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[
[
"Karl Amadeus Hartmann"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Karl Amadeus Hartmann''' (2 August 1905 – 5 December 1963) was a German composer.",
"Sometimes described as the greatest German symphonist of the 20th century, he is now largely overlooked, particularly in English-speaking countries."
],
[
"Life",
"Born in Munich, the son of Friedrich Richard Hartmann, and the youngest of four brothers of whom the elder three became painters, Hartmann was himself torn, early in his career, between music and the visual arts.",
"He was much affected in his early political development by the events of the unsuccessful Workers’ Revolution in Bavaria that followed the collapse of the German empire at the end of World War I (see Bavarian Soviet Republic).",
"He remained an idealistic socialist for the rest of his life.At the Munich Academy in the 1920s, Hartmann studied with Joseph Haas, a pupil of Max Reger, and later received intellectual stimulus and encouragement from the conductor Hermann Scherchen, an ally of the Schoenberg school, with whom he had a nearly lifelong mentor-protégé relationship.",
"He voluntarily withdrew completely from musical life in Germany during the Nazi era, while remaining in Germany, and refused to allow his works to be played there.",
"An early symphonic poem, ''Miserae'' (1933–1934, first performed in Prague, 1935) was condemned by the Nazi regime but his work continued to be performed, and his fame grew, abroad.",
"A number of Hartmann's compositions show the profound effect of the political climate.",
"His ''Miserae'' (1933–34) was dedicated to his 'friends...who sleep for all eternity; we do not forget you (Dachau, 1933–34)', referring to Dachau Concentration Camp, and was condemned by the Nazis.",
"His piano sonata ''27 April 1945'' portrays 20,000 prisoners from Dachau whom Hartmann witnessed being led away from Allied forces at the end of the war.During World War II, though already an experienced composer, Hartmann submitted to a course of private tuition in Vienna by Schoenberg’s pupil Anton Webern (with whom he often disagreed on a personal and political level).",
"Although stylistically their music had little in common, he clearly felt that he needed, and benefited from, Webern's acute perfectionism.After the fall of Adolf Hitler, Hartmann was one of the few prominent surviving anti-fascists in Bavaria whom the postwar Allied administration could appoint to a position of responsibility.",
"In 1945, he became a ''dramaturge'' at the Bavarian State Opera and there, as one of the few internationally recognized figures who had survived untainted by any collaboration with the Nazi regime, he became a vital figure in the rebuilding of (West) German musical life.",
"Perhaps his most notable achievement was the Musica Viva concert series, which he founded and ran for the rest of his life in Munich.",
"Beginning in November 1945, the concerts reintroduced the German public to 20th-century repertoire, which had been banned since 1933 under National Socialist aesthetic policy.",
"Hartmann also provided a platform for the music of young composers in the late 1940s and early 1950s, helping to establish such figures as Hans Werner Henze, Luigi Nono, Luigi Dallapiccola, Carl Orff, Iannis Xenakis, Olivier Messiaen, Luciano Berio, Bernd Alois Zimmermann and many others.",
"Hartmann also involved sculptors and artists such as Jean Cocteau, Le Corbusier, and Joan Miró in exhibitions at Musica Viva.He was accorded numerous honours after the war, including the Musikpreis of the city of Munich in March 1949.This was followed by the Kunstpreis of the Bayerische Akademie der Schönen Künste (1950), the Arnold Schönberg Medal of the IGNM (1954), the Große Kunstpreis of the Land Nordrhein-Westfalen (1957), as well as the Ludwig Spohr Award of the city of Braunschweig, the Schwabing Kunstpreis (1961) and the Bavarian Medal of Merit (1959).",
"Hartmann became a member of the Academy of Arts in Munich (1952) and Berlin (1955) and received an honorary doctorate from Spokane Conservatory, Washington (1962).",
"His socialist sympathies did not extend to the Soviet Union's variety of communism, and in the 1950s, he refused an offer to move to East Germany.Hartmann continued to base his activities in Munich for the remainder of his life, and his administrative duties came to absorb much of his time and energy.",
"This reduced his time for composition, and his last years were dogged by serious illness.",
"In 1963, he died of stomach cancer at the age of 58, leaving his last work – an extended symphonic ''Gesangsszene'' for voice and orchestra on words from Jean Giraudoux’s apocalyptic drama ''Sodom and Gomorrah'' – unfinished."
],
[
"Output and style",
"Hartmann completed a number of works, most notably eight symphonies.",
"The first of these, and perhaps emblematic of the difficult genesis of many of his works, is Symphony No.",
"1, ''Essay for a Requiem'' (''Versuch eines Requiems'').",
"It began in 1936 as a cantata for alto solo and orchestra loosely based on a few poems by Walt Whitman.",
"It soon became known as ''Our Life: Symphonic Fragment'' (''Unser Leben: Symphonisches Fragment'') and was intended as a comment on the generally miserable conditions for artists and liberal-minded people under the early Nazi regime.",
"After the defeat of the Third Reich in World War II, the regime's real victims had become clear, and the cantata's title was changed to ''Symphonic Fragment: Attempt at a Requiem'' to honor the millions killed in the Holocaust.",
"Hartmann revised the work in 1954–55 as his Symphony No.",
"1, and published it in 1956.As this example indicates, he was a highly self-critical composer and many of his works went through successive stages of revision.",
"He also suppressed most of his substantial orchestral works of the late 1930s and the war years, either allowing them to remain unpublished or, in several cases, reworking them – or portions of them – into the series of numbered symphonies that he produced in the late 1940s and early 1950s.Perhaps the most frequently performed of his symphonies are No.",
"4, for strings, and No.",
"6; probably his most widely known work, through performances and recordings, is his Concerto funebre for violin and strings, composed at the beginning of World War II and making use of a Hussite chorale and a Russian revolutionary song of 1905.Hartmann attempted a synthesis of many different idioms, including musical expressionism and jazz stylization, into organic symphonic forms in the tradition of Bruckner and Mahler.",
"His early works are both satirical and politically engaged.",
"But he admired the polyphonic mastery of J.S.",
"Bach, the profound expressive irony of Mahler, and the neoclassicism of Igor Stravinsky and Paul Hindemith.",
"In the 1930s he developed close ties with Béla Bartók and Zoltán Kodály in Hungary, and this is reflected in his music to some extent.",
"In the 1940s, he began to take an interest in Schoenbergian twelve-tone technique; though he studied with Webern his own idiom was closer to Alban Berg.",
"In the 1950s, Hartmann started to explore the metrical techniques pioneered by Boris Blacher and Elliott Carter.",
"Among his most-used forms are three-part adagio slow movements, fugues, variations and toccatas."
],
[
"Reputation and legacy",
"Significantly, championed his music following his death: Scherchen, his most noted advocate, died in 1966.Some have suggested that this accelerated the disappearance of Hartmann's music from public view in the years following his death.",
"Conductors who regularly performed Hartmann's music include Rafael Kubelik and Ferdinand Leitner, who recorded the third and sixth symphonies.",
"More recent champions of works by Hartmann include Ingo Metzmacher and Mariss Jansons.Hans Werner Henze said of Hartmann's music: Symphonic architecture was essential for him... as a suitable medium for reflecting the world as he experienced and understood it – as an agonizingly dramatic battle, as contradiction and conflict – in order to be able to achieve self-realization in its dialectic and to portray himself as a man among men, a man of this world, and not out of this world.The English composer John McCabe wrote his ''Variations on a Theme of Karl Amadeus Hartmann'' (1964) in tribute.",
"It uses the opening of Hartmann's Fourth Symphony as its theme.",
"Henze made a version of Hartmann's Piano Sonata No.",
"2 for full orchestra."
],
[
"List of works",
"===Operas===* ''Wachsfigurenkabinett'', five short operas (1929–30; three not completed), libretti by Erich Bormann** ''Das Leben und Sterben des heiligen Teufels''** ''Der Mann, der vom Tode auferstand'' (unfinished; completed by Günter Bialas and Hans Werner Henze)** ''Chaplin-Ford-Trott'', 'scenic jazz cantata' (unfinished; completed by Wilfried Hiller)** ''Fürwahr?''",
"(unfinished; completed by Henze)** ''Die Witwe von Ephesus''* ''Des Simplicius Simplicissimus Jugend'' (1934–35; revised 1956–57 as ''Simplicius Simplicissimus''), libretto by Hermann Scherchen, Wolfgang Petzer and Hartmann after Jakob von Grimmelhausen===Symphonic works===(i) Up to 1945 – mostly later suppressed* ''Miserae'', Symphonic Poem (1933–4)* Symphony ''L'Oeuvre'' (1937–38; material re-used in Symphony No.",
"6)* Symphonic Concerto for string orchestra and soprano (1938; later partly used in Symphony No.",
"4)* ''Sinfonia Tragica'' (1940, rev.",
"1943; first movement re-used in Symphony No.",
"3)* ''Symphoniae Drammaticae'' (1941–43), consisting of:** Overture ''China kampft'' (1942, rev.",
"1962 as Symphonische Ouvertüre)** Symphonische Hymnen (1941–43)** Symphonic Suite ''Vita Nova'' for reciter and orchestra (1941–42, unfinished)* ''Adagio'' for large orchestra (1940–44, revised as Symphony No.",
"2)* Symphony ''Klagegesang'' (1944; portions re-used in Symphony No.",
"3)(ii) After 1945* Symphony No.",
"1, ''Versuch eines Requiems'' for alto and orchestra (1955) – revised version of ''Symphonisches Fragment'' (on texts by Walt Whitman)* Symphony No.",
"2 (1946) – revised version of ''Adagio''* Symphony No.",
"3 (1948–49) – adapted from portions of Symphony ''Klagegesang'' and ''Sinfonia Tragica''* Symphony No.",
"4 for string orchestra (1947–48) – adapted from Symphonic Concerto for strings* Symphony No.",
"5, ''Symphonie concertante'' (1950) – adapted from Concerto for wind and double basses* Symphony No.",
"6 (1951–53) – adapted from Symphony ''L'Oeuvre''* Symphony No.",
"7 (1957–58)* Symphony No.",
"8 (1960–62)===Concertos===* ''Lied'' for trumpet and wind instruments (1932)* Concerto for wind instruments and solo trumpet (1933); recomposed as Concerto for wind instruments and double basses (1948–9), whence Symphony No.5* Cello Concerto (1933, lost, probably unfinished)* Symphonie-Divertissement for bassoon, tenor trombone, double bass and chamber orchestra (c. 1934, unfinished)* Kammerkonzert for clarinet, string quartet and string orchestra (1930–35)* ''Concerto funebre'' for violin and string orchestra (1939, rev.",
"1959) (originally entitled ''Musik der Trauer'')* Concerto for piano, wind instruments and percussion (1953)* Concerto for viola, piano, wind instruments and percussion (1954–6)===Vocal works===* Cantata (1929) for 6-part a cappella choir on texts by Johannes R. Becher and Karl Marx* ''Profane Messe'' (1929) for a cappella chorus on a text by Max See* Kantate for soprano and orchestra on texts by Walt Whitman (1936); later retitled ''Lamento'' and in 1938 revised as Symphonisches Fragment, whence Symphony No.1* ''Friede Anno '48'' (1936–37) for soprano solo, mixed chorus and piano; revised 1955 as ''Lamento'' for soprano and piano* ''Gesangsszene'' (1962–63) for baritone and orchestra on a text from ''Sodom and Gomorrah'' by Jean Giraudoux===Chamber and instrumental===* 2 Kleine Suiten for piano (c. 1924–6)* 2 Sonatas for unaccompanied violin (1927)* 2 Suites for Unaccompanied violin (1927)* Jazz Toccata and Fugue for piano (1927–8)* ''Tanzsuite'' for clarinet, bassoon, horn, trumpet and trombone (1931)* ''Kleines Konzert'' for string quartet and percussion (1932)* ''Burleske Musik'' for wind instruments, percussion and piano (1931)* Sonatina for piano (1931)* ''Toccata variata'' for wind instruments, piano and percussion (1931–2)* Piano Sonata No.1 (1932)* String Quartet No.1, ''Carillon'' (1933)* Piano Sonata No.2, ''27.IV.45'' (1945)* String Quartet No.2 (1945–6)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"*'' The Lebrecht Weekly''"
],
[
"External links",
"* Comprehensive website with biography, chronology and works* Text about K. A. Hartmann* Biography at Schott Music"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kami"
],
[
"Introduction",
" are the deities, divinities, spirits, mythological, spiritual, or natural phenomena that are venerated in the Shinto religion.",
"They can be elements of the landscape, forces of nature, beings and the qualities that these beings express, and/or the spirits of venerated dead people.",
"Many ''kami'' are considered the ancient ancestors of entire clans (some ancestors became ''kami'' upon their death if they were able to embody the values and virtues of ''kami'' in life).",
"Traditionally, great leaders like the Emperor could be or became ''kami''.In Shinto, ''kami'' are not separate from nature, but are of nature, possessing positive and negative, and good and evil characteristics.",
"They are manifestations of , the interconnecting energy of the universe, and are considered exemplary of what humanity should strive towards.",
"''Kami'' are believed to be \"hidden\" from this world, and inhabit a complementary existence that mirrors our own: .",
"To be in harmony with the awe-inspiring aspects of nature is to be conscious of ."
],
[
"Meaning",
"Amaterasu, one of the central ''kami'' in the Shinto faith''Kami'' is the Japanese word for a deity, divinity, or spirit.",
"It has been used to describe mind, God, Supreme Being, one of the Shinto deities, an effigy, a principle, and anything that is worshipped.Although ''deity'' is the common interpretation of ''kami'', some Shinto scholars argue that such a translation can cause a misunderstanding of the term.Some etymological suggestions are:* ''Kami'' may, at its root, simply mean ''spirit'', or an aspect of spirituality.",
"It is written with the kanji , Sino-Japanese reading ''shin'' or ''jin''.",
"In Chinese, the character means ''deity'' or ''spirit''.",
"* In the Ainu language, the word ''kamuy'' refers to an animistic concept very similar to Japanese ''kami''.",
"The matter of the words' origins is still a subject of debate; but it is generally suggested that the word ''kami'' was derived from Ainu word ''kamuy''.",
"* In his , Motoori Norinaga gave a definition of ''kami'': \"any being whatsoever which possesses some eminent quality out of the ordinary, and is awe-inspiring, is called kami.",
"\"Because Japanese does not normally distinguish grammatical number in nouns (most do not have singular and plural forms), it is sometimes unclear whether ''kami'' refers to a single or multiple entities.",
"When a singular concept is needed, is used as a suffix.",
"The reduplicated term generally used to refer to multiple ''kami'' is ''kamigami''."
],
[
"History",
"While Shinto has no founder, no overarching doctrine, and no religious texts, the (Records of Ancient Matters), written in 712 CE, and the (Chronicles of Japan), written in 720 CE, contain the earliest record of Japanese creation myths.",
"The also includes descriptions of various ''kami''.In the ancient traditions there were five defining characteristics of ''kami'':# ''Kami'' are of two minds.",
"They can nurture and love when respected, or they can cause destruction and disharmony when disregarded.",
"''Kami'' must be appeased in order to gain their favor and avoid their wrath.",
"Traditionally, ''kami'' possess two souls, one gentle (''nigi-mitama'') and the other assertive (''ara-mitama''); additionally, in ''Yamakage Shinto'' (see ''Ko-Shintō''), ''kami'' have two additional souls that are hidden: one happy (''saki-mitama'') and one mysterious (''kushi-mitama'').# ''Kami'' are not visible to the human realm.",
"Instead, they inhabit sacred places, natural phenomena, or people during rituals that ask for their blessing.# They are mobile, visiting their places of worship, of which there can be several, but never staying forever.# There are many different varieties of ''kami''.",
"There are 300 different classifications of ''kami'' listed in the , and they all have different functions, such as the ''kami'' of wind, ''kami'' of entryways, and ''kami'' of roads.# Lastly, all ''kami'' have a different guardianship or duty to the people around them.",
"Just as the people have an obligation to keep the ''kami'' happy, the ''kami'' have to perform the specific function of the object, place, or idea they inhabit.",
"''Kami'' are an ever-changing concept, but their presence in Japanese life has remained constant.",
"The ''kami's'' earliest roles were as earth-based spirits, assisting the early hunter-gatherer groups in their daily lives.",
"They were worshipped as gods of the earth (mountains) and sea.",
"As the cultivation of rice became increasingly important and predominant in Japan, the ''kami's'' identity shifted to more sustaining roles that were directly involved in the growth of crops; roles such as rain, earth, and rice.",
"This relationship between early Japanese people and the ''kami'' was manifested in rituals and ceremonies meant to entreat the ''kami'' to grow and protect the harvest.",
"These rituals also became a symbol of power and strength for the early Emperors.There is a strong tradition of myth-histories in the Shinto faith; one such myth details the appearance of the first emperor, grandson of the Sun Goddess Amaterasu.",
"In this myth, when Amaterasu sent her grandson to earth to rule, she gave him five rice grains, which had been grown in the fields of heaven (Takamagahara).",
"This rice made it possible for him to transform the \"wilderness\".Social and political strife have played a key role in the development of new sorts of ''kami'', specifically the ''goryō-shin'' (the sacred spirit ''kami'').",
"''Goryō'' are the vengeful spirits of the dead whose lives were cut short, but they were calmed by the devotion of Shinto followers and are now believed to punish those who do not honor the ''kami''.The pantheon of ''kami'', like the ''kami'' themselves, is forever changing in definition and scope.",
"As the needs of the people have shifted, so too have the domains and roles of the various ''kami''.",
"Some examples of this are related to health, such as the ''kami'' of smallpox whose role was expanded to include all contagious diseases, or the ''kami'' of boils and growths who has also come to preside over cancers and cancer treatments.In ancient animistic Japanese belief, ''kami'' were understood as simply the divine forces of nature.",
"Worshippers in ancient Japan revered ''kami'' of nature which exhibited a particular beauty and power such as ghosts, the ocean, the sun, waterfalls, mountains, boulders, animals, trees, grasses, rice paddies, thunder, echoes, foxes and fox spirits, and Asian dragons.",
"They strongly believed the spirits or resident ''kami'' deserved respect.In 927 CE, the was promulgated in fifty volumes.",
"This, the first formal codification of Shinto rites and ''norito'' (liturgies and prayers) to survive, became the basis for all subsequent Shinto liturgical practice and efforts.",
"It listed all of the 2,861 Shinto shrines existing at the time, and the 3,131 official-recognized and enshrined ''kami''.",
"The number of ''kami'' has grown and far exceeded this figure through the following generations as there are over 2,446,000 individual ''kami'' enshrined in Tokyo's Yasukuni Shrine alone."
],
[
"Shinto belief",
"''Kami'' are the central objects of worship for the Shinto belief.",
"The ancient animistic spirituality of Japan was the beginning of modern Shinto, which became a formal spiritual institution later, in an effort to preserve the traditional beliefs from the encroachment of imported religious ideas.",
"As a result, the nature of what can be called ''kami'' is very general and encompasses many different concepts and phenomena.Some of the objects or phenomena designated as ''kami'' are qualities of growth, fertility, and production; natural phenomena like wind and thunder; natural objects like the sun, mountains, rivers, trees, and rocks; some animals; and ancestral spirits.",
"Included within the designation of ancestral spirits are spirits of the ancestors of the Imperial House of Japan, but also ancestors of noble families as well as the spirits of the ancestors of all people, which when they died were believed to be the guardians of their descendants.There are other spirits designated as ''kami'' as well.",
"For example, the guardian spirits of the land, occupations, and skills; spirits of Japanese heroes, men of outstanding deeds or virtues, and those who have contributed to civilization, culture, and human welfare; those who have died for the state or the community; and the pitiable dead.",
"Not only spirits superior to man can be considered ''kami''; spirits that are considered pitiable or weak have also been considered ''kami'' in Shinto.The concept of ''kami'' has been changed and refined since ancient times, although anything that was considered to be ''kami'' by ancient people will still be considered ''kami'' in modern Shinto.",
"Even within modern Shinto, there are no clearly defined criteria for what should or should not be worshipped as kami.",
"The difference between modern Shinto and the ancient animistic religions is mainly a refinement of the ''kami''-concept, rather than a difference in definitions.Although the ancient designations are still adhered to, in modern Shinto many priests also consider ''kami'' to be anthropomorphic spirits, with nobility and authority.",
"One such example is the mythological figure Amaterasu-ōmikami, the sun goddess of the Shinto pantheon.",
"Although these ''kami'' can be considered deities, they are not necessarily considered omnipotent or omniscient, and like the Greek Gods, they had flawed personalities and were quite capable of ignoble acts.",
"In the myths of Amaterasu, for example, she could see the events of the human world, but had to use divination rituals to see the future.There are considered to be three main variations of ''kami'': , , and .",
"(\"\" literally means eight million, but idiomatically it expresses \"uncountably many\" and \"all-around\"—like many East Asian cultures, the Japanese often use the number 8, representing the cardinal and ordinal directions, to symbolize ubiquity.)",
"These classifications of ''kami'' are not considered strictly divided, due to the fluid and shifting nature of ''kami'', but are instead held as guidelines for grouping them.The ancestors of a particular family can also be worshipped as ''kami''.",
"In this sense, these ''kami'' are worshipped not because of their godly powers, but because of a distinctive quality or virtue.",
"These ''kami'' are celebrated regionally, and several miniature shrines (''hokora'') have been built in their honor.",
"In many cases, people who once lived are thus revered; an example of this is Tenjin, who was Sugawara no Michizane (845–903 CE) in life.Within Shinto it is believed that the nature of life is sacred because the ''kami'' began human life.",
"Yet people cannot perceive this divine nature, which the kami created, on their own; therefore, , or purification, is necessary in order to see the divine nature.",
"This purification can only be granted by the ''kami''.",
"In order to please the ''kami'' and earn ''magokoro'', Shinto followers are taught to uphold the four affirmations of Shinto.The first affirmation is to hold fast to tradition and the family.",
"Family is seen as the main mechanism by which traditions are preserved.",
"For instance, in marriage or birth, tradition is potentially observed and passed onto future generations.",
"The second affirmation is to have a love of nature.",
"Nature objects are worshipped as sacred because the ''kami'' inhabit them.",
"Therefore, to be in contact with nature means to be in contact with the gods.",
"The third affirmation is to maintain physical cleanliness.",
"Followers of Shinto take baths, wash their hands, and rinse out their mouths often.",
"The last affirmation is to practice matsuri, which is the worship and honor given to the ''kami'' and ancestral spirits.Shinto followers also believe that the ''kami'' are the ones who can either grant blessings or curses to a person.",
"Shinto believers desire to appease the evil kami to \"stay on their good side\", and also to please the good ''kami''.",
"In addition to practicing the four affirmations daily, Shinto believers also wear ''omamori'' to aid them in remaining pure and protected.",
"Mamori are charms that keep the evil ''kami'' from striking a human with sickness or causing disaster to befall them.The ''kami'' are both worshipped and respected within the religion of Shinto.",
"The goal of life to Shinto believers is to obtain ''magokoro'', a pure sincere heart, which can only be granted by the ''kami''.",
"As a result, Shinto followers are taught that humankind should venerate both the living and the nonliving, because both possess a divine superior spirit within: the ''kami''.=== Amatsukami and Kunitsukami ===Amatsukami and Kunitsukami are categories of kami in Japanese mythology.Amatsugami is a generic term for the gods in Takamagahara or those who descended from Tenson kōrin, while Kunitsugami is a generic term for the gods who appeared on the earth (Ashihara no Nakatsukuni).In Japanese mythology, the acceptance of the transfer of the land (Ashihara no Nakatsukuni) by the Kunitsugami to the Amatsu deities led by Ninigi is described as Kuni Yuzuri.",
"It is thought that the deity worshipped by the people of the region (Emishi, Hayato, etc.)",
"who were pacified by the Yamato Kingship became the Kunitsugami, and the deity worshipped by the imperial family and powerful clans of the Yamato Kingship became the Amatsukami.",
"Many of the original traditions of the Kunitsugami were altered when they were incorporated into the Chronicles, and many of them have not survived.The Chronicles of Japan cites certain passages (e.g., \"Ichi Sho Saying\" and \"Aru Hon Yun\" in most volumes of the Nihon Shoki), but the original recorded documents have been lost in later generations.",
"''Tsu'' is a case particle in Old Japanese, meaning \"god of heaven\" or \"god of the country\" in modern Japanese.",
"Sometimes written \"Amatsugami\" or \"Kunitsugami.Amatsugami are also called Tenjin, and Kunitsukami are called .",
"Some people believe that the names \"\" and \"\" are derived from the Chinese classics.",
"The different theory that the concept is completely different and different from the Japanese one has been presented.Another similar concept is .",
"(Tenchi-Shinmei) is a Japanese four-character idiom that refers to the gods of heaven and earth.",
"It is used in expressions such as \"I swear by the gods of heaven and earth\" and conveys a sense of reverence and commitment.",
"The origins of the term can be traced back to ancient Chinese classical texts, where the expression \"\" (Tenchi) and \"\" (Shinmei) were often used together to refer to the gods of heaven and earth, or to the gods and the universe as a whole.",
"However, there are also instances where the expression was used to refer specifically to the gods of heaven and earth.",
"In Japan, the term has been in use for centuries and is often associated with the image of the numerous gods and deities that have been worshipped in Japanese folklore and mythology.Susanoo-no-Mikoto, who was cast out of Takamagahara, and his descendants, such as Ōkuninushi, are considered to be Kunitsugami.",
"proposed a system justifying Japanese Imperialism where Japanese people in the colonies were seen as Amatsukami and natives were seen as Kunitsukami, however he was later censored as his position was considered too supportive of the rights of colonized peoples."
],
[
"Ceremonies and festivals",
"One of the first recorded rituals we know of is , the ceremony in which the Emperor offers newly harvested rice to the ''kami'' to secure their blessing for a bountiful harvest.",
"A yearly festival, Niiname-sai, is also performed when a new Emperor comes to power, in which case it is called .",
"In the ceremony, the Emperor offers crops from the new harvest to the ''kami'', including rice, fish, fruits, soup, and stew.",
"The Emperor first feasts with the deities, then the guests.",
"The feast could go on for some time; for example, Emperor Shōwa's feast spanned two days.Itsukushima Shinto Shrine, Miyajima Island, Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan.",
"This shrine is believed to be where the ''kami'' dwell, and hosts many ceremonies and festivals.Visitors to a Shinto shrine follow a purification ritual before presenting themselves to the ''kami''.",
"This ritual begins with hand washing and swallowing and later spitting a small amount of water in front of the shrine to purify the body, heart, and mind.",
"Once this is complete they turn their focus to gaining the ''kami's'' attention.",
"The traditional method of doing this is to bow twice, clap twice and bow again, alerting the ''kami'' to their presence and desire to commune with them.",
"During the last bow, the supplicant offers words of gratitude and praise to the ''kami''; if they are offering a prayer for aid they will also state their name and address.",
"After the prayer and/or worship they repeat the two bows, two claps and a final bow in conclusion.Shinto practitioners also worship at home.",
"This is done at a ''kamidana'' (household shrine), on which an ''ofuda'' with the name of their protector or ancestral ''kami'' is positioned.",
"Their protector ''kami'' is determined by their or their ancestors' relationship to the ''kami''.Ascetic practices, shrine rituals and ceremonies, and Japanese festivals are the most public ways that Shinto devotees celebrate and offer adoration for the ''kami''.",
"''Kami'' are celebrated during their distinct festivals that usually take place at the shrines dedicated to their worship.",
"Many festivals involve believers, who are usually intoxicated, parading, sometimes running, toward the shrine while carrying mikoshi (portable shrines) as the community gathers for the festival ceremony.",
"Yamamoto Guji, the high priest at the Tsubaki Grand Shrine, explains that this practice honors the ''kami'' because \"it is in the festival, the matsuri, the greatest celebration of life can be seen in the world of Shinto and it is the people of the community who attend festivals as groups, as a whole village who are seeking to unlock the human potential as children of kami\".",
"During the New Year Festival, families purify and clean their houses in preparation for the upcoming year.",
"Offerings are also made to the ancestors so that they will bless the family in the future year.Shinto ceremonies are so long and complex that in some shrines it can take ten years for the priests to learn them.",
"The priesthood was traditionally hereditary.",
"Some shrines have drawn their priests from the same families for over a hundred generations.",
"It is not uncommon for the clergy to be female priestesses.",
"The priests (''kannushi'') may be assisted by ''miko'', young unmarried women acting as shrine maidens.",
"Neither priests nor priestesses live as ascetics; in fact, it is common for them to be married, and they are not traditionally expected to meditate.",
"Rather, they are considered specialists in the arts of maintaining the connection between the ''kami'' and the people.In addition to these festivals, ceremonies marking rites of passage are also performed within the shrines.",
"Two such ceremonies are the birth of a child and the Shichi-Go-San.",
"When a child is born they are brought to a shrine so that they can be initiated as a new believer and the ''kami'' can bless them and their future life.",
"The Shichi-Go-San (the Seven-Five-Three) is a rite of passage for five-year-old boys and three- or seven-year-old girls.",
"It is a time for these young children to personally offer thanks for the ''kami's'' protection and to pray for continued health.Many other rites of passage are practiced by Shinto believers, and there are also many other festivals.",
"The main reason for these ceremonies is so that Shinto followers can appease the ''kami'' in order to reach ''magokoro''.",
"''Magokoro'' can only be received through the ''kami''.",
"Ceremonies and festivals are long and complex because they need to be perfect to satisfy the ''kami''.",
"If the ''kami'' are not pleased with these ceremonies, they will not grant a Shinto believer ''magokoro''."
],
[
"Notable kami",
"* Amaterasu Ōmikami, the sun goddess and chief deity of Shinto* Ebisu, one of seven gods of fortune* Fūjin, the god of wind* Hachiman, the god of war* Junshi, the god of provocation * Inari Ōkami, the god of rice and agriculture* Izanagi-no-Mikoto, the first man* Izanami-no-Mikoto, the first woman* Kotoamatsukami, the primary kami trinity* Meiji Tennō* Omoikane, the deity of wisdom* Raijin, the god of lightning, thunder and storms* Ryūjin, the Japanese dragon god of sea and storms* Sarutahiko Ōkami, the kami of earth* Susanoo-no-Mikoto, the god of the sea and storms* Tenjin, the poetry god* Tsukuyomi-no-Mikoto, the moon god* Yamato Iware-biko no Mikoto, Japanese emperors"
],
[
"In popular culture"
],
[
"See also",
"* * * Glossary of Shinto* * * * * * *"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*Chamberlain, Basil H. (translated by).",
"1919.",
"''The Kojiki, Records of Ancient Matters''.",
"Asiatic Society of Japan.",
"*Clarke, Roger.",
"2000.\"\".",
"''The Independent''.",
"7 April 2000.",
"*Fisher, Mary P. 2008.Living Religions seventh edition."
],
[
"External links",
"* Introduction: Kami , Encyclopedia of Shinto* ''Kami'', Gods of Japan* Evolution of the Concept of Kami , Itō Mikiharu"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Koalang"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Koalang''' is a fictional language in Janusz A. Zajdel's 1984 novel ''Paradyzja''.",
"The novel is set on a space station where activity is tracked by automatic cameras and analysed, mostly, by computers.",
"To avoid surveillance, the station's inhabitants adopt an Aesopian language which is full of metaphors that are impossible for computers to grasp.",
"The meaning of every sentence depended on the context.",
"For example, \"I dreamt about blue angels last night\" means \"I was visited by the police last night.",
"\"The software that analyzes sentences is self-learning.",
"Thus, a phrase that is used to describe something metaphorically should not be used again in the same context.The ''ko-al'' in ''koalang'' derives from the Polish words ''kojarzeniowo-aluzyjny'' (\"associative-allusive\").",
"Zajdel paid a tribute to George Orwell's newspeak and to Aldous Huxley, by naming one of the main characters ''Nikor Orley Huxwell''.In the 1980s, the youth magazine ''Na Przełaj'' (\"Short Cut\") printed rock lyrics in a column titled ''KOALANG'', hinting that the songs' texts contained content camouflaged from censorship."
],
[
"See also",
"*Darmok*Metaphorical language"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kobellite"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kobellite''' is a gray, fibrous, metallic mineral with the chemical formula .",
"It is also a sulfide mineral consisting of antimony, bismuth, and lead.",
"It is a member of the izoklakeite – berryite series with silver and iron substituting in the copper site and a varying ratio of bismuth, antimony, and lead.",
"It crystallizes with monoclinic pyramidal crystals.",
"The mineral can be found in ores and deposits of Hvena, Sweden; Ouray, Colorado; and Wake County, North Carolina, US.",
"The mineral was named after Wolfgang Franz von Kobell (1803–1882), a German mineralogist."
],
[
"See also",
"*List of minerals*List of minerals named after people"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kayak"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Whitewater kayaker at Great Falls, Virginia, United States|alt=Man wearing helmet sitting in a fiberglass boat, paddling through frothy waterA '''kayak''' is a small, narrow human-powered watercraft typically propelled by means of a long, double-bladed paddle.",
"The word ''kayak'' originates from the Greenlandic word ''qajaq'' ().In British English, the kayak is considered to be a kind of canoe.",
"While technically understandable, in the North American sense this is not the case.The traditional kayak has an enclosed deck and one or more cockpits, each seating one occupant or '''kayaker'''.",
"The cockpit is sometimes covered by a spray deck that prevents unwanted entry of water from waves or splashes, differentiating the craft from an open-deck canoe.",
"The spray deck makes it possible for suitably skilled kayakers to roll the kayak, i.e.",
"to temporarily capsize and submerge the kayak without it filling with water or ejecting the paddler.Inuit seal hunter in a kayak, armed with a harpoon|alt=Man sitting with legs covered in a boat that tapers to a point at each end holding long, pointed, wooden poleInterior 360 degree photosphere of a kayak at the Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian.",
"''Click for an immersive 360 degree view''.Some modern paddlecrafts vary considerably from a traditional kayak design but still claim the title \"kayak\", for instance in eliminating the cockpit by seating the paddler on top of a canoe-like open deck (i.e.",
"\"sit-on-top\" kayaks); having inflated air chambers surrounding the craft; replacing the single hull with twin hulls; and replacing handheld paddles with other human-powered propulsion methods such as pedal-driven propeller and \"flippers\".",
"Some kayaks are also fitted with external source of propulsion, such as a battery-powered electric motor (to drive the propeller/flippers), a sail (which essentially modifies it into a sailboat), or even a completely independent gasoline outboard engine (which converts it into a ''de facto'' motorboat).Kayaks are often used to get closer to marine animals, such as alt=Photo of a person sitting in a boat holding a paddle with otters swimming in the foreground.",
"The boat is approximately 12 feet long and only slightly wider than the paddler.The kayak was first used by the indigenous Aleut, Inuit, Yupik and possibly Ainu people hunters in subarctic regions of the world.Kayaking in the Upsala Glacier in Los Glaciares National Park"
],
[
"History",
"Two people in a kayak, Nunivak, Alaska, photographed by Edward S. Curtis, 1930|alt=Photo of two males wearing fur sitting in well of large kayakThe world cup competitions in kayaking in Vaxholm, Sweden, photographed by Gunnar Lundh in 1938Kayaks (Inuktitut: ''qajaq'' (ᖃᔭᖅ ), Yup'ik: ''qayaq'' (from ''qai-'' \"surface; top\"), Aleut: ''Iqyax'') were originally developed by the Inuit, Yup'ik, and Aleut.",
"They used the boats to hunt on inland lakes, rivers and coastal waters of the Arctic Ocean, North Atlantic, Bering Sea and North Pacific oceans.",
"These first kayaks were constructed from stitched seal or other animal skins stretched over a wood or whalebone-skeleton frame.",
"(Western Alaskan Natives used wood whereas the eastern Inuit used whalebone due to the treeless landscape).",
"Kayaks are believed to be at least 4,000 years old.",
"The oldest kayaks remaining are exhibited in the North America department of the State Museum of Ethnology in Munich, with the oldest dating from 1577.Subarctic people made many types of boats for different purposes.",
"The Aleut baidarka was made in double or triple cockpit designs, for hunting and transporting passengers or goods.",
"An umiak is a large open-sea canoe, ranging from , made with seal skins and wood, originally paddled with single-bladed paddles and typically had more than one paddler.Subarctic builders designed and built their boats based on their own experience and that of the generations before them passed on through oral tradition.",
"The word \"kayak\" means \"man's boat\" or \"hunter's boat\", and subarctic kayaks were a personal craft, each built by the man who used it — with assistance from his wife — and closely fitting his size for maximum maneuverability.",
"For this reason, kayaks were often designed ergonomically using one's own body proportions as units of measure.",
"The paddler wore a tuilik, a garment that was stretched over the rim of the kayak coaming and sealed with drawstrings at the coaming, wrists, and hood edges.",
"This enabled the \"eskimo roll\" and rescue to become the preferred methods of recovery after capsizing, especially as few Inuit could swim; their waters are too cold for a swimmer to survive for long.Instead of a ''tuilik'', most traditional kayakers today use a spray deck made of waterproof synthetic material stretchy enough to fit tightly around the cockpit rim and body of the kayaker, and which can be released rapidly from the cockpit to permit easy exit (in particular in a wet exit after a capsizing).Inuit kayak builders had specific measurements for their boats.",
"The length was typically three times the span of his outstretched arms.",
"The width at the cockpit was the width of the builder's hips plus two fists (sometimes less).",
"The typical depth was his fist plus the outstretched thumb (hitch hiker).",
"Thus typical dimensions were about long by wide by deep.Traditional kayaks encompass three types: ''Baidarkas'', from the Bering Sea & Aleutian Islands, the oldest design, whose rounded shape and numerous chines give them an almost blimp-like appearance; ''West Greenland'' kayaks, with fewer chines and a more angular shape, with gunwales rising to a point at the bow and stern; and ''East Greenland'' kayaks that appear similar to the West Greenland style, but often fit more snugly to the paddler and possess a steeper angle between gunwale and stem, which lends maneuverability.Most of the Aleut people in the Aleutian Islands eastward to Greenland Inuit relied on the kayak for hunting a variety of prey—primarily seals, though whales and caribou were important in some areas.",
"Skin-on-frame kayaks are still being used for hunting by Inuit in Greenland, because the smooth and flexible skin glides silently through the waves.alt=Photo of long wooden pole with larger, rectangular flattened sections at either end"
],
[
"20th century & contemporary kayaks",
"Contemporary traditional-style kayaks trace their origins primarily to the native boats of Alaska, northern Canada, and Southwest Greenland.",
"The use of fabric kayaks on wooden frames called a foldboat or folding kayak (German Faltboot or Hardernkahn) became widely popular in Europe beginning in 1907 when they were mass-produced by Johannes Klepper and others.",
"This type of kayak was introduced to England and Europe by John MacGregor (sportsman) in 1860, but Klepper was the first person to mass-produce these boats made of collapsible wooden frames covered by waterproof rubberized canvas.",
"By 1929, Klepper and Company were making 90 foldboats a day.",
"Joined by other European manufacturers, by the mid-1930s there were an estimated half-million foldboat kayaks in use throughout Europe.",
"First Nation masters of the roll taught this technique to Europeans during this time period.These boats were tough and intrepid individuals were soon doing amazing things in them.",
"In June 1928, a German named Franz Romer Sea kayak rigged his long foldboat with a sail and departed from Las Palmas in the Canary Islands carrying of tinned food and of water.",
"Fifty-eight days and later he reached Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands.",
"Another German, Oskar Speck, paddled his foldboat down the Danube and four years later reached the Australian coast after having traveled roughly 14,000 miles across the Pacific.These watercraft were brought to the United States and used competitively in 1940 at the first National Whitewater Championship held in America near Middledam, Maine, on the Rapid River (Maine).",
"One “winner,” Royal Little, crossed the finish line clinging to his overturned foldboat.",
"Upstream, the river was “strewn with many badly buffeted and some wrecked boats.” Two women were in the competition, Amy Lang and Marjory Hurd.",
"With her partner Ken Hutchinson, Hurd won the double canoe race.",
"Lang won the doubles foldboat event with her partner, Alexander \"Zee\" Grant.Alexander Grant in his foldboat, July 19, 1941, at the bottom of the Grand CanyonIn the late 1930s and early 1940s, Alexander “Zee” Grant was most likely America's best foldboat pilot.",
"Grant kayaked the Gates of Lodore on the Green River (Colorado River tributary) in Dinosaur National Monument in 1939 and the Middle Fork Salmon River in 1940.In 1941, Grant paddled a foldboat through Grand Canyon National Park.",
"He outfitted his foldboat, named Escalante, with a sponson on each side of his boat and filled the boat with beach balls.",
"As with nearly all American foldboat enthusiasts of the day, he did not know how to roll his boat.Fiberglass mixed with resin composites, invented in the 1930s and 1940s, were soon used to make kayaks and this type of watercraft saw increased use during the 1950s, including in the US.",
"Kayak Slalom World Champion Walter Kirschbaum built a fiberglass kayak and paddled it through Grand Canyon in June 1960.He knew how to roll and only swam once, in Hance Rapid (see List of Colorado River rapids and features).",
"Like Grant's foldboat, Kirschbaum's fiberglass kayak had no seat and no thigh braces.",
"In June 1987, Ed Gillet, using a stock off the shelf ''traditional design'' 20 foot long by 31 inch wide fiberglass tandem kayak paddled over 2,000 miles non-stop from Monterey, California to Hawaii, landing his vessel there on August 27, 1987, after 64 days of paddling.",
"Gillet had navigated his kayak by using a traditional sextant and compass, along with approximately 600 pounds of food and water, including a device to convert sea water to fresh water.",
"Within six days of reaching Hawaii, both he and his yellow kayak were featured on ''The Tonight Show'', hosted by Johnny Carson.Inflatable rubberized fabric boats were first introduced in Europe and rotomolded plastic kayaks first appeared in 1973.Most kayaks today are made from roto-molded polyethylene resins.",
"The development of plastic and rubberized inflatable kayaks arguably initiated the development of freestyle kayaking as we see it today since these boats could be made smaller, stronger, and more resilient than fiberglass boats."
