2018, to encourage the use of the church\'s full name rather than the terms Mormon or LDS.
Around 2010, the LDS Church and its members experienced a \"Mormon moment\" in which they were thrust into the national spotlight by Mitt Romney\'s 2008 and 2012 campaigns for President of the United States and the 2011 Broadway musical titled *The Book of Mormon*. Facing media attention and abundant negative stereotypes, the church actively fostered its \"Mormon\" nickname with a multinational *I\'m a Mormon* ad campaign (2010-2018), the film *Meet the Mormons* (2014), and websites like mormon.org and mormonandgay.org.
In 2018, the church reversed course again after Russell M. Nelson became church president. In August 2018, Nelson announced a renewed effort to discourage the use of the word \"Mormon\" in reference to itself and its members, saying that terms like \"Mormon Church\" offended Jesus and were a \"major victory for Satan\". The church followed up with a major renaming, with its websites at lds.org and mormon.org merged to a new website at churchofjesuschrist.org; the Mormon Tabernacle Choir becoming the Tabernacle Choir at Temple Square, and the church-affiliated publishing house Deseret Book began phasing out book titles that used the word \"Mormon\".
In 2018, the LDS Church published a style guide that encourages the use of the terms \"the Church,\" the \"Church of Jesus Christ\" or the \"restored Church of Jesus Christ\" as shortened versions after an initial use of the full name. According to church historian Bowman, \'the term \"restored\" refers to the idea that the original Christian religion is obsolete, and Mormons alone are practicing true Christianity.\' The 2018 style guide rejects the term Mormons along with \"Mormon Church\", \"Mormonism\", and the abbreviation LDS.
According to Patrick Mason, chair of Mormon studies at Claremont Graduate University and Richard Bennett, a professor of church history at Brigham Young University, this is because non-church members have historically been confused about whether it represents a Christian faith, which concerns church leaders, who want to emphasize that the church is a Christian church. The term Mormon also causes concern for church leaders because it has been used to include groups such as the Fundamentalist Latter Day Saints who continued to practice polygamy after the Second Manifesto of 1904. Mason said \"For more than 100 years, the mainstream LDS church has gone to great pains to distance itself from those who practice polygamy. It doesn\'t want to have any confusion there between those two groups.\"
In some countries, *Mormon* and some phrases including the term are registered trademarks owned by Intellectual Reserve, a holding company for the LDS Church\'s intellectual property. In the United States, the LDS Church has applied for a trademark on *Mormon* as applied to religious services; however, the United States Patent and Trademark Office rejected the application, stating that the term *Mormon* was too generic, and is popularly understood as referring to a particular kind of church, similar to *Presbyterian* or *Methodist*, rather than a service mark. The application was abandoned as of August 22, 2007. In all, Intellectual Reserve owns more than 60 trademarks related to the term *Mormon*.
Despite the LDS Church\'s position, the terms Mormon and LDS in 2023 remain widely used both inside and outside the church to refer to members of the main church and \"Fundamentalist Mormon\" or \"Fundamentalist LDS\" to refer to members of fundamentalist splinter groups.
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# Mormon (word)
## Scholarly usage {#scholarly_usage}
J. Gordon Melton, in his *Encyclopedia of American Religions*, subdivides the Mormons into *Utah Mormons*, *Missouri Mormons*, *Polygamy-Practicing Mormons*, and *Other Mormons*. In this scheme, the \"Utah Mormon\" group includes the non-polygamous organizations descending from those Mormons who followed Brigham Young to what is now Utah. The LDS Church is by far the largest of these groups, with a December 2022 membership count totaling 17,002,461 worldwide and the only group to initially reside in Utah.
The \"Missouri Mormon\" groups include those non-polygamous groups that chose not to travel to Utah and are currently headquartered in Missouri, which Joseph Smith designated as the future site of the New Jerusalem. These organizations include Community of Christ, Church of Christ (Temple Lot), Remnant Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, and others.
\"Polygamy-Practicing Mormon\" groups are those that currently practice polygamy, regardless of location. Most notably, this category includes the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS Church) and the Apostolic United Brethren (AUB).
\"Other Mormon\" groups include those that are not headquartered in Utah or Missouri and do not practice polygamy, such as The Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite) and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite).
The terms *Utah Mormon* and *Missouri Mormon* cannot be interpreted to mean more than the location of the various groups\' headquarters, as the majority of members of \"Utah Mormon\" groups and \"Missouri Mormon\" groups no longer live in either of these US states. Although a majority of Utahns are members of the LDS Church, it has a worldwide membership with the majority of its members outside the United States; and most \"Missouri Mormons\" do not live in Missouri.