],
[
"Design principles",
"Typically, kayak design is largely a matter of trade-offs: directional stability (\"tracking\") vs maneuverability; stability vs speed; and primary vs secondary stability.",
"Multihull kayaks face a different set of trade-offs.",
"The paddler's body shape and size is an integral part of the structure, and will also affect the trade-offs made.Attempting to lift and carry a kayak by oneself or improperly is a significant cause of kayaking injuries.",
"Good lifting technique, sharing loads, and not using needlessly large and heavy kayaks prevent injuries.=== Displacement ===If the displacement of a kayak is not enough to support the passenger(s) and gear, it will sink.",
"If the displacement is excessive, the kayak will float too high, catch the wind and waves uncomfortably, and handle poorly; it will probably also be bigger and heavier than it needs to be.",
"Being excessively big will create more drag, and the kayak will move more slowly and take more effort.",
"Rolling is easier in lower-displacement kayaks.",
"On the other hand, a higher deck will keep the paddler(s) drier and make self-rescue and coming through surf easier.",
"Many beginning paddlers who use a sit-in kayak feel more secure in a kayak with a weight capacity substantially more than their own weight.",
"Maximum volume in a sit-in kayak is helped by a wide hull with high sides.",
"But paddling ease is helped by lower sides where the paddler sits and a narrower width.While the kayak's buoyancy must be more than the loaded kayak, the optimal amount of excess buoyancy varies somewhat with kayak type, purpose, and personal taste (squirt boats, for instance, have very little positive buoyancy).",
"Displacements vary with paddler weight.",
"Most manufacturers include kayaks for paddlers weighing , with some kayaks for paddlers down to .",
"Kayaks made for paddlers under are almost all very beamy and intended for beginners.=== Length ===alt=Long, thin kayak with blunt bow and stern, on flat water, person getting inAs a general rule, a longer kayak is faster: it has a higher hull speed.",
"It can also be narrower for a given displacement, reducing the drag, and it will generally track (follow a straight line) better than a shorter kayak.",
"On the other hand, it is less maneuverable.",
"Very long kayaks are less robust, and may be harder to store and transport.",
"Some recreational kayak makers try to maximize hull volume (weight capacity) for a given length as shorter kayaks are easier to transport and store.Kayaks that are built to cover longer distances such as touring and sea kayaks are longer, generally .",
"With touring kayaks the keel is generally more defined (helping the kayaker track in a straight line).",
"Whitewater kayaks, which generally depend upon river current for their forward motion, are short, to maximize maneuverability.",
"These kayaks rarely exceed in length, and ''play boats'' may be only long.",
"Recreational kayak designers try to provide more stability at the price of reduced speed, and compromise between tracking and maneuverability, ranging from .=== Rocker ===polo kayak has a lot of rocker; that is, the bottom is not flat when seen from the side.",
"Length alone does not fully predict a kayak's maneuverability: a second design element is ''rocker'', i.e.",
"its lengthwise curvature.",
"A heavily ''rockered'' boat curves more, shortening its effective waterline.",
"For example, an kayak with no rocker is in the water from end to end.",
"In contrast, the bow and stern of a rockered boat are out of the water, shortening its lengthwise waterline to only .",
"Rocker is generally most evident at the ends, and in moderation improves handling.",
"Similarly, although a rockered whitewater boat may only be about a meter shorter than a typical recreational kayak, its waterline is far shorter and its maneuverability far greater.",
"When surfing, a heavily rockered boat is less likely to lock into the wave as the bow and stern are still above water.",
"A boat with less rocker cuts into the wave and makes it harder to turn while surfing.=== Beam profile ===Inflatable kayaks tend to be very wide; this is not a problem for the large, broad-shouldered stern paddler.",
"The smaller bow paddler is leaning sideways and sliding her hands along the paddle to improve her leverage.",
"Her safety equipment is also too large.",
"US Navy.The overall width of a kayak's cross-section is its ''beam''.",
"A wide hull is more stable and packs more displacement into a shorter length.",
"A narrow hull has less drag and is generally easier to paddle; in waves, it will ride more easily and stay dryer.A narrower kayak makes a somewhat shorter paddle appropriate and a shorter paddle puts less strain on the shoulder joints.",
"Some paddlers are comfortable with a sit-in kayak so narrow that their legs extend fairly straight out.",
"Others want sufficient width to permit crossing their legs inside the kayak.==== Types of stability ====chines (angles) give a more rounded profile, decreasing stability, tracking, and the wetted area, and increasing speed.|alt=1) a five-sided polygon which is nearly a wide rectangle, with the lower long side (the boat's bottom) a bit shorter than the upper (the deck) and the fifth point (the keel) slightly bending the nearly-flat bottom downwards.",
"2) The short sides retain the same angle, but the keel is a bit lower and the chines a bit higher.",
"3) The chines are substantially closer together and higher than the keel so that the angles of the hull at the chines and at the keel are all three approximately equal.",
"4) Two additional chines make a seven-sided polygon which approximates a half-circle with the flat side up.",
"5) A 9-sided polygon approximating a half-circle more closely.",
"''Primary'' (sometimes called ''initial'') stability describes how much a boat tips, or rocks back and forth when displaced from level by paddler weight shifts.",
"''Secondary'' stability describes how stable a kayak feels when put on edge or when waves are passing under the hull perpendicular to the length of the boat.",
"For kayak rolling, ''tertiary'' stability, or the stability of an upside-down kayak, is also important (lower tertiary stability makes rolling up easier).Primary stability is often a big concern to a beginner, while secondary stability matters both to beginners and experienced travelers.",
"By example, a wide, flat-bottomed kayak will have high primary stability and feel very stable on flat water.",
"However, when a steep wave breaks on such a boat, it can be easily overturned because the flat bottom is no longer level.",
"By contrast, a kayak with a narrower, more rounded hull with more hull flare can be edged or leaned into waves and (in the hands of a skilled kayaker) provides a safer, more comfortable response on stormy seas.",
"Kayaks with only moderate primary, but excellent secondary stability are, in general, considered more seaworthy, especially in challenging conditions.A cross-section through a skin-on-frame kayak.",
"The skin touches only at the two gunwales, the two stringers, and the keel.The shape of the cross section affects stability, maneuverability, and drag.",
"Hull shapes are categorized by roundness, flatness, and by the presence and angle of chines.",
"This cross-section may vary along the length of the boat.A chine typically increases secondary stability by effectively widening the beam of the boat when it heels (tips).",
"A V-shaped hull tends to travel straight (track) well but makes turning harder.",
"V-shaped hulls also have the greatest secondary stability.",
"Conversely, flat-bottomed hulls are easy to turn, but harder to direct in a constant direction.",
"A round-bottomed boat has minimal area in contact with the water, and thus minimizes drag; however, it may be so unstable that it will not remain upright when floating empty, and needs continual effort to keep it upright.",
"In a skin-on-frame kayak, chine placement may be constrained by the need to avoid the bones of the pelvis.Sea kayaks, designed for open water and rough conditions, are generally narrower at and have more secondary stability than recreational kayaks, which are wider , and have a flatter hull shape and more primary stability.",
"==== Stability from body shape and skill level ====File:Weight distribution kayak.svg|The position of the center of gravity is affected by body shape.",
"The lower the CoG, the higher the primary stability.File:Stability for beginners.svg|Two different approaches to giving beginners more stability; left, a wider kayak, right, outriggers lashed across the stern deckThe body of the paddler must also be taken into account.",
"A paddler with a low center of gravity (COG) will find all boats more stable; for a paddler with a high center of gravity, all boats will feel tippier.",
"On average, women have a lower COG than men.",
"Women generally may fit a kayak about 10% narrower than the kayak that would fit a similarly sized man.",
"Commercial kayaks made for women are rare.",
"Unisex kayaks are built for men.",
"Younger children have proportionately smaller and lighter bodies, but near-adult-size heads, and thus a higher center of gravity.",
"A paddler with narrow shoulders will also want a narrower kayak.Newcomers will often want a craft with high primary stability (see above).",
"The southern method is a wider kayak.",
"The West Greenland method is a removable pair of outriggers, lashed across the stern deck.",
"Such an outrigger pair is often homemade of a small plank and found floats such as empty bottles or plastic ducks.",
"Outriggers are also made commercially, especially for fishing kayaks and sailing.",
"If the floats are set so that they are both in the water, they give primary stability, but produce more drag.",
"If they are set so that they are both out of the water when the kayak is balanced, they give secondary stability.=== Hull surface profile ===thumbSome kayak hulls are categorized according to the shape from bow to sternCommon shapes include:* Symmetrical: the widest part of the boat is halfway between bow and stern.",
"* Fish form: the widest part is ''forward'' (in front) of the midpoint.",
"* Swede form: the widest part is ''aft'' (behind) midpoint.=== Seating position and contact points ===Kayak sitting positions.",
"The longer boat is a West Greenland kayak, the shorter a kayak polo boat.",
"Pale orange areas are the places against which the paddler braces their feet and thighs (contact with hips, and with the kayak's seat, not shown).Traditional-style and some modern types of kayaks (e.g.",
"sit-on-top) require that paddler be seated with their legs stretched in front of them, in a right angle, in a position called the \"L\" kayaking position.",
"Other kayaks offer a different sitting position, in which the paddler's legs are not stretched out in front of them, and the thigh brace bears more on the inside than the top of the thighs (see diagram).A kayaker must be able to move the hull of their kayak by moving their lower body, and brace themselves against the hull (mostly with the feet) on each stroke.",
"Most kayaks therefore have footrests and a backrest.",
"Some kayaks fit snugly on the hips; others rely more on thigh braces.",
"Mass-produced kayaks generally have adjustable bracing points.",
"Many paddlers also customize their kayaks by putting in shims of closed-cell foam (usually EVA), or more elaborate structures, to make it fit more tightly.Paddling puts substantial force through the legs, alternately with each stroke.",
"The knees should therefore not be hyperextended.",
"Separately, if the kneecap is in contact with the boat, or the knee joint is in torsion, this will cause pain and may injure the knee.",
"Insufficient foot space will cause painful cramping and inefficient paddling.",
"The paddler should generally be in a comfortable position."
],
[
"Materials and construction",
"Today almost all kayaks are commercial products intended for sale rather than for the builder's personal use.Fiberglass hulls are stiffer than polyethylene hulls, but they are more prone to damage from impact, including cracking.",
"Most modern kayaks have steep V sections at the bow and stern, and a shallow V amidships.",
"Fiberglass kayaks may be \"laid-up\" in a mold by hand, in which case they are usually more expensive than polyethylene kayaks, which are rotationally molded in a machine.",
"The deck and hull are often made separately and then joined at a horizontal seam.Rotomoulded whitewater kayakPlastic kayaks are rotationally molded ('rotomolded') from a various grades and types of polyethylene resins ranging from soft to hard.",
"Such kayaks are seamless and particularly resistant to impact, but heavy.Inflatable kayakInflatable kayaks are increasingly popular due to their ease of storage and transport, as well as the ability to be deflated for extended portage.",
"Although slower than hardshell kayaks, many higher-end models often constructed of hypalon, as opposed to cheaper PVC designs, begin to approach the performance of traditional sea kayaks.",
"Being inflatable they are virtually unsinkable and often more stable than hardshell designs.",
"New drop-stitch technology means slab, rather than tube shapes are used in the designs with higher inflation pressures (up to ), leading to considerably faster, though often less stable kayaks which rival hardshell boats in performance.Strip-built solid wooden kayak with fiberglass coatSolid wooden hulls don't necessarily require significant skill and handiwork, depending on how they are made.",
"Three main types are popular, especially for the home builder: plywood stitch & glue (S&G), strip-built, and hybrids which have a stitch & glue hull and a strip-built deck.",
"Kayaks made from wood sheathed in fiberglass have proven successful, especially as the price of epoxy resin has decreased in recent years.Stitch & glue designs typically use modern, marine-grade plywood with a thickness of about .",
"After cutting out the required pieces of hull and deck (kits often have these pre-cut), a series of small holes are drilled along the edges.",
"Copper wire is then used to \"stitch\" the pieces together through the holes.",
"After the pieces are temporarily stitched together, they are glued with epoxy and the seams reinforced with fiberglass.",
"When the epoxy dries, the copper stitches are removed.",
"Sometimes the entire boat is then covered in fiberglass for additional strength and waterproofing though this adds greatly to the weight and is unnecessary.",
"Construction is fairly straightforward, but because plywood does not bend to form compound curves, design choices are limited.",
"This is a good choice for the first-time kayak builder as the labor and skills required (especially for kit versions) is considerably less than for strip-built boats which can take three times as long to build.Strip-built designs are similar in shape to rigid fiberglass kayaks but are generally both lighter and tougher.",
"Like their fiberglass counterparts the shape and size of the boat determines performance and optimal uses.",
"The hull and deck are built with thin strips of lightweight wood, often thuja (Western Red cedar), pine or redwood.",
"The strips are edge-glued together around a form, stapled or clamped in place, and allowed to dry.",
"Structural strength comes from a layer of fiberglass cloth and epoxy resin, layered inside and outside the hull.",
"Strip–built kayaks are sold commercially by a few companies, priced US$4,000 and up.",
"An experienced woodworker can build one for about US$400 in 200 hours, though the exact cost and time depend on the builder's skill, the materials and the size and design.",
"As a second kayak project, or for the serious builder with some woodworking expertise, a strip–built boat can be an impressive piece of work.",
"Kits with pre-cut and milled wood strips are commercially available.Modern skin-on-frame kayak; the skin is cloth, sewn to fit over the wooden frame and then waterproofedSkin-on-frame (SOF) boats are often more traditional in design, materials, and construction.",
"They were traditionally made with driftwood frames, jointed, pegged, and lashed together, and covered with stretched seal skin, as those were the most readily available materials in the Arctic regions (other skins and baleen framing members were also used at need).",
"A \"poor man's kayak\" might be frameless and stuffed with a snow \"frame\".",
"Today, seal skin is usually replaced with canvas or nylon cloth covered with paint, polyurethane, or a hypalon rubber coating, on a wooden or aluminum frame.",
"Modern skin-on-frame kayaks often possess greater impact resistance than their fiberglass counterparts, but are less durable against abrasion or sharp objects.",
"They are often the lightest kayaks.",
"Like the older skin-on-frame kayaks, they are often home-built to fit a specific paddler.",
"Engineer Xyla Foxlin built a kayak out of transparent fibreglass as well as LEDs to create a floating vessel that lights up at night, which she calls the ''Rainbowt''.Folding kayak, partly-assembledA special type of skin-on-frame kayak is the folding kayak.",
"It has a collapsible frame, of wood, aluminum or plastic, or a combination thereof, and a skin of water-resistant and durable fabric.",
"Many types have air sponsons built into the hull, making the kayak float even if flooded."
],
[
"Modern design",
"sea kayak in west WalesMost modern kayaks differ greatly from the original traditional subarctic kayaks in design, manufacturing and usage.",
"They are often designed with computer-aided design (CAD) software, often in combination with CAD customized for naval design.Modern kayaks serve diverse purposes, ranging from slow and easy touring on placid water, to racing and complex maneuvering in fast-moving whitewater, to fishing and long-distance ocean excursions.",
"Modern forms, materials and construction techniques make it possible to effectively serve these needs while continuing to leverage the insights of the original Arctic inventors."
],
[
"Types",
" Major kayak typesSea kayakWhitewater kayakRecreational kayakRacing kayakModern kayaks have evolved into specialized types that may be broadly categorized according to their application as ''sea or touring kayaks'', ''whitewater'' (or ''river'') ''kayaks'', ''surf kayaks'', ''racing kayaks'', ''fishing kayaks,'' and ''recreational'' kayaks.",
"The broader kayak categories today are 'sit-in' (SI), which is inspired mainly by traditional kayak forms, 'sit-on-top' (SOT), which evolved from paddle boards that were outfitted with footrests and a backrest, 'hybrid', which are essentially canoes featuring a narrower beam and a reduced free board enabling the paddler to propel them from the middle of the boat, using a double blade paddle (i.e.",
"'kayak paddle'), and twin hull kayaks offering each of the paddler's legs a narrow hull of its own.In recent decades, kayaks design have proliferated to a point where the only broadly accepted denominator for them is their being designed mainly for paddling using a kayak paddle featuring two blades i.e.",
"'kayak paddle'.",
"However, even this inclusive definition is being challenged by other means of human powered propulsion, such as foot activated pedal drives combined with rotating or sideways moving propellers, electric motors, and even outboard motors.=== Recreational ===alt=Photo of single-person kayak sitting on landalt=A single person paddles an inflatable loaded with about twice his own body volume in goods, neatly stacked and lashed fore and aft to a height of over 50cm.Recreational kayaks are designed for the casual paddler interested in fishing, photography, or a peaceful paddle on a lake, flatwater stream or protected salt water away from strong ocean waves.",
"These boats presently make up the largest segment of kayak sales.",
"Compared to other kayaks, recreational kayaks have a larger cockpit for easier entry and exit and a wider beam () for more stability.",
"They are generally less than in length and have limited cargo capacity.",
"Less expensive materials like polyethylene and fewer options keep these boats relatively inexpensive.",
"Most canoe/kayak clubs offer introductory instruction in recreational boats.",
"They do not perform as well in the sea.",
"The recreational kayak is usually a type of touring kayak.=== Sea ===Kayaking in a double on Lake Union in Seattle, Washington, United States|alt=Photo of rear of person wearing orange life preserver sitting in kayak with buildings in far background''Sea kayaks'' are typically designed for travel by one, two or even three paddlers on open water and in many cases trade maneuverability for seaworthiness, stability, and cargo capacity.",
"Sea-kayak sub-types include \"skin-on-frame\" kayaks with traditionally constructed frames, open-deck \"sit-on-top\" kayaks, and recreational kayaks.The sea kayak, though descended directly from traditional types, is implemented in a variety of materials.",
"Sea kayaks typically have a longer waterline, and provisions for below-deck storage of cargo.",
"Sea kayaks may also have rudders or skegs (fixed rudder) and upturned bow or stern profiles for wave shedding.",
"Modern sea kayaks usually have two or more internal bulkheads.",
"Some models can accommodate two or sometimes three paddlers.==== Sit-on-top ====Sit-on-top three-person kayakSit-on-top kayaksSealed-hull (\"unsinkable\") craft were developed for leisure use, as derivatives of surfboards (e.g.",
"paddle or wave skis), or for surf conditions.",
"Variants include planing surf craft, touring kayaks, and sea marathon kayaks.",
"Increasingly, manufacturers build leisure 'sit-on-top' variants of extreme sports craft, typically using polyethylene to ensure strength and affordability, often with a skeg for directional stability.Sit-on-top kayaks come in 1–4 paddler configurations.",
"Sit-on-top kayaks are particularly popular for fishing and SCUBA diving, since participants need to easily enter and exit the water, change seating positions, and access hatches and storage wells.",
"Ordinarily the seat of a sit-on-top is slightly above water level, so the center of gravity for the paddler is higher than in a traditional kayak.",
"To compensate for the higher center of gravity, sit-on-tops are often wider and slower than a traditional kayak of the same length.Water that enters the cockpit of a sit-on-top kayak drains out through scupper holes—tubes that run from the cockpit to the bottom of the hull.",
"The ''cockpit'' is thus self-bailing.",
"The hull may be sealed, or perforated by hatches and deck fixtures.",
"Contrary to popular belief, the sit-on-top kayak ''hull'' is not self-bailing, since water penetrating it does not drain out automatically, as it does in bigger boats equipped with self-bailing systems.",
"Furthermore, the sit-on-top hull cannot be molded in a way that would assure water tightness, and water may get in through various holes in its hull, usually around hatches and deck accessories.",
"If the sit-on-top kayak is loaded to a point where such perforations are covered with water, or if the water paddled is rough enough that such perforations often go under water, the sit-on-top hull may fill with water without the paddler noticing it in time.",
"If a sealed hull develops a split or hole, it will also fill and sink.=== Surf ===Surf Kayaking competition, Tofino, British Columbia|alt=Photo of beach, with several kayaks strewn around and people in backgroundSpecialty surf boats typically have flat bottoms, and hard edges, similar to surf boards.",
"The design of a surf kayak promotes the use of an ocean surf wave (moving wave) as opposed to a river or feature wave (moving water).",
"They are typically made from rotomolded plastic, or fiberglass.Surf kayaking comes in two main varieties, High Performance (HP) and International Class (IC).",
"High Performance boats tend to have a lot of nose rocker, little to no tail rocker, flat hulls, sharp rails and up to four fins set up as either a three fin thruster or a quad fin.",
"This enables them to move at high speed and maneuver dynamically.",
"International Class boats have to be at least long and until a recent rule change had to have a convex hull; now flat and slightly concave hulls are also allowed, although fins are not.",
"Surfing on international boats tends to be smoother and more flowing, and they are thought of as kayaking's ''long boarding''.",
"Surf boats come in a variety of materials ranging from tough but heavy plastics to super light, super stiff but fragile foam–cored carbon fiber.",
"Surf kayaking has become popular in traditional surfing locations, as well as new locations such as the Great Lakes.==== Waveskis ====A waveski.",
"Skegs below.",
"The straps form back- and foot-rests.A variation on the closed-cockpit surf kayak is called a waveski.",
"Although the waveski offers dynamics similar to a sit–on–top, its paddling technique and surfing performance and construction can be similar to surfboard designs.=== Whitewater ===Whitewater kayak|alt=Photo of man in kayak holding paddle nearly parallel to the boat, surrounded by white waterWhitewater kayaks are rotomolded in a semi-rigid, high impact plastic, usually polyethylene.",
"Careful construction ensures that the boat remains structurally sound when subjected to fast-moving water.",
"The plastic hull allows these kayaks to bounce off rocks without leaking, although they scratch and eventually puncture with enough use.",
"Whitewater kayaks range from long.",
"There are two main types of whitewater kayak, playboats and river-running boats.",
"Creekboats (for small rivers) and squirt boats are more specialized.==== Playboat ====Playboating competitionOne type, the ''playboat'', is short, with a scooped bow and blunt stern.",
"These trade speed and stability for high maneuverability.",
"Their primary use is performing tricks in individual water features or short stretches of river.",
"In playboating or ''freestyle'' competition (also known as ''rodeo'' boating), kayakers exploit the complex currents of rapids to execute a series of tricks, which are scored for skill and style.River kayaks in Hokkaido, Japan==== Creekboats and river-running kayaks ====The other primary type is the creek boat, which gets its name from its purpose: running narrow, low-volume waterways.",
"Creekboats are longer and have far more volume than playboats, which makes them more stable, faster and higher-floating.",
"Many paddlers use creekboats in \"short boat\" downriver races, and they are often seen on large rivers where their extra stability and speed may be necessary to get through rapids.Between the creekboat and playboat extremes is a category called ''river–running'' kayaks.",
"These medium–sized boats are designed for rivers of moderate to high volume, and some, known as ''river running playboats'', are capable of basic playboating moves.",
"They are typically owned by paddlers who do not have enough whitewater involvement to warrant the purchase of more–specialized boats.==== Squirt boats ====A squirt boat barely floats, allowing the paddler to submerge completely.Squirt boating involves paddling both on the surface of the river and underwater.",
"Squirt boats must be custom-fitted to the paddler to ensure comfort while maintaining the low interior volume necessary to allow the paddler to submerge completely in the river.=== Racing ======= Whitewater ====White water racers combine a fast, unstable lower hull portion with a flared upper hull portion to combine flat water racing speed with extra stability in open water: they are not fitted with rudders and have similar maneuverability to flat water racers.",
"They usually require substantial skill to achieve stability, due to extremely narrow hulls.",
"Whitewater racing kayaks, like all racing kayaks, are made to regulation lengths, usually of fiber reinforced resin (usually epoxy or polyester reinforced with Kevlar, glass fiber, carbon fiber, or some combination).",
"This form of construction is stiffer and has a harder skin than non-reinforced plastic construction such as rotomolded polyethylene: stiffer means faster, and harder means fewer scratches and therefore also faster.==== Flatwater sprint ====Single-person racingSprint kayak is a sport held on calm water.",
"Crews or individuals race over 200 m, 500 m, 1000 m or 5000 m with the winning boat being the first to cross the finish line.",
"The paddler is seated, facing forward, and uses a double-bladed paddle pulling the blade through the water on alternate sides to propel the boat forward.",
"In competition the number of paddlers within a boat is indicated by a figure besides the type of boat; K1 signifies an individual kayak race, K2 pairs, and K4 four-person crews.",
"Kayak sprint has been in every summer olympics since it debuted at the 1936 summer olympics.",
"Racing is governed by the International Canoe Federation.==== Slalom ====Slalom kayaks are flat–hulled, and—since the early 1970s—feature low profile decks.",
"They are highly maneuverable, and stable but not fast in a straight line.==== Surfskis ====Surfski kayaksA specialized variant of racing craft called a ''surf ski'' has an open cockpit and can be up to long but only wide, requiring expert balance and paddling skill.",
"Surf skis were originally created for surf and are still used in races in New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa.",
"They have become popular in the United States for ocean races, lake races and even downriver races.==== Marathon ====Marathon races vary in distances from ten kilometres to over 1000 kilometres for multi-day stage races.=== Specialty and hybrids ===The term \"kayak\" is increasingly applied to craft that look little like traditional kayaks.==== Inflatable ====An inflatable sit-on-top kayakAn example of a man using an inflatable kayakInflatables, also known as the ''duckies'' or ''IKs'', can usually be transported by hand using a carry bag.",
"They are generally made of hypalon (a kind of neoprene), nitrilon (nitrile-rubberized fabric), PVC, or polyurethane-coated cloth.",
"They can be inflated with foot, hand or electric pumps.",
"Multiple compartments in all but the least expensive increase safety.",
"They generally use low pressure air, almost always below .While many inflatables are non-rigid, essentially pointed rafts, best suited for use on rivers and calm water, the higher-end inflatables are designed to be hardy, seaworthy vessels.",
"Recently some manufacturers have added an internal frame (folding-style) to a multi-section inflatable sit-on-top kayak to produce a seaworthy boat.",
"Fully drop-stitch inflatable kayaks are also available, which are inflated to 8–10 PSI.",
"They are much stiffer, which enhances their paddling characteristics to vastly outperform traditional inflatable kayaks.The appeal of inflatable kayaks is their portability, their durability (they don't dent), ruggedness in white water (they bounce off rocks rather than break) and their easy storage.",
"In addition, inflatable kayaks generally are stable, have a small turning radius and are easy to master, although some models take more effort to paddle and are slower than traditional kayaks.Because inflatable kayaks aren't as sturdy as traditional, hard-shelled kayaks, a lot of people tend to steer away from them.",
"However, there have been considerable advancements in inflatable kayak technology over recent years.==== Folding ====Assembling an aluminum frame for a folding kayak; the cloth covering (foreground) will later be stretched over itFolding kayaks are direct descendants of the skin-on-frame boats used by the Inuit and Greenlandic peoples.",
"Modern folding kayaks are constructed from a wooden or aluminum frame over which is placed a synthetic skin made of polyester, cotton canvas, polyurethane, or Hypalon.",
"They are more expensive than inflatable kayaks, but have the advantage of greater stiffness and consequently better seaworthiness.Walter Höhn (English Hoehn) had built, developed and then tested his design for a folding kayak in the white-water rivers of Switzerland from 1924 to 1927.In 1928, on emigrating to Australia, he brought 2 of them with him, lodged a patent for the design and proceeded to manufacture them.",
"In 1942 the Australian Director of Military operations approached him to develop them for Military use.",
"Orders were placed and eventually a total of 1024, notably the MKII & MKIII models, were produced by him and another enterprise, based on his 1942 patent (No.",
"117779)==== Pedal ====A kayak with pedals allows the kayaker to propel the vessel with a rotating propeller or underwater \"flippers\" rather than with a paddle.",
"In contrast to paddling, kayakers who pedal kayaks use their legs rather than their arms.",
"This allows for increased stamina and free hands while moving, making pedal kayaks popular among fishers.==== Twin hull and outrigger ====Fishing kayak with high lateral stabilityTraditional multi-hull vessels such as catamarans and outrigger canoes benefit from increased lateral stability without sacrificing speed, and these advantages have been successfully applied in twin hull kayaks.",
"''Outrigger kayaks'' attach one or two smaller hulls to the main hull to enhance stability, especially for fishing, touring, kayak sailing and motorized kayaking.Twin hull kayaks feature two long and narrow hulls, and since all their buoyancy is distributed as far as possible from their center line, they are more stable than mono hull kayaks outfitted with outriggers.=== Fishing ===While native people of the Arctic regions hunted rather than fished from kayaks, in recent years kayak sport fishing has become popular in both fresh and salt water, especially in warmer regions.",
"Traditional fishing kayaks are characterized by wide beams of up to that increase their lateral stability.",
"Some are equipped with outriggers that increase their stability, and others feature twin hulls enabling stand up paddling and fishing.",
"Compared with motorboats, fishing kayaks are inexpensive and have few maintenance costs.",
"Many kayak anglers like to customize their kayaks for fishing, a process known as 'rigging'.=== Military ===Klepper Aerius Quattro XT in military colorsKayaks were adapted for military use in the Second World War.",
"Used mainly by British Commandos and special forces, principally the Combined Operations Pilotage Parties (COPPs), the Special Boat Service and the Royal Marines Boom Patrol Detachment.",
"The latter made perhaps the best known use of them in the Operation Frankton raid on Bordeaux harbor.",
"Both the Special Air Service (SAS) and the Special Boat Service (SBS) used kayaks for reconnaissance in the 1982 Falklands War.",
"US Navy SEALs reportedly used them at the start of Unified Task Force operations in Somalia in 1992.The SBS currently use Klepper two-person folding kayaks that can be launched from surfaced submarines or carried to the surface by divers from submerged ones.",
"They can be parachuted from transport aircraft at sea or dropped from the back of Chinook helicopters.",
"US Special Forces have used Kleppers but now primarily use Long Haul folding kayaks, which are made in the US.The Australian Military MKII and MKIII folding kayaks were extensively used during WWII in the Pacific Theater for some 33 raids and missions on and around the South-East Asian islands.",
"Documentation for this will be found in the National Archives of Australia official records, reference No.",
"NAA K1214-123/1/06.They were deployed from disguised watercraft, submarines, Catalina aircraft, P.T.",
"boats, motor launches and by parachute."
],
[
"See also",
"* Aleutian kayak* Boat* Canoe* Canoe & Kayak UK* Canoe polo* Canyoning* Creeking* Flyak* Freeboating* Kayak angst* Kayak fishing* Kayaking* Packraft* Playboating* Recreational kayak* Sea kayaking* Squirt boating* Surf kayaking* Umiak* Waveski* Whitewater slalom"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* International Canoe Federation - the international federation of kayak and canoe bodies* The Canadian Museum of Civilization – Native Watercraft in Canada* British Canoe Union - the national governing body of kayaking in the UK* Kayak size guide - Fishing Learn* Greenlandinc terms for the parts of a kayak* A kayak made from clear wood and fiberglass with LEDs - YouTube video"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Imperial German Navy"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Imperial German Navy''' or the '''''Kaiserliche Marine''''' (Imperial Navy) was the navy of the German Empire, which existed between 1871 and 1919.It grew out of the small Prussian Navy (from 1867 the North German Federal Navy), which was mainly for coast defence.",
"Kaiser Wilhelm II greatly expanded the navy.",
"The key leader was Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, who greatly expanded the size and quality of the navy, while adopting the sea power theories of American strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan.",
"The result was a naval arms race with Britain, as the German navy grew to become one of the greatest maritime forces in the world, second only to the Royal Navy.The German surface navy proved ineffective during the First World War; its only major engagement, the Battle of Jutland, was a draw, but it kept the surface fleet largely in port for the rest of the war.",
"The submarine fleet was greatly expanded and threatened the British supply system during the U-boat campaign.",
"As part of the Armistice, the Imperial Navy's main ships were ordered to be turned over to the Allies but they were instead scuttled by their own crews.",
"All ships of the Imperial Navy bore the title ''SMS'', for (His Majesty's Ship)."
],
[
"Achievements",
"The Imperial Navy achieved some important operational feats.",
"At the Battle of Coronel, it inflicted the first major defeat on the Royal Navy in over one hundred years, although the German squadron of ships was subsequently defeated at the Battle of the Falkland Islands, only one ship escaping destruction.",
"The Navy also emerged from the fleet action of the Battle of Jutland having destroyed more ships than it lost, although the strategic value of both of these encounters was minimal.The Imperial Navy was the first to operate submarines successfully on a large scale in wartime, with 375 submarines commissioned by the end of the First World War, and it also operated zeppelins.",
"Although it was never able to match the number of ships of the Royal Navy, it had technological advantages, such as better shells and propellant for much of the Great War, meaning that it never lost a ship to a catastrophic magazine explosion from an above-water attack, although the elderly pre-dreadnought sank rapidly at Jutland after a magazine explosion was caused by an underwater attack."
],
[
"1871 to 1888, Kaiser Wilhelm I",
"Wilhelm I as Emperor of Germany at Versailles, France in 1871|leftThe unification of Germany under Prussian leadership was the defining point for the creation of the Imperial Navy in 1871.The newly created emperor, Wilhelm I, as King of Prussia, had previously been head of state of the strongest state forming part of the new empire.",
"The navy remained the same as that operated by the empire's predecessor organisation in the unification of Germany, the North German Confederation, which itself in 1867 had inherited the navy of the Kingdom of Prussia.",
"Article 53 of the new Empire's constitution recognised the existence of the Navy as an independent organisation, but until 1888 it was commanded by army officers and initially adopted the same regulations as the Prussian army.",
"Supreme command was vested in the emperor, but its first appointed chief was (General of the Infantry) Albrecht von Stosch.",
"Kiel on the Baltic Sea and Wilhelmshaven on the North Sea served as the Navy's principal naval bases.",
"The former Navy Ministry became the Imperial Admiralty on 1 February 1872, while Stosch became formally an admiral in 1875.Initially the main task of the new Imperial Navy was coastal protection, with France and Russia seen as Germany's most likely future enemies.",
"The Imperial Navy's tasks were then to prevent any invasion force from landing and to protect coastal towns from possible bombardment.In March 1872 a German Imperial Naval Academy was created at Kiel for training officers, followed in May by the creation of a 'Machine Engineer Corps', and in February 1873 a 'Medical Corps'.",
"In July 1879 a separate 'Torpedo Engineer Corps' was created dealing with torpedoes and mines.In May 1872 a ten-year building programme was instituted to modernise the fleet.",
"This called for eight armoured frigates, six armoured corvettes, twenty light corvettes, seven monitors, two floating batteries, six avisos, eighteen gunboats and twenty-eight torpedo boats, at an estimated cost of 220 million gold marks.",
"The building plan had to be approved by the ''Reichstag'', which controlled the allocation of funds, although one-quarter of the money came from French war reparations.In 1883 Stosch was replaced by another general, Count Leo von Caprivi.",
"At this point the navy had seven armoured frigates and four armoured corvettes, 400 officers and 5,000 ratings.",
"The objectives of coastal defence remained largely unchanged, but there was a new emphasis on development of the torpedo, which offered the possibility of relatively small ships successfully attacking much larger ones.",
"In October 1887 the first torpedo division was created at Wilhelmshaven and the second torpedo division based at Kiel.",
"In 1887 Caprivi requested the construction of ten armoured frigates.Greater importance was placed at this time on development of the army, which was expected to be more important in any war.",
"However, the Kiel Canal was commenced in June 1887, which connected the North Sea with the Baltic through the Jutland peninsula, allowing German ships to travel between the two seas avoiding waters controlled by other countries.",
"This shortened the journey for commercial ships, but specifically united the two areas principally of concern to the German navy, at a cost of 150 million marks.Later, the protection of German maritime trade routes became important.",
"This soon involved the setting up of some overseas supply stations, so called ''Auswärtige Stationen'' (foreign stations) and in the 1880s the Imperial Navy played a part in helping to secure the establishment of German colonies and protectorates in Africa, Asia and Oceania."
],
[
"1888 to 1897, under Kaiser Wilhelm II",
"Wilhelm II in German Admiral's uniform in 1913In June 1888 Wilhelm II became Emperor after the death of his father Frederick III, who ruled for only 99 days.",
"He started his reign with the intention of doing for the navy what his grandfather Wilhelm I had done for the army.",
"The creation of a maritime empire to rival the British and French empires became an ambition to mark Germany as a truly global great power.",
"Wilhelm became Grand Admiral of the German Navy, but also was awarded honorific titles from all over Europe, becoming admiral in the British, Russian, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Austro-Hungarian and Greek navies.",
"On one occasion he wore the uniform of a British admiral to receive the visiting British ambassador.",
"At this time the Imperial Navy had 534 officers and 15,480 men.The concept of expanding naval power, inevitably at the cost of not expanding other forces, was opposed by the three successive heads of the German armed forces, Waldersee, Schlieffen and Moltke between 1888 and 1914.It would also have been more widely opposed, had the Kaiser's intentions been widely known.",
"Instead, he proceeded with a plan to expand the navy slowly, justifying enlargement step by step.In July 1888 Wilhelm II appointed Vice-Admiral Alexander von Monts as head of the admiralty.",
"Monts oversaw the design of the , four of which were constructed by 1894 at a cost of 16 million marks each and displacement of 10,000 tons.In 1889 Wilhelm II reorganised top level control of the navy by creating a Navy Cabinet (''Marine-Kabinett'') equivalent to the German Imperial Military Cabinet which had previously functioned in the same capacity for both the army and navy.",
"The Head of the navy cabinet was responsible for promotions, appointments, administration and issuing orders to naval forces.",
"Captain Gustav von Senden-Bibran was appointed as its first head and remained so until 1906, when he was replaced by the long-serving Admiral Georg Alexander von Müller.",
"The existing Imperial admiralty was abolished and its responsibilities divided between two organisations.",
"A new position of Chief of the Imperial Naval High Command was created, being responsible for ship deployments, strategy and tactics, an equivalent to the supreme commander of the Army.",
"Vice admiral Max von der Goltz was appointed in 1889 and remained in post until 1895.Construction and maintenance of ships and obtaining supplies was the responsibility of the State Secretary of the Imperial Navy Office (''Reichsmarineamt''), responsible to the chancellor and advising the Reichstag on naval matters.",
"The first appointee was Rear Admiral Karl Eduard Heusner, followed shortly by Rear Admiral Friedrich von Hollmann from 1890 to 1897.Each of these three heads of department reported separately to Wilhelm II.In 1895 funding was agreed for five battleships of the , completed by 1902.The ships were innovative for their time, introducing a complex system of watertight compartments and storing coal along the sides of the ship to help absorb explosions.",
"However, the ships went against the trend for increasingly larger main guns, having smaller diameter guns than the ''Brandenburg'' design, but with a quick-loading design and more powerful secondary armaments.",
"Costs rose to 21 million marks each, as had size to 11,500 tons.In 1892 Germany had launched the protected cruiser , the first navy ship to have triple propellers.",
"She was succeeded by five protected cruisers, the last 'protected', as distinct from 'armoured' cruiser class constructed by Germany.",
"The ships, completed between 1898 and 1900, had deck armour but not side armour and were intended for overseas duties.",
"Shortages of funding meant it was not possible to create several designs of cruisers specialised for long range work, or more heavily armoured for fleet work.",
"Work commenced on an armoured cruiser design, started in 1896 and commissioned in 1900."
],
[
"1897 to 1906, Tirpitz and the Navy bills",
"Alfred von TirpitzOn 18 June 1897 Rear-Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz was appointed State Secretary of the Navy, where he remained for nineteen years.",
"Tirpitz advocated the cause of an expanded navy necessary for Germany to defend her territories abroad.",
"He had great success in persuading parliament to pass successive Navy bills authorising expansions of the fleet.",
"German foreign policy as espoused by Otto von Bismarck had been to deflect the interest of great powers abroad while Germany consolidated her integration and military strength.",
"Now Germany was to compete with the rest.",
"Tirpitz started with a publicity campaign aimed at popularising the navy.",
"He created popular magazines about the navy, arranged for Alfred Thayer Mahan's ''The Influence of Sea Power upon History'', which argued the importance of naval forces, to be translated into German and serialised in newspapers, arranged rallies in support and invited politicians and industrialists to naval reviews.",
"Various pressure groups were formed to lobby politicians and spread publicity.",
"One such organisation, the navy league or ''Flottenverein'', was organized by principals in the steel industry (Alfred Krupp), ship yards and banks, gaining more than one million members.",
"Political parties were offered concessions, such as taxes on imported grain, in exchange for their support for naval bills.On 10 April 1898 the first Navy Bill was passed by the ''Reichstag''.",
"It authorised the maintenance of a fleet of 19 battleships, 8 armoured cruisers, 12 large cruisers and 30 light cruisers to be constructed by 1 April 1904.Existing ships were counted in the total, but the bill provided for ships to be replaced every 25 years on an indefinite basis.",
"Five million marks annually was allocated to run the navy, with a total budget of 408 million marks for shipbuilding.",
"This would bring the German fleet to a strength where it could contemplate challenging France or Russia, but would remain clearly inferior to the world's largest fleet, the Royal Navy.Following the Boxer Rebellion in China and the Boer War, a second navy bill was passed on 14 June 1900.This approximately doubled the allocated number of ships to 38 battleships, 20 armoured cruisers, 38 light cruisers.",
"Significantly, the bill set no overall cost limit for the building program.",
"Expenditure for the navy was too great to be met from taxation: the Reichstag had limited powers to extend taxation without entering into negotiations with the constituent German states, and this was considered politically unviable.",
"Instead, the bill was financed by massive loans.",
"Tirpitz, in 1899 was already exploring the possibilities for extending the battleship total to 45, a target which rose to 48 by 1909.Kaiser Wilhelm II on board the light cruiser in 1894Tirpitz's ultimate goal was a fleet capable of rivaling the Royal Navy.",
"As British public opinion was turned against Germany, Admiral Sir John Fisher twice – in 1904 and 1908 – proposed using Britain's current naval superiority to 'Copenhagen' the German fleet, that is, to launch pre-emptive strikes against the Kiel and Wilhelmshaven naval bases as the Royal Navy had done against the Danish navy in 1801 and 1807.\"",
"Tirpitz argued that if the fleet could achieve two-thirds the number of capital ships possessed by Britain then it stood a chance of winning in a conflict.",
"Britain had to maintain a fleet throughout the world and consider other naval powers, whereas the German fleet could be concentrated in German waters.",
"Attempts were made to play down the perceived threat to Britain, but once the German fleet reached the position of equalling the other second-rank navies, it became impossible to avoid mention of the one great fleet it was intended to challenge.",
"Tirpitz hoped that other second-rank powers might ally with Germany, attracted by its navy.",
"The policy of commencing what amounted to a naval arms race did not properly consider how Britain might respond.",
"British policy, stated in the Naval Defence Act of 1889, was to maintain a navy superior to Britain's two largest rivals combined.",
"The British Admiralty estimated that the German navy would be the world's second largest by 1906.Major reforms of the Royal Navy were undertaken, particularly by Fisher as First Sea Lord from 1904 to 1909.154 older ships, including 17 battleships, were scrapped to make way for newer vessels.",
"Reforms in training and gunnery were introduced to make good perceived deficiencies, which in part Tirpitz had counted upon to provide his ships with a margin of superiority.",
"More capital ships were stationed in British home waters.",
"A treaty with Japan in 1902 meant that ships could be withdrawn from East Asia, while the ''Entente Cordiale'' with France in 1904 meant that Britain could concentrate on guarding Channel waters, including the French coast, while France would protect British interests in the Mediterranean.",
"By 1906 it was considered that Britain's only likely naval enemy was Germany.The German High Seas Fleet, with a member of the in the leadFive battleships of the were constructed from 1899 to 1904 at a cost of 22 million marks per ship.",
"Five ships of the were built between 1901 and 1906 for the slightly greater 24 million marks each.",
"Technological improvements meant that rapid fire guns could be made larger, so the ''Braunschweig'' class had a main armament of guns.",
"Due to torpedo improvements in range and accuracy, emphasis was placed on a secondary armament of smaller guns to defend against them.",
"The five s constructed between 1903 and 1908 had similar armament as the ''Braunschweig'' class, but heavier armour, for the slightly greater sum of 24.5 million marks each.Development of armoured cruisers also continued.",
"''Fürst Bismarck''s design was improved upon in the subsequent , completed in 1902.Two ships of the were commissioned in 1904, followed by two similar armoured cruisers commissioned in 1905 and 1906, at costs around 17 million marks each.",
"and followed, between 1904 and 1908, and cost an estimated for 20.3 million marks.",
"Main armament was eight guns, but with six and eighteen guns for smaller targets.",
"Eight light cruisers were constructed between 1902 and 1907, developed from the earlier .",
"The ships had ten guns and were named after German towns.",
"was the first German cruiser to be fitted with turbine engines, which were also trialled in torpedo boat ''S-125''.",
"Turbines were faster, quieter, lighter, more reliable and more fuel efficient at high speeds.",
"The first British experimental design (the destroyer ) had been constructed in 1901 and as a result Tirpitz had set up a special commission to develop turbines.",
"No reliable German design was available by 1903, so British Parsons turbines were purchased.===Command reorganisation===In 1899, the Imperial Naval High Command was replaced by the German Imperial Admiralty Staff (''Admiralstab'') responsible for planning, the training of officers, and naval intelligence.",
"In time of war it was to assume overall command, but in peace acted only advisory.",
"Direct control of various elements of the fleet was subordinated to officers commanding those elements, accountable to the Kaiser.The reorganisations suited the Kaiser who wanted to maintain direct control of his ships.",
"A disadvantage was that it split apart the integrated military command structure which before had balanced the importance of the navy within overall defence considerations.",
"It suited Alfred von Tirpitz, because it removed the influence of the admiralty staff from naval planning, but left him the possibility, in wartime, to reorganise command around himself.",
"Wilhelm II, however, never agreed to relinquish direct control of his fleet."
],
[
"1906 to 1908, the Dreadnought and innovation: First ''Novelle''",
"Dreadnoughts of the High Seas FleetOn 3 December 1906 the Royal Navy received a new battleship, .",
"She became famous as the first of a new concept in battleship design, using all big gun, single size of calibre armament.",
"She used turbine propulsion for greater speed and less space required by the machinery, and guns arranged so that three times as many could be brought to bear when firing ahead, and twice as many when firing broadside.",
"The design was not a uniquely British concept as similar ships were being built around the world, nor was it uniquely intended as a counter to German naval expansion, but the effect was to immediately require Germany to reconsider its naval building program.",
"The battleship design was complemented by the introduction of a variant with lighter armour and greater speed, which became the battlecruiser.The revolution in design, together with improvements in personnel and training severely brought into question the German assumption that a fleet of two-thirds the size of the Royal Navy would at least stand a chance in an engagement.",
"By 1906 Germany was already spending 60% of revenue upon the army.",
"Either an enormous sum now had to be found to develop the navy further, or naval expansion had to be abandoned.",
"The decision to continue was taken by Tirpitz in September 1905 and agreed by Chancellor Bernhard von Bülow and the Kaiser, while ''Dreadnought'' was still at the planning stage.",
"The larger ships would naturally be more expensive, but also would require enlargement of harbours, locks and the Kiel canal, all of which would be enormously expensive.",
"Estimated cost for new dreadnoughts was placed at 36.5 million marks for 19,000 tons displacement ships (larger than ''Dreadnought'' at 17,900 tons), and 27.5 million marks for battle-cruisers.",
"60 million mark was allocated for dredging the canal.",
"The Reichstag was persuaded to agree to the program and passed a ''Novelle'' (a supplementary law) amending the navy bills and allocating 940 million marks for a dreadnought program and the necessary infrastructure.",
"Two dreadnoughts and one battlecruiser were to be built each year.",
"''Nassau'' class battleship: the wing (side) turrets could not fire cross-deck (across the ship).Construction of four s began in 1907 under the greatest possible secrecy.",
"The chief German naval designer was Hans Bürkner.",
"A principle was introduced that the thickness of side armour on a ship would equal the calibre of the large guns, while ships were increasingly divided internally into watertight compartments to make them more resistant to flooding when damaged.",
"The design was hampered by the necessity to use reciprocating engines instead of the smaller turbines, since no sufficiently powerful design was available and acceptable to the German navy.",
"Turrets could not be placed above the centre of the ship and instead had to be placed at the side, meaning two of the six turrets would always be on the wrong side of the ship when firing broadsides.",
"Main armament was twelve 28 cm guns.",
"The ships were all completed by 1910, over budget, averaging 37.4 million marks each.",
"In 1910 they were transferred from Kiel to Wilhelmshaven, where two new large docks had been completed and more were under construction.The first German battlecruiser——was commenced March 1908.Four Parsons turbines were used, improving speed to 27 knots and reducing weight.",
"Four twin turrets mounted 28 cm guns; although the two centre turrets were still placed one either side of the ship, they were offset so could now fire either side.",
"The design was considered a success, but the cost at 35.5 million marks was significantly above the 1906 allocation.",
"Light cruiser development continued with the light cruisers, which were to become famous for their actions in the start of World War I in the Pacific.",
"The ships were 3,300 tons, and armed with ten 10.5 cm rapid fire guns and a speed around 24 knots.",
"cost 7.5 million marks, and 6 million marks.",
"Four were produced between 1907 and 1911 at 4,400 tons and around 8 million marks each.",
"These had turbines, twelve 10.5 cm guns as main armament, but were also equipped to carry and lay 100 mines.",
"From 1907 onward, all torpedo boats were constructed using turbine engines.Despite their ultimate importance, the German navy declined to take up the cause of another experiment, the submarine, until 1904.The first submarine, was delivered in December 1906, built by Krupp's Germania yard in Kiel.",
"The first submarine had 238 ton displacement on the surface and 283 tons submerged.",
"The kerosene engine developed 10 knots on the surface with a range of .",
"Submerged, the ship could manage 50 nautical miles at 5 knots using battery electric propulsion.",
"The ships followed a design by Maxime Laubeuf first used successfully in 1897, having a double hull and flotation tanks around the outside of the main crew compartments.",
"The submarine had just one torpedo tube at the front and a total of three torpedoes.",
"The early engines were noisy and smoky, so that a considerable boost to the usefulness of the submarine came with the introduction of quieter and cleaner diesel engines in 1910, which were much more difficult for an enemy to detect."
],
[
"1908 to 1912, Second ''Novelle''",
"German expenditure on ships was steadily rising.",
"In 1907, 290 million marks was spent on the fleet, rising to 347 million marks or 24 percent of the national budget in 1908, with a predicted budget deficit of 500 million marks.",
"By the outbreak of World War I, one billion marks had been added to Germany's national debt because of naval expenditures.",
"While each German ship was more expensive than the last, the British managed to reduce the cost of the succeeding generations of (3 ships) and (3) battleships.",
"Successive British battlecruisers were more expensive, but less so than their German equivalents.",
"Overall, German ships were some 30% more expensive than the British.",
"This all contributed to growing opposition in the Reichstag to any further expansion, particularly when it was clear that Britain intended to match and exceed any German expansion program.",
"In the fleet itself, complaints were beginning to be made in 1908 about underfunding and shortages of crews for the new ships.",
"The State Secretary of the Treasury, Hermann von Stengel, resigned because he could see no way to resolve the budget deficit.The elections of 1907 had returned a ''Reichstag'' more favourable to military exploits, following the refusal of the previous parliament to grant funds to suppress uprisings in colonies in German South-West Africa.",
"Despite the difficulties, Tirpitz persuaded the Reichstag to pass a further ''Novelle'' in March 1908.This reduced the service life for ships from 25 years to 20 years, allowing for faster modernisation, and increased the building rate to four capital ships per year.",
"Tirpitz's target was a fleet of 16 battleships and 5 battlecruisers by 1914, and 38 battleships and 20 battlecruisers by 1920.There were also to be 38 light cruisers, and 144 torpedo boats.",
"The bill contained a restriction, that building would fall to two ships per year in 1912, but Tirpitz was confident of changing this at a later date.",
"He anticipated that German industry, now heavily involved in shipbuilding, would back a campaign to maintain a higher construction rate.Four battleships of the were laid down in 1909–10, with displacements of 22,800 tons, twelve guns in 6 turrets, reciprocating engines generating a maximum speed of 21 knots, and a price tag of 46 million marks.",
"Again, the turret configuration was dictated by the need to use the centre of the ship for machinery, despite the disadvantage of the turret layout.",
"The ships were now equipped with torpedoes.",
"''Kaiser''-class battleship: introduced superfiring aft turrets, tandem wing turrets (side turrets offset to allow cross-deck firing) and turbine propulsion.The s built between 1909 and 1913 introduced a change in design as turbine engines were finally approved.",
"The ships had ten 30.5 cm guns, losing two of the centre side turrets but gaining an additional turret astern on the centre line.",
"As with the ''Von der Tann'' design, which was drawn up at a similar time, all guns could be fired either side in broadsides, meaning more guns could come to bear than with the ''Helgoland'' design, despite having fewer in total.",
"Five ships were constructed rather than the usual four, one to act as a fleet flagship.",
"One ship, the , was equipped with only two turbines rather than three, with the intention of having an additional diesel engine for cruising, but the Howaldt engine could not be developed in time.",
"''Luitpold'' had a top speed of 20 knots as a result, compared to 22 knots for the other ships.",
"The ships were larger than the preceding class at 24,700 tons, but cheaper at 45 million marks.",
"They formed part of the third squadron of the High Seas Fleet as it was constituted for World War I.Between 1908 and 1912 two s were constructed, adding an extra turret on the centre line astern, raised above the aft turret, but still using 28 cm guns.",
"became part of the High Seas Fleet, but became part of the Mediterranean squadron and spent World War I as part of the Ottoman navy.",
"The ships cost 42.6 and 41.6 million marks, with maximum speed of 28 knots.",
"was constructed as a slightly enlarged version of the ''Moltke'' design, reaching a maximum speed of 29 knots.",
"All cruisers were equipped with turbine engines from 1908 onwards.",
"Between 1910 and 1912 four light cruisers were constructed of 4,600 tons, at around 7.4 million marks each.",
"The ships were fitted with oil burners to improve the effectiveness of their main coal fueling.",
"These were followed by the similar but slightly enlarged and marginally faster and light cruisers.In 1907 a naval artillery school was established at Sonderburg (north of Kiel).",
"This aimed to address the difficulties with the new generation of guns, which with potentially greater range required aiming devices capable of directing them at targets at those extreme ranges.",
"By 1914, experiments were being conducted with guns in increasing sizes up to .",
"Capital ships were fitted with spotting tops high up on masts with range finding equipment, while ship design was altered to place turrets on the centre line of the ship for improved accuracy.The four s were commenced between October 1911 and May 1912 and entered service in 1914 at a cost of 45 million marks, forming the other part of the Third Squadron of the High Seas Fleet.",
"They were 28,500 tons, with a maximum speed of 21 knots from three triple-stage Brown-Boverie-Parsons turbines.",
"Main armament was five double turrets housing twin 30.5 cm guns, arranged with two turrets fore and aft and one in the centre of the ship.",
"The second turret at either end was raised higher than the outer so that it could fire over the top (superfiring).",
"As with ''Prinzregent Luitpold'', the ships were originally intended to have one diesel engine for cruising, but these were never developed and turbines were fitted instead.",
"The ships were equipped with torpedo nets, trailed along the hull intended to stop torpedoes, but these reduced maximum speed to an impractical 8 knots and were later removed.Construction began in 1910 of the first submarine powered by twin diesel engines.",
"''U-19'' was twice the size of the first German submarine, had five times the range at cruising at 8 knots, or 15 knots maximum.",
"There were now two bow and two stern torpedo tubes, with six torpedoes carried.",
"The ships were designed to operate at a depth of , though could go to ."
],
[
"1912 to 1914, Third ''Novelle''",
"Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg, argued for a guaranteed proportion of military expenditure for the army.Spending on the navy increased inexorably year by year.",
"In 1909 Chancellor Bernhard von Bülow and Treasury Secretary Reinhold von Sydow attempted to pass a new budget boosting taxes in an attempt to reduce the deficit.",
"The Social Democratic parties refused to accept the increased taxes on goods, while the conservatives opposed increases in inheritance taxes.",
"Bülow and Sydow resigned in defeat and Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg became Chancellor.",
"His attempted solution was to initiate negotiations with Britain for an agreed slow down in naval building.",
"Negotiations came to nothing when in 1911 the Agadir Crisis brought France and Germany into conflict.",
"Germany attempted to 'persuade' France to cede territory in the Middle Congo in return for giving France a free hand in Morocco.",
"The effect was to raise concerns in Britain over Germany's expansionist aims, and encouraged Britain to form a closer relationship with France, including naval cooperation.",
"Tirpitz saw this once again as an opportunity to press for naval expansion and the continuation of the four capital ships per year building rate into 1912.The January 1912 elections brought a Reichstag where the Social Democrats, opposed to military expansion, became the largest party.The German army, mindful of the steadily increasing proportion of spending going to the navy, demanded an increase of 136,000 men to bring its size closer to that of France.",
"In February 1912 the British war minister, Viscount Haldane, came to Berlin to discuss possible limits to naval expansion.",
"Meanwhile, in Britain, the First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill made a speech describing the German navy as a 'luxury', which was considered an insult when reported in Germany.",
"The talks came to nothing, ending in recriminations over who had offered what.",
"Bethmann Hollweg argued for a guaranteed proportion of expenditure for the army, but failed when army officers refused to support him publicly.",
"Tirpitz argued for six new capital ships, and got three, together with 15,000 additional sailors in a new combined military budget passed in April 1912.The new ships, together with the existing reserve flagship and four reserve battleships were to become one new squadron for the High Seas Fleet.",
"In all the fleet would have five squadrons of eight battleships, twelve large cruisers and thirty small, plus additional cruisers for overseas duties.",
"Tirpitz intended that with the rolling program of replacements, the existing coastal defence squadron of old ships would become a sixth fleet squadron, while the eight existing battle-cruisers would be joined by eight more as replacements for the large cruisers presently in the overseas squadrons.",
"The plan envisaged a main fleet of 100,000 men, 49 battleships and 28 battlecruisers by 1920.The Kaiser commented of the British, \"... we have them up against the wall.",
"\"Although Tirpitz had succeeded in getting more ships, the proportion of military expenditure on the navy declined in 1912 and thereafter, from 35% in 1911 to 33% in 1912 and 25% in 1913.This reflected a change in attitude amongst military planners that a land war in Europe was increasingly likely, and a turning away from Tirpitz's scheme for worldwide expansion using the navy.",
"In 1912 General von Moltke commented, \"I consider war to be unavoidable, and the sooner the better.\"",
"The Kaiser's younger brother, Admiral Prince Heinrich of Prussia, considered that the cost of the navy was now too great.",
"In Britain, Churchill announced an intention to build two capital ships for every one constructed by Germany, and reorganised the fleet to move battleships from the Mediterranean to Channel waters.",
"A policy was introduced of promoting British naval officers by merit and ability rather than time served, which saw rapid promotions for Jellicoe and Beatty, both of whom had important roles in the forthcoming World War I.",
"By 1913 the French and British had plans in place for joint naval action against Germany, and France moved its Atlantic fleet from Brest to Toulon, replacing British ships.Britain also escalated the arms race by expanding the capabilities of its new battleships.",
"The five 1912 of 32,000 tons would have guns and would be completely oil-fuelled, allowing a speed of 25 knots.",
"For 1912–13 Germany concentrated on battlecruisers, with three ships of 27,000 tons and 26–27 knots maximum speed, costing 56–59 million marks each.",
"These had four turrets mounting two 30.5 cm guns arranged in two turrets either end, with the inner turret superfiring over the outer.",
"was the first German ship to have anti-aircraft guns fitted.In 1913, Germany responded to the British challenge by laying down two battleships.",
"These did not enter service until after the Battle of Jutland, so failed to take part in any major naval action of the war.",
"They had displacement of 28,600 tons, a crew of 1,100 and a speed of 22 knots, costing 50 million marks.",
"Guns were arranged in the same pattern as the preceding battle-cruisers, but were now increased to diameter.",
"The ships had four 8.8 cm anti-aircraft and also sixteen 15 cm lighter guns, but were coal fuelled.",
"It was considered that coal bunkers at the sides of the ship added to protection against penetrating shells, but Germany also did not have a reliable supply of fuel oil.",
"Two more ships of the class were later laid down, but never completed.German naval officers, September 1918Three light cruisers commenced construction in German yards in 1912–1913 ordered by the Russian Navy, costing around 9 million marks.",
"The ships were seized at the outbreak of World War I becoming , and .",
"Two larger cruisers, and were also commenced and entered service in 1915.More torpedo boats were constructed, with gradually increasing sizes having reached 800 tons for the V-25 to V-30 craft constructed by AG Vulcan in Kiel before 1914.In 1912 Germany created a Mediterranean squadron consisting of the battlecruiser ''Goeben'' and light cruiser ''Breslau''.===Air power===Naval trials of balloons began in 1891, but the results were unsatisfactory and none were purchased by the navy.",
"In 1895 Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin attempted to interest both the army and navy in his new rigid airships, but without success.",
"The Zeppelin rigids were considered too slow and there were concerns with their reliability operating over water.",
"In 1909 the navy rejected proposals for aircraft to be launched from ships, and again in 1910 declined Zeppelin's airships.",
"Finally in 1911, trials with aircraft began and in 1912 Tirpitz agreed to purchase the first airship for naval reconnaissance at a cost of 850,000 marks.The machine had insufficient range () to operate over Britain, but had machine guns for use against aircraft and experimental bombs.",
"The following year ten more were ordered and a new naval air division was created at Johannisthal, near Berlin.",
"However, in September 1913 L 1 was destroyed in a storm, while the following month L 2 was lost in a gas explosion.",
"Orders for the undelivered machines were cancelled, leaving the navy with one machine, the L 3.In 1910 Prince Heinrich had learned to fly and supported the cause of naval aviation.",
"In 1911 experiments took place with Albatros seaplanes and in 1912 Tirpitz authorized 200,000 marks for seaplane trials.",
"The Curtiss seaplane was adopted.",
"By 1913 there were four aeroplanes, now including a British Sopwith, and long-term plans to create six naval air stations by 1918.By 1914, the ''Marine-Fliegerabteilung'', the naval counterpart to the well-established ''Fliegertruppe'' land-based aviation units of the Army, comprised twelve seaplanes and one landplane and disposed of a budget of 8.5 million marks.",
"Trials in 1914 using seaplanes operating with the fleet were less than impressive; out of four taking part one crashed, one was unable to take off and only one succeeded in all tasks.",
"The most successful aircraft had been the British design, and indeed experiments in Britain had been proceeding with the support of Winston Churchill, and included converting ferries and liners into seaplane carriers."
],
[
"World War I",
"By the start of the First World War, the German Imperial Navy possessed 22 pre-Dreadnoughts, 14 dreadnought battleships and 4 battle-cruisers.",
"A further three ships of the ''König'' class were completed between August and November 1914, and two ''Bayern''-class battleships entered service in 1916.The battlecruisers ''Derfflinger'', , and were completed in September 1914, March 1916, and May 1917, respectively.",
"All but the latest pre-Dreadnoughts were soon decommissioned, so that their crews could be transferred to more useful vessels.",
"The main fighting forces of the navy were to become the High Seas Fleet and the U-boat fleet.",
"Smaller fleets were deployed to the German overseas protectorates, the most prominent being assigned to the East Asia Squadron at Qingdao.The German Navy's U-boats were also instrumental in the sinking of the passenger liner and auxiliary cruiser, the on 7 May 1915, which was one of the main events that led to the USA joining the war two years later in 1917.===Engagements===Flags used by the Imperial German NavyNotable battles fought by the Navy were:* Battle of Heligoland Bight (Rear Admiral Leberecht Maass) – 1914* Battle of Coronel (Vice Admiral Maximilian von Spee) – 1914.The East Asia Squadron defeated the British West Indies Squadron* Battle of the Falkland Islands (Vice Admiral Maximilian von Spee) – 1914.The East Asia Squadron was defeated by British battlecruisers* Battle of Dogger Bank (Vice Admiral Franz Hipper) – 1915.Armoured cruiser ''Blücher'' sank and British battlecruiser ''Lion'' put out of action.",
"* Battle of the Gulf of Riga (Vice Admiral Ehrhard Schmidt)* Battle of Jutland (Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer; Vice Admiral Franz Hipper) -1916.In the largest naval battle of the war several British ships were sunk or damaged but the High Seas Fleet was unable to damage the British Grand Fleet sufficiently to threaten the blockade of Germany.",
"* Operation Albion, including Battle of Moon Sound (Vice Admiral Ehrhard Schmidt) – 1917.In the Baltic against Russian forces.",
"* First Battle of the Atlantic – U-boat warfareNotable minor battles:* Battle of Gotland* First Battle of Dover Strait – 1916.Torpedo boat attack on Dover Barrage* Second Battle of Dover Strait – 1917.Attack on Dover Barrage* Battle of Cocos* Raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby – 1914.Bombardment of British east coast ports.",
"* Pursuit of Goeben and Breslau* Bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft – 1916.Bombardment of British east coast ports.",
"* Battle of TrindadeMinor engagements included the commerce raiding carried out by the ''Emden'', , and the sailing ship and commerce raider .The Imperial Navy carried out land operations, e.g.",
"operating the long-range Paris Gun which was based on a naval gun.",
"The Siege of Tsingtao (Qingdao) used naval troops as Qingdao was a naval base, and also as the Imperial Navy was directly under the Imperial Government (the German Army was made up of regiments from the various states).Following the Battle of Jutland, the capital ships of the Imperial Navy had been confined to inactive service in harbor.",
"In October 1918, the Imperial Naval Command in Kiel under Admiral Franz von Hipper, without authorization, planned to dispatch the fleet for a last battle against the Royal Navy in the English Channel.",
"The naval order of 24 October 1918 and the preparations to sail first triggered the Kiel Mutiny among the affected sailors and then a general revolution which was to sweep aside the monarchy within a few days."
],
[
"Marines",
"The Marines were referred to as '''''Seebataillone''''' (sea battalions).",
"They served in the Prussian Navy, the North German Federal Navy, the Imperial German Navy and in the modern German Navy."
],
[
"Naval aviation",
"Friedrich Christiansen in 1918The ''Marine-Fliegerabteilung'' consisted of Zeppelins (airships), observation balloons and fixed-wing aircraft.The main use of the Zeppelins was in reconnaissance over the North Sea and the Baltic, where the endurance of the craft led German warships to a number of Allied vessels.",
"Zeppelin patrolling had priority over any other airship activity.",
"During the entire war around 1,200 scouting flights were made.",
"During 1915 the German Navy had some 15 Zeppelins in commission and was able to have two or more patrolling continuously at any one time.",
"They kept the British ships from approaching Germany, spotted when and where the British were laying sea-mines, and later aided in the destruction of those mines.",
"Zeppelins would sometimes land on the sea surface next to a minesweeper, bring aboard an officer and show him the lay of the mines.",
"The Naval and Army Air Services also directed a number of strategic raids against Britain, leading the way in bombing techniques and also forcing the British to bolster their anti-aircraft defences.",
"The possibility of airship raids were approved by the Kaiser on 9 January 1915, although he excluded London as a target and further demanded that no attacks be made on historic or government buildings or museums.",
"The night-time raids were intended to target only military sites on the east coast and around the Thames estuary, but difficulties in navigation and the height from which the bombs were dropped made accurate bombing impossible, and most bombs fell on civilian targets or open countryside.Stationed in North Sea coastal airfields, German naval aircraft often fought against their British counterparts of the Royal Naval Air Service.",
"Naval pilots flew aircraft that were also used by the German Army's ''Luftstreitkräfte'' in addition to seaplanes.",
"Theo Osterkamp was one of the original naval pilots, the first German pilot to fly a land-based aircraft to England on a reconnaissance mission, and its leading ace with 32 victories.",
"By war's end, the roster of German naval flying aces also included Gotthard Sachsenberg (31 victories), Alexander Zenzes (18 victories), Friedrich Christiansen (13 victories), Karl Meyer (8 victories), Karl Scharon (8 victories), and Hans Goerth (7 victories).",
"Another decorated aviator was Gunther Plüschow who shot down a Japanese plane during the Siege of Tsingtao and was the only German combatant to escape from a prison camp in Britain.List of aircraft that were assigned to naval air service:* ''Kaiserliche Werft Danzig'' 1105 – trainer* ''Hansa-Brandenburg'' W.12 – fighter floatplane* ''Hansa-Brandenburg'' W.29 – fighter floatplaneNaval Air Service Units included:''Marine Jagdgruppe Flandern'' composed of:* ''Marine Feld Jasta'' I* ''Marine Feldflieger Abteilung'' II"
],
[
"Post-war",
"After the end of World War I, the bulk of the navy's modern ships (74 in all) were interned at Scapa Flow (November 1918), where the entire fleet (with a few exceptions) was scuttled by its crews on 21 June 1919 on orders from its commander, Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter.Ernest Cox subsequently salvaged many of the Scapa Flow ships.The surviving ships of the Imperial Navy became the basis for the ''Reichsmarine'' of the Weimar Republic."
],
[
"Ranks and ratings",
"The Imperial German Navy's rank and rating system combined that of Prussia's with the navies of other northern states."
],
[
"War crimes",
"Poster condemning the 1914 Raid on ScarboroughThe Imperial German Navy was implicated in several war crimes committed during the First World War, most notably:* Raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby in 1914, in which several British ports were bombarded causing 112 civilian deaths.",
"* The U-boat campaign.",
"Prize rules, which required commerce raiders to warn their targets and allow time for the crew to board lifeboats were disregarded and commercial vessels were sunk regardless of nationality, cargo, or destination.",
"Following the 1915 sinking of the the practice was withdrawn, but was then resumed in February 1917.This outraged the U.S. public, prompting the U.S. to enter the war on Allied side.",
"* The execution of the civilian captain Charles Fryatt, who, while in command of the passenger ship , attempted to ram the submarine .",
"* The sinking of the hospital ships HMHS ''Llandovery Castle'', HS ''Koningin Regentes'' and HMHS ''Dover Castle''."