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# Mormon (word)
## Meaning of the word {#meaning_of_the_word}
The May 15, 1843, issue of the official Latter Day Saint periodical *Times and Seasons* contains an article, purportedly written by Joseph Smith, deriving the etymology of the name *Mormon* from English \"more\" + Egyptian *mon*, \"good\", and extolling the meaning as follows:
> It has been stated that this word \[mormon\] was derived from the Greek word *mormo*. This is not the case. There was no Greek or Latin upon the plates from which I, through the grace of God, translated the Book of Mormon. Let the language of that book speak for itself. On the 523d page, of the fourth edition, it reads: And now behold we have written this record according to our knowledge in the characters which are called among us the *Reformed Egyptian* \... none other people knoweth our language; therefore \[God\] hath prepared means for the interpretation thereof.\" \... \[The\] Bible in its widest sense, means *good*; for the Savior says according to the gospel of John, \"I am the *good* shepherd;\" and it will not be beyond the common use of terms, to say that good is among the most important in use, and though known by various names in different languages, still its meaning is the same, and is ever in opposition to *bad*. We say from the Saxon, *good*; the Dane, *god*; the Goth, *goda*; the German, *gut*; the Dutch, *goed*; the Latin, *bonus*; the Greek, *kalos*; the Hebrew, *tob*; and the Egyptian, *mon*. Hence, with the addition of *more*, or the contraction, *mor*, we have the word MOR-MON; which means, literally, *more good*.
Whether Smith was the actual author of this passage is uncertain. Official LDS Church historian B. H. Roberts removed the quote from his *History of the Church* compilation, saying he found evidence that W. W. Phelps wrote that paragraph and that it was \"based on inaccurate premises and was offensively pedantic.\" LDS Church apostle Gordon B. Hinckley noted that the \"more good\" translation is incorrect but added that \"*Mormon* means \'more good\'\" is a positive motto for members of the LDS Church.
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# Mormon (word)
## Meaning of the word {#meaning_of_the_word}
### Meaning in the Book of Mormon {#meaning_in_the_book_of_mormon}
The Book of Mormon\'s title page begins, \"The Book of Mormon: An account written by the hand of Mormon\" (`{{Sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon (1981) |book=Introduction}}`{=mediawiki}). According to the book, Mormon compiled nearly 1000 years of writings as well as chronicled events during his lifetime. Most of the text of the Book of Mormon consists of this compilation and his own writings. However, the name *Mormon* is also used in the Book of Mormon as a place name (e.g. Waters of Mormon). `{{Sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon (1981) |book=Mormon|chapter= 1}}`{=mediawiki}:5 states, \"And I, Mormon, being a descendant of Nephi, (and my father\'s name was Mormon)\...\", whereas `{{Sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon (1981) |book=3 Nephi|chapter= 5}}`{=mediawiki}:12 states, \"And behold, I am called Mormon, being called after the land of Mormon, the land in which Alma did establish the church among the people yea, the first church which was established among them after their transgression.\" Based on these verses, Latter-day Saint scholar David Lamb interprets the name of the Book of Mormon to mean \"Book of the Restoration of the Covenant\":
> \[The prophet\] Mormon was not named after his father; he was named after the land of Mormon. He had been taught about his heritage by his parents and understood the sacred significance associated with the name Mormon. No doubt his father also bore the name Mormon for the same reason. In 3 Nephi 5:12 he gives us a clear indication that the name Mormon is symbolically synonymous with the restoration of the covenant which took place in the land of Mormon by Alma and his people.
>
> A study of the Introduction of the Book of Mormon tells us its main purpose is to restore a knowledge of the covenants to the house of Israel. This adds weight to the understanding that the name Mormon was always associated with the place of the restoration of the covenant to the Nephites. In fact, the name Mormon became synonymous with the concept of restoring the covenants.
>
> In light of this understanding, the Book of Mormon is not named for a man. It is named for the place where the covenant was restored. Symbolically, the Book of Mormon bears the name \'Book of the Restoration of the Covenant
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# Geography of Macau
\_\_NOTOC\_\_ `{{Geography of Macau}}`{=mediawiki} Macau is a Special Administrative Region on the southern coast of China. It is located at the south of Guangdong Province, on the tip of the peninsula formed by the Zhujiang (Pearl River) estuary on the east and the Xijiang (West River) on the west. Macau is situated 60 km west of Hong Kong, and 145 km southwest of Guangzhou, the capital of Guangdong Province. It is situated immediately east and south of Zhuhai.