],
[
"See also",
"* Anglo-German naval arms race* German entry into World War I* German Imperial Admiralty* Imperial German plans for the invasion of the United Kingdom* ''Kriegsmarine''* List of ships of the Imperial German Navy* List of naval ships of Germany* ''Marine-Regatta-Verein''* Naval warfare of World War I* ''Reichsflotte''"
],
[
"References",
"===Works cited===* * Franks, Norman; Bailey, Frank W.; Guest, Russell.",
"''Above the Lines: The Aces and Fighter Units of the German Air Service, Naval Air Service and Flanders Marine Corps, 1914–1918''.",
"Grub Street, 1993., .",
"* * Halpern, Paul G. ''A naval history of World War I'' (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1995).",
"* * Lehmann, Ernst A.; Mingos, Howard.",
"''The Zeppelins: The Development of the Airship, with the Story of the Zepplin Air Raids in the World War''.",
"Chapter VI: \"THE NORTH SEA PATROL—THE ZEPPELINS AT JUTLAND\"(online chapter).",
"* *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Berghahn, Volker.",
"\"Naval Armaments and Social Crisis: Germany Before 1914\" in ''War, Economy and the Military Mind'' (Routledge, 2020) pp. 61–88.",
"* Bird, Keith.",
"\"The Tirpitz Legacy: The Political Ideology of German Sea Power,\" ''Journal of Military History,'' July 2005, Vol.",
"69 Issue 3, pp 821–825.",
"* * Bönker, Dirk.",
"''Militarism in a Global Age: Naval Ambitions in Germany and the United States before World War I'' (2012) excerpt and text search; online review* * Dodson, Aidan.",
"''The Kaiser’s Battlefleet: German Capital Ships 1871–1918'' (Seaforth Publishing, 2016).",
"* Epkenhans, Michael.",
"''Tirpitz: Architect of the German High Seas Fleet'' (2008).",
"* Hobson, Rolf.",
"\"The German School of Naval Thought and the Origins of the Tirpitz Plan 1875-1900.\"",
"''Forsvarsstudier'' no.",
"2/1996 93pp online* Hoerber, Thomas.",
"\"Prevail or perish: Anglo-German naval competition at the beginning of the twentieth century,\" ''European Security'' (2011) 20#1, pp. 65–79.",
"* Kelly, Patrick J.",
"\"Strategy, Tactics, and Turf Wars: Tirpitz and the Oberkommando der Marine, 1892–1895,\" ''Journal of Military History,'' Oct 2002, Vol.",
"66 Issue 4, pp.",
"1033–1060* * Kennedy, Paul M. ''The rise of the Anglo-German antagonism, 1860-1914'' (1980) online* Kennedy, Paul.",
"''The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers'' (1989) online* Kennedy, Paul.",
"''The Rise And Fall of British Naval Mastery'' (1976)* Kennedy, Paul.",
"\"Strategic Aspects of the Anglo-German Naval Race\", in Kennedy, ''Strategy and Diplomacy 1870-1915'' (1983) online* Langhorne, Richard.",
"“The Naval Question in Anglo-German Relations, 1912-1914.” ''Historical Journal'' 14#2 1971, pp.",
"359–70, online.",
"* Lynn-Jones, Sean M. \"Detente and deterrence: Anglo-German relations, 1911-1914.\"",
"''International Security'' 11.2 (1986): 121–150.",
"* MacMillan, Margaret.",
"''The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914'' (2013) online* * Maurer, John H. \"The Anglo-German naval rivalry and informal arms control, 1912-1914.\"",
"''Journal of Conflict Resolution;; 36.2 (1992): 284-308''.",
"* Olivier, David H. ''German Naval Strategy, 1856-1888: Forerunners to Tirpitz'' (2004).",
"* Padfield, Peter.",
"''The Great Naval Race: Anglo-German Naval Rivalry 1900-1914'' (2005) * Parkinson, Roger.",
"''Dreadnought: The Ship that Changed the World'' (IB Tauris, 2014).",
"* Rahn, Werner.",
"\"German Navies from 1848 to 2016: Their Development and Courses from Confrontation to Cooperation.\"",
"''Naval War College Review'' 70.4 (2017).",
"online* * Rüger, Jan. \"Revisiting the Anglo-German Antagonism,\" ''Journal of Modern History'' (2011) 83#3, pp.",
"579–617 in JSTOR* * Seligmann, Matthew S., and Frank Nägler.",
"''The Naval Route to the Abyss: The Anglo-German Naval Race 1895-1914'' (Routledge, 2016).",
"* Seligmann, Matthew S. \"The Anglo-German Naval Race, 1898–1914.\"",
"in ''Arms Races in International Politics: from the Nineteenth to the Twenty-First Century'' (2016) pp: 21-40.",
"* Sondhaus, Lawrence.",
"\"'The Spirit of the Army’ at Sea: The Prussian-German Naval Officer Corps, 1847–1897.\"",
"''International History Review'' 17.3 (1995): 459–484.",
"* Steinberg, Jonathan. ''",
"Yesterday's Deterrent.",
"Tilpitz and the Birth of the German Battle Fleet '' (1965).",
"* Vagts, Alfred.",
"\"Land and Sea Power in the Second German Reich.\"",
"''Journal of Military History'' 3.4 (1939): 210+ online* Woodward, E.L. ''Great Britain and the German Navy'' (1935) 535pp; scholarly history online===Primary sources===* Scheer, Admiral Reinhard.",
"''Germany's High Sea Fleet in the World War'' (reprint Frontline Books, 2014).===In German===* Cord Eberspächer: ''Die deutsche Yangtse-Patrouille.",
"Deutsche Kanonenbootpolitik in China im Zeitalter des Imperialismus 1900–1914'' (''The German Yangtse Patrol.",
"German gunboat diplomacy in China in the age of imperialism''), Bochum 2004.",
"* Gerhard Wiechmann: ''Die preußisch-deutsche Marine in Lateinamerika 1866–1914.Eine Studie deutscher Kanonenbootpolitik'' (''The Prussian-German Navy in Latin America 1866–1914.A study of German gunboat diplomacy 1866–1914''), Bremen 2002, .",
"* Schneider, Dennis: Die Flottenpolitik im Deutschen Kaiserreich, 1890er Jahre bis zum Ausbruch des Ersten Weltkrieges, GRIN Verlag 2009."
],
[
"External links",
"* Imperial German Navy in World War I* German Naval History WW1* Kaiserliche Marine Deployment 1914* U-boat War in World War One* Historical footage of various vessels of the Imperial German Navy – ''filmportal.de''"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kriegsmarine"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''''' (, ) was the navy of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945.It superseded the Imperial German Navy of the German Empire (1871–1918) and the inter-war (1919–1935) of the Weimar Republic.",
"The was one of three official branches, along with the and the , of the , the German armed forces from 1935 to 1945.In violation of the Treaty of Versailles, the grew rapidly during German naval rearmament in the 1930s.",
"The 1919 treaty had limited the size of the German navy and prohibited the building of submarines.",
"ships were deployed to the waters around Spain during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) under the guise of enforcing non-intervention, but in reality supporting the Nationalists against the Spanish Republicans.In January 1939, Plan Z, a massive shipbuilding program, was ordered, calling for surface naval parity with the British Royal Navy by 1944.When World War II broke out in September 1939, Plan Z was shelved in favour of a crash building program for submarines (U-boats) instead of capital surface warships, and land and air forces were given priority of strategic resources.The Commander-in-Chief of the (as for all branches of the armed forces during the period of absolute Nazi power) was Adolf Hitler, who exercised his authority through the ('High Command of the Navy').Among the 's most significant ships were its U-boats, most of which were constructed after Plan Z was abandoned at the beginning of World War II.",
"Wolfpacks were rapidly assembled groups of submarines which attacked British convoys during the first half of the Battle of the Atlantic, but this tactic was largely abandoned by May 1943, when U-boat losses mounted.",
"Along with the U-boats, surface commerce raiders (including auxiliary cruisers) were used to disrupt Allied shipping in the early years of the war, the most famous of these being the heavy cruisers ''Admiral Graf Spee'' and ''Admiral Scheer'' and the battleship ''Bismarck''.",
"However, the adoption of convoy escorts, especially in the Atlantic, greatly reduced the effectiveness of surface commerce raiders against convoys.Following the end of World War II in 1945, the 's remaining ships were divided up among the Allied powers and were used for various purposes including minesweeping.",
"Some were loaded with superfluous chemical weapons and scuttled."
],
[
"History",
"===Post–World War I origins===Under the terms of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, Germany was only allowed a minimal navy of 15,000 personnel, six capital ships of no more than 10,000 tons, six cruisers, twelve destroyers, twelve torpedo boats, and no submarines or aircraft carriers.",
"Military aircraft were also banned, so Germany could have no naval aviation.",
"Under the treaty Germany could only build new ships to replace old ones.",
"All the ships allowed and personnel were taken over from the ''Kaiserliche Marine'', which was renamed the .From the outset, Germany worked to circumvent the military restrictions of the Treaty of Versailles.",
"The Germans continued to develop U-boats through a submarine design office in the Netherlands (''NV Ingenieurskantoor voor Scheepsbouw'') and a torpedo research program in Sweden where the G7e torpedo was developed.Even before the Nazi seizure of power on 30 January 1933 the German government decided on 15 November 1932 to launch a prohibited naval re-armament program that included U-boats, airplanes, and an aircraft carrier.The launching of the first pocket battleship, in 1931 (as a replacement for the old pre-dreadnought battleship ) was a step in the formation of a modern German fleet.",
"The building of the ''Deutschland'' caused consternation among the French and the British as they had expected that the restrictions of the Treaty of Versailles would limit the replacement of the pre-dreadnought battleships to coastal defence ships, suitable only for defensive warfare.",
"By using innovative construction techniques, the Germans had built a heavy ship suitable for offensive warfare on the high seas while still abiding by the letter of the treaty.===Nazi control===Erich Raeder, commander of the ''Kriegsmarine'' until 1943When the Nazis came to power in 1933, Hitler soon began to more brazenly ignore many of the Treaty restrictions and accelerated German naval rearmament.",
"The Anglo-German Naval Agreement of 18 June 1935 allowed Germany to build a navy equivalent to 35% of the British surface ship tonnage and 45% of British submarine tonnage; battleships were to be limited to no more than 35,000 tons.",
"That same year the ''Reichsmarine'' was renamed as the ''Kriegsmarine''.",
"In April 1939, as tensions escalated between the United Kingdom and Germany over Poland, Hitler unilaterally rescinded the restrictions of the Anglo-German Naval Agreement.The building-up of the German fleet in the time period of 1935–1939 was slowed by problems with marshaling enough manpower and material for ship building.",
"This was because of the simultaneous and rapid build-up of the German Army and Air Force which demanded substantial effort and resources.",
"Some projects, like the D-class cruisers and the P-class cruisers, had to be cancelled.===Spanish Civil War===The first military action of the ''Kriegsmarine'' came during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939).",
"Following the outbreak of hostilities in July 1936 several large warships of the German fleet were sent to the region.",
"The heavy cruisers ''Deutschland'' and , and the light cruiser were the first to be sent in July 1936.These large ships were accompanied by the 2nd Torpedo-boat Flotilla.",
"The German presence was used to covertly support Francisco Franco's Nationalists although the immediate involvement of the ''Deutschland'' was humanitarian relief operations and evacuating 9,300 refugees, including 4,550 German citizens.",
"Following the brokering of the International Non-Intervention Patrol to enforce an international arms embargo the ''Kriegsmarine'' was allotted the patrol area between Cabo de Gata (Almeria) and Cabo de Oropesa.",
"Numerous vessels served as part of these duties including .",
"On 29 May 1937 the ''Deutschland'' was attacked off Ibiza by two bombers from the Republican Air Force.",
"Total casualties from the Republican attack were 31 dead and 110 wounded, 71 seriously, mostly burn victims.",
"In retaliation the ''Admiral Scheer'' shelled Almeria on 31 May killing 19–20 civilians, wounding 50 and destroying 35 buildings.",
"Following further attacks by Republican submarines against the off the port of Oran between 15 and 18 June 1937 Germany withdrew from the Non-Intervention Patrol.U-boats also participated in covert action against Republican shipping as part of Operation Ursula.",
"At least eight U-boats engaged a small number of targets in the area throughout the conflict.",
"(By comparison the Italian ''Regia Marina'' operated 58 submarines in the area as part of the ''Sottomarini Legionari''.",
")===Plan Z===The ''Kriegsmarine'' saw as her main tasks the controlling of the Baltic Sea and winning a war against France in connection with the German army, because France was seen as the most likely enemy in the event of war.",
"But in 1938 Hitler wanted to have the possibility of winning a war against Great Britain at sea in the coming years.",
"Therefore, he ordered plans for such a fleet from the ''Kriegsmarine''.",
"From the three proposed plans (X, Y and Z) he approved Plan Z in January 1939.This blueprint for the new German naval construction program envisaged building a navy of approximately 800 ships during the period 1939–1947.Hitler demanded that the program was to be completed by 1945.The main force of Plan Z were six H-class battleships.",
"In the version of Plan Z drawn up in August 1939 the German fleet was planned to consist of the following ships by 1945:* 4 aircraft carriers* 10 battleships* 15 armored ships (''Panzerschiffe'')* 3 battlecruisers* 5 heavy cruisers* 44 light cruisers* 158 destroyers and torpedo boats* 249 submarines* Numerous smaller craftPersonnel strength was planned to rise to over 200,000.The planned naval program was not very far advanced by the time World War II began.",
"In 1939 two s and two H-class battleships were laid down and parts for two further H-class battleships and three s were in production.",
"The strength of the German fleet at the beginning of the war was not even 20% of Plan Z.",
"On 1 September 1939, the navy still had a total personnel strength of only 78,000, and it was not at all ready for a major role in the war.",
"Because of the long time it would take to get the Plan Z fleet ready for action and shortage in workers and material in wartime, Plan Z was essentially shelved in September 1939 and the resources allocated for its realisation were largely redirected to the construction of U-boats, which would be ready for war against the United Kingdom more quickly.===World War II===The ''Kriegsmarine'' took part in the Battle of Westerplatte and the Battle of the Danzig Bay during the invasion of Poland.",
"In 1939, major events for the ''Kriegsmarine'' were the sinking of the British aircraft carrier and the British battleship and the loss of at the Battle of the River Plate.",
"Submarine attacks on Britain's vital maritime supply routes (Battle of the Atlantic) started immediately at the outbreak of war, although they were hampered by the lack of well placed ports from which to operate.",
"Throughout the war the ''Kriegsmarine'' was responsible for coastal artillery protecting major ports and important coastal areas.",
"It also operated anti-aircraft batteries protecting major ports.In April 1940, the German Navy was heavily involved in the invasion of Norway, where it suffered significant losses, which included the heavy cruiser sunk by artillery and torpedoes from Norwegian shore batteries at the Oscarsborg Fortress in the Oslofjord.",
"Ten destroyers were lost in the Battles of Narvik (half of German destroyer strength at the time), and two light cruisers, the ''Königsberg'' which was bombed and sunk by Royal Navy aircraft in Bergen, and the ''Karlsruhe'' which was sunk off the coast of Kristiansand by a British submarine.",
"The ''Kriegsmarine'' did in return sink some British warships during this campaign, including the aircraft carrier .The losses in the Norwegian Campaign left only a handful of undamaged heavy ships available for the planned, but never executed, invasion of the United Kingdom (Operation Sea Lion) in the summer of 1940.There were serious doubts that the invasion sea routes could have been protected against British naval interference.",
"The Fall of France and the conquest of Norway gave German submarines greatly improved access to British shipping routes in the Atlantic.",
"At first, British convoys lacked escorts that were adequate either in numbers or equipment and, as a result, the submarines had much success for few losses (this period was dubbed the First Happy Time by the Germans).Italy entered the war in June 1940, and the Battle of the Mediterranean began: from September 1941 to May 1944 some 62 German submarines were transferred there, sneaking past the British naval base at Gibraltar.",
"The Mediterranean submarines sank 24 major Allied warships (including 12 destroyers, 4 cruisers, 2 aircraft carriers, and 1 battleship) and 94 merchant ships (449,206 tons of shipping).",
"None of the Mediterranean submarines made it back to their home bases, as they were all either sunk in battle or scuttled by their crews at the end of the war.The crew of a minesweeper in France, 1941In 1941 one of the four modern German battleships, sank while breaking out into the Atlantic for commerce raiding.",
"The ''Bismarck'' was in turn hunted down by much superior British forces after being crippled by an air-launched torpedo.",
"She was subsequently scuttled after being rendered a burning wreck by two British battleships.In November 1941 during the Battle of the Mediterranean, German submarine ''U-331'' sank the British battleship ''Barham'', which had a magazine explosion and sank in minutes, with the loss of 862, or 2/3 of her crew.During 1941, the ''Kriegsmarine'' and the United States Navy became ''de facto'' belligerents, although war was not formally declared, leading to the sinking of the .",
"This course of events were the result of the American decision to support Britain with its Lend-Lease program and the subsequent decision to escort Lend-Lease convoys with US war ships through the western part of the Atlantic.The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent German declaration of war against the United States in December 1941 led to another phase of the Battle of the Atlantic.",
"In Operation Drumbeat and subsequent operations until August 1942, a large number of Allied merchant ships were sunk by submarines off the US coast as the Americans had not prepared for submarine warfare, despite clear warnings (this was the so-called Second Happy Time for the German Navy).",
"The situation became so serious that military leaders feared for the whole Allied strategy.",
"The vast American ship building capabilities and naval forces were however now brought into the war and soon more than offset any losses inflicted by the German submariners.",
"In 1942, the submarine warfare continued on all fronts, and when German forces in the Soviet Union reached the Black Sea, a few submarines were eventually transferred there.In February 1942, the three large warships stationed on the Atlantic coast at Brest were evacuated back to German ports for deployment to Norway.",
"The ships had been repeatedly damaged by air attacks by the RAF, the supply ships to support Atlantic sorties had been destroyed by the Royal Navy, and Hitler now felt that Norway was the \"zone of destiny\" for these ships.",
"The two battleships and and the heavy cruiser passed through the English Channel (Channel Dash) on their way to Norway despite British efforts to stop them.",
"Not since the Spanish Armada in 1588 had any warships in wartime done this.",
"It was a tactical victory for the ''Kriegsmarine'' and a blow to British morale, but the withdrawal removed the possibility of attacking allied convoys in the Atlantic with heavy surface ships.With the German attack on the Soviet Union in June 1941 Britain started to send Arctic convoys with military goods around Norway to support their new ally.",
"In 1942 German forces began heavily attacking these convoys, mostly with bombers and U-boats.",
"The big ships of the ''Kriegsmarine'' in Norway were seldom involved in these attacks, because of the inferiority of German radar technology, and because Hitler and the leadership of the ''Kriegsmarine'' feared losses of these precious ships.",
"The most effective of these attacks was the near destruction of Convoy PQ 17 in July 1942.Later in the war German attacks on these convoys were mostly reduced to U-boat activities and the mass of the allied freighters reached their destination in Soviet ports.The Battle of the Barents Sea in December 1942 was an attempt by a German naval surface force to attack an Allied Arctic convoy.",
"However, the advantage was not pressed home and they returned to base.",
"There were serious implications: this failure infuriated Hitler, who nearly enforced a decision to scrap the surface fleet.",
"Instead, resources were diverted to new U-boats, and the surface fleet became a lesser threat to the Allies.The battleship in Norway, 1944After December 1943 when had been sunk in an attack on an Arctic convoy in the Battle of North Cape by , most German surface ships in bases at the Atlantic were blockaded in, or close to, their ports as a ''fleet in being'', for fear of losing them in action and to tie up British naval forces.",
"The largest of these ships, the battleship , was stationed in Norway as a threat to Allied shipping and also as a defence against a potential Allied invasion.",
"When she was sunk, after several attempts, by British bombers in November 1944 (Operation Catechism), several British capital ships could be moved to the Far East.From late 1944 until the end of the war, the surviving surface fleet of the ''Kriegsmarine'' (heavy cruisers: , , , , light cruisers: , , ) was heavily engaged in providing artillery support to the retreating German land forces along the Baltic coast and in ferrying civilian refugees to the western Baltic Sea parts of Germany (Mecklenburg, Schleswig-Holstein) in large rescue operations.",
"Large parts of the population of eastern Germany fled the approaching Red Army out of fear for Soviet retaliation (mass rapes, killings, and looting by Soviet troops did occur).",
"The ''Kriegsmarine'' evacuated two million civilians and troops in the evacuation of East Prussia and Danzig from January to May 1945.It was during this activity that the catastrophic sinking of several large passenger ships occurred: and were sunk by Soviet submarines, while was sunk by British bombers, each sinking claiming thousands of civilian lives.",
"The ''Kriegsmarine'' also provided important assistance in the evacuation of the fleeing German civilians of Pomerania and Stettin in March and April 1945.A desperate measure of the ''Kriegsmarine'' to fight the superior strength of the Western Allies from 1944 was the formation of the ''Kleinkampfverbände'' (Small Battle Units).",
"These were special naval units with frogmen, manned torpedoes, motorboats laden with explosives and so on.",
"The more effective of these weapons and units were the development and deployment of midget submarines like the ''Molch'' and ''Seehund''.",
"In the last stage of the war, the ''Kriegsmarine'' also organised a number of divisions of infantry from its personnel.Between 1943 and 1945, a group of U-boats known as the ''Monsun'' Boats (''Monsun Gruppe'') operated in the Indian Ocean from Japanese bases in the occupied Dutch East Indies and Malaya.",
"Allied convoys had not yet been organised in those waters, so initially many ships were sunk.",
"However, this situation was soon remedied.",
"During the later war years, the ''Monsun'' Boats were also used as a means of exchanging vital war supplies with Japan.During 1943 and 1944, due to Allied anti-submarine tactics and better equipment the U-boat fleet started to suffer heavy losses.",
"The turning point of the Battle of the Atlantic was during Black May in 1943, when the U-boat fleet started suffering heavy losses and the number of Allied ships sunk started to decrease.",
"Radar, longer range air cover, sonar, improved tactics, and new weapons all contributed.",
"German technical developments, such as the ''Schnorchel'', attempted to counter these.",
"Near the end of the war a small number of the new ''Elektroboot'' U-boats (types XXI and XXIII) became operational, the first submarines designed to operate submerged at all times.",
"The ''Elektroboote'' had the potential to negate the Allied technological and tactical advantage, although they were deployed too late to see combat in the war.===War crimes===Anti-Jewish measures ordered by the German naval commander in Liepāja, 5 July 1941Following the capture of Liepāja in Latvia by the Germans on 29 June 1941, the town came under the command of the ''Kriegsmarine''.",
"On 1 July 1941, the town commandant ''Korvettenkapitän'' Stein ordered that ten hostages be shot for every act of sabotage, and further put civilians in the zone of targeting by declaring that Red Army soldiers were hiding among them in civilian attire.On 5 July 1941 ''Korvettenkapitän'' Brückner, who had taken over from Stein, issued a set of anti-Jewish regulations in the local newspaper, ''Kurzemes Vārds''.",
"Summarized these were as follows:* All Jews were to wear the yellow star on the front and back of their clothing;* Shopping hours for Jews were restricted to 10:00 a.m. to 12:00 noon.",
"Jews were only allowed out of their residences for these hours and from 3:00 p.m. to 5:00 p.m.;* Jews were barred from public events and transportation and were not to walk on the beach;* Jews were required to leave the pavement if they encountered a German in uniform;* Jewish shops were required to display the sign \"A Jewish-owned business\" in the window;* Jews were to surrender all radios, typewriters, uniforms, arms, and means of transportationOn 16 July 1941, ''Fregattenkapitän'' Dr. Hans Kawelmacher was appointed the German naval commandant in Liepāja.",
"On 22 July, Kawelmacher sent a telegram to the German Navy's Baltic Command in Kiel, which stated that he wanted 100 SS and fifty ''Schutzpolizei'' (protective police) men sent to Liepāja for \"quick implementation Jewish problem\".",
"Kawelmacher hoped to accelerate the killings complaining: \"Here about 8,000 Jews... with present SS-personnel, this would take one year, which is untenable for the pacification of Liepāja.\"",
"Kawelmacher on 27 July 1941: \"Jewish problem Libau largely solved by execution of about 1,100 male Jews by Riga SS commando on 24 and 25.7.",
"\"In September 1939, U-boat commander Fritz-Julius Lemp of ''U-30'' sank SS Athenia (1922) after mistaking it for a legitimate military target, resulting in the deaths of 117 civilians.",
"Germany did not admit responsibility for the incident until after the war.",
"Lemp was killed in action in 1941.U-247 was alleged to have shot at sunken ship survivors, but as the vessel was lost at sea with its crew, there was no investigation.",
"In 1945, U-boat Commander Heinz-Wilhelm Eck of was tried along with four of his crewmen for shooting at survivors.",
"All were found guilty, with three of them, including Eck, being executed.",
"In 1946, Hellmuth von Ruckteschell was sentenced to 10 years in prison, reduced to 7 years on appeal, for the illegal sinking of ships and criminal negligence for failing to protect the downed crew of the SS Anglo Saxon.",
"Ruckteschell died in prison in 1948.===Post-war division===After the war, the German surface ships that remained afloat (only the cruisers and , and a dozen destroyers were operational) were divided among the victors by the Tripartite Naval Commission.",
"The US used the heavy cruiser in nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll in 1946 as a target ship for the Operation Crossroads.",
"Some (like the unfinished aircraft carrier ) were used for target practice with conventional weapons, while others (mostly destroyers and torpedo boats) were put into the service of Allied navies that lacked surface ships after the war.",
"The training barque SSS ''Horst Wessel'' was recommissioned USCGC ''Eagle'' and remains in active service, assigned to the United States Coast Guard Academy.",
"The British, French, and Soviet navies received the destroyers, and some torpedo boats went to the Danish and Norwegian navies.",
"For the purpose of mine clearing, the Royal Navy employed German crews and minesweepers from June 1945 to January 1948, organised in the German Mine Sweeping Administration (GMSA), which consisted of 27,000 members of the former ''Kriegsmarine'' and 300 vessels.The destroyers and the Soviet share light cruiser were all retired by the end of the 1950s, but five escort destroyers were returned from the French to the new West German Navy in the 1950s and three 1945 scuttled type XXI and XXIII U-boats were raised by West Germany and integrated into their new navy.",
"In 1956, with West Germany's accession to NATO, a new navy was established and was referred to as the ''Bundesmarine'' (Federal Navy).",
"Some ''Kriegsmarine'' commanders like Erich Topp and Otto Kretschmer went on to serve in the ''Bundesmarine''.",
"In East Germany the ''Volksmarine'' (People's Navy) was established in 1956.With the reunification of Germany in 1990, it was decided to use the name ''Deutsche Marine'' (German Navy)."
],
[
"Major wartime operations",
"* ''Wikinger'' (\"Viking\") (1940) – foray by destroyers into the North Sea* ''Weserübung'' (\"Operation Weser\") (1940) – invasion of Denmark and Norway* ''Juno'' (1940) – operation to disrupt Allied supplies to Norway* ''Nordseetour'' (1940) – first Atlantic operation of ''Admiral Hipper''* ''Berlin'' (1941) – Atlantic cruise of ''Scharnhorst'' and ''Gneisenau''* ''Rheinübung'' (\"Rhine exercise\") (1941) – breakout by ''Bismarck'' and ''Prinz Eugen''* ''Doppelschlag'' (\"Double blow\") (1942) – anti-shipping operation off Novaya Zemlya by ''Admiral Scheer'' and ''Admiral Hipper''* ''Sportpalast'' (1942) – aborted operation (including ''Tirpitz'') to attack Arctic convoys* ''Rösselsprung'' (\"Knights Move\") (1942) – operation (including ''Tirpitz'') to attack Arctic convoy PQ 17* ''Wunderland'' (1942) – anti-shipping operation in Kara Sea by ''Admiral Scheer''* ''Paukenschlag'' (\"Drumbeat\" (\"Beat of the Kettle Drum\"); \"Second Happy Time\") (1942) – U-boat campaign off the United States east coast* ''Neuland'' (\"New Land\") (1942) – U-boat campaign in the Caribbean Sea; launched in conjunction with Operation Drumbeat* ''Regenbogen'' (\"Rainbow\") (1942) – failed attack on Arctic convoy JW 51B, by ''Admiral Hipper'' and ''Lützow''* ''Cerberus'' (1942) – movement of capital ships from Brest to home ports in Germany (Channel Dash)* ''Ostfront'' (\"East front\") (1943) – final operation of ''Scharnhorst'', to intercept convoy JW 55B* ''Domino'' (1943) – second aborted Arctic sortie by ''Scharnhorst'', ''Prinz Eugen,'' and destroyers* ''Zitronella'' (\"Lemon extract\") (1943) – raid upon Allied-occupied Spitzbergen (Svalbard)* ''Hannibal'' (1945) – evacuation proceedings from Courland, Danzig-West Prussia, and East Prussia* ''Deadlight'' (1945) – the British Royal Navy's postwar scuttling of ''Kriegsmarine'' U-boats"
],
[
"Ships",
"R boats operating near the coast of occupied France, 1941By the start of World War II, much of the ''Kriegsmarine'' were modern ships: fast, well-armed, and well-armoured.",
"This had been achieved by concealment but also by deliberately flouting World War I peace terms and those of various naval treaties.",
"However, the war started with the German Navy still at a distinct disadvantage in terms of sheer size with what were expected to be its primary adversaries – the navies of France and Great Britain.",
"Although a major re-armament of the navy (Plan Z) was planned, and initially begun, the start of the war in 1939 meant that the vast amounts of material required for the project were diverted to other areas.",
"The sheer disparity in size when compared to the other European powers navies prompted Raeder to write of his own navy once the war began \"The surface forces can do no more than show that they know how to die gallantly.\"",
"A number of captured ships from occupied countries were added to the German fleet as the war progressed.",
"Though six major units of the ''Kriegsmarine'' were sunk during the war (both ''Bismarck''-class battleships and both ''Scharnhorst''-class battleships, as well as two heavy cruisers), there were still many ships afloat (including four heavy cruisers and four light cruisers) as late as March 1945.Some ship types do not fit clearly into the commonly used ship classifications.",
"Where there is argument, this has been noted.===Surface ships===The main combat ships of the ''Kriegsmarine'' (excluding U-boats):====Aircraft carriers====Construction of was started in 1936 and construction of an unnamed sister ship was started two years later in 1938, but neither ship was completed.",
"In 1942 conversion of three German passenger ships (''Europa'', ''Potsdam'', ''Gneisenau'') and two unfinished cruisers, the captured French light cruiser and the German heavy cruiser , to auxiliary carriers was begun.",
"In November 1942 the conversion of the passenger ships was stopped because these ships were now seen as too slow for operations with the fleet.",
"But conversion of one of these ships, the ''Potsdam'', to a training carrier was begun instead.",
"In February 1943 all the work on carriers was halted because of the German failure during the Battle of the Barents Sea, which convinced Hitler that large warships were useless.All engineering of the aircraft carriers like catapults, arresting gears and so on were tested and developed at the ''Erprobungsstelle See Travemünde'' (Experimental Agency Sea in Travemünde) including the airplanes for the aircraft carriers, the Fieseler Fi 167 ship-borne biplane torpedo and reconnaissance bomber and the naval versions of two key early war ''Luftwaffe'' aircraft: the Messerschmitt Bf 109T fighter and the Junkers Ju 87C Stuka dive bomber.====Battleships====The after the Battle of the Denmark StraitThe ''Kriegsmarine'' completed four battleships during its existence.",
"The first pair were the 11-inch gun , consisting of the and , which participated in the invasion of Norway in 1940, and then in commerce raiding until the ''Gneisenau'' was heavily damaged by a British air raid in 1942 and the ''Scharnhorst'' was sunk in the Battle of the North Cape in late 1943.The second pair were the 15-inch gun , consisting of the and .",
"The ''Bismarck'' was sunk on her first sortie into the Atlantic in 1941 (Operation Rheinübung) although she did sink the battlecruiser ''Hood'' and severely damaged the battleship ''Prince of Wales'', while the ''Tirpitz'' was based in Norwegian ports during most of the war as a fleet in being, tying up Allied naval forces, and subject to a number of attacks by British aircraft and submarines.",
"More battleships were planned (the H-class), but construction was abandoned in September 1939.====Pocket battleships (''Panzerschiffe'')====The pocket battleships were the (renamed ''Lützow''), , and .",
"Modern commentators favour classifying these as \"heavy cruisers\" and the ''Kriegsmarine'' itself reclassified these ships as such (''Schwere Kreuzer'') in 1940.In German language usage these three ships were designed and built as \"armoured ships\" (''Panzerschiffe'') – \"pocket battleship\" is an English label.The ''Graf Spee'' was scuttled by her own crew in the Battle of the River Plate, in the Rio de la Plata estuary in December 1939.",
"''Admiral Scheer'' was bombed on 9 April 1945 in port at Kiel and badly damaged, essentially beyond repair, and rolled over at her moorings.",
"After the war that part of the harbor was filled in with rubble and the hulk buried.",
"''Lützow'' (ex-''Deutschland'') was bombed 16 April 1945 in the Baltic off Schwinemünde just west of Stettin, and settled on the shallow bottom.",
"With the Red Army advancing across the Oder, the ship was destroyed in place to prevent the Soviets capturing anything useful.",
"The wreck was dismantled and scrapped in 1948–1949.====Pre-dreadnought battleships==== (background) and (right side-foreground) in alt=Two large ships bristling with guns moored close to shore.The World War I-era pre-dreadnought battleships and were used mainly as training ships, although they also participated in several military operations, with the latter bearing the distinction of firing the opening shots of World War II.",
"and were converted into radio-guided target ships in 1928 and 1930 respectively.",
"was decommissioned in 1931 and struck from the naval register in 1936.Plans to convert her into a radio-controlled target ship for aircraft was cancelled because of the outbreak of war in 1939.====Battlecruisers====Three O-class battlecruisers were ordered in 1939, but with the start of the war the same year there were not enough resources to build the ships.====Heavy cruisers====, , and Never completed: , ====Light cruisers====''Königsberg'' visiting Gdynia, PolandThe term \"light cruiser\" is a shortening of the phrase \"light armoured cruiser\".",
"Light cruisers were defined under the Washington Naval Treaty by gun calibre.",
"Light cruiser describes a small ship that was armoured in the same way as an armoured cruiser.",
"In other words, like standard cruisers, light cruisers possessed a protective belt and a protective deck.",
"Prior to this, smaller cruisers tended to be of the protected cruiser model and possessed only an armoured deck.",
"The Kriegsmarine light cruisers were as follows:* * * * * * Never completed: three M-class cruisersNever completed: KH-1 and KH-2 (''Kreuzer'' (cruiser) Holland 1 and 2).",
"Captured in the Netherlands 1940.Both being on the stocks and building continued for the ''Kriegsmarine''.In addition, the former ''Kaiserliche Marine'' light cruiser was captured by the Germans on 11 September 1943 after the capitulation of Italy.",
"She was pressed into ''Kriegsmarine'' service for a brief time before being destroyed by British MTBs.====Auxiliary cruisers====The auxiliary cruiser ''Kormoran'' meeting a U-boat, 1940During the war, some merchant ships were converted into \"auxiliary cruisers\" and nine were used as commerce raiders sailing under false flags to avoid detection, and operated in all oceans with considerable effect.",
"The German designation for the ships was '''Handelstörkreuzer''' thus the HSK serial assigned.",
"Each had as well an administrative label more commonly used, e.g.",
"Schiff 16 = Atlantis, Schiff 41 = Kormoran, etc.",
"The auxiliary cruisers were:* (HSK-1, Schiff 36)* (HSK-2, Schiff 16)* (HSK-3, Schiff 21)* (HSK-4, Schiff 10)* (HSK-5, Schiff 33)* (HSK-6, Schiff 23)* (HSK-7, Schiff 45)* (HSK-8, Schiff 41)* (HSK-9, Schiff 28)* (HSK number not assigned, Schiff 14, never active in raider operations.",
")* (HSK not assigned, Schiff 5, never active in raider operations, used as a training ship)====Destroyers====Destroyer Although the German World War II destroyer (''Zerstörer'') fleet was modern and the ships were larger than conventional destroyers of other navies, they had problems.",
"Early classes were unstable, wet in heavy weather, suffered from engine problems, and had short range.",
"Some problems were solved with the evolution of later designs, but further developments were curtailed by the war and, ultimately, by Germany's defeat.",
"In the first year of World War II, they were used mainly to sow offensive minefields in shipping lanes close to the British coast.====Torpedo boats====Raubtier''-class torpedo boatsThese vessels evolved through the 1930s from small vessels, relying almost entirely on torpedoes, to what were effectively small destroyers with mines, torpedoes, and guns.",
"Two classes of fleet torpedo boats were planned, but not built, in the 1940s.====E-boats (''Schnellboote'')====The E-boats were fast attack craft with torpedo tubes.",
"Over 200 boats of this type were built for the ''Kriegsmarine''.====Troop ships====, ''Goya'', , , ''Wilhelm Gustloff''.====Miscellaneous====Thousands of smaller warships and auxiliaries served in the ''Kriegsmarine'', including minelayers, minesweepers, mine transports, netlayers, floating AA and torpedo batteries, command ships, decoy ships (small merchantmen with hidden weaponry), gunboats, monitors, escorts, patrol boats, sub-chasers, landing craft, landing support ships, training ships, test ships, torpedo recovery boats, dispatch boats, aviso, fishery protection ships, survey ships, harbor defense boats, target ships and their radio control vessels, motor explosive boats, weather ships, tankers, colliers, tenders, supply ships, tugs, barges, icebreakers, hospital and accommodation ships, floating cranes and docks, and many others.",
"The ''Kriegsmarine'' employed hundreds of auxiliary ''Vorpostenboote'' during the war, mostly civilian ships that were drafted and fitted with military equipment, for use in coastal operations.===Submarines===Admiral Karl Dönitz inspecting the Saint-Nazaire submarine base in France, June 1941The Submarine Arm of the ''Kriegsmarine'' was titled the ''U-bootwaffe'' (\"submarine force\").",
"At the outbreak of war, it had a fleet of 57 submarines.",
"This was increased steadily until mid-1943, when losses from Allied counter-measures matched the new vessels launched.The principal types were the Type IX, a long range type used in the western and southern Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans; the Type VII, the most numerous type, used principally in the north Atlantic; and the small Type II, for coastal waters.",
"Type X was a small class of minelayers and Type XIV was a specialised type used to support distant U-boat operations – the \"''Milchkuh''\" (Milkcow).Types XXI and XXIII, the \"''Elektroboot''\", could have negated much of the Allied anti-submarine tactics and technology, but only a few of this new type of U-boat became ready for combat at the end of the war.",
"Post-war, they became the prototype for modern conventional submarines, such as the Soviet .During World War II, about 60% of all U-boats commissioned were lost in action; 28,000 of the 40,000 U-boat crewmen were killed during the war and 8,000 were captured.",
"The remaining U-boats were either surrendered to the Allies or scuttled by their own crews at the end of the war.+Top 10 U-boat aces in World War II Name Shipping sunk Otto Kretschmer 274,333 tons (47 ships sunk) Wolfgang Lüth 225,712 tons (43 ships) Erich Topp 193,684 tons (34 ships) Karl-Friedrich Merten 186,064 tons (29 ships) Victor Schütze 171,164 tons (34 ships) Herbert Schultze 171,122 tons (26 ships) Georg Lassen 167,601 tons (28 ships) Heinrich Lehmann-Willenbrock 166,596 tons (22 ships) Heinrich Liebe 162,333 tons (30 ships) Günther Prien 160,939 tons (28 ships), plus the British battleship inside Scapa Flow"
],
[
"Captured ships",
"The military campaigns in Europe yielded a large number of captured vessels, many of which were under construction.",
"Nations represented included Austria (riverine craft), Czechoslovakia (riverine craft), Poland, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Yugoslavia, Greece, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States (several landing craft), and Italy (after the armistice).",
"Few of the incomplete ships of destroyer size or above were completed, but many smaller warships and auxiliaries were completed and commissioned into ''Kriegsmarine'' during the war.",
"Additionally many captured or confiscated foreign civilian ships (merchantmen, fishing boats, tugboats etc.)",
"were converted into auxiliary warships or support ships."
],
[
"Major enemy warships sunk or destroyed",
"The first warship sunk in World War II was the destroyer , of the Polish Navy, by Junkers Ju 87 dive bombers from the carrier air group of aircraft carrier on 3 September 1939.This carrier air group (Trägergeschwader 186) was part of the ''Luftwaffe'', but at that time under command of the ''Kriegsmarine''.ShipTypeDateAction (Royal Navy) Fleet aircraft carrier 17 September 1939 Torpedoed by submarine (Royal Navy) Battleship 14 October 1939 Torpedoed at anchor by submarine (Royal Norwegian Navy) Coastal defence ship 9 April 1940 Torpedoed in Narvik harbor by destroyer (Royal Norwegian Navy) Coastal defence ship 9 April 1940 Torpedoed in Narvik harbor by destroyer (French Navy) Large destroyer 23 May 1940 Torpedoed by torpedo boats (E-boats) ''S21'' and ''S23'' (Royal Navy) Fleet aircraft carrier 8 June 1940 Sunk by battleships and (Royal Navy) Battlecruiser 24 May 1941 Sunk by the battleship (Royal Navy) Fleet aircraft carrier 14 November 1941 Torpedoed by submarine on 13 November, sank while under tow to Gibraltar (Royal Australian Navy) Light cruiser 19 November 1941 Sunk by the auxiliary cruiser .",
"The ''Kormoran'' was also sunk in the battle.",
"(Royal Navy) Light cruiser 24 November 1941 Torpedoed by submarine (Royal Navy) Battleship 25 November 1941 Torpedoed by submarine .",
"While the attack on the ship was recorded, the ''Kriegsmarine'' were unaware that it had been sunk until 27 January 1942 when the Admiralty admitted ''Barham'' loss.",
"(Royal Navy) Light cruiser 14 December 1941 Torpedoed by submarine (Royal Navy) Escort carrier 21 December 1941 Torpedoed by submarine (Royal Navy) Light cruiser 11 March 1942 Torpedoed by submarine (Royal Navy) Light cruiser 2 May 1942 Torpedoed by and destroyers , and , abandoned and scuttled (Royal Navy) Light cruiser 16 June 1942 Torpedoed by submarine (Royal Navy) Aircraft carrier 11 August 1942 Torpedoed by submarine (Royal Navy) Escort carrier 15 November 1942 Torpedoed by submarine (Royal Navy) Minelaying cruiser 1 February 1943 Torpedoed by (Royal Navy) Minelaying cruiser 10 September 1943 Sunk by mines in Taranto harbor while operating as a transport.",
"The mines were laid by torpedo boats (E-boats) ''S54'' and ''S61.''",
"(Royal Navy) Light cruiser 23 October 1943 Torpedoed by torpedo boats and (Royal Navy) Light cruiser 18 February 1944 Torpedoed by submarine (US Navy) Escort carrier 29 May 1944 Torpedoed by submarine (Royal Navy) Light cruiser 23 June 1944 Mine hit, declared a constructive total loss (Polish Navy) Light cruiser 7 July 1944 Torpedoed by a ''Neger'' manned torpedo, abandoned and scuttled (Royal Navy) Escort carrier 22 August 1944 Torpedoed by , judged not worth repairing, beached and abandoned (Royal Navy) Escort carrier 15 January 1945 Torpedoed by , declared a constructive total loss"
],
[
"Organisation",
"===Command structure===Karl Dönitz meeting with Adolf Hitler in 1945Adolf Hitler was the Supreme Commander of all German forces, including the ''Kriegsmarine''.",
"His authority was exercised through the ''Oberkommando der Marine'', or OKM, with a Commander-in-Chief (''Oberbefehlshaber der Kriegsmarine''), a Chief of Naval General Staff (''Chef des Stabes der Seekriegsleitung''), and a Chief of Naval Operations (''Chef der Operationsabteilung'').",
"The first Commander-in-Chief of the OKM was Erich Raeder who was the Commander-in-Chief of the ''Reichsmarine'' when it was renamed and reorganised in 1935.Raeder held the post until falling out with Hitler after the German failure in the Battle of the Barents Sea.",
"He was replaced by Karl Dönitz on 30 January 1943 who held the command until he was appointed President of Germany upon Hitler's suicide in April 1945.Hans-Georg von Friedeburg was then Commander-in-Chief of the OKM for the short period of time until Germany surrendered in May 1945.Subordinate to these were regional, squadron, and temporary flotilla commands.",
"Regional commands covered significant naval regions and were themselves sub-divided, as necessary.",
"They were commanded by a ''Generaladmiral'' or an Admiral.",
"There was a ''Marineoberkommando'' for the Baltic Fleet, ''Nord'', ''Nordsee'', ''Norwegen'', ''Ost/Ostsee'' (formerly Baltic), ''Süd'', and ''West''.",
"The ''Kriegsmarine'' used a form of encoding called ''Gradnetzmeldeverfahren'' to denote regions on a map.Each squadron (organised by type of ship) also had a command structure with its own Flag Officer.",
"The commands were Battleships, Cruisers, Destroyers, Submarines (''Führer der Unterseeboote''), Torpedo Boats, Minesweepers, Reconnaissance Forces, Naval Security Forces, Big Guns and Hand Guns, and Midget Weapons.Major naval operations were commanded by a ''Flottenchef''.",
"The ''Flottenchef'' controlled a flotilla and organized its actions during the operation.",
"The commands were, by their nature, temporary.The ''Kriegsmarine'' ship design bureau, known as the ''Marineamt'', was administered by officers with experience in sea duty but not in ship design, while the naval architects who did the actual design work had only a theoretical understanding of design requirements.",
"As a result, the German surface fleet was plagued by design flaws throughout the war.Communication was undertaken using an eight-rotor system of Enigma encoding.===Air units===The ''Luftwaffe'' had a near-complete monopoly on all German military aviation, including naval aviation, a source of great interservice rivalry with the ''Kriegsmarine''.",
"Catapult-launched spotter planes like Arado Ar 196 twin-float seaplanes were manned by the so-called ''Bordfliegergruppe 196'' (shipboard flying group 196).",
"''Trägergeschwader 186'' (Carrier Air Wing 186) operated two ''Gruppen'' (''Trägergruppe I/186'' and ''Trägergruppe II/186'') equipped with navalized Messerschmitt Bf 109T and Junkers Ju 87C Stuka; these units were intended to serve aboard the aircraft carrier which was never completed, yet provided the ''Kriegsmarine'' with some air-power from bases on land.",
"Five coastal groups (''Küstenfliegergruppen'') with reconnaissance aircraft, torpedo bombers, ''Minensuch'' aerial minesweepers, and air-sea rescue seaplanes supported the ''Kriegsmarine'', although with lesser resources as the war progressed.===Coastal artillery, flak and radar units===The coastal batteries of the ''Kriegsmarine'' were stationed on the German coasts.",
"With the conquering and occupation of other countries coastal artillery was stationed along the coasts of these countries, especially in France and Norway as part of the Atlantic Wall.",
"Naval bases were protected by flak-batteries of the ''Kriegsmarine'' against enemy air raids.",
"The ''Kriegsmarine'' also manned the ''Seetakt'' sea radars on the coasts.===Marines===At the beginning of World War II, on 1 September 1939, the ''Marine Stoßtrupp Kompanie'' (Naval Shock Troop Company) landed in Danzig from the old battleship for conquering a Polish bastion at Westerplatte.",
"A reinforced platoon of the ''Marine Stoßtrupp Kompanie'' landed with soldiers of the German Army from destroyers on 9 April 1940 in Narvik.",
"In June 1940 the ''Marine Stoßtrupp Abteilung'' (Marine Attack Troop Battalion) was flown in from France to the Channel Islands to occupy this British territory.In September 1944 amphibious units unsuccessfully tried to capture the strategic island Suursaari in the Gulf of Finland from Germany's former ally Finland (Operation Tanne Ost).With the invasion of Normandy in June 1944 and the Soviet advance from the summer of 1944 the ''Kriegsmarine'' started to form regiments and divisions for the battles on land with superfluous personnel.",
"With the loss of naval bases because of the Allied advance more and more navy personnel were available for the ground troops of the ''Kriegsmarine''.",
"About 40 regiments were raised and from January 1945 on six divisions.",
"Half of the regiments were absorbed by the divisions.===Personnel strength===+Personnel strength of the ''Kriegsmarine'' 1943 Category StrengthCommissioned officers 22,000 Officials(''Wehrmachtbeamte'') 14,000 Petty officers and seamen 613,000===Ranks and uniforms===''Kriegsmarine'' uniforms and rank insigniaMany different types of uniforms were worn by the ''Kriegsmarine''; here is a list of the main ones:* ''Dienstanzug'' (Service suit)* ''Kleiner Dienstanzug'' (Lesser service uniform)* ''Ausgehanzug'' (Suit for walking out)* ''Sportanzug'' (Sportswear)* ''Tropen-und Sommeranzug'' (Tropical and summer suit) – uniforms for hot climates* ''Große Uniform'' (Parade uniform)* ''Kleiner Gesellschaftsanzug'' (Small party suit)* ''Großer Gesellschaftsanzug'' (Full dress uniform)"
],
[
"See also",
"* Glossary of German military terms* List of Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross recipients of the ''Kriegsmarine''* List of naval ships of Germany* List of World War II torpedoes of Germany* Rolf Carls* Wilhelm Canaris"
],
[
"Notes",
"===Bibliography===* Bird, Keith.",
"''Weimar, the German Naval Officer Corps, and the Rise of National Socialism.''",
"Amsterdam: Grüner, 1977.",
"* Bird, Keith.",
"''German Naval History: A Guide to the Literature.''",
"New York: Garland, 1985.",
"* Bräckow, Werner.",
"''Die Geschichte des deutschen Marine- Ingenieuroffizierskorps.''",
"Hamburg: Stalling, 1974.",
"* Breyer, Siegfried, and Gerhard Koop.",
"''Die deutsche Kriegsmarine,'' 7 vols., Friedberg: Podzun- Pallas, 1985.",
"* Dülffer, Jost.",
"''Weimar, Hitler, und die Marine.''",
"Düsseldorf: Droste, 1973.",
"* Dülffer, Jost.",
"\"Die Reichs- und Kriegsmarine, 1918-1939.\"",
"In ''Deutsche Marinegeschichte der Neuzeit,'' 337-488.Munich: Bernard und Graefe, 1977.",
"* Güth, Rolf.",
"\"Bild einer Crew.\"",
"''Marine Rundschau'' 61, no.",
"3 (1964): 131-41.",
"* Güth, Rolf.",
"\"Die Organisation der deutschen Marine in Krieg und Frieden, 1913-1933.\"",
"In ''Deutsche Marinegeschichte der Neuzeit,'' 263-336.Munich: Bernard und Graefe, 1977.",
"* Güth, Rolf.",
"\"Die Organisation der Kriegsmarine bis 1939.\"",
"In ''Wehrmacht und Nationalsozialismus, 1933-1939,'' 401-500.Munich: Bernard und Graefe, 1978.",
"* Krüger, Peter.",
"\"Die Verhandlungen über die deutsche Kriegs-und Handelsflotte auf der Konferenz von Potsdam 1945.\"",
"''Marine Rundschau'' 63, no.",
"1 (1966): 10-19, 81-94.",
"* Lohmann, Walter, and Hans H. Hildebrandt.",
"''Die deutsche Kriegsmarine, 1939-1945.''",
"3 vols.",
"Bad Nauheim: Podzun, 1956.",
"* Löwke, Udo F. ''Die SPD und die Wehrfrage, 1949-1955.''",
"Bonn and Bad Godesberg: Neue Gesellschaft, 1976.",
"* Peifer, Douglas.",
"''The Three German Navies: Dissolution, Transition, and New Beginning.''",
"Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002.",
"* Rahn, Werner, and Gerhard Schreiber, eds.",
"''Kriegstagebuch der Seekriegsleitung, 1939-1945.''",
"68 vols.",
"Herford: E.S.",
"Mittler, 1988-1997.",
"* Rohwer, Jürgen.",
"''Axis Submarine Successes 1939-1945.''",
"Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1983.",
"* Rohwer, Jürgen and Gert Hümmelchen.",
"''Chronology of the War at Sea, 1939-1945.''",
"Translated by Derek Masters.",
"London: Ian Allan, 1974.",
"* Roskill, Stephen W. ''The War At Sea, 1939-1945.''",
"London: HMSO, 1954-61.",
"* Rössler, Eberhard.",
"''The U-Boat: The Evolution and Technical History of German Submarines.''",
"Translated by Harold Erenberg.",
"Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1981.",
"* Salewski, Michael.",
"''Die deutsche Seekriegsleitung, 1935-1945,'' vol.",
"2, ''1942-1945.''",
"Munich: Bernard und Graefe, 1975.",
"* Tarrant, V. E. ''The Last Year of the Kriegsmarine: May 1944-May 1945.''",
"Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1994.",
"* Thomas, Charles S. ''The German Navy in the Nazi Era.''",
"Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1990.",
"* Thompson, Harold Keith, and Henry Strutz.",
"''Dönitz at Nuremberg: A Reappraisal: War Crimes and the Military Professional.''",
"New York: Amber, 1976."
],
[
"External links",
"* The Nazi German Navy 1935-1945 (Kriegsmarine)* * * * * * The photo album of Kriegsmarine minelayer 'Roland' crew member.",
"Photos of minelayers on combat missions and various ''Kriegsmarine'' vessels."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Knights of Labor"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Knights of Labor''' ('''K of L'''), officially the '''Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of Labor''', was an American labor federation that was active in the late 19th century, especially the 1880s.",
"It operated in the United States as well in Canada, and had chapters also in Great Britain and Australia.",
"Its most important leader was Terence V. Powderly.",
"The Knights of Labor promoted the social and cultural uplift of the worker, and demanded the eight-hour day.",
"In some cases it acted as a labor union, negotiating with employers, but it was never well organized or funded.",
"It was notable in its ambition to organize across lines of gender and race and in the inclusion of both skilled and unskilled labor.",
"After a rapid expansion in the mid-1880s, it suddenly lost its new members and became a small operation again.",
"The Knights of Labor had served, however, as the first mass organization of the white working class of the United States.It was founded by Uriah Stephens on December 28, 1869, reached 28,000 members in 1880, then jumped to 100,000 in 1884.By 1886, 20% of all workers were affiliated, nearly 800,000 members.",
"Its frail organizational structure could not cope as it was battered by charges of failure and violence and calumnies of the association with the Haymarket Square riot.",
"Most members abandoned the movement in 1886–1887, leaving at most 100,000 in 1890.Many opted to join groups that helped to identify their specific needs, instead of the KOL which addressed many different types of issues.",
"The Panic of 1893 terminated the Knights of Labor's importance.",
"While their national headquarters closed in 1917, remnants of the Knights of Labor continued in existence until 1949, when the group's last 50-member local dropped its affiliation."
],
[
"Origins",
"In 1869, Uriah Smith Stephens, James L. Wright, and a small group of Philadelphia tailors founded a secret organization known as the Noble Order of the Knights of Labor.",
"The collapse of the National Labor Union in 1873 left a vacuum for workers looking for organization.",
"The Knights became better organized with a national vision when, in 1879, they replaced Stephens with Terence V. Powderly, who was just 30 years old at the time.",
"The body became popular with trade unions and Pennsylvania coal miners during the economic depression of the mid-1870s, then it grew rapidly.",
"The KOL was a diverse industrial union open to all workers.",
"The leaders felt that it was best to have a versatile population in order to get points of view from all aspects.",
"The Knights of Labor barred five groups from membership: bankers, land speculators, lawyers, liquor dealers and gamblers.",
"Its members included low skilled workers, railroad workers, immigrants, and steel workers.",
"This helped the workers to get an organizational identity.",
"As one of the largest labor organization in ninetieth century, Knights wanted to classify the workers as it was a time where large scale factories and industries were rapidly growing.",
"Even though skilled workers were prioritized at the beginning 1880s but slowly later by the time of 1886, nearly a million workers were enrolled.",
"Terence Powderly, Grand Master Workman of the Knights of Labor during its meteoric rise and precipitous decline (1890)As membership expanded, the Knights began to function more as a labor union and less of a secret organization.",
"During the 1880s, the Knights of Labor played a huge role in independent and third-party movements.",
"Local assemblies began not only to emphasize cooperative enterprises, but to initiate strikes to win concessions from employers.",
"The Knights of Labor brought together workers of different religions, races and genders and helped them all create a bond and unify all for the same cause.",
"The new leader Powderly opposed strikes as a \"relic of barbarism\", but the size and the diversity of the Knights afforded local assemblies a great deal of autonomy.In 1882, the Knights ended their membership rituals and removed the words \"Noble Order\" from their name.",
"This was intended to mollify the concerns of Catholic members and the bishops who wanted to avoid any resemblance to freemasonry.",
"Though initially averse to strikes to advance their goals, the Knights did aid various strikes and boycotts.",
"The Wabash Railroad strike in 1885 saw Powderly finally adapt and support an eventually successful strike against Jay Gould's Wabash Line after C. A.",
"Hall, a carpenter and Knights member, was fired for attending a meeting in February.",
"The strike included stopping track, yard, engine maintenance, the control or sabotage of equipment, and the occupation of shops and roundhouses.",
"Gould met with Powderly and agreed to call off his campaign against the Knights of Labor, which had caused the turmoil originally.",
"This gave momentum to the Knights and membership surged.",
"By 1886, the Knights had more than 700,000 members.The Knights' primary demand was for the eight-hour workday.",
"They also called for legislation to end child and convict labor as well as a graduated income tax.",
"They also supported cooperatives.",
"The only woman to hold office in the Knights of Labor, Leonora Barry, worked as an investigator.",
"She described the horrific conditions in factories employing women and children.",
"These reports made Barry the first person to collect national statistics on the American working woman.Powderly and the Knights tried to avoid divisive political issues, but in the early 1880s, many Knights had become followers of Henry George's ideology known now as Georgism.",
"In 1883, Powderly officially recommended George's book and announced his support of \"single tax\" on land values.",
"During the New York mayoral election of 1886, Powderly was able to successfully push the organization towards the favor of Henry George.",
"In 1886, the Knights became of the part of the short lived United Labor Party, an alliance of labor organizations formed in support of George's campaign in the 1886 New York City mayoral election.The Knights of Labor helped to bring together many different types of people from all different walks of life; for example Catholic and Protestant Irish-born workers.",
"The KOL appealed to them because they worked very closely with the Irish Land League.",
"The Knights had a mixed record on inclusiveness and exclusiveness.",
"They accepted women and blacks (after 1878) and their employers as members, and advocating the admission of blacks into local assemblies.",
"However, the organization tolerated the segregation of assemblies in the South.",
"Bankers, doctors, lawyers, stockholders, and liquor manufacturers were excluded because they were considered unproductive members of society.",
"Asians were also excluded, and in November 1885, a branch of the Knights in Tacoma, Washington violently expelled the city's Chinese workers, who amounted to nearly a tenth of the overall city population at the time.",
"The Union Pacific Railroad came into conflict with the Knights.",
"When the Knights in Wyoming refused to work more hours in 1885, the railroad hired Chinese workers as strikebreakers and to stir up racial animosity.",
"The result was the Rock Springs massacre, that killed scores of Chinese workers, and drove the rest out of Wyoming.",
"About 50 African-American sugar-cane laborers organized by the Knights went on strike and were murdered by strikebreakers in the 1887 Thibodaux massacre in Louisiana.",
"The Knights strongly supported passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and the Contract Labor Law of 1885, as did many other labor groups, demonstrating the limits of their commitment to solidarity.",
"While they claimed to not be \"against immigration\", their anti-Asian racism demonstrated the limits and inconsistency of their anti-racist platform."
],
[
"Decline",
"J. R. Sovereign, Grand Master Workman of the Knights of Labor from 1893===Southwest railroad strike of 1886===The Great Southwest railroad strike of 1886 was a Knights strike involving more than 200,000 workers.",
"Beginning on March 1, 1886, railroad workers in five states struck against the Union Pacific and Missouri Pacific railroads, owned by Jay Gould.",
"At least ten people were killed.",
"The unravelling of the strike within two months led directly to the collapse of the Knights of Labor and the formation of the American Federation of Labor.===Catholic Church===The Knights of Labor attracted many Catholics, who were a large part of the membership, perhaps a majority.",
"Powderly was also a Catholic.",
"However, the Knights's use of secrecy, similar to the Masons, during its early years concerned many bishops of the Church.",
"The Knights used secrecy and deception to help prevent employers from firing members.After the Archbishop of Quebec condemned the Knights in 1884, twelve American archbishops voted 10 to 2 against doing likewise in the United States.",
"Furthermore, Cardinal James Gibbons and Bishop John Ireland defended the Knights.",
"Gibbons went to the Vatican to talk to the hierarchy.In 1886, right after the peak of the Knights of Labor, they started to lose more members to the American Federation of Labor.",
"It has been believed that the fall of the Knights of Labor was due to their lack of adaptability and beliefs in the old-style industrial capitalism."
],
[
"Legacy",
"Though often overlooked, the Knights of Labor contributed to the tradition of labor protest songs in America.",
"The Knights frequently included music in their regular meetings, and encouraged local members to write and perform their work.",
"In Chicago, James and Emily Talmadge, printers and supporters of the Knights of Labor, published the songbook \"Labor Songs Dedicated to the Knights of Labor\" (1885).",
"The song \"Hold the Fort\" also \"Storm the Fort\", a Knights of Labor pro-labor revision of the hymn by the same name, became the most popular labor song prior to Ralph Chaplin's IWW (Industrial Workers of the World) anthem \"Solidarity Forever\".",
"Pete Seeger often performed this song and it appears on a number of his recordings.",
"Songwriter and labor singer Bucky Halker includes the Talmadge version, entitled \"Our Battle Song,\" on his CD ''Don't Want Your Millions'' (Revolting Records 2000).",
"Halker also draws heavily on the Knights songs and poems in his book on labor song and poetry, ''For Democracy, Workers and God: Labor Song-Poems and Labor Protest, 1865-1895'' (University of Illinois Press, 1991).===Racism and wages===The Knights of Labor supported the Chinese Exclusion Act, claiming that industrialists were using Chinese workers as a wedge to keep wages low.",
"To stop companies from doing this, they supported Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and also the Alien Contract labor law 1885.Even though the Acts were useful to pass the laws they wanted, they weren't satisfied so they attacked Chinese workers and burned down their places.Anti-Chinese rhetoric and violence were more prevalent among the western chapters of the Knights.",
"In 1880, San Francisco Knights wrote, \"They bear the semblance of men, but live like beasts...who eat rice and the offal of the slaughter house.\"",
"The article also calls Chinese \"natural thieves\" and states that all Chinese women are prostitutes.",
"In March 1882, Knights joined the San Francisco rally to demand expulsion of the Chinese.",
"Several years later, mobs led by the Knights of Labor, a loosely structured labor federation, rounded up Seattle's Chinese-born workers and campaigned prevent further immigration.Historian Catharine Collomp notes that \"Chinese exclusion was the only issue about which the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor constantly lobbied the Federal government.",
"\"=== Haymarket Riot ===The labor movement, including those in the Knights of Labor, were rallying for an eight-hour workday and protesting with their slogan: \"Eight Hours for Work, Eight Hours for Rest, Eight Hours for What We Will.\"",
"Through Eight Hour rallies and legislative lobbying, labor leaders came into direct conflict with employers, who neither accepted unions nor believed that governments should intervene on workers' behalf.",
"During an Eight Hour campaign in Chicago in 1886, a conflict between organized laborers and employers turned violent.",
"By the mid-1880s, Chicago was the center of immigrant and working-class organizing, with a wide array of labor organizations.",
"Demands for the eight-hour workday were at the heart of a strike against one of Chicago's most powerful employers, the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company, which refused to bargain with the union.While workingmen had gathered to strike against the plant, some of them had drawn fire from authorities.",
"City police and private guards had injured and killed some of the strikers.",
"Which prompted responses from a bigger working class, which included anarchists Albert Parsons, Michael Schwab, August Spies, Adolph Fischer, and labor organizer Oscar Neebe.",
"On May 4, they organized a protest in Chicago's Haymarket Square.",
"After the main speakers, Parson and Spies, left the platform, someone from the crowd threw a bomb into a group of police standing in the square, which left seven police dead, and sixty protesters from the crowd injured.",
"Afterwards, the eight anarchists were arrested and seven of them were sentenced to death in a trial that focused on political beliefs, not the actions of the anarchists.",
"Two of the condemned had their sentences commuted; but after Louis Lingg committed suicide in prison, the remaining four were executed.The Haymarket trial had two distinct effects on the labor movement: first, a nationwide campaign to round up anarchists and, second, a steep decline in the Knights of Labor's membership.",
"Terence Powderly, the Knights president, disavowed the Haymarket eight, even as local trade unions and Knights assemblies around the country protested the arrests.",
"Rapid growth of the labor union in the mid-1880s weakened the bonds that held it together, New Knights members had joined the organization in the wake of its victories over southwestern railroads, but without fully understanding or accepting the Knights' movement culture.",
"While it would be over a decade before the Knights disbanded, these organizational weaknesses, and the strength of the new trade federation union, led to the Knights' decline."
],
[
"Leadership",
"===Grand Master Workmen===:1878: Uriah Smith Stephens:1879: Terence V. Powderly:1893: James Sovereign:1897: Henry A. Hicks:1898: John N. Parsons:1900: Isaac D. Chamberlain:1900: Simon Burns:1901: Henry A. Hicks:1902: John Hayes===Grand Worthy Foremen===:1878: Ralph Beaumont:1879: Terence V. Powderly:1879: Richard Griffiths:1882: Ralph Beaumont:1883: Henry A. Coffeen:1884: Richard Griffiths:1888: Morris L. Wheat:1890: Hugh Cavanaugh:1893: Michael J. Bishop:1896: Thomas McGuire:1897: Isaac D. Chamberlain:1901: Arthur McConnell:1902: Isaac A. Sanderson:1910s: William A. Denison"
],
[
"See also",
"* Labor unions in the United States* Labor federation competition in the United States* IWW* Olivier-David Benoît* Mary Harris Jones* Mary Stirling, first woman delegate to annual convention"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"===Scholarly studies===* * Blum, Edward J. \"",
"'By the Sweat of Your Brow': The Knights of Labor, the Book of Genesis, and the Christian Spirit of the Gilded Age.\"",
"''Labor: Studies in Working-Class History of the Americas'' 11.2 (2014): 29–34.",
"* Browne, Henry J.",
"''The Catholic Church and the Knights of Labor.''",
"Washington: Catholic University of America Press, 1949.",
"* Case, Theresa A.",
"''The Great Southwest Railroad Strike and Free Labor'' (Texas A&M University Press, 2010); online review, on 1886* * Commons, John R. et al., ''History of Labour in the United States: Volume 2, 1860-1896.''",
"(4 vol 1918).",
"vol 2* Conell, Carol, and Kim Voss.",
"\"Formal Organization and the Fate of Social Movements: Craft Association and Class Alliance in the Knights of Labor,\" ''American Sociological Review'' Vol.",
"55, No.",
"2 (Apr., 1990), pp.",
"255–269 in JSTOR, focus on steel industry* de Leon, Cedric.",
"\"Black from white: How the rights of white and black workers became 'labor' and 'civil' rights after the US civil war.\"",
"''Labor Studies Journal'' 42.1 (2017): 10–26.online* Fink, Leon.",
"\"The New Labor History and the Powers of Historical Pessimism: Consensus, Hegemony, and the Case of the Knights of Labor,\" ''Journal of American History'' Vol.",
"75, No.",
"1 (Jun., 1988), pp.",
"115–136 in JSTOR, historiography* Fink, Leon.",
"''Workingmen's Democracy: The Knights of Labor and American Politics.''",
"Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983.online* Grob, Gerald N. \"The Knights of Labor and the Trade Unions, 1878-1886,\" ''Journal of Economic History'' Vol.",
"18, No.",
"2 (Jun., 1958), pp.",
"176–192 in JSTOR* Hild, Matthew.",
"''Greenbackers, Knights of Labor, and Populists: Farmer-Labor Insurgency in the Late-Nineteenth-Century South'' (U of Georgia Press, 2010).",
"* Hild, Matthew.",
"\"Building the Alabama Labor Movement: Nicholas Byrne Stack and the Knights of Labor.\"",
"''Alabama Review'' 73.2 (2020): 91–117.",
"* Hild, Matthew.",
"\"The Knights of Labor and the Third-Party Movement in Texas, 1886–1896.\"",
"''Southwestern Historical Quarterly'' 119.1 (2015): 24–43.online* Hoffman, Richard C. \"Producer co-operatives of the Knights of Labor: seeking worker independence.\"",
"''Labor History'' (2022): 1–19.",
"* * Kaufman, Jason.",
"\"Rise and Fall of a Nation of Joiners: The Knights of Labor Revisited,\" ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History'' Vol.",
"31, No.",
"4 (Spring, 2001), pp.",
"553–579 in JSTOR statistical study of competition with other unions and with fraternal societies for members* * Keohane, Jennifer. \"",
"'Labor is Noble and Holy': Ironic Inclusion and Exclusion in the Knights of Labor, 1885-1890.\"",
"''Rhetoric Review'' 38.3 (2019): 311–324.online* Levine, Susan.",
"\"Labor's True Woman: Domesticity and Equal Rights in the Knights of Labor,\" ''Journal of American History'' Vol.",
"70, No.",
"2 (Sep., 1983), pp.",
"323–339 in JSTOR* Levine, Susan.",
"''True Women: Carpet Weavers, Industrialization, and Labor Reform in the Gilded Age.''",
"Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984.",
"* * * McLaurin, Melton Alonza.",
"''The Knights of Labor in the South.''",
"Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1978.",
"* Phelan, Craig.",
"''Grand Master Workman: Terence Powderly and the Knights of Labor'' (Greenwood, 2000), scholarly biography online edition * Taussig, Frank W. \"The South-Western Strike of 1886.\"",
"The ''Quarterly Journal of Economics'' 1.2 (1887): 184–222; detailed coverage by a leading scholar; online* Voss, Kim.",
"''The Making of American Exceptionalism: The Knights of Labor and Class Formation in the Nineteenth Century.''",
"Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994.Sociological study.",
"online * Ware, Norman J.",
"''The Labor Movement in the United States, 1860 - 1895: A Study In Democracy.''",
"(1929).",
"* Weir, Robert E. ''Beyond Labor's Veil: The Culture of the Knights of Labor.''",
"(Pennsylvania State University Press, 1996) online edition * Weir, Robert E. (1997).",
"A fragile alliance: Henry George and the Knights of Labor.",
"''The American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 56,'' 421–439.",
"* Weir, Robert E. ''Knights Unhorsed: Internal Conflict in Gilded Age Social Movement'' (Wayne State University Press, 2000)** Wright, Carroll D. \"An Historical Sketch of the Knights of Labor,\" ''Quarterly Journal of Economics,'' vol.",
"1, no.",
"2 (January 1887), pp.",
"137–168.in JSTOR===Outside US===* Arvidsson, Stefan ''The style and mythology of socialism: socialist idealism, 1871-1914.''",
"Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2017.",
"* Kealey, Gregory, and Brian Palmer, ''Dreaming of What Might Be: The Knights of Labor in Ontario, 1880-1900.''",
"New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982.",
"* Parfitt, Steven.",
"''Knights Across the Atlantic: The Knights of Labor in Britain and Ireland'' (2017) contents also see online review* Parfitt, Steven.",
"\"A nexus between labour movement and labour movement: the Knights of Labor and the financial side of global labour history.\"",
"''Labor History'' 58.3 (2017): 288–302.",
"* Parfitt, Steven.",
"\"Transnational Borrowings: Scottish Sons of Labour and American Knights of Labor, 1887–1890.\"",
"''Labour History Review'' 85.2 (2020): 127–157.",
"* Parfitt, Steven.",
"\"The First-and-a-half International: The Knights of Labor and the History of International Labour Organization in the Nineteenth Century.\"",
"''Labour History Review'' 80.2 (2015): 135–167.",
"* Parfitt, Steven.",
"\"Completing the Order’s History Down Under: The Knights of Labor in Australia.\"",
"''Labour History: A Journal of Labour and Social History'' 110 (2016): 1–18.",
"* Parfitt, Steven.",
"\"Constructing the Global History of the Knights of Labor.\"",
"''Labor'' 14.1 (2017): 13–37.",
"* , shows that American workers in the window glass industry set up an English chapter in 1884 to watch the business in Europe; it remained small* Toth, Gyorgy.",
"\"Knights across the Atlantic: The Knights of Labor in Britain and Ireland.\"",
"(2019): 151–156.",
"* Watillon, Leon.",
"and Frederic Meyers, ''The Knights of Labor in Belgium.''",
"Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1978.Also in partial translation by Frederic Meyers, Institute of Industrial Relations, Los Angeles, 1959: http://www.oac.cdlib.org/ark:/28722/bk0003t812j/?brand=oac4===Primary sources=======By Knights====* * * * * ** * * William Baillie Baird papers, at the University of Maryland libraries.",
"Baird was a commissioned organizer of the Knights of Labor.====By others====* A.C. Dunham, \"The Knights of Labor,\" ''New Englander and Yale Review,'' vol.",
"45, no.",
"195 (June 1886), pp. 490–498.",
"* John Stephens Durham, \"The Labor Unions and the Negro,\" ''Atlantic Monthly,'' vol.",
"81, no.",
"484 (February 1898), pp. 222–231.",
"* Henry George, \"The New Party,\" ''North American Review,'' vol.",
"145, no.",
"368 (July 1887), pp. 1–8.",
"* Rufus Hatch, \"The Labor Crisis,\" ''North American Review,'' vol.",
"142, no.",
"355 (June 1886), pp. 602–607.",
"* Richard J. Hinton, \"American Labor Organizations,\" ''North American Review,'' vol.",
"140, no.",
"338 (January 1885), pp. 48–63.",
"* M.E.J.",
"Kelley, \"Women and the Labor Movement, ''North American Review,'' vol.",
"166, no.",
"497 (April 1898), pp. 408–418.",
"* George Frederic Parsons, \"The Labor Question,\" ''Atlantic Monthly,'' vol.",
"58, no.",
"345 (July 1886), pp. 97–113.",
"* Carroll D. Wright, \"An Historical Sketch of the Knights of Labor,\" ''Quarterly Journal of Economics,'' vol.",
"1, no.",
"2 (January 1887), pp.",
"137–168."