The region comprises the Macau Peninsula and the islands of Taipa and Coloane. Macau was once an island but gradually a connecting sandbar turned into a narrow isthmus. Land reclamation in the 17th century made Macau into a peninsula, and a barrier gate was built to mark the separation between the peninsula and the mainland. Pre-colonial records show that Macau totalled only 2.78 km2 but began to increase as a result of Portuguese settlement. Land growth has accelerated since the last quarter of the 20th century, from 15 km2 in 1972 to 16.1 km2 in 1983 to 21.3 km2 in 1994. Macau\'s size has gradually increased as result of continued land reclamation, especially on Taipa and Coloane. In 2014, the total land area was approximately 30.3 km2.
There is a 0.34 km long border between Macau and mainland China and a forty-kilometre-long coastline. The main border crossing between Macau and China is the Portas do Cerco (Barrier Gate) Frontier Checkpoint on the Macau side, and the Gongbei checkpoint on the Chinese side.
## Location, size, border, and coastline {#location_size_border_and_coastline}
**Geographic coordinates:** 22 10 N 113 33 E type:country
### Area
- *Total:* 115.4 km^2^
- *Land:* 30.4 km^2^
- *Water:* 85 km^2^
### Land boundaries {#land_boundaries}
- *Total:* 0.34 km
- *Border city:* Zhuhai, Guangdong Province 0.34 km
### Coastline
- *Coastline:* 50.63 km
- *Maritime claims:* not specified
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# Geography of Macau
## Topography
**Location:** Eastern Asia, bordering the South China Sea and China
**Terrain:** generally flat\
**Elevation extremes:**\
*lowest point:* South China Sea 0 m\
*highest point:* Coloane Alto 172 m
### List of highest hills in Macau SAR {#list_of_highest_hills_in_macau_sar}
+------------------------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
| Name | Location | Notes | Height | Photo |
+====================================+==========+=======+========+=======+
| Alto de Coloane | Coloane\ | | 172.4m | |
+------------------------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
| Unnamed (Triangulation Pillar C6) | Coloane | | 170.3m | |
+------------------------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
| Unnamed (Triangulation Pillar C4) | Coloane | | 163.8m | |
+------------------------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
| Taipa Grande | Taipa | | 160.4m | |
+------------------------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
| Unnamed (Triangulation Pillar T16) | Taipa | | 152.9m | |
+------------------------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
| Ponto Central | Coloane | | 138.1m | |
+------------------------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
| Monte de Ka Ho | Coloane | | 132m | |
+------------------------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
| Unnamed (Triangulation Pillar C56) | Coloane | | 126m | |
+------------------------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
| Morro de Artilharia | Coloane | | 120m | |
+------------------------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
| Unnamed | Coloane | | 114.8m | |
+------------------------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
| Taipa Pequena | Taipa | | 112m | |
+------------------------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
| Unnamed (Triangulation Point C25) | Coloane | | 108.8m | |
+------------------------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
| Guia Hill | Macau | | 91.6m | |
+------------------------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
| Barra Hill | Macau | | 74.4m | |
+------------------------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
| Ilha Verde hill | Macau | | 54.5m | |
+------------------------------------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
Macau has generally flat terrain resulting from extensive land reclamation, but numerous steep hills mark the original natural land mass. The modern high-rise skyline of Macau obscures much of the hilly landscape. The Macau skyline both defines and obscures its topography.
The Macau Peninsula is narrow in shape but varies in terrain.
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# Geography of Macau
## Climate
Although Macau is located in the tropics, it has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification *Cwa*), because the Siberian pressure system in the winter pushes cool air further south than similar semipermanent permanent high pressure systems. Its average year-round temperature is 22.7 °C. Summers are very hot and humid: the July average temperature is 28.9 °C and the highest daytime temperature could reach 35 °C. However, the heat is generally less intense than many places in mainland China due to the coastal location. Winters are short and mild: the January average is 15.0 °C and the lowest temperature could drop to 5 °C, but very rarely any lower. There is about 2120 mm of rainfall annually, with drier winters.
Macau is exposed to tropical storms originating from the southern Pacific Ocean during the summer. Major destruction occurred in September 1874, when a devastating typhoon hit Macau and high seas swept across the low-lying area of the peninsula. There are always a few tropical storm occurrences in Macau each year (typically between May and October), although they vary in strengths. When they occur, they usually bring strong winds, rainfall and lower temperatures.
Prevailing winds and weather types change follow the monsoon pattern. It is warm and moist when the southeast and southwest winds are coming from the Pacific Ocean, and typhoons are relatively common during summertime. It is dry and slightly cold when the north winds are coming from Siberia or the northern part of mainland China.