],
[
"External links",
"* Record of proceedings of the General Assembly of the Knights of Labor 1878* \"Select Bibliography of Terence V. Powderly and the Knights of Labor,\" Catholic University of America.",
"Retrieved October 8, 2006.",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kryptonite"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kryptonite''' is a fictional material that appears primarily in Superman stories published by DC Comics.",
"In its best-known form, it is a green, crystalline material originating from Superman's home world of Krypton that emits a unique, poisonous radiation that can weaken and even kill Kryptonians.",
"Kryptonite radiation can be transmitted through any element except lead.",
"Thus, Superman has a special lead suit to protect himself from the radiation.",
"There are other varieties of kryptonite, such as red and gold kryptonite, which have different but still generally negative effects.",
"Due to Superman's popularity, kryptonite has become a byword for an extraordinary exploitable weakness, synonymous with \"Achilles' heel\".",
"Batman, Lex Luthor, Metallo, and Titano are four notable characters often presented as using kryptonite — the first carrying the substance as a last-ditch method to stop his ally (Often at Superman's urging to take such precautions) if he is subject to mind control or otherwise compromised, the next two using the mineral to ward off Superman or incorporating it into weapons, and the fourth being able to project rays of kryptonite radiation from his eyes after being altered by simultaneous exposure to kryptonite and uranium."
],
[
"History",
"Superman suffering from green kryptonite poisoning, courtesy of foes Metallo and Titano the Super-Ape, in ''Action Comics Annual'' #10 (March 2007), art by Art Adams and Alex Sinclair.An unpublished 1940 story titled \"The K-Metal from Krypton\", written by Superman creator Jerry Siegel, featured a prototype of kryptonite.",
"It was a mineral from the planet Krypton that drained Superman of his strength while giving superhuman powers to humans.",
"This story was rejected because in it Superman reveals his identity to Lois Lane.The mineral known as kryptonite, not to be confused with the real element krypton, was first officially introduced in the radio serial ''The Adventures of Superman'', in the story \"The Meteor from Krypton\", broadcast in June 1943.",
"\"Only one arc in 1943 managed to transcend its era: \"The Meteor from Krypton\".",
"Debuting on June 3, it marked the debut of kryptonite...\" An apocryphal story claims that kryptonite was introduced to give Superman's voice actor, Bud Collyer, the possibility to take a vacation at a time when the radio serial was performed live.",
"In an episode where Collyer would not be present to perform, Superman would be incapacitated by kryptonite, and a substitute voice actor would make groaning sounds.",
"This tale was recounted by Julius Schwartz in his memoir.pg 132-133 However, the historian Michael J. Hayde disputes this: in \"The Meteor From Krypton\", Superman is never exposed to kryptonite.",
"If kryptonite allowed Collyer to take vacations, that was a fringe benefit discovered later.",
"More likely, kryptonite was introduced as a plot device for Superman to discover his origin.",
"\"Since Superman's life isn't threatened — the meteorite never leaves the doctor’s custody — it's likely that Lowther's primary intent was to create a means for Superman to discover his own origin\".",
"On the other hand, Hayde might have mistaken 1945's \"The Meteor of Kryptonite\" for 1943's \"The Meteor from Krypton\", as Superman was exposed in the latter but not in the former.In the radio serial, Krypton was located in the same solar system as Earth, in the same orbit, but on the opposite side of the Sun.",
"This provided an easy explanation for how kryptonite found its way to Earth.",
"During the comics' Silver Age, which put Krypton in another solar system light-years away, much of the kryptonite that came to Earth (along with several Kryptonian artifacts) was explained as having come through the same \"space warp\" that baby Kal-El's rocket traversed.Kryptonite was incorporated into the comic mythos with ''Superman'' #61 (November 1949).",
"Editor Dorothy Woolfolk stated in an interview with ''Florida Today'' in August 1993 that she felt Superman's invulnerability was \"boring\".The only substance in the universe that kryptonite radiation (from any variety) cannot penetrate is lead.Long said to be an element in the Golden, Silver, and Bronze Age comics, Kryptonite became a compound post-''Crisis'' as revealed in ''Action Comics'' #591."
],
[
"Forms, colors and effects<!-- Citations needed in the table. -->",
"Various forms of the fictional material have been created over the years in ''Superman'' publications and programs.",
"''''''Originally red in color, the material debuted in ''Superman'' #61 (Nov. 1949) and did not adopt its characteristic green hue until ''Action Comics'' #161 (Aug. 1951).",
"Green kryptonite weakens Superman and other Kryptonians, and is fatal with long-term exposure.",
"Kryptonians under green kryptonite's effects experience severe muscular weakness, usually to the point of collapse, and excruciating pain, with both conditions progressively intensifying.",
"They often develop a fever and eventually will lose consciousness before death.",
"The mineral will also gradually turn a Kryptonian's skin and blood green.",
"Although canonical depictions vary widely, the majority of accounts maintain that, although green kryptonite exposure victims experience severe weakness and pain, exposure in itself does not eradicate the victim's superpowers, except those related to physical strength.",
"Green kryptonite exposure does not compromise the subject's invulnerability to other forms of injury; therefore, it is not a practical strategy for a villain to first expose the victim to green kryptonite, then kill them with a gun or other conventional weapon.",
"However, some enemies have occasionally used weapons with green kryptonite projectile ammunition, which can not only seriously wound a Kryptonian, but also make surgical treatment difficult, with resistance to injury in a yellow sun environment being a major complication.",
"In one such incident, the surgeon was forced to give Superman controlled exposure to the mineral to make proper incisions.",
"Some accounts maintain paralysis is an effect of green kryptonite exposure, although most depictions show victims still capable of limited movement.",
"The effects of green kryptonite are not cumulative: a Kryptonian who can be removed from kryptonite exposure in time will fully recover from its effects with no lasting medical repercussions no matter how many instances of surviving exposures.",
"Kryptonian characters have been shown to become immune to green kryptonite due to either long-term absorption of sunlight or extremely high short-term exposure to the Sun.",
"Post-''Crisis'' sources establish that green kryptonite is also harmful to humans; with sufficient long-term exposure, it can result in cancer, as Lex Luthor discovered, much to his dismay, from a ring with a green kryptonite jewel he wore to ward off Superman.",
"At least one comic, however, also mentioned that kryptonite was being investigated as a possible cancer treatment.",
"'''Positive kryptonite''' Debuted in \"All That Glitters\" (1958), the last episode of ''Adventures of Superman''.",
"Professor Pepperwinkle isolates positive kryptonite from green kryptonite.",
"It appears as yellow capsules on screen.",
"It is said to be what gives Superman his powers and is also shown to give humans the abilities of Superman when both Lois Lane and Jimmy Olsen ingest it.",
"This turns out to be a hallucination Jimmy Olsen had after being hit in the head with a sandbag.",
"'''Negative kryptonite''' Also debuted in the last episode of ''Adventures of Superman'' \"All That Glitters\" (1958).",
"Professor Pepperwinkle isolates negative kryptonite from green kryptonite.",
"It is said to have the ability to take away Superman's powers.",
"This, as well, turns out to be a hallucination Jimmy Olsen had after being hit in the head with a sandbag.''''''",
"Debuted in ''Adventure Comics'' #252 (Sept. 1958).",
"Originally red kryptonite simply weakened Superman, but to a greater degree than green kryptonite.",
"Red kryptonite was later shown to cause odd behavior or bizarre transformations, albeit temporary and non-fatal.",
"The effects of red kryptonite typically last anywhere from one day (24 hours) to two days (48 hours), although in some accounts the effects may persist up to three days (72 hours) or even several weeks.",
"In ''Smallville'', red kryptonite affects Clark's mental state and the effect wears off as soon as he stops being in close proximity to it.",
"Under the personality of \"Kal\", Clark becomes selfish and uses his powers recklessly, shown drinking and philandering.",
"On ''Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman'', red kryptonite initially makes Superman apathetic, while another piece transfers his superpowers into other humans when used as a laser generator, and a third case causes him to lose fine control of his powers.",
"'''Anti-kryptonite/fool's kryptonite''' Debuted in ''Action Comics'' #252 (May 1959).",
"Resembles green kryptonite, and has the same effect as it on humans, but is harmless to Kryptonians.",
"It is also the power source for one version of Ultraman, Superman's evil counterpart from an antimatter universe.",
"'''X-kryptonite''' Debuted in ''Action Comics'' #261 (Jan. 1960).",
"Created by Supergirl in an unsuccessful attempt to find an antidote to green kryptonite.",
"Harmless to Kryptonians, the mineral gives normal lifeforms superhuman abilities, as in the case of Supergirl's pet, Streaky the Supercat.",
"Revised in ''Superman Family'' #203 (Oct. 1980) to have the same effect as the green variety on Kryptonians.",
"In ''Superman & Lois'', X-kryptonite is only found in Smallville and has a yellowish hue.",
"It gives humans one Kryptonian power, which varies depending on the person, and makes them more susceptible to having a Kryptonian consciousness implanted in them.",
"It also weakens people from the Bizarro World.''''''",
"Debuted in ''Superman'' #140 (Oct. 1960).",
"An imperfect variety of kryptonite that is harmful to Bizarro and other Bizarro characters in the same way that green kryptonite affects Kryptonians.",
"The only substance in the universe that its radiation cannot penetrate is imperfect lead.",
"In the ''Super Friends'' franchise, it is also an antidote to the effects of red kryptonite.",
"In ''Smallville'', blue kryptonite temporarily nullifies the powers of Kryptonians, but also supercharges bodies to dangerous levels; this effect killed Bizarro.",
"When a Kryptonian is in close proximity to blue kryptonite even as jewelry, he (or she) has no powers, but once separated by a sufficient distance, the powers return.",
"Blue Kryptonite can also affect humans and plant life, putting them in a perfect state of health, but can cause irregularities.",
"'''White kryptonite''' Debuted in ''Adventure Comics'' #279 (Dec. 1960).",
"Kills all plant life as well as bacteria and viruses.",
"'''Red-green kryptonite (first version)''' Debuted in ''Action Comics'' #275 (April 1961).",
"An alloy created by the villain Brainiac, red-green kryptonite caused Superman to mutate, temporarily growing a third eye in the back of his head.''''''",
"Debuted in ''Adventure Comics'' #299 (Aug. 1962).",
"Kryptonite affected by atomic radiation, capable of permanently removing a Kryptonian's ability to process yellow sunlight, thus nulifying all of their powers.",
"In post-''Crisis'' stories, however, it only removes a Kryptonian's powers temporarily.",
"'''Red-green-blue-gold kryptonite''' Debuted in ''Superman'' #162 (July 1963).",
"An imaginary story in which Superman combines the minerals to power an intelligence-expanding device.",
"An explosion occurs and splits Superman into two beings (\"Superman-Red\" and \"Superman-Blue\"), both of whom possess enhanced intelligence.",
"'''Silver kryptonite''' Debuted in ''Superman's Pal, Jimmy Olsen'' #70 (July 1963).",
"Revealed by Jimmy Olsen to be a hoax.",
"In post-''Crisis'' stories, silver kryptonite first appeared in ''Superman/Batman'' #46 (April 2008), modeled after the version that appeared in the ''Smallville'' TV series in season five episode \"Splinter\", where Clark suffers paranoid delusions.",
"Silver kryptonite causes Kryptonians to suffer from altered perceptions, loss of inhibitions and extreme hunger cravings.",
"On the ''Supergirl'' TV series, this kryptonite causes Superman to hallucinate his \"greatest fear\" of an attacking General Zod during the final episode of season 2, \"Nevertheless, She Persisted\".",
"'''Jewel kryptonite''' Debuted in ''Action Comics'' #310 (March 1964).",
"Made from the fragments of Krypton's Jewel Mountains, it amplifies the psychic powers of the criminals imprisoned in the Phantom Zone.",
"'''Bizarro-red kryptonite''' Debuted in ''Superman's Pal, Jimmy Olsen'' #80 (Oct. 1964).",
"Affects humans in the same way that red kryptonite affects Kryptonians.",
"'''Red-green kryptonite (second version)''' Debuted in ''Superboy Comics'' #121 (June 1965).",
"This variety caused Superboy to lose his superpowers permanently, but the Phantom Zone criminal Vakox unwillingly cured him, thus restoring his superpowers.",
"'''Red-gold kryptonite''' Debuted in ''Superman'' #178 (July 1965).",
"Temporarily deprives Kryptonians of their memories.",
"'''Magno-kryptonite''' Debuted in ''Superman's Pal, Jimmy Olsen'' #92 (April 1966).",
"Created by the villain Mr. Nero, this variety is magnetically attracted to all substances originally from Krypton.",
"'''Red-green-gold kryptonite''' Debuted in ''Superman'' #192 (Jan. 1967).",
"An imaginary story in which the alloy permanently removes Superman's powers and memories of being Superman.",
"'''Slow kryptonite''' Debuted in ''The Brave and the Bold'' #175 (June 1981).",
"A modified variety of green kryptonite produced by the supervillain Metallo that affects humans in a manner similar to how green kryptonite affects Kryptonians.",
"'''Kryptonite-X''' Debuted in ''The Adventures of Superman'' #511 (April 1994).",
"A one-time fluke, kryptonite-X was created when the Eradicator filtered a harmful barrage of kryptonite discharged by Cyborg Superman at Superman.",
"The result was beneficial for Superman, supercharging him and restoring his ability to process solar radiation.",
"'''Clear kryptonite''' Debuted in ''Smallville''s \"Visage\" (Season 2, episode 11) on January 14, 2003.Clear kryptonite is green kryptonite that has been neutralized of all radiation and is thus completely harmless.''''''",
"Debuted in ''Supergirl'' (vol.",
"4) #79 (April 2003).",
"Pink kryptonite turns Kryptonians into homosexuals.",
"This type of kryptonite was mentioned in a single panel in a story that was a satire of the plots of many Silver Age comic book stories that featured some strange new variety of kryptonite, and is thus not considered canon in comics continuity.",
"In the ''Justice League Action'' short \"True Colors\", it instead switches a Kryptonian's physical sex.",
"'''Orange kryptonite''' Debuted in ''Krypto the Superdog'' #4 (Feb. 2007).",
"Provides super-abilities to any animal that comes into contact with it for one day (24 hours).",
"'''Periwinkle kryptonite''' Debuted in ''Superman Family Adventures'' #9 (March 2013).",
"A non-canonical variety that causes Kryptonians to lose all their inhibitions.",
"'''Platinum kryptonite''' Debuted in \"True Strength\", a story from ''Batman Secret Files'' #1 (Dec. 2018) and ''Batman'' (vol.",
"3) #85 (Feb. 2020).",
"It is from \"an impossible universe inside the Phantom Zone, on an impossible planet\".",
"When touched by a normal human, platinum kryptonite changes their cells in an instant, giving them Kryptonian superpowers for life.",
"It is used by Batman to restore Gotham Girl's powers.",
"Kong Kenan was also given superpowers from that type of kryptonite after the death of the ''New 52'' Superman.",
"'''Turquoise kryptonite''' Debuted in ''Dark Nights: Death Metal'' #3 (Aug. 2020).",
"A variant of Kryptonite from one of the worlds found in the Dark Multiverse, it is used by Darkfather (a version of Batman who attained Darkseid's powers) to torture Superman.",
"It appears to have a similar effect on Kryptonians as green kryptonite.",
"'''Pilbeam kryptonite'''Debuted in \"True Strength\", a piece of unrecognisable kryptonite was discovered on the Phantom Zone by Superman's ally Joseph Pilbeam.",
"The effects of this kryptonite are similar to platinum kryptonite, though for Kryptonians the effects are the opposite.Superman and Jimmy Olsen discuss the mineral kryptonite, with the '''jewel''' variant making its debut, in ''Action Comics'' #310 (March 1964), art by Curt Swan."
],
[
"In other media",
"===Television=======Live action====* The ''Adventures of Superman'' (1952–1958) featured kryptonite in the episodes \"Panic in the Sky\", \"The Defeat of Superman\", \"Superman Week\", \"The Deadly Rock\", \"The Magic Secret\", \"The Gentle Monster\" and \"All That Glitters\".",
"* ''Superboy'' (1988–1992) featured green kryptonite in the episodes \"Kryptonite Kills\" and \"Metallo\", \"Bride of Bizarro\", \"Kryptonite Kid\", and \"Obituary for a Super-Hero\".",
"The red variety was featured in the episode \"Super Menace\".",
"A Bizarro white variant was featured in the episode \"The Battle with Bizarro\", which heals the title character.",
"* ''Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman'' (1993–1997) featured green kryptonite in the episodes \"The Green, Green Glow of Home\", \"Barbarians at the Planet\", \"The House of Luthor\", \"Madame Ex\", \"Metallo\", \"The Phoenix\", \"Top Copy\", \"Tempus Fugitive\", \"And the Answer Is...\", \"Ordinary People\", \"Don't Tug on Superman's Cape\", \"Home Is Where the Hurt Is\", \"Tempus Anyone?",
"\", \"Through a Glass, Darkly\" and \"Battleground Earth\".",
"The red variety was featured in the episodes \"Individual Responsibility\", \"Ultrawoman\" and \"Lethal Weapon\".",
"A variety which appears only on ''Lois & Clark'', produced synthetically and called \"hybrid kryptonite\", appears in \"Dead Lois Walking\".",
"* ''Smallville'' (2001–2011) featured kryptonite on a regular basis.",
"A large quantity of the green variety descends to Earth in a meteor shower, arriving in the town of Smallville, Kansas with the spaceship containing the infant Kal-El.",
"The material is colloquially referred to by Smallville residents as \"'''meteor rock'''\", but is eventually called \"kryptonite\" by Clark Kent once he discovers his origins in season two episode \"Visitor\" (in real life, the area near Brenham, Kansas is known as the site of a major meteorite strike between 10,000 and 20,000 years ago).",
"Aside from being harmful to Clark Kent, the mineral produces bizarre changes in flora and fauna.",
"It also occasionally bestows metahuman abilities on humans depending on the circumstances of their exposure to it, such as a girl treated for a rare bone disease acquiring shapeshifting powers.",
"These people are commonly known by the inhabitants of Smallville as \"Meteor Freaks\".",
"The green variety of the mineral appears in several episodes every season, although other varieties appear, including: red in \"Red\" (2002), \"Exodus\", \"Exile\", \"Phoenix\" (2003), \"Unsafe\" (2005), \"Crimson\" (2007) and \"Upgrade\" (2010); black, formed when superheating green kryptonite in \"Crusade\" (2004) and \"Doomsday\" (2009); silver in \"Splinter\" made by Milton Fine (2005); blue in \"Blue\" (2007), \"Persona\" (2008), \"Kandor\" (2009), \"Salvation\" (2010) and \"Harvest\" (2011); as a gem in \"Persuasion\" (2010) and gold (introduced in Earth Two) in \"Luthor\", \"Prophecy\" and \"Finale\" (2011).",
"''Smallville'' was the first appearance of a black kryptonite that would split a person into their good and evil sides, before later being brought into the comic book canon in ''Supergirl'' (vol.",
"5) #2 (Oct.",
"2005).",
"* Kryptonite has made several appearances in the Arrowverse:** ''Supergirl'' (2015–2021) features green kryptonite in the episodes \"Pilot\", \"Stronger Together\", \"Hostile Takeover\", \"For the Girl Who Has Everything\", \"Distant Sun\" and \"Immortal Kombat\".",
"The DEO manages to synthesize and create blue kryptonite which is featured in the episode \"Bizarro\".",
"Red kryptonite is featured in the episode \"Falling\" as a failed attempt to recreate green kryptonite by Maxwell Lord.",
"Silver kryptonite is featured in the episode \"Nevertheless, She Persisted\".",
"In season 3, the black kryptonite is pivotal to its arc, first appearing in the episode \"The Fanatical\", in which it is being referred to as '''Harun-El''' by Kryptonians.",
"The Worldkiller Coven from Krypton, headed by dark priestess Selena, schemes to use the Harun-El to terraform Earth into a Krypton-like planet for Kryptonians to inhabit.",
"The protagonists use the Harun-El to split the Worldkiller Coven's servant, Reign, from her human alter-ego Samantha Arias.",
"By the end of the season finale, it is revealed that Supergirl's being is also divided after her exposure to it during her final battle with Reign.",
"In season 4, Lena Luthor develops a serum derived from Harun-El, and Lex Luthor, Agent Liberty and James Olsen develop metahuman abilities after being injected with it such as enhanced speed, durability, strength, and a healing factor.",
"** Green kryptonite appears briefly in the crossover event \"Crisis on Earth-X\".",
"During a confrontation with Overgirl, Supergirl's Earth-X counterpart, Oliver Queen fires an arrow at her containing a kryptonite arrowhead, impaling Overgirl's shoulder.",
"An astonished Supergirl asks Oliver why he has a kryptonite arrow, to which Oliver replies: \"In case an evil ''you'' ever showed up!",
"\"** Kryptonite also appears in the \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\" crossover event: in Part Two, the Bruce Wayne of Earth-99 keeps kryptonite in the Batcave and had used it to kill his Earth's Superman.",
"He uses it on Supergirl, but is killed by Earth-1's Kate Kane before he can kill her.",
"Kate then collects the kryptonite in his possession.",
"In Part Three, Batwoman intended to use the kryptonite on Supergirl to stop a dangerous plan of hers, but instead reveals it to her as an act of faith.",
"Supergirl tells her to keep it, saying that she \"has the courage\" that Kate will never have to use it.",
"** In the ''Batwoman'' episode \"A Secret Kept From All the Rest\", Lucius Fox states in his journal that green kryptonite is the only thing capable of penetrating the Batsuit.",
"In the season 1 finale episode \"O, Mouse!",
"\", as Alice tries to locate kryptonite, Luke finds it and manages to destroy it.",
"Kate reveals to both of them that she has another kryptonite rock given to her from Crisis.",
"The bullet was later used by Hush on Ryan Wilder when she became Batwoman.",
"This caused her pain until she was treated when the plant she owned turned out to be a Desert Rose from Coryana.",
"** In ''Superman & Lois'', Superman is targeted by \"The Stranger\", who uses green kryptonite against him in their initial fight.",
"Meanwhile, Morgan Edge unearths a large batch of X-kryptonite from a Smallville mine, which has made the local population susceptible for the Eradicator, a device which Edge uses to implant Kryptonian consciousnesses into humans.",
"Eventually it is revealed that the Stranger is John Henry Irons from an alternate Earth where Superman led a superpowered army to attack Metropolis as he makes it his mission to defeat the Earth-Prime Superman and thwart Edge's experiments before the same thing can happen again.",
"In season 2, some people have been trafficking X-Kryptonite until it was stopped by Lois Lane, Sam Lane, and Jordan Kent.",
"Natalie Irons even used some of the X-Kryptonite she obtained to make a lacquer to coat her version of her dad's exo-suit.====Animation====* ''The Brady Kids'' (1972–1973) featured green kryptonite in the episode \"Cindy's Super Friend\" which shows Clark Kent attempting to become Superman in the Kids' clubhouse, only to be incapacitated by a piece of green kryptonite used as part of a rock collection.",
"* ''Super Friends'' (1973–1986) features kryptonite in the episodes \"Super Friends: Rest in Peace\" (\"Krypton steel\"); \"Darkseid's Golden Trap\" (gold); \"Terror from the Phantom Zone\" (blue, green, and red); \"Return of the Phantoms\" (green); \"Rokan: Enemy from Space\" (green); \"Bazarowurld\" (red and blue); \"Revenge of Bizarro\" (red and blue); Will the World Collide?\"",
"(green); \"Uncle Mxyzptlk\" (red); \"The Death of Superman\" (green); \"Batman: Dead or Alive\" (green).",
"* ''Superman'' (1988) features a kryptonite ring worn by Lex Luthor.",
"On the episode \"The Hunter\", Superman's enemy transforms his body into kryptonite.",
"* Kryptonite appears in several shows set in DC Animated Universe:** ''Superman: The Animated Series'' (1996–2000) offers an explanation of the effect of the material on Superman.",
"This series and ''The New Batman Adventures'' (1997–1999) showcase a three-part crossover story arc called \"World's Finest\" that demonstrates the effect of kryptonite poisoning on humans.",
"** ''Justice League'' (2001–2004) explores the same theme where Lex Luthor develops cancer from his long term exposure to a piece of kryptonite he kept with him without taking precautions to contain it.",
"However, this was later cured by Brainiac, who had been secretly inhabiting his body.",
"** In ''Batman Beyond'' (1999–2001) the two-part episode \"The Call\" reveals that Batman had kept kryptonite in his possession a deterrent against Superman after the ''Superman: The Animated Series'' episode \"Legacy\", where he attacked Earth under Darkseid's control.",
"* ''Krypto the Superdog'' (2005–2006) features green and red kryptonite.",
"In this version, red kryptonite lasts anywhere from several hours to a day, and green kryptonite is relatively common, with villains often using it against Krypto.",
"* ''Legion of Super Heroes'' (2006–2008) features green kryptonite.",
"Brainiac 5 kept a piece in his lab, which was later lost to the Phantom Zone.",
"Additionally, Superman X, Superman's clone from the 41st century, had kryptonite incorporated into his DNA during his creation, which gives him immunity to its effects and the ability to project it to form traps and other constructs.",
"* ''Young Justice'' (2010–2022) features green kryptonite in the episodes \"Auld Acquaintance\", \"Involuntary\", \"Encounter Upon the Razor's Edge!",
"\", \"Forbidden Secrets of Civilizations Past!",
"\", \"Zenith and Abyss\", \"Over and Out\" and \"Death and Rebirth\".",
"* In ''The Batman'' (2007-2008), episode \"The Batman/Superman Story\", Metallo was hired by Lex Luthor, using green kryptonite to finish off Superman, before being defeated by Batman and Robin.",
"Batman keeps the green kryptonite for emergencies.",
"In final episode, \"Lost Heroes\", Superman uses kryptonite against an android of The Joining, who obtained his powers.",
"* In ''Batman: The Brave and the Bold'' episode \"Battle of the Superheroes!\"",
"(2011), Superman is infected with a red kryptonite necklace secretly given to Lois Lane by Lex Luthor, which causes him to become evil.",
"Therefore, Batman and Krypto the Superdog had to team up to hold off Superman until the kryptonite's effects wear off.",
"* In the web series ''DC Super Hero Girls'' (2016-2018), Lena Luthor created creatures called Kryptomites by combining kryptonite and alien technology, which are highly mischievous and possess the same abilities as their kryptonite of source.",
"* Kryptonite appears in the ''Justice League Action'' short episode \"True Colors\" (2017), used by Metallo against Superman.",
"Firestorm arrives and attempts to neutralize the kryptonite's effects by changing it into lead, but is initially unsuccessful and changes it into various other colors before finally succeeding.",
"** Red - Induced extreme anger in Superman.",
"** Gold - Induced amnesia in Superman.",
"** Black - Split Superman into black- and white-clad duplicates.",
"** Pink - Changed Superman to Superwoman.",
"* In ''DC Super Hero Girls'' (2019-2021), green kryptonite has been used by Catwoman to weaken Supergirl and by Lex Luthor to trap both Superman and Supergirl in capsules, while Ra's al Ghul once used red kryptonite to mind control Supergirl into destroying a boy band concert.",
"The episode \"#DoubleDanvers\" features periwinkle kryptonite, which makes Kryptonians giddy (and makes Bizarros go into a rage).===Films===* In ''Superman'' (1978) Lex Luthor (Gene Hackman) deduces that a meteorite found in Addis Ababa is actually a radioactive piece of the exploded planet Krypton.",
"Luthor uses the mineral to weaken Superman (Christopher Reeve), who is saved by Luthor's lover Eve Teschmacher (Valerie Perrine).",
"* In ''Superman III'' (1983) billionaire Ross Webster (Robert Vaughn) orders the creation of synthetic green kryptonite.",
"Computer programmer Gus Gorman (Richard Pryor) uses tar to compensate for an unknown component of kryptonite, causing the newly created mineral to eventually turn Superman evil and split the hero into two beings (making its effects more in line with red and black kryptonite).",
"Gorman's \"supercomputer\" later fights Superman and uses a kryptonite ray.",
"* In ''Superman Returns'' (2006) Lex Luthor (Kevin Spacey) steals the Addis Ababa L9 Pallasite meteorite and uses kryptonite to create a new Kryptonian landmass and a shard for use against Superman.",
"The film describes kryptonite's formula as \"sodium lithium boron silicate hydroxide with fluorine\".",
"A year after the film was released, a substance with a similar formula was discovered, jadarite, a coincidence which led to media attention.",
"The new mineral, unlike the fictional material in the film, does not contain fluorine and does not have a green glow, an effect normally associated with nuclear radiation in both real life and popular culture.",
"* In ''Justice League: The New Frontier'' (2008), Batman mentions he keeps some kryptonite in case he needs to fight Superman.",
"* In ''Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths'' (2010) an alternate universe version of Lex Luthor uses blue kryptonite against the villain Ultraman.",
"* In ''Justice League: Doom'' (2012), the villain Metallo wounds Superman with a kryptonite bullet, but he is saved by the JLA.",
"* In ''Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice'' (2016), green kryptonite is discovered by men working for Lex Luthor (Jesse Eisenberg) at the bottom of the Indian Ocean (after Superman's battle with the World Engine in ''Man of Steel'') and experimented with by Luthor, who learns of its harmful effect on Kryptonians when the corpse of General Zod is exposed to it.",
"The kryptonite is then stolen from Luthor by Batman (Ben Affleck), who uses it to create kryptonite gas pellets and a kryptonite-tipped spear, both of which he later uses in battle with Superman (Henry Cavill).",
"Doomsday is also shown to be weakened by kryptonite, allowing Superman to use the spear to kill him in the film's climax.",
"* In ''DC League of Super-Pets'', Lex Luthor brings an orange kryptonite meteor to Earth, hoping to use it to give himself superpowers.",
"He fails, but a shard of the meteor lands in an animal shelter, granting powers to the pets there.",
"One of these pets, a former Lexcorp Guinea pig named Lulu, decides to use her newfound powers to conquer the world.",
"Lulu also uses pieces of green kryptonite against Superman and Krypto, and flashbacks show her being exposed to red kryptonite (which makes her fur fall out) and purple kryptonite (which gives her terrible nightmares).===Video games===* In ''Superman: Atari 2600'' (1978) Luthor has created kryptonite satellites and scattered them around Metropolis that take away Superman's ability to fly when touched.",
"Superman must then walk around Metropolis until he finds and meets Lois Lane to regain his powers.",
"* In the 1988 Kemco Superman game for the Nintendo Entertainment System, defeating random enemies may cause red or green Kryptonite to appear, which must be avoided or else it will damage the player's health.",
"A blue crystal restores the player's health, explained in the manual as Kryptonian power crystals akin to the 1978 film.",
"* In ''Superman 64'' (1999) there is a kryptonite fog, coined as an excuse for the game's poor draw distance.",
"* In the crossover fighting game ''Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe'' (2008) kryptonite weakens Superman when exposed, while it makes his Mortal Kombat universe counterpart, the thunder god Raiden, stronger.",
"* In ''Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes'' (2012) kryptonite is used to power Lex Luthor's weapon, the \"Deconstructor\".",
"* Kryptonite appears in ''Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure'' (2013).",
"* Kryptonite is one of the foundation elements in ''Lego Dimensions''.",
"* ''Injustice: Gods Among Us'' (2013) features a kryptonite laser designed as a fail-safe against Superman should he turn against humanity.",
"Gold and green kryptonite appear in the story mode of ''Injustice 2''.===Serials===Columbia Pictures produced two 15-part motion picture serials that used kryptonite as a plot device: ''Superman'' (1948) and ''Atom Man vs. Superman'' (1950).===Music===Songs:* \"Kryptonite\" by 3 Doors Down (2000).",
"* \"Party Up (Up in Here)\" by DMX (2000).",
"* \"Kryptonite (I'm on It)\" by rap group Purple Ribbon All-Stars (2006).",
"* \"Kryptonite\" By Mario ft. Rich Boy from his third studio album ''Go''.",
"* \"Fashion Is My Kryptonite\" by Bella Thorne and Zendaya (2012).",
"* \"Ready or Not\" by Bridgit Mendler (2012).",
"* \"Shut Up and Dance\" by Walk the Moon (2014).",
"* \"Get Your Cape On\" by Jordyn Kane (2015).",
"* ''Pocket Full of Kryptonite'', a 1991 album by Spin Doctors.",
"The album's title is drawn from a line in the song \"Jimmy Olsen's Blues\", which is featured on the album.",
"* In the title track for his album ''Ten Feet Tall and Bulletproof'', Travis Tritt sings about picking a fight when he feels like Superman \"only to find my opponent is holding kryptonite\".",
"* The 2000 song, \"Superman (It's Not Easy)\" by \"Five for Fighting\" mentions kryptonite: \"...digging for kryptonite on this one way street\".",
"* The Genesis song \"The Carpet Crawlers\" mentions kryptonite: \"Mild-mannered Supermen are held in kryptonite...\".",
"* \"There's a Moon in the Sky\" by The B-52's mentions kryptonite: \"you get a mouth, a mouthful of red kryptonite\".",
"* \"Jam on It\" by Newcleus features a \"battle\" between the band and Superman, and they \"rock his butt with a 12-inch cut called disco kryptonite\".",
"* \"One Thing\" by One Direction mentions kryptonite: \"you're my kryptonite\".",
"* \"Pineapple Kryptonite\" by ATARASHII GAKKO!",
"* \"Kryptonita\", a 1991 album by Miguel Mateos."
],
[
"See also",
"* Trinitite"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Superman Homepage's section on kryptonite* Howstuffworks.com: \"How Kryptonite Works\""
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kosovo"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kosovo''', officially the '''Republic of Kosovo''', is a country in Southeast Europe with partial diplomatic recognition.",
"Kosovo lies landlocked in the centre of the Balkans, bordered by Serbia to the north and east, North Macedonia to the southeast, Albania to the southwest, and Montenegro to the west.",
"Most of central Kosovo is dominated by the vast plains and fields of Metohija and the Kosovo field.",
"The Accursed Mountains and Šar Mountains rise in the southwest and southeast, respectively.",
"Its capital and largest city is Pristina.The Dardani tribe emerged in Kosovo and established the Kingdom of Dardania in the 4th century BC.",
"It was later annexed by the Roman Empire in the 1st century BC.",
"The territory remained in the Byzantine Empire, facing Slavic migrations from the 6th-7th century AD.",
"Control shifted between the Byzantines and the First Bulgarian Empire.",
"In the 13th century, Kosovo became integral to the Serbian medieval state and the seat of the Serbian Orthodox Church.",
"Ottoman expansion in the Balkans in the late 14th and 15th century led to the decline and fall of the Serbian Empire; the Battle of Kosovo of 1389 is considered to be one of the defining moments, where a Serbian-led Christian coalition that also included Albanians, fought against the Ottoman Empire.",
"Various dynasties, mainly the Branković, would govern Kosovo for a significant portion of the period following the battle.",
"The Ottoman Empire fully conquered Kosovo after the Second Battle of Kosovo, ruling for nearly five centuries until 1912.Kosovo was the center of the Albanian Renaissance and experienced the Albanian revolts of 1910 and 1912.After the Balkan Wars, it was ceded to Serbia and Montenegro and became an Autonomous Province within Yugoslavia.",
"Tensions between Kosovo's Albanian and Serb communities simmered through the 20th century and occasionally erupted into major violence, culminating in the Kosovo War of 1998 and 1999, which resulted in the withdrawal of the Yugoslav army and the establishment of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo.Kosovo unilaterally declared its independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008, and has since gained diplomatic recognition as a sovereign state by 104 member states of the United Nations.",
"Although Serbia does not officially recognise Kosovo as a sovereign state and continues to claim it as its constituent Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija, it accepts the governing authority of the Kosovo institutions as a part of the 2013 Brussels Agreement.Kosovo is a developing country, with an upper-middle-income economy.",
"It has experienced solid economic growth over the last decade as measured by international financial institutions since the onset of the financial crisis of 2007–2008.Kosovo is a member of the International Monetary Fund, World Bank, EBRD, Venice Commission, the International Olympic Committee, and has applied for membership in the Council of Europe, UNESCO, Interpol, and for observer status in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.",
"In December 2022, Kosovo filed a formal application to become a member of the European Union."
],
[
"Name",
"===Etymology===The name ''Kosovo'' is of South Slavic origin.",
"() is the Serbian neuter possessive adjective of (), 'blackbird', an ellipsis for , 'Blackbird Field', the name of a karst field situated in the eastern half of today's Kosovo and the site of the 1389 Battle of Kosovo Field.",
"The name of the karst field was for the first time applied to a wider area when the Ottoman Vilayet of Kosovo was created in 1877.The entire territory that corresponds to today's country is commonly referred to in English simply as ''Kosovo'' and in Albanian as (definite form) or (indefinite form, ).",
"In Serbia, a formal distinction is made between the eastern and western areas of the country; the term () is used for the eastern part of Kosovo centred on the historical Kosovo Field, while the western part of the territory of Kosovo is called ''Metohija'' ().",
"Thus, in Serbian the entire area of Kosovo is referred to as ''Kosovo and Metohija''.Dukagjini or Dukagjini plateau (Albanian: 'Rrafshi i Dukagjinit') is also the oldest name for Western Kosovo, having been in use since the 15th-16th century as part of Sanjak of Dukakin with its capital Peja, and is named after the medieval Albanian Dukagjini family.===Modern usage===Some Albanians also prefer to refer to Kosovo as ''Dardania'', the name of an ancient kingdom and later Roman province, which covered the territory of modern-day Kosovo.",
"The name is dervied from the ancient tribe of the ''Dardani'', which is considered be related to the Proto-Albanian term ''dardā'', which means \"pear\" (Modern Albanian: ).",
"The former Kosovo President Ibrahim Rugova had been an enthusiastic backer of a \"Dardanian\" identity, and the Kosovar presidential flag and seal refer to this national identity.",
"However, the name \"Kosova\" remains more widely used among the Albanian population.",
"The flag of Dardania remains in use as the official Presidential seal and standard and is heavily featured in the institution of the presidency of the country.The official conventional long name of the state is ''Republic of Kosovo'', as defined by the Constitution of Kosovo, and is used to represent Kosovo internationally.",
"Additionally, as a result of an arrangement agreed between Pristina and Belgrade in talks mediated by the European Union, Kosovo has participated in some international forums and organizations under the title \"Kosovo*\" with a footnote stating, \"This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with UNSC 1244 and the ICJ Opinion on the Kosovo declaration of independence\".",
"This arrangement, which has been dubbed the \"asterisk agreement\", was agreed in an 11-point arrangement on 24 February 2012."