During the transition period from northeast monsoon to southwest monsoon (March and April), the weather is moist and foggy. It is Macau\'s spring season. Summer is from May to September, when the southeast and southwest monsoon prevailing. It is rather hot and rainy. The weather in autumn (the end of September and October) is sunny and warm, when the southwest monsoon withdrawing gradually and the northeast monsoon advancing south. It is generally regarded as the most comfortable season there. Winter is from November to February next year, when the northeast monsoon prevailing. It is mainly dry, with occasional cold fronts arriving.
There are moderate to high levels of humidity year-round, with an annual average of 79.3%. Annual sunshine totals are moderate, at more than 1800 hours.
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# Geography of Macau
## Land use and reclamation {#land_use_and_reclamation}
Until early 20th century, the Macau peninsula was dotted with small farms on its northern area, beyond the walls protecting the city. Currently, in the Macau peninsula, no arable land, natural pastures or woodland exists and forests have been cleared and plant species have been subjected to profound changes. Coloane on the other hand, due to its later colonisation, still has its forests and is dotted with small farms, namely around the Coloane, Hac Sa and Ka Ho villages.
*arable land:* 0%\
*permanent crops:* 0%\
*other:* 100% (2011)
In 2010 plans were announced for an additional 3.5 square kilometres of land reclamation in Macau, to be carried out over five years and divided into six phases. These areas cover an area east of the Outer Harbour Ferry Terminal, an area south of Avenida Sun Yat Sen, and the north side of Taipa Island.
The change of total area of Macau (in km square) since the year of 1912:
Note
: \* - not included in \"Total area of Macau\"
Year Area of Macau Peninsula Area of Taipa Area of Coloane Area of Cotai Total area of Macau Area of UM Hengqin\*
-------------- ------------------------- --------------- ----------------- --------------- --------------------- ----------------------
1912 3.4\* 2.3 5.9 --- 11.6 ---
1936 5.2 2.6 6.0 --- 13.8 ---
1957 5.5 3.3 6.3 --- 15.1 ---
1986 5.8 3.7 7.1 --- 16.6 ---
1991 6.5 4.0 7.6 --- 18.1 ---
1996 7.7 5.8 7.6 --- 21.3 ---
1999 7.8 6.2 7.6 2.2 23.8 ---
2000 8.5 6.2 7.6 3.1 25.4 ---
2001 8.5 6.2 7.6 3.5 25.8 ---
2002 8.5 6.2 7.6 4.5 26.8 ---
2003 8.7 6.2 7.6 4.7 27.3 ---
2004 8.8 6.4 7.6 4.7 27.5 ---
2005 8.9 6.5 7.6 5.2 28.2 ---
2006 9.3 6.5 7.6 5.2 28.6 ---
2007--08 9.3 6.7 7.6 5.6 29.2 ---
2009 9.3 6.8 7.6 5.8 29.5 ---
2010 9.3 6.8 7.6 6.0\* 29.7 ---
2011--12 9.3 7.4 7.6 5.6 29.9 ---
2013--14 9.3 7.6 7.6 5.8 30.3 1.0
2015 (Sept.) 9.3 7.6 7.6 5.9 30.4 1.0
## Environmental factors {#environmental_factors}
Dense urban environment.
**Geography -- note:** essentially urban; three bridges connect the two islands of Coloane and Taipa to the peninsula on mainland, and an isthmus connects Coloane and Taipa
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# Politics of Macau
**Politics of Macau** is a framework of a politically constrained multi-party presidential system, dominated by the People\'s Republic of China. It includes the legislature, the judiciary, the government, and a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government, led by the Chief Executive.
## Constitutional role of Macau {#constitutional_role_of_macau}
In accordance with Article 31 of the Constitution of the People\'s Republic of China, Macau has Special Administrative Region status, which provides constitutional guarantees for implementing the policy of \"one country, two systems\" and the constitutional basis for enacting the Basic Law of the Macau Special Administrative Region. Although geographically part of Guangdong Province, the Macau Special Administrative Region is directly under the authority of the central government of the People\'s Republic of China in Beijing, which controls the foreign affairs and defence of Macau but otherwise grants the region \"a high degree of authority.\" The Basic Law took force upon handover of sovereignty from Portugal on 20 December 1999, and is to remain in effect for fifty years (that is, until 2049).
Macau\'s seven deputies to the National People\'s Congress (NPC) are selected by an electoral conference; they attended their first session of the NPC in Beijing in March 2000. Previously, in December 1999, the NPC Standing Committee approved the membership of the NPC Committee for the Basic Law of the Macau Special Administrative Region, chaired by NPC Vice Chairman Qiao Xiaoyang, for a five-year term. Half of the ten members are from Macau, the others from mainland China. Macau also has representation on the National Committee of the Chinese People\'s Political Consultative Conference.
Relations between the government of Macau and China\'s central government are typically congenial.
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