],
[
"History",
"The strategic position including the abundant natural resources were favorable for the development of human settlements in Kosovo, as is highlighted by the hundreds of archaeological sites identified throughout its territory.===Stone Age===Neolithic Goddess on the Throne is one of the most significant archaeological artifacts of Kosovo and has been adopted as the symbol of Pristina.Since 2000, the increase in archaeological expeditions has revealed many, previously unknown sites.",
"The earliest documented traces in Kosovo are associated to the Stone Age; namely, indications that cave dwellings might have existed, such as Radivojce Cave near the source of the Drin River, Grnčar Cave in Viti municipality and the Dema and Karamakaz Caves in the municipality of Peja.The earliest archaeological evidence of organized settlement, which have been found in Kosovo, belong to the Neolithic Starčevo and Vinča cultures.",
"Vlashnjë and Runik are important sites of the Neolithic era with the rock art paintings at Mrrizi i Kobajës near Vlashnjë being the first find of prehistoric art in Kosovo.",
"Amongst the finds of excavations in Neolithic Runik is a baked-clay ocarina, which is the first musical instrument recorded in Kosovo.===Classical antiquity===Kingdom of Dardania in the 3rd century BCE.The first archaeological expedition in Kosovo was organized by the Austro-Hungarian army during the World War I in the Illyrian tumuli burial grounds of Nepërbishti within the district of Prizren.The beginning of the Bronze Age coincides with the presence of tumuli burial grounds in western Kosovo, like the site of Romajë.The Dardani were the most important Paleo-Balkan tribe in the region of Kosovo.",
"A wide area which consists of Kosovo, parts of Northern Macedonia and eastern Serbia was named Dardania after them in classical antiquity, reaching to the Thraco-Illyrian contact zone in the east.",
"In archaeological research, Illyrian names are predominant in western Dardania, while Thracian names are mostly found in eastern Dardania.Thracian names are absent in western Dardania, while some Illyrian names appear in the eastern parts.",
"Thus, their identification as either an Illyrian or Thracian tribe has been a subject of debate, the ethnolinguistic relationship between the two groups being largely uncertain and debated itself as well.",
"The correspondence of Illyrian names, including those of the ruling elite, in Dardania with those of the southern Illyrians suggests a thracianization of parts of Dardania.",
"The Dardani retained an individuality and continued to maintain social independence after Roman conquest, playing an important role in the formation of new groupings in the Roman era.====Roman period====During Roman rule, Kosovo was part of two provinces, with its western part being part of Praevalitana, and the vast majority of its modern territory belonging to Dardania.",
"Praevalitana and the rest of Illyria was conquered by the Roman Republic in 168 BC.",
"On the other hand, Dardania maintained its independence until the year 28 BC, when the Romans, under Augustus, annexed it into their Republic.",
"Dardania eventually became a part of the Moesia province.",
"During the reign of Diocletian, Dardania became a full Roman province and the entirety of Kosovo's modern territory became a part of the Diocese of Moesia, and then during the second half of the 4th century, it became part of the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum.Ruins of Ancient Ulpiana situated southeast of Pristina.",
"The city, built by Trajan, was an important political, cultural, and economic center of the Roman province of Dardania.During Roman rule, a series of settlements developed in the area, mainly close to mines and to the major roads.",
"The most important of the settlements was Ulpiana, which is located near modern-day Gračanica.",
"It was established in the 1st century AD, possibly developing from a concentrated Dardanian oppidum, and then was upgraded to the status of a Roman municipium at the beginning of the 2nd century during the rule of Trajan.",
"Ulpiana became especially important during the rule of Justinian I, after the Emperor rebuilt the city after it had been destroyed by an earthquake and renamed it to ''Iustinianna Secunda''.Other important towns that developed in the area during Roman rule were Vendenis, located in modern-day Podujevo; Viciano, possibly near Vushtrri; and Municipium Dardanorum, an important mining town in Leposavić.",
"Other archeological sites include Çifllak in Western Kosovo, Dresnik in Klina, Pestova in Vushtrri, Vërban in Klokot, Poslishte between Vërmica and Prizren, Paldenica near Hani i Elezit, as well as Nerodimë e Poshtme and Nikadin near Ferizaj.",
"The one thing all the settlements have in common is that they are located either near roads, such as Via Lissus-Naissus, or near the mines of North Kosovo and eastern Kosovo.",
"Most of the settlements are archaeological sites that have been discovered recently and are being excavated.It is also known that the region was Christianized during Roman rule, though little is known regarding Christianity in the Balkans in the three first centuries AD.",
"The first clear mention of Christians in literature is the case of Bishop Dacus of Macedonia, from Dardania, who was present at the First Council of Nicaea (325).",
"It is also known that Dardania had a Diocese in the 4th century, and its seat was placed in Ulpiana, which remained the episcopal center of Dardania until the establishment of Justiniana Prima in 535 AD.",
"The first known bishop of Ulpiana is Machedonius, who was a member of the council of Serdika.",
"Other known bishops were Paulus (synod of Constantinople in 553 AD), and Gregentius, who was sent by Justin I to Ethiopia and Yemen to ease problems among different Christian groups there.===Middle Ages: between Byzantine and Slavic rule===In the next centuries, Kosovo was a frontier province of the Byzantine Empire.",
"The region was exposed to an increasing number of raids from the 4th century CE onward, culminating with the Slavic migrations of the 6th and 7th centuries.",
"Toponymic evidence suggests that Albanian was probably spoken in Kosovo prior to the Slavic settlement of the region.",
"However, the overwhelming presence of towns and municipalities in Kosovo with Slavic in their toponymy suggests that the Slavic migrations either assimilated or drove out population groups already living in Kosovo.There is one intriguing line of argument to suggest that the Slav presence in Kosovo and southernmost part of the Morava valley may have been quite weak in the first one or two centuries of Slav settlement.",
"Only in the ninth century can the expansion of a strong Slav (or quasi-Slav) power into this region be observed.",
"Under a series of ambitious rulers, the Bulgarians pushed westwards across modern Macedonia and eastern Serbia, until by the 850's they had taken over Kosovo and were pressing on the border of Serbian Principality.The First Bulgarian Empire acquired Kosovo by the mid-9th century, but Byzantine control was restored by the late 10th century.",
"In 1072, the leaders of the Bulgarian Uprising of Georgi Voiteh traveled from their center in Skopje to Prizren and held a meeting in which they invited Mihailo Vojislavljević of Duklja to send them assistance.",
"Mihailo sent his son, Constantine Bodin with 300 of his soldiers.",
"After they met, the Bulgarian magnates proclaimed him \"Emperor of the Bulgarians\".",
"Demetrios Chomatenos is the last Byzantine archbishop of Ohrid to include Prizren in his jurisdiction until 1219.Stefan Nemanja had seized the area along the White Drin in 1185 to 1195 and the ecclesiastical split of Prizren from the Patriarchate in 1219 was the final act of establishing Nemanjić rule.",
"Konstantin Jireček concluded, from the correspondence of archbishop Demetrios of Ohrid from 1216 to 1236, that Dardania was increasingly populated by Albanians and the expansion started from Gjakova and Prizren area, prior to the Slavic expansion.",
"Gračanica Monastery, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.",
"Visoki Dečani Monastery, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.During the 13th and 14th centuries, Kosovo was a political, cultural and religious centre of the Serbian Kingdom.",
"In the late 13th century, the seat of the Serbian Archbishopric was moved to Peja, and rulers centred themselves between Prizren and Skopje, during which time thousands of Christian monasteries and feudal-style forts and castles were erected, Stefan Dušan using Prizren Fortress as one of his temporary courts for a time.",
"When the Serbian Empire fragmented into a conglomeration of principalities in 1371, Kosovo became the hereditary land of the House of Branković.",
"During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, parts of Kosovo, the easternmost area located near Pristina, were part of the Principality of Dukagjini, which was later incorporated into an anti-Ottoman federation of all Albanian principalities, the League of Lezhë.Medieval Monuments in Kosovo is a combined UNESCO World Heritage Site consisting of four Serbian Orthodox churches and monasteries in Dečani, Peč, Prizren and Gračanica.",
"The constructions were founded by members of the Nemanjić dynasty, a prominent dynasty of mediaeval Serbia.=== Ottoman rule ===Imperial Mosque of Pristina built by Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror, 1461====Conquest====In 1389, as the Ottoman Empire expanded northwards through the Balkans, Ottoman forces under Sultan Murad I met with a Christian coalition led by Moravian Serbia under Prince Lazar in the Battle of Kosovo.",
"Both sides suffered heavy losses and the battle was a stalemate and it was even reported as a Christian victory at first, but Serbian manpower was depleted and ''de facto'' Serbian rulers could not raise another equal force to the Ottoman army.Different parts of Kosovo were ruled directly or indirectly by the Ottomans in this early period.",
"The medieval town of Novo Brdo was under Lazar's son, Stefan who became a loyal Ottoman vassal and instigated the downfall of Vuk Branković who eventually joined the Hungarian anti-Ottoman coalition and was defeated in 1395–96.A small part of Vuk's land with the villages of Priština and Vučitrn was given to his sons to hold as Ottoman vassals for a brief period.====Control and Islamisation====By 1455–57, the Ottoman Empire assumed direct control of all of Kosovo and the region remained part of the empire until 1912.During this period, Islam was introduced to the region.",
"As Ottoman rule spread, Christian Serbs fled Kosovo to leave westwards and northwards causing the population of Kosovo to fall dramatically.",
"The continuous emigration from Kosovo reached its peak at the Great Migrations of the Serbs, which included some Christian Albanians.",
"To compensate for the population loss, the Turks encouraged settlement of non-Slav Muslim Albanians in the wider region of Kosovo.",
"By the end of the 18th century, Kosovo would attain an Albanian majority - with Peja, Prizren, Prishtina becoming especially important towns for the local Muslim population.Although initially stout opponents of the advancing Turks, Albanian chiefs ultimately came to accept the Ottomans as sovereigns.",
"The resulting alliance facilitated the mass conversion of Albanians to Islam.",
"Given that the Ottoman Empire's subjects were divided along religious (rather than ethnic) lines, the spread of Islam greatly elevated the status of Albanian chiefs.",
"Centuries earlier, Albanians of Kosovo were predominantly Christian and Albanians and Serbs for the most part co-existed peacefully.",
"The Ottomans appeared to have a more deliberate approach to converting the Roman Catholic population who were mostly Albanians in comparison with the mostly Serbian adherents of Eastern Orthodoxy, as they viewed the former less favorably due to its allegiance to Rome, a competing regional power.====Serbian and Albanian nationalism, 19th century-1912====The city of Prizren was the cultural and intellectual centre of Kosovo during the Ottoman period in the Middle Ages and is now the historic capital of Kosovo.In the 19th century, there was an awakening of ethnic nationalism throughout the Balkans.",
"The underlying ethnic tensions became part of a broader struggle of Christian Serbs against Muslim Albanians.",
"The ethnic Albanian nationalism movement was centred in Kosovo.",
"In 1878 the League of Prizren () was formed, a political organisation that sought to unify all the Albanians of the Ottoman Empire in a common struggle for autonomy and greater cultural rights, although they generally desired the continuation of the Ottoman Empire.",
"The League was dis-established in 1881 but enabled the awakening of a national identity among Albanians, whose ambitions competed with those of the Serbs, the Kingdom of Serbia wishing to incorporate this land that had formerly been within its empire.The modern Albanian-Serbian conflict has its roots in the expulsion of the Albanians in 1877–1878 from areas that became incorporated into the Principality of Serbia.",
"During and after the Serbian–Ottoman War of 1876–78, between 30,000 and 70,000 Muslims, mostly Albanians, were expelled by the Serb army from the Sanjak of Niš and fled to the Kosovo Vilayet.",
"According to Austrian data, by the 1890s Kosovo was 70% Muslim (nearly entirely of Albanian descent) and less than 30% non-Muslim (primarily Serbs).",
"In May 1901, Albanians pillaged and partially burned the cities of Novi Pazar, Sjenica and Pristina, and massacred Serbs in the area of Kolašin.===Balkan Wars, WWI, Serbian rule, and WWII: ethno-demographic changes=== Division of Kosovo vilayet between the Kingdom of Serbia (''yellow'') and the Kingdom of Montenegro (''green'') following the Balkan Wars 1913.In the spring of 1912, Albanians under the lead of Hasan Prishtina revolted against the Ottoman Empire.",
"The rebels were joined by a wave of Albanians in the Ottoman army ranks, who deserted the army, refusing to fight their own kin.",
"The rebels defeated the Ottomans and the latter were forced to accept all fourteen demands of the rebels, which foresaw an effective autonomy for the Albanians living in the Empire.",
"However, this autonomy never materialized, and the revolt created serious weaknesses in the Ottoman ranks, luring Montenegro, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece into declaring war on the Ottoman Empire and starting the First Balkan War.After the Ottomans' defeat in the First Balkan War, the 1913 Treaty of London was signed with Metohija ceded to the Kingdom of Montenegro and eastern Kosovo ceded to the Kingdom of Serbia.",
"During the Balkan Wars, over 100,000 Albanians left Kosovo and about 50,000 were killed in the massacres that accompanied the war.",
"Soon, there were concerted Serbian colonisation efforts in Kosovo during various periods between Serbia's 1912 takeover of the province and World War II, causing the population of Serbs in Kosovo to grow by about 58,000 in this period.Serbian authorities promoted creating new Serb settlements in Kosovo as well as the assimilation of Albanians into Serbian society, causing a mass exodus of Albanians from Kosovo.",
"The figures of Albanians forcefully expelled from Kosovo range between 60,000 and 239,807, while Malcolm mentions 100,000–120,000.In combination with the politics of extermination and expulsion, there was also a process of assimilation through religious conversion of Albanian Muslims and Albanian Catholics into the Serbian Orthodox religion which took place as early as 1912.These politics seem to have been inspired by the nationalist ideologies of Ilija Garašanin and Jovan Cvijić.In the winter of 1915–16, during World War I, Kosovo saw the retreat of the Serbian army as Kosovo was occupied by Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary.",
"In 1918, the Allied Powers pushed the Central Powers out of Kosovo.",
"Mitrovica, circa 1941.A new administration system since 26 April 1922 split Kosovo among three districts (oblast) of the Kingdom: Kosovo, Raška and Zeta.",
"In 1929, the country was transformed into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and the territories of Kosovo were reorganised among the Banate of Zeta, the Banate of Morava and the Banate of Vardar.",
"In order to change the ethnic composition of Kosovo, between 1912 and 1941 a large-scale Serbian colonisation of Kosovo was undertaken by the Belgrade government.",
"Kosovar Albanians' right to receive education in their own language was denied alongside other non-Slavic or unrecognised Slavic nations of Yugoslavia, as the kingdom only recognised the Slavic Croat, Serb, and Slovene nations as constituent nations of Yugoslavia.",
"Other Slavs had to identify as one of the three official Slavic nations and non-Slav nations deemed as minorities.Albanians and other Muslims were forced to emigrate, mainly with the land reform which struck Albanian landowners in 1919, but also with direct violent measures.",
"In 1935 and 1938, two agreements between the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and Turkey were signed on the expatriation of 240,000 Albanians to Turkey, but the expatriation did not occur due to the outbreak of World War II.After the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941, most of Kosovo was assigned to Italian-controlled Albania, and the rest was controlled by Germany and Bulgaria.",
"A three-dimensional conflict ensued, involving inter-ethnic, ideological, and international affiliations.",
"Albanian collaborators persecuted Serb and Montenegrin settlers.",
"Estimates differ, but most authors estimate that between 3,000 and 10,000 Serbs and Montenegrins died in Kosovo during the Second World War.",
"Another 30,000 to 40,000, or as high as 100,000, Serbs and Montenegrins, mainly settlers, were deported to Serbia in order to Albanianize Kosovo.",
"A decree from Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito, followed by a new law in August 1945 disallowed the return of colonists who had taken land from Albanian peasants.",
"During the war years, some Serbs and Montenegrins were sent to concentration camps in Pristina and Mitrovica.",
"Nonetheless, these conflicts were relatively low-level compared with other areas of Yugoslavia during the war years.",
"Two Serb historians also estimate that 12,000 Albanians died.",
"An official investigation conducted by the Yugoslav government in 1964 recorded nearly 8,000 war-related fatalities in Kosovo between 1941 and 1945, 5,489 of them Serb or Montenegrin and 2,177 Albanian.",
"Some sources note that up to 72,000 individuals were encouraged to settle or resettle into Kosovo from Albania by the short-lived Italian administration.",
"As the regime collapsed, this was never materialized with historians and contemporary references emphasizing that a large-scale migration of Albanians from Albania to Kosovo is not recorded in Axis documents.=== Communist Yugoslavia ===The flag of the Albanian minority of Kosovo in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.The existing province took shape in 1945 as the ''Autonomous Region of Kosovo and Metohija'', with a final demarcation in 1959.Until 1945, the only entity bearing the name of Kosovo in the late modern period had been the Vilayet of Kosovo, a political unit created by the Ottoman Empire in 1877.However, those borders were different.Tensions between ethnic Albanians and the Yugoslav government were significant, not only due to ethnic tensions but also due to political ideological concerns, especially regarding relations with neighbouring Albania.",
"Harsh repressive measures were imposed on Kosovo Albanians due to suspicions that there were sympathisers of the Stalinist regime of Enver Hoxha of Albania.",
"In 1956, a show trial in Pristina was held in which multiple Albanian Communists of Kosovo were convicted of being infiltrators from Albania and given long prison sentences.",
"High-ranking Serbian communist official Aleksandar Ranković sought to secure the position of the Serbs in Kosovo and gave them dominance in Kosovo's nomenklatura.Fadil Hoxha, the vice-president of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, from 1978 to 1979.Islam in Kosovo at this time was repressed and both Albanians and Muslim Slavs were encouraged to declare themselves to be Turkish and emigrate to Turkey.",
"At the same time Serbs and Montenegrins dominated the government, security forces, and industrial employment in Kosovo.",
"Albanians resented these conditions and protested against them in the late 1960s, calling the actions taken by authorities in Kosovo colonialist, and demanding that Kosovo be made a republic, or declaring support for Albania.After the ouster of Ranković in 1966, the agenda of pro-decentralisation reformers in Yugoslavia succeeded in the late 1960s in attaining substantial decentralisation of powers, creating substantial autonomy in Kosovo and Vojvodina, and recognising a Muslim Yugoslav nationality.",
"As a result of these reforms, there was a massive overhaul of Kosovo's nomenklatura and police, that shifted from being Serb-dominated to ethnic Albanian-dominated through firing Serbs in large scale.",
"Further concessions were made to the ethnic Albanians of Kosovo in response to unrest, including the creation of the University of Pristina as an Albanian language institution.",
"These changes created widespread fear among Serbs that they were being made second-class citizens in Yugoslavia.",
"By the 1974 Constitution of Yugoslavia, Kosovo was granted major autonomy, allowing it to have its own administration, assembly, and judiciary; as well as having a membership in the collective presidency and the Yugoslav parliament, in which it held veto power.Republics and provinces of the SFR Yugoslavia.In the aftermath of the 1974 constitution, concerns over the rise of Albanian nationalism in Kosovo rose with the widespread celebrations in 1978 of the 100th anniversary of the founding of the League of Prizren.",
"Albanians felt that their status as a \"minority\" in Yugoslavia had made them second-class citizens in comparison with the \"nations\" of Yugoslavia and demanded that Kosovo be a constituent republic, alongside the other republics of Yugoslavia.",
"Protests by Albanians in 1981 over the status of Kosovo resulted in Yugoslav territorial defence units being brought into Kosovo and a state of emergency being declared resulting in violence and the protests being crushed.",
"In the aftermath of the 1981 protests, purges took place in the Communist Party, and rights that had been recently granted to Albanians were rescinded – including ending the provision of Albanian professors and Albanian language textbooks in the education system.While Albanians in the region had the highest birth rates in Europe, other areas of Yugoslavia including Serbia had low birth rates.",
"Increased urbanization and economic development led to higher settlements of Albanian workers into Serb-majority areas, as Serbs departed in response to the economic climate for more favorable real estate conditions in Serbia.",
"While there was tension, charges of \"genocide\" and planned harassment have been discredited as a pretext to revoke Kosovo's autonomy.",
"For example, in 1986 the Serbian Orthodox Church published an official claim that Kosovo Serbs were being subjected to an Albanian program of 'genocide'.Even though they were disproved by police statistics, they received wide attention in the Serbian press and that led to further ethnic problems and eventual removal of Kosovo's status.",
"Beginning in March 1981, Kosovar Albanian students of the University of Pristina organised protests seeking that Kosovo become a republic within Yugoslavia and demanding their human rights.",
"The protests were brutally suppressed by the police and army, with many protesters arrested.",
"During the 1980s, ethnic tensions continued with frequent violent outbreaks against Yugoslav state authorities, resulting in a further increase in emigration of Kosovo Serbs and other ethnic groups.",
"The Yugoslav leadership tried to suppress protests of Kosovo Serbs seeking protection from ethnic discrimination and violence.=== Kosovo War ===Ibrahim Rugova played a significant role in advocating for the rights of Kosovar Albanians and their aspirations for self-determination.Inter-ethnic tensions continued to worsen in Kosovo throughout the 1980s.",
"In 1989, Serbian President Slobodan Milošević, employing a mix of intimidation and political maneuvering, drastically reduced Kosovo's special autonomous status within Serbia and started cultural oppression of the ethnic Albanian population.",
"Kosovar Albanians responded with a non-violent separatist movement, employing widespread civil disobedience and creation of parallel structures in education, medical care, and taxation, with the ultimate goal of achieving the independence of Kosovo.In July 1990, the Kosovo Albanians proclaimed the existence of the Republic of Kosova, and declared it a sovereign and independent state in September 1992.In May 1992, Ibrahim Rugova was elected its president.",
"During its lifetime, the Republic of Kosova was only officially recognised by Albania.",
"By the mid-1990s, the Kosovo Albanian population was growing restless, as the status of Kosovo was not resolved as part of the Dayton Agreement of November 1995, which ended the Bosnian War.",
"By 1996, the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), an ethnic Albanian guerrilla paramilitary group that sought the separation of Kosovo and the eventual creation of a Greater Albania, had prevailed over the Rugova's non-violent resistance movement and launched attacks against the Yugoslav Army and Serbian police in Kosovo, resulting in the Kosovo War.By 1998, international pressure compelled Yugoslavia to sign a ceasefire and partially withdraw its security forces.",
"Events were to be monitored by Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) observers according to an agreement negotiated by Richard Holbrooke.",
"The ceasefire did not hold and fighting resumed in December 1998, culminating in the Račak massacre, which attracted further international attention to the conflict.",
"Within weeks, a multilateral international conference was convened and by March had prepared a draft agreement known as the Rambouillet Accords, calling for the restoration of Kosovo's autonomy and the deployment of NATO peacekeeping forces.",
"The Yugoslav delegation found the terms unacceptable and refused to sign the draft.",
"Between 24 March and 10 June 1999, NATO intervened by bombing Yugoslavia, aiming to force Milošević to withdraw his forces from Kosovo, though NATO could not appeal to any particular motion of the Security Council of the United Nations to help legitimise its intervention.",
"Combined with continued skirmishes between Albanian guerrillas and Yugoslav forces the conflict resulted in a further massive displacement of population in Kosovo.Kosovar Albanian soldiers holding pictures in memory of the men who were killed or went missing in the Krusha massacres.During the conflict, roughly a million ethnic Albanians fled or were forcefully driven from Kosovo.",
"In 1999 more than 11,000 deaths were reported to the office of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia prosecutor Carla Del Ponte.",
", some 3,000 people were still missing, including 2,500 Albanians, 400 Serbs and 100 Roma.",
"By June, Milošević agreed to a foreign military presence in Kosovo and the withdrawal of his troops.",
"During the Kosovo War, over 90,000 Serbian and other non-Albanian refugees fled the province.",
"In the days after the Yugoslav Army withdrew, over 80,000 Serb and other non-Albanian civilians (almost half of 200,000 estimated to live in Kosovo) were expelled from Kosovo, and many of the remaining civilians were victims of abuse.",
"After the Kosovo and other Yugoslav Wars, Serbia became home to the highest number of refugees and IDPs (including Kosovo Serbs) in Europe.Serbian and other children refugees, Cernica, Gjilan.In some villages under Albanian control in 1998, militants drove ethnic Serbs from their homes.",
"Some of those who remained are unaccounted for and are presumed to have been abducted by the KLA and killed.",
"The KLA detained an estimated 85 Serbs during its 19 July 1998 attack on Rahovec.",
"35 of these were subsequently released but the others remained.",
"On 22 July 1998, the KLA briefly took control of the Belaćevac mine near the town of Obiliq.",
"Nine Serb mineworkers were captured that day and they remain on the International Committee of the Red Cross's list of the missing and are presumed to have been killed.",
"In August 1998, 22 Serbian civilians were reportedly killed in the village of Klečka, where the police claimed to have discovered human remains and a kiln used to cremate the bodies.",
"In September 1998, Serbian police collected 34 bodies of people believed to have been seized and murdered by the KLA, among them some ethnic Albanians, at Lake Radonjić near Glođane (Gllogjan) in what became known as the Lake Radonjić massacre.",
"Human Rights Watch have raised questions about the validity of at least some of these allegations made by Serbian authorities.Heroinat\" (Heroines) monument in Pristina.",
"It is dedicated to women victims of sexual violence perpetrated by Serbian forces, during the Kosovo War, of which the vast majority were Albanian women.The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) prosecuted crimes committed during the Kosovo War.",
"Nine senior Yugoslav officials, including Milošević, were indicted for crimes against humanity and war crimes committed between January and June 1999.Six of the defendants were convicted, one was acquitted, one died before his trial could commence, and one (Milošević) died before his trial could conclude.",
"Six KLA members were charged with crimes against humanity and war crimes by the ICTY following the war, and one was convicted.In total around 10,317 civilians were killed during the war, of whom 8,676 were Albanians, 1,196 Serbs and 445 Roma and others in addition to 3,218 killed members of armed formations.=== Postwar ===US President Bill Clinton with Albanian children during his visit to Kosovo, June 1999.On 10 June 1999, the UN Security Council passed UN Security Council Resolution 1244, which placed Kosovo under transitional UN administration (UNMIK) and authorised Kosovo Force (KFOR), a NATO-led peacekeeping force.",
"Resolution 1244 provided that Kosovo would have autonomy within the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and affirmed the territorial integrity of Yugoslavia, which has been legally succeeded by the Republic of Serbia.Estimates of the number of Serbs who left when Serbian forces left Kosovo vary from 65,000 to 250,000.Within post-conflict Kosovo Albanian society, calls for retaliation for previous violence done by Serb forces during the war circulated through public culture.",
"Widespread attacks against Serbian cultural sites commenced following the conflict and the return of hundreds of thousands of Kosovo Albanian refugees to their homes.",
"In 2004, prolonged negotiations over Kosovo's future status, sociopolitical problems and nationalist sentiments resulted in the Kosovo unrest.",
"11 Albanians and 16 Serbs were killed, 900 people (including peacekeepers) were injured, and several houses, public buildings and churches were damaged or destroyed.International negotiations began in 2006 to determine the final status of Kosovo, as envisaged under UN Security Council Resolution 1244.The UN-backed talks, led by UN Special Envoy Martti Ahtisaari, began in February 2006.Whilst progress was made on technical matters, both parties remained diametrically opposed on the question of status itself.In February 2007, Ahtisaari delivered a draft status settlement proposal to leaders in Belgrade and Pristina, the basis for a draft UN Security Council Resolution which proposed 'supervised independence' for the province.",
"A draft resolution, backed by the United States, the United Kingdom and other European members of the Security Council, was presented and rewritten four times to try to accommodate Russian concerns that such a resolution would undermine the principle of state sovereignty.Camp Bondsteel is the main base of the United States Army under KFOR command in south-eastern part of Kosovo near the city of Ferizaj.Russia, which holds a veto in the Security Council as one of five permanent members, had stated that it would not support any resolution which was not acceptable to both Belgrade and Kosovo Albanians.",
"Whilst most observers had, at the beginning of the talks, anticipated independence as the most likely outcome, others have suggested that a rapid resolution might not be preferable.After many weeks of discussions at the UN, the United States, United Kingdom and other European members of the Security Council formally 'discarded' a draft resolution backing Ahtisaari's proposal on 20 July 2007, having failed to secure Russian backing.",
"Beginning in August, a \"Troika\" consisting of negotiators from the European Union (Wolfgang Ischinger), the United States (Frank G. Wisner) and Russia (Alexander Botsan-Kharchenko) launched a new effort to reach a status outcome acceptable to both Belgrade and Pristina.",
"Despite Russian disapproval, the U.S., the United Kingdom, and France appeared likely to recognise Kosovar independence.",
"A declaration of independence by Kosovar Albanian leaders was postponed until the end of the Serbian presidential elections (4 February 2008).",
"A significant portion of politicians in both the EU and the US had feared that a premature declaration could boost support in Serbia for the nationalist candidate, Tomislav Nikolić.In November 2001, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe supervised the first elections for the Assembly of Kosovo.",
"After that election, Kosovo's political parties formed an all-party unity coalition and elected Ibrahim Rugova as president and Bajram Rexhepi (PDK) as Prime Minister.",
"After Kosovo-wide elections in October 2004, the LDK and AAK formed a new governing coalition that did not include PDK and Ora.",
"This coalition agreement resulted in Ramush Haradinaj (AAK) becoming Prime Minister, while Ibrahim Rugova retained the position of President.",
"PDK and Ora were critical of the coalition agreement and have since frequently accused that government of corruption.Parliamentary elections were held on 17 November 2007.After early results, Hashim Thaçi who was on course to gain 35 per cent of the vote, claimed victory for PDK, the Democratic Party of Kosovo, and stated his intention to declare independence.",
"Thaçi formed a coalition with president Fatmir Sejdiu's Democratic League which was in second place with 22 percent of the vote.",
"The turnout at the election was particularly low.",
"Most members of the Serb minority refused to vote.=== Declaration of independence ===The Newborn monument unveiled at the celebration of the 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence proclaimed earlier that day, 17 February 2008, Pristina.Kosovo declared independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008.recognised its independence, including all of its immediate neighbours, with the exception of Serbia; 10 states have subsequently withdrawn that recognition.",
"Of the UN Security Council members, while the US, UK and France do recognise Kosovo's independence, Russia and China do not.",
"Since declaring independence, it has become a member of international institutions such as the International Monetary Fund and World Bank, though not of the United Nations.The Serb minority of Kosovo, which largely opposes the declaration of independence, has formed the Community Assembly of Kosovo and Metohija in response.",
"The creation of the assembly was condemned by Kosovo's President Fatmir Sejdiu, while UNMIK has said the assembly is not a serious issue because it will not have an operative role.On 8 October 2008, the UN General Assembly resolved, on a proposal by Serbia, to ask the International Court of Justice to render an advisory opinion on the legality of Kosovo's declaration of independence.",
"The advisory opinion, which is not binding over decisions by states to recognise or not recognise Kosovo, was rendered on 22 July 2010, holding that Kosovo's declaration of independence was not in violation either of general principles of international law, which do not prohibit unilateral declarations of independence, nor of specific international law – in particular UNSCR 1244 – which did not define the final status process nor reserve the outcome to a decision of the Security Council.Some rapprochement between the two governments took place on 19 April 2013 as both parties reached the Brussels Agreement, an agreement brokered by the EU that allowed the Serb minority in Kosovo to have its own police force and court of appeals.",
"The agreement is yet to be ratified by either parliament.",
"Presidents of Serbia and Kosovo organized two meetings, in Brussels on 27 February 2023 and Ohrid on 18 March 2023, to create and agree upon an 11-point agreement on implementing a European Union-backed deal to normalize ties between the two countries, which includes recognizing \"each other's documents such as passports and license plates\".A number of protests and demonstrations took place in Kosovo between 2021 and 2023, some of which involved weapons and resulted in deaths on both sides.",
"Amongst the injured were 30 NATO peacekeepers.",
"The main reason behind the 2022-23 demonstrations ended on 1 January 2024 when each country recognised each other's vehicle registration plates."
],
[
"Governance",
" 137px 123px Vjosa Osmani Albin KurtiKosovo is a multi-party parliamentary representative democratic republic.",
"It is governed by legislative, executive and judicial institutions, which derive from the constitution, although, until the Brussels Agreement, North Kosovo was in practice largely controlled by institutions of Serbia or parallel institutions funded by Serbia.",
"Legislative functions are vested in both the Parliament and the ministers within their competencies.",
"The Government exercises the executive power and is composed of the Prime Minister as the head of government, the Deputy Prime Ministers and the Ministers of the various ministries.The judiciary is composed of the Supreme Court and subordinate courts, a Constitutional Court, and independent prosecutorial institutions.",
"There also exist multiple independent institutions defined by the constitution and law, as well as local governments.",
"All citizens are equal before the law and gender equality is ensured by the constitution.",
"The Constitutional Framework guarantees a minimum of ten seats in the 120-member Assembly for Serbs, and ten for other minorities, and also guarantees Serbs and other minorities places in the Government.The president serves as the head of state and represents the unity of the people, elected every five years, indirectly by the parliament through a secret ballot by a two-thirds majority of all deputies.",
"The head of state is invested primarily with representative responsibilities and powers.",
"The president has the power to return draft legislation to the parliament for reconsideration and has a role in foreign affairs and certain official appointments.",
"The Prime Minister serves as the head of government elected by the parliament.",
"Ministers are nominated by the Prime Minister, and then confirmed by the parliament.",
"The head of government exercises executive power of the territory.Corruption is a major problem and an obstacle to the development of democracy in the country.",
"Those in the judiciary appointed by the government to fight corruption are often government associates.",
"Moreover, prominent politicians and party operatives who commit offences are not prosecuted due to the lack of laws and political will.",
"Organized crime also poses a threat to the economy due to the practices of bribery, extortion and racketeering.=== Foreign relations ===The foreign relations of Kosovo are conducted through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Pristina.",
", 104 out of 193 United Nations member states recognise the Republic of Kosovo.",
"Within the European Union, it is recognized by 22 of 27 members and is a potential candidate for the future enlargement of the European Union.",
"On 15 December 2022 Kosovo filed a formal application to become a member of the European Union.Kosovo is a member of several international organizations including the International Monetary Fund, World Bank, International Road and Transport Union, Regional Cooperation Council, Council of Europe Development Bank, Venice Commission and European Bank for Reconstruction and Development.",
"In 2015, Kosovo's bid to become a member of UNESCO fell three votes short of the two-thirds majority required to join.",
"23 countries maintain embassies in Kosovo.",
"Kosovo maintains 24 diplomatic missions and 28 consular missions abroad.The relations with Albania are in a special case considering that both countries share the same language and culture.",
"The Albanian language is one of the official languages of Kosovo.",
"Albania has an embassy in the capital Pristina and Kosovo an embassy in Tirana.",
"In 1992, Albania was the only country whose parliament voted to recognise the Republic of Kosova.",
"Albania was also one of the first countries to officially announce its recognition of the Republic of Kosovo in February 2008.From 1 January 2024 Kosovo nationals became exempt from visa requirements within the Schengen Area for periods of up to 90 days in any 180-day period.=== Law ===The Kosovo Police is the main law enforcement agency in Kosovo.The judicial system of Kosovo follows a civil law framework and comprises regular civil and criminal courts, alongside administrative courts.",
"Administered by the judicial council in Pristina, the system includes the supreme court as the highest judicial authority, a constitutional court and an independent prosecutorial institution.",
"Following the independence of Kosovo in 2008, the Kosovo Police assumed the primary law enforcement responsibilities within the country.Covering a broad range of issues related to the status of Kosovo, the Ahtisaari Plan introduced two forms of international supervision for Kosovo following its independence, including the International Civilian Office (ICO) and the European Union Rule of Law Mission to Kosovo (EULEX).",
"The ICO monitored plan implementation and possessed veto powers, while EULEX focused on developing judicial systems and had arrest and prosecution authority.",
"These bodies were granted powers under Kosovo's declaration of independence and constitution.The legal status of the ICO depended upon the de facto situation and Kosovo legislation, with oversight provided by the International Steering Group (ISG) comprising states that recognized Kosovo.",
"Serbia and non-recognizing states did not acknowledge the ICO.",
"Despite initial opposition, EULEX gained acceptance from Serbia and the UN Security Council in 2008.It operated under the UNMIK mandate with operational independence.",
"The ICO concluded operations in 2012 after fulfilling obligations, while EULEX continues to operate within Kosovo and international law.",
"Its role has been extended, primarily focusing on monitoring with reduced responsibilities.=== Military ===The Kosovo Security Force is the military of Kosovo.The Kosovo Security Force (KSF) is the national security force of Kosovo commissioned with the task of preserving and safeguarding the country's territorial integrity, national sovereignty and the security interests of its population.",
"Functioning under the president of Kosovo as the commander-in-chief, the security force adheres to the principle of non-discrimination, guaranteeing equal protection for its personnel regardless of gender or ethnicity.",
"Kosovo's notable challenges are identified in the realms of persistent conflicts and societal safety and security, both of which are intertwined with the country's diplomatic ties to neighboring countries and its domestic social and political stability.In 2008, under the leadership of NATO, the Kosovo Force (KFOR) and the Kosovo Protection Corps (KPC) undertook preparations for the formation of the Kosovo Security Force.",
"A significant milestone occurred in 2014 when the government officially announced its decision to establish a Ministry of Defense by 2019, with the aim of transforming the existing Kosovo Security Force into the Kosovo Armed Forces.",
"This transformation would entail aligning the armed forces with the high standards expected of NATO members, reflecting Kosovo's aspiration to join the alliance in the future.",
"Subsequently, in December 2018, the government enacted legislation to redefine the mandate of the Kosovo Security Force, effecting its transformation into an army.",
"Concurrently, the establishment of a Ministry of Defense was set in motion, further solidifying these developments and ensuring the necessary infrastructure and oversight for the newly formed armed forces.In 2023, the Kosovo Security Force had over 5,000 active members, using vehicles and weapons acquired from a number of NATO countries.",
"KFOR continues to operate in Kosovo under its UN mandate."
],
[
"Administrative divisions",
"Kosovo is divided into seven districts (; ), according to the Law of Kosovo and the Brussels Agreement of 2013, which stipulated the formation of new municipalities with Serb majority populations.",
"The districts are further subdivided into 38 municipalities (; ).",
"The largest and most populous district of Kosovo is the District of Pristina with the capital in Pristina, having a surface area of and a population of 477,312.Districts Seat Area (km2) Population District of Peja Peja 1,365 174,235 District of Mitrovica Mitrovica 2,077 272,247 District of Pristina Pristina 2,470 477,312 District of Gjilan Gjilan 1,206 180,783 District of Gjakova Gjakova 1,129 194,672 District of Prizren Prizren 1,397 331,670 District of Ferizaj Ferizaj 1,030 185,806"
],
[
"Geography",
"Rugova within the Bjeshkët e Nemuna National Park bordering Albania.Defined in a total area of , Kosovo is landlocked and located in the center of the Balkan Peninsula in Southeastern Europe.",
"It lies between latitudes 42° and 43° N, and longitudes 20° and 22° E. The northernmost point is Bellobërda at 43° 14' 06\" northern latitude; the southernmost is Restelicë at 41° 56' 40\" northern latitude; the westernmost point is Bogë at 20° 3' 23\" eastern longitude; and the easternmost point is Desivojca at 21° 44' 21\" eastern longitude.",
"The highest point of Kosovo is Gjeravica at above sea level, and the lowest is the White Drin at .The Šar Mountains encompass one-tenth of Kosovo's territory.Most of the borders of Kosovo are dominated by mountainous and high terrain.",
"The most noticeable topographical features are the Accursed Mountains and the Šar Mountains.",
"The Accursed Mountains are a geological continuation of the Dinaric Alps.",
"The mountains run laterally through the west along the border with Albania and Montenegro.",
"The southeast is predominantly the Šar Mountains, which constitute the border with North Macedonia.",
"Besides the mountain ranges, Kosovo's territory consists mostly of two major plains, the Kosovo Plain in the east and the Metohija Plain in the west.Additionally, Kosovo consists of multiple geographic and ethnographic regions, such as Drenica, Dushkaja, Gollak, Has, Highlands of Gjakova, Llap, Llapusha and Rugova.Kosovo's hydrological resources are relatively small; there are few lakes in Kosovo, the largest of which are Batllava Lake, Badovc Lake, Lake Gazivoda, Lake Radoniq.",
"In addition to these, Kosovo also does have karst springs, thermal and mineral water springs.",
"The longest rivers of Kosovo include the White Drin, the South Morava and the Ibar.",
"Sitnica, a tributary of Ibar, is the largest river lying completely within Kosovo's territory.",
"River Nerodimka represents Europe's only instance of a river bifurcation flowing into the Black Sea and Aegean Sea.=== Climate ===Alpine climate in Pashallora as seen from Brezovica.Most of Kosovo experiences predominantly a Continental climate with Mediterranean and Alpine influences, strongly influenced by Kosovo's proximity to the Adriatic Sea in the west, the Aegean Sea in the south as well as the European continental landmass in the north.The coldest areas are situated in the mountainous region to the west and southeast, where an Alpine climate is prevalent.",
"The warmest areas are mostly in the extreme southern areas close to the border with Albania, where a Mediterranean climate is the norm.",
"Mean monthly temperature ranges between (in January) and (in July).",
"Mean annual precipitation ranges from per year, and is well distributed year-round.To the northeast, the Kosovo Plain and Ibar Valley are drier with total precipitation of about per year and more influenced by continental air masses, with colder winters and very hot summers.",
"In the southwest, climatic area of Metohija receives more mediterranean influences with warmer summers, somewhat higher precipitation () and heavy snowfalls in the winter.",
"The mountainous areas of the Accursed Mountains in the west, Šar Mountains on the south and Kopaonik in the north experiences alpine climate, with high precipitation ( per year), short and fresh summers, and cold winters.",
"The average annual temperature of Kosovo is .",
"The warmest month is July with average temperature of , and the coldest is January with .",
"Except Prizren and Istog, all other meteorological stations in January recorded average temperatures under .=== Biodiversity ===Bjeshkët e Nemuna National Park is home to a wide range of flora and fauna species.Located in Southeastern Europe, Kosovo receives floral and faunal species from Europe and Eurasia.",
"Forests are widespread in Kosovo and cover at least 39% of the region.",
"Phytogeographically, it straddles the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom.",
"In addition, it falls within three terrestrial ecoregions: Balkan mixed forests, Dinaric Mountains mixed forests, and Pindus Mountains mixed forests.",
"Kosovo's biodiversity is conserved in two national parks, eleven nature reserves and one hundred three other protected areas.",
"The Bjeshkët e Nemuna National Park and Sharr Mountains National Park are the most important regions of vegetation and biodiversity in Kosovo.",
"Kosovo had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.19/10, ranking it 107th globally out of 172 countries.Deers during the winter in BlinajaFlora encompasses more than 1,800 species of vascular plant species, but the actual number is estimated to be higher than 2,500 species.",
"The diversity is the result of the complex interaction of geology and hydrology creating a wide variety of habitat conditions for flora growth.",
"Although, Kosovo represents only 2.3% of the entire surface area of the Balkans, in terms of vegetation it has 25% of the Balkan flora and about 18% of the European flora.",
"The fauna is composed of a wide range of species.",
"The mountainous west and southeast provide a great habitat for several rare or endangered species including brown bears, lynxes, wild cats, wolves, foxes, wild goats, roebucks and deers.",
"A total of 255 species of birds have been recorded, with raptors such as the golden eagle, eastern imperial eagle and lesser kestrel living principally in the mountains of Kosovo.=== Environmental issues ===Environmental issues in Kosovo include a wide range of challenges pertaining to air and water pollution, climate change, waste management, biodiversity loss and nature conservation.",
"The vulnerability of the country to climate change is influenced by various factors, such as increased temperatures, geological and hydrological hazards, including droughts, flooding, fires and rains.",
"Kosovo is not a signatory to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Kyoto Protocol or the Paris Agreement.",
"Consequently, the country is not mandated to submit a Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) that are voluntary commitments outlining a nation's actions and strategies for mitigating climate change and adapting to its impacts.",
"However, since 2021, Kosovo is actively engaged in the process of formulating a voluntary NDC, with assistance provided from Japan.",
"In 2023, the country has established a goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by approximately 16.3% as part of its broader objective to achieve carbon neutrality by the year 2050."
],
[
"Demographics",
"The population of Kosovo from 1921 to 2015.The Agency of Statistics estimated Kosovo's population in 2021 to be approximately 1,774,000.In 2023, the overall life expectancy at birth is 79.68 years; 77.38 years for males and 81.87 years for females.",
"The estimated total fertility rate in 2023 is 1.88 children born per woman.",
"The country is the 11th most populous country in the Southeastern Europe (Balkans) and ranks as the 148th most populous country in the world.",
"The country's population rose steadily over the 20th century and peaked at an estimated 2.2 million in 1998.The Kosovo War and subsequent migration have decreased the population of Kosovo over time.",
"leftIn 2019, Albanians constituted 92% of the population of Kosovo, followed by ethnic Serbs (4%), Bosniaks (2%), Turks (1%), Romani (1%), and the Gorani (RankMunicipalityPopulationRankMunicipalityPopulation 1 '''Pristina''' 204,721 11 '''Suva Reka''' 59,681 2 '''Prizren''' 186,986 12 '''Rahovec''' 58,908 3 '''Ferizaj''' 101,174 13 '''Malisheva''' 57,301 4 '''Peja''' 97,890 14 '''Lipjan''' 56,643 5 '''Gjakova''' 94,543 15 '''Skenderaj''' 51,746 6 '''Podujevo''' 83,425 16 '''Viti''' 46,742 7 '''Mitrovica''' 80,623 17 '''Deçan''' 41,173 8 '''Gjilan''' 80,525 18 '''Istog''' 39,604 9 '''Vushtrri''' 64,578 19 '''Klina''' 39,208 10 '''Drenas''' 60,175 20 '''Kosovo Polje''' 37,048=== Minorities ===The relations between Kosovar Albanians and Kosovar Serbs have been hostile since the rise of nationalism in the Balkans during the 19th century.",
"During Communism in Yugoslavia, the ethnic Albanians and Serbs were strongly irreconcilable, with sociological studies during the Tito-era indicating that ethnic Albanians and Serbs rarely accepted each other as neighbors or friends and few held inter-ethnic marriages.",
"Ethnic prejudices, stereotypes and mutual distrust between ethnic Albanians and Serbs have remained common for decades.",
"The level of intolerance and separation between both communities during the Tito-period was reported by sociologists to be worse than that of Croat and Serb communities in Yugoslavia, which also had tensions but held some closer relations between each other.Despite their planned integration into the Kosovar society and their recognition in the Kosovar constitution, the Romani, Ashkali, and Egyptian communities continue to face many difficulties, such as segregation and discrimination, in housing, education, health, employment and social welfare.",
"Many camps around Kosovo continue to house thousands of internally displaced people, all of whom are from minority groups and communities.",
"Because many of the Roma are believed to have sided with the Serbs during the conflict, taking part in the widespread looting and destruction of Albanian property, Minority Rights Group International report that Romani people encounter hostility by Albanians outside their local areas.",
"A 2020 research report funded by the EU shows that there is a limited scale of trust and overall contact between the major ethnic groups in Kosovo.=== Religion ===Kosovo is a secular state with no state religion; freedom of belief, conscience and religion is explicitly guaranteed in the Constitution of Kosovo.",
"Kosovar society is strongly secularised and is ranked first in Southern Europe and ninth in the world as free and equal for tolerance towards religion and atheism.In the 2011 census, 95.6% of the population of Kosovo was counted as Muslim and 3.7% as Christian including 2.2% as Roman Catholic and 1.5% as Eastern Orthodox.",
"The remaining 0.3% of the population reported having no religion, or another religion, or did not provide an adequate answer.",
"Protestants, although recognized as a religious group in Kosovo by the government, were not represented in the census.",
"The census was largely boycotted by the Kosovo Serbs, who predominantly identify as Serbian Orthodox Christians, especially in North Kosovo, leaving the Serb population underrepresented.Islam is the most widely practiced religion in Kosovo and was introduced in the Middle Ages by the Ottomans.",
"Today, Kosovo has the second-highest number of Muslims as a percentage of its population in Europe after Turkey.",
"The majority of the Muslim population of Kosovo are ethnic Albanians, Turks, and Slavs such as Gorani and Bosniaks.Followers of the Roman Catholic Church are predominantly Albanians while ethnic Serbs follow the Eastern Orthodox Church.",
"In 2008, Protestant pastor Artur Krasniqi, primate of the Kosovo Protestant Evangelical Church, claimed that \"as many as 15,000\" Kosovar Albanians had converted to Protestantism since 1985.Relations between the Albanian Muslim and Albanian Catholic communities in Kosovo are good; however, both communities have few or no relations with the Serbian Orthodox community.",
"In general, the Albanians define their ethnicity by language and not by religion, while religion reflects a distinguishing identity feature among the Slavs of Kosovo and elsewhere."
],
[
"Economy",
"Kosovo has the fifth-largest lignite reserves in the world.The economy of Kosovo is a transitional economy.",
"It suffered from the combined results of political upheaval, the Serbian dismissal of Kosovo employees and the following Yugoslav Wars.",
"Despite declining foreign assistance, the GDP has mostly grown since its declaration of independence.",
"This was despite the financial crisis of 2007–2008 and the subsequent European debt crisis.",
"Additionally, the inflation rate has been low.",
"Most economic development has taken place in the trade, retail and construction sectors.",
"Kosovo is highly dependent on remittances from the diaspora, foreign direct investment, and other capital inflows.",
"In 2018, the International Monetary Fund reported that approximately one-sixth of the population lived below the poverty line and one-third of the working age population was unemployed, the highest rate in Europe.Kosovo's largest trading partners are Albania, Italy, Switzerland, China, Germany and Turkey.",
"The Euro is its official currency.",
"The Government of Kosovo has signed free-trade agreements with Albania, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and North Macedonia.",
"Kosovo is a member of CEFTA, agreed with UNMIK, and enjoys free trade with most nearby non-European Union countries.Kosovo is dominated by the services sector, accounting for 54% of GDP and employing approximately 56.6% of the population.",
"The industry accounted for 37.3% of GDP and employs roughly 24.8% of the labour force.",
"There are several reasons for the stagnation, ranging from consecutive occupations, political turmoil and the War in Kosovo in 1999.While agriculture accounts for only 6.6% of GDP, albeit an increase of 0.5 percentage points from 2019, it forms 18.7% of Kosovo's workforce, the highest proportion of agricultural employment in the region after Albania.Since 2019, the Port of Durrës in Albania on the Adriatic Sea is facilitating customs processes for cargo heading to Kosovo.",
"A dedicated customs office for Kosovo also operates within the port facilities.Kosovo has large reserves of lead, zinc, silver, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron and bauxite.",
"The nation has the fifth-largest lignite reserves in the world and the third in Europe.",
"The Directorate for Mines and Minerals and the World Bank estimated that Kosovo had €13.5 billion worth of minerals in 2005.The primary sector is based on small to medium-sized family-owned dispersed units.",
"53% of the nation's area is agricultural land, 41% forest and forestry land, and 6% for others.Wine has historically been produced in Kosovo.",
"The main heartland of Kosovo's wine industry is in Rahovec.",
"The main cultivars include Pinot noir, Merlot, and Chardonnay.",
"Kosovo exports wines to Germany and the United States.",
"The four state-owned wine production facilities were not as much \"wineries\" as they were \"wine factories\".",
"Only the Rahovec facility that held approximately 36% of the total vineyard area had the capacity of around 50 million litres annually.",
"The major share of the wine production was intended for exports.",
"At its peak in 1989, the exports from the Rahovec facility amounted to 40 million litres and were mainly distributed to the German market.=== Energy ===Bajgora Wind Farm, the largest wind farm in KosovoThe electricity sector in Kosovo is considered one of the sectors with the greatest potential of development.",
"Kosovo's electricity sector is highly dependent on coal-fired power plants, which use the abundant lignite, so efforts are being made to diversify electricity generation with more renewables sources, such as wind farms in Bajgora and Kitka.A joint energy bloc between Kosovo and Albania, is in work after an agreement which was signed in December 2019.With that agreement Albania and Kosovo will now be able to exchange energy reserves, which is expected to result in €4 million in savings per year for Kosovo.=== Tourism ===Brezovica ski resort is one of the best destinations for winter tourism in Kosovo.The natural values of Kosovo represent quality tourism resources.",
"The description of Kosovo's potential in tourism is closely related to its geographical location, in the center of the Balkan Peninsula in Southeastern Europe.",
"It represents a crossroads which historically dates back to antiquity.",
"Kosovo serves as a link in the connection between Central and Southern Europe and the Adriatic Sea and Black Sea.",
"Kosovo is generally rich in various topographical features, including high mountains, lakes, canyons, steep rock formations and rivers.",
"The mountainous west and southeast of Kosovo has great potential for winter tourism.",
"Skiing takes place at the Brezovica ski resort within the Šar Mountains, with the close proximity to the Pristina Airport (60 km) and Skopje International Airport (70 km) which is a popular destination for international tourists.Kosovo also has beautiful lakes like Batllava Lake that serves as a popular destination for watersports, camping, and swimming.",
"Other lakes include Ujmani Lake, Liqenati Lake, Zemra Lake.Other major attractions include the capital, Pristina, the historical cities of Prizren, Peja and Gjakova but also Ferizaj and Gjilan.",
"''The New York Times'' included Kosovo on the list of 41 places to visit in 2011.=== Transport ===The Pristina International Airport (PRN) handles more than 2.9 million passengers per year.Road transportation of passengers and freight is the most common form of transportation in Kosovo.",
"There are two main motorways in Kosovo: the R7 connecting Kosovo with Albania and the R6 connecting Pristina with the Macedonian border at Hani i Elezit.",
"The construction of the R7.1 Motorway began in 2017.The R7 Motorway (part of Albania-Kosovo Highway) links Kosovo to Albania's Adriatic coast in Durrës.",
"Once the remaining European route (E80) from Pristina to Merdare section project will be completed, the motorway will link Kosovo through the present European route (E80) highway with the Pan-European corridor X (E75) near Niš in Serbia.",
"The R6 Motorway, forming part of the E65, is the second motorway constructed in the region.",
"It links the capital Pristina with the border with North Macedonia at Hani i Elezit, which is about from Skopje.",
"Construction of the motorway started in 2014 and finished in 2019.Trainkos operates daily passenger trains on two routes: Pristina – Fushë Kosovë – Pejë, as well as Pristina – Fushë Kosovë – Ferizaj – Skopje, North Macedonia (the latter in cooperation with Macedonian Railways).",
"Also, freight trains run throughout the country.The nation hosts two airports, Pristina International Airport and Gjakova Airport.",
"Pristina International Airport is located southwest of Pristina.",
"It is Kosovo's only international airport and the only port of entry for air travelers to Kosovo.",
"Gjakova Airport was built by the Kosovo Force (KFOR) following the Kosovo War, next to an existing airfield used for agricultural purposes, and was used mainly for military and humanitarian flights.",
"The local and national government plans to offer Gjakova Airport for operation under a public-private partnership with the aim of turning it into a civilian and commercial airport."
],
[
"Infrastructure",
"=== Health ===In the past, Kosovo's capabilities to develop a modern health care system were limited.",
"Low GDP during 1990 worsened the situation even more.",
"However, the establishment of Faculty of Medicine in the University of Pristina marked a significant development in health care.",
"This was also followed by launching different health clinics which enabled better conditions for professional development.Nowadays the situation has changed, and the health care system in Kosovo is organized into three sectors: primary, secondary and tertiary health care.",
"Primary health care in Pristina is organized into thirteen family medicine centers and fifteen ambulatory care units.",
"Secondary health care is decentralized in seven regional hospitals.",
"Pristina does not have any regional hospital and instead uses University Clinical Center of Kosovo for health care services.",
"University Clinical Center of Kosovo provides its health care services in twelve clinics, where 642 doctors are employed.",
"At a lower level, home services are provided for several vulnerable groups which are not able to reach health care premises.",
"Kosovo health care services are now focused on patient safety, quality control and assisted health.",
"=== Education ===The National Library of KosovoEducation for primary, secondary, and tertiary levels is predominantly public and supported by the state, run by the Ministry of Education.",
"Education takes place in two main stages: primary and secondary education, and higher education.The primary and secondary education is subdivided into four stages: preschool education, primary and low secondary education, high secondary education and special education.",
"Preschool education is for children from the ages of one to five.",
"Primary and secondary education is obligatory for everyone.",
"It is provided by gymnasiums and vocational schools and also available in languages of recognized minorities in Kosovo, where classes are held in Albanian, Serbian, Bosnian, Turkish and Croatian.",
"The first phase (primary education) includes grades one to five, and the second phase (low secondary education) grades six to nine.",
"The third phase (high secondary education) consists of general education but also professional education, which is focused on different fields.",
"It lasts four years.",
"However, pupils are offered possibilities of applying for higher or university studies.",
"According to the Ministry of Education, children who are not able to get a general education are able to get a special education (fifth phase).Higher education can be received in universities and other higher-education institutes.",
"These educational institutions offer studies for Bachelor, Master and PhD degrees.",
"The students may choose full-time or part-time studies."
],
[
"Culture",
"National Museum of Kosovo=== Arts ===The Great Hamam of Pristina was built in the 15th century and was part of the Imperial Mosque in Pristina.The architecture of Kosovo dates back to the Neolithic, Bronze and Middle Ages.",
"It has been influenced by the presence of different civilizations and religions as evidenced by the structures which have survived to this day.Kosovo is home to many monasteries and churches from the 13th and 14th centuries that represent the Serbian Orthodox legacy.",
"Architectural heritage from the Ottoman Period includes mosques and hamams from the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries.",
"Other historical architectural structures of interest include kullas from the 18th and 19th centuries, as well as a number of bridges, urban centers and fortresses.",
"While some vernacular buildings are not considered important in their own right, taken together they are of considerable interest.",
"During the 1999 conflict in Kosovo, many buildings that represent this heritage were destroyed or damaged.",
"In the Dukagjini region, at least 500 kullas were attacked, and most of them destroyed or otherwise damaged.In 2004, UNESCO recognized the Visoki Dečani monastery as World Heritage Site for its outstanding universal value.",
"Two years later, the site of patrimony was extended as a serial nomination, to include three other religious monuments: Patriarchate of Peja, Our Lady of Ljeviš and Gračanica monastery under the name of Medieval Monuments in Kosovo.",
"It consists of four Serbian Orthodox churches and monasteries, which represent the fusion of the eastern Orthodox Byzantine and the western Romanesque ecclesiastical architecture to form the Palaiologan Renaissance style.These monuments have come under attack, especially during the 2004 ethnic violence.",
"In 2006, the property was inscribed on the List of World Heritage in Danger due to difficulties in its management and conservation stemming from the region's political instability.Kosovar art was unknown to the international public for a very long time, because of the regime, many artists were unable to display their art in art galleries, and so were always on the lookout for alternatives, and even resorted to taking matters into their own hands.",
"Until 1990, artists from Kosovo presented their art in many prestigious worldwide renowned centers.",
"They were affirmed and evaluated highly because of their unique approach to the arts considering the circumstances in which they were created, making them distinguished and original.In February 1979, the Kosova National Art Gallery was founded.",
"It became the highest institution of visual arts in Kosovo.",
"It was named after one of the most prominent artists of Kosovo Muslim Mulliqi.",
"Engjëll Berisha, Masar Caka, Tahir Emra, Abdullah Gërguri, Hysni Krasniqi, Nimon Lokaj, Aziz Nimani, Ramadan Ramadani, Esat Valla and Lendita Zeqiraj are some of few Albanian painters born in Kosovo.=== Cuisine ===Flia is one of the most favored dishes of the traditional Albanian cuisine in Kosovo.The Kosovar cuisine is influenced by the Albanian origins of its majority population.",
"Located at the crossroad of Albanian, Ottoman, Romance and Slavic cultures, Kosovo has enriched its own cuisine adopting and maintaining some of their cooking traditions and techniques.Food is an important component in the social life of the people of Kosovo particularly during religious holidays such as Christmas, Easter and Ramadan.",
"For festive occasions, Baklava, Lokum and Halva are traditionally prepared in almost every household throughout Kosovo and the Balkans regardless of ethnicity or cultural identity.Perhaps the most prominent and traditional examples of Kosovar food include the Flia and Pite which are served with assorted vegetables, fruit preserves, honey and yogurt.",
"Flia is composed of multiple layered crepe and is predominantly brushed with cream while Pite are filled with a mixture of salty cheese, meat, potatoes or leek.The cuisine of Kosovo features a wide range of fresh fruits, vegetables and herbs such as salt, red and black pepper and vegeta.",
"The people of Kosovo enjoy a wide variety of meat and fish products among other chicken, beef, kebab, Sujuk and lamb which is considered to be the traditional meat for religious occasions due to its religious connections.Tea such as Albanian-style mountain tea or Russian and Turkish-style black tea are a widely consumed beverage throughout Kosovo and particularly served at cafés, restaurants or at home.",
"Coffee is another popular drink although Kosovo is steeped in culture and their coffee culture is a big part of the modern society.=== Sports ===Majlinda Kelmendi, an Olympic, World and European champion.Sport is a significant component of the society and culture of Kosovo.",
"The most prominent sports in Kosovo include football, basketball, judo, boxing, volleyball and handball.",
"The Olympic Committee of Kosovo became a full member of the International Olympic Committee in 2014.It participated at the 2015 European Games in Azerbaijan, 2019 European Games in Belarus, the 2023 European Games in Poland, the 2016 Summer Olympics in Brazil and the 2020 Summer Olympics in Japan.",
"Kosovo is due to host the 2030 Mediterranean Games.By far the most popular sport in Kosovo is football.",
"1922 saw the founding of Kosovo's first clubs, including KF Vëllaznimi and FC Prishtina.",
"During the Cold War era from 1945 until 1991, football in former Yugoslavia advanced so rapidly that in 1946, the Federation of Kosovo was formed as a subsidiary of the Federation of Yugoslavia.",
"Prishtina were the nation's most successful club during that period, spending five years in the top-tier Yugoslav First League and reaching the semi-finals of the 1987-88 Yugoslav Cup.",
"In 1991, an unsanctioned Kosovar league system known as the ''Liga e Pavarur e Kosovës'' (\"Independent League of Kosovo\") was set up, running parallel to the official Yugoslav leagues; in 1999, in the wake of the Kosovo War, this became Kosovo's official league system.Three footballers from Kosovo – Milutin Šoškić, Fahrudin Jusufi, and Vladimir Durković – were part of the Yugoslavia squad that won a gold medal at the 1960 Summer Olympics and a silver medal at the 1960 European Championship.",
"Kosovar-born goalkeeper Stevan Stojanović became the first goalkeeper to captain a European Cup-winning team when he captained Red Star Belgrade to victory in the 1991 European Cup Final.The 2010s saw an increase in the number of Kosovar players of Albanian origin playing in top European teams.",
"These include Lorik Cana, who captained Marseille and Sunderland as well as the Albanian national team; Valon Behrami who played for West Ham United, Udinese, and the Swiss national team; Xherdan Shaqiri, who won the 2018-19 UEFA Champions League with Liverpool and also plays for Switzerland internationally; and Adnan Januzaj, who began his career at Manchester United and represents Belgium.Basketball is also a popular sport in Kosovo.",
"The first championship was held in 1991, with the participation of eight teams.",
"The Basketball Federation of Kosovo was accepted as a full member of FIBA on 13 March 2015.Notable players born in Kosovo who played for the successful Yugoslavia and Serbia national teams include Zufer Avdija, Marko Simonović and Dejan Musli, some of whom continue to compete for Serbia despite FIBA's recognition of Kosovo.Judoka Majlinda Kelmendi became World Champion in 2013 and 2014, and also the European Champion in 2014.At the Summer Olympics 2016, Kelmendi became the first decorated Kosovar athlete to win a gold medal, also the first gold medal for Kosovo in a major sport tournament.",
"Nora Gjakova won the first medal for Kosovo at the first European Games in 2015, when she earned bronze in 57 kg category.",
"In the second European Games in 2019, Kelmendi won a gold medal, Gjakova a silver medal and Loriana Kuka a bronze medal.=== Media ===Kosovo ranks 56th out of 180 countries in the 2023 Press Freedom Index report compiled by the Reporters Without Borders.",
"The Media consists of different kinds of communicative media such as radio, television, newspapers, and internet web sites.",
"Most of the media survive from advertising and subscriptions.",
"As according to IREX there are 92 radio stations and 22 television stations.=== Music ===Although the music in Kosovo is diverse, authentic Albanian and Serbian music still exist.",
"Albanian music is characterised by the use of the Çifteli.",
"Classical music is well known in Kosovo and has been taught at several music schools and universities.",
"In 2014, Kosovo submitted their first film for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, with ''Three Windows and a Hanging'' directed by Isa Qosja.A baked-clay ocarina was found in the village of Runik which is considered to be the oldest musical instrument found in Kosovo and one of the oldest ocarinas ever found in Europe.",
"Runik ocarina is thought to be at least 8,000 years old.The Neolithic Runik Ocarina is the oldest musical instrument found in Kosovo to date and one of the oldest in Europe.In the past, epic poetry in Kosovo and Northern Albania was sung on a lahuta and then a more tuneful çiftelia was used which has two strings-one for the melody and one for drone.",
"Kosovar music is influenced by Turkish music due to the almost 500-year span of Ottoman rule in Kosovo though Kosovar folklore has preserved its originality and exemplary.",
"Archaeological research tells how old this tradition is and how it was developed in parallel with other traditional music in the Balkans.",
"Roots dating to the 5th century BC have been found in paintings on stones of singers with instruments.",
"(There is a famous portrait of \"Pani\" holding an instrument similar to a flute).The contemporary music artists Rita Ora, Dua Lipa and Era Istrefi, are all of Albanian origin and have achieved international recognition for their music.",
"One widely recognised musician from Prizren is guitarist Petrit Çeku, winner of several international prizes.Serbian music from Kosovo presents a mixture of traditional music, which is part of the wider Balkan tradition, with its own distinctive sound, and various Western and Turkish influences.",
"Serb songs from Kosovo were an inspiration for 12th song wreath by composer Stevan Mokranjac.",
"Most of Serbian music from Kosovo was dominated by church music, with its own share of sung epic poetry.",
"Serbian national instrument Gusle is also used in Kosovo.Viktorija is the only artist from Kosovo who represented Yugoslavia in the Eurovision Song Contest as part of Aska in 1982.Singer Rona Nishliu finished 5th in the 2012 Eurovision Song Contest, while Lindita represented Albania in 2017.Several Serbian singers from Kosovo have also participated in the Serbian national selection for the Eurovision Song Contest.",
"Nevena Božović represented Serbia in the Junior Eurovision Song Contest and twice in the Eurovision Song Contest, firstly as a member of Moje 3 in 2013 and as a solo act in 2019.=== Cinema ===Bekim Fehmiu was the first Eastern European actor to star in Hollywood during the Cold War.The film industry of Kosovo dates from the 1970s.",
"In 1969, the parliament of Kosovo established Kosovafilm, a state institution for the production, distribution and showing of films.",
"Its initial director was the actor Abdurrahman Shala, followed by writer and noted poet Azem Shkreli, under whose direction the most successful films were produced.",
"Subsequent directors of Kosovafilm were Xhevar Qorraj, Ekrem Kryeziu and Gani Mehmetaj.",
"After producing seventeen feature films, numerous short films and documentaries, the institution was taken over by the Serbian authorities in 1990 and dissolved.",
"Kosovafilm was reestablished after Yugoslav withdrawal from the region in June 1999 and has since been endeavoring to revive the film industry in Kosovo.Dokufest in Prizren.The International Documentary and Short Film Festival is the largest film event in Kosovo.",
"The Festival is organised in August in Prizren, which attracts numerous international and regional artists.",
"In this annually organised festival, films are screened twice a day in three open-air cinemas as well as in two regular cinemas.",
"Except for its films, the festival is also well known for lively nights after the screening.",
"Various events happen within the scope of the festival: workshops, DokuPhoto exhibitions, festival camping, concerts, which altogether turn the city into a charming place to be.",
"In 2010, Dokufest was voted as one of the 25 best international documentary festivals.International actors of Albanian origin from Kosovo include Arta Dobroshi, James Biberi, Faruk Begolli and Bekim Fehmiu.",
"The Prishtina International Film Festival is the largest film festival, held annually in Pristina, in Kosovo that screens prominent international cinema productions in the Balkan region and beyond, and draws attention to the Kosovar film industry.The movie ''Shok'' was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film at the 88th Academy Awards.",
"The movie was written and directed by Oscar nominated director Jamie Donoughue, based on true events during the Kosovo war.",
"''Shok'''s distributor is Ouat Media, and the social media campaign is led by Team Albanians."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of Kosovo Albanians* Outline of Kosovo* Partition of Albania"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"=== Sources ===*** ** * ** ** *"
],
[
"External links",
"* President of Kosovo* Prime Minister of Kosovo * Parliament of Kosovo* EULEX* Kosovo at ''The World Factbook'' by Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Konqueror"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Konqueror''' is a free and open-source web browser and file manager that provides web access and file-viewer functionality for file systems (such as local files, files on a remote FTP server and files in a disk image).",
"It forms a core part of the KDE Software Compilation.",
"Developed by volunteers, Konqueror can run on most Unix-like operating systems.",
"The KDE community licenses and distributes Konqueror under GNU GPL-2.0-or-later.The name \"Konqueror\" echoes a colonization paradigm to reference the two primary competitors at the time of the browser's first release: \"first comes the Navigator, then Explorer, and then the Konqueror\".It also follows the KDE naming convention: the names of most KDE programs begin with the letter K.Konqueror first appeared with version 2 of KDE on October 23, 2000.It replaced its predecessor, KFM (KDE file manager).",
"With the release of KDE 4 in 2008, the functionalities of web browser and file manager were separated: Dolphin replaced Konqueror as the default KDE file manager, while the KDE community continues to maintain Konqueror as the default KDE web browser."
],
[
"Major supported protocols",
"Konqueror can utilize all KIOslaves installed on the user's system.",
"Some examples include: * FTP and SFTP/SSH browser* Samba (Microsoft file-sharing) browser* HTTP browser* IMAP mail client* ISO (CD image) viewer* VNC viewerA complete list is available in the KDE Info Center's Protocols section."
],
[
"User interface",
"Konqueror supports tabbed document interface and Split views, wherein a window can contain multiple documents in tabs.",
"Multiple document interfaces are not supported, however it is possible to recursively divide a window to view multiple documents simultaneously, or simply open another window.Konqueror's user interface is somewhat reminiscent of Microsoft's Internet Explorer, though it is more customizable.",
"It works extensively with \"panels\", which can be rearranged or added.",
"For example, one could have an Internet bookmarks panel on the left side of the browser window, and by clicking a bookmark, the respective web page would be viewed in the larger panel to the right.",
"Alternatively, one could display a hierarchical list of folders in one panel and the content of the selected folder in another.",
"Panels are quite flexible and can even include, among other KParts (components), a console window, a text editor, and a media player.",
"Panel configurations can be saved, and there are some default configurations.",
"(For example, \"Midnight Commander\" displays a screen split into two panels, where each one contains a folder, Web site, or file view.",
")Navigation functions (back, forward, history, etc.)",
"are available during all operations.",
"Most keyboard shortcuts can be remapped using a graphical configuration, and navigation can be conducted through an assignment of letters to nodes on the active file by pressing the control key.",
"The address bar has extensive autocompletion support for local directories, past URLs, and past search terms."
],
[
"Web browser",
"Konqueror specificationsKonqueror has been developed as an autonomous web browser project.",
"It uses KHTML as its browser engine, which is compliant with HTML and supports JavaScript, Java applets, CSS, SSL, and other relevant open standards.",
"An alternative layout engine, ''kwebkitpart'', is available from the Extragear.While KHTML is the default web-rendering engine, Konqueror is a modular application and other rendering engines are available.",
"In particular, the WebKitPart component using the KHTML-derived WebKit engine has seen a lot of support in the KDE 4 series.",
"However, the KHTML rendering backend contains unique features, such as the ability to save a full archive of any given webpage into a single file with the \".war\" extension.Konqueror integrates several customizable search services which can be accessed by entering the service's abbreviation code (for example, gg: for Google, or wp: for Wikipedia) followed by the search term(s).",
"One can add their own search service; for instance, to retrieve English Wikipedia articles, a shortcut may be added with the URL .KHTML's rendering speed is on par with that of competing browsers, but sites with customized JavaScript are often problematic due to KHTML's much smaller mind- and market-share, resulting in fewer JavaScript features built into the JS engine.Kubuntu's 10.10 Maverick Meerkat release switched the default browser from Konqueror to rekonq, as well as a Firefox installer being added.",
"Kubuntu subsequently switched from rekonq to Firefox, with the release of 14.04 Trusty Tahr."
],
[
"File manager",
"Konqueror also allows browsing the local directory hierarchy—either by entering locations in the address bar, or by selecting items in the file browser window.",
"It allows browsing in different views, which differ in their usage of icons and layout.",
"Files can also be executed, viewed, copied, moved, and deleted.The user can also open an embedded version of Konsole, via KDE's KParts technology, in which they can directly execute shell commands.",
"In addition to the Konsole KPart, Konqueror can also use a Filelight KPart, to view a radial diagram of the user's filesystem.Although this functionality has not been removed from Konqueror, as of KDE 4, Dolphin has replaced Konqueror as the default file manager.",
"Dolphin can – like Konqueror – divide each window or tab into multiple panes.",
"Konqueror makes more powerful use of this feature, allowing as many vertically and horizontally divided panes as desired.",
"Each can link to different content or even remote locations, so that Konqueror becomes a powerful graphical tool to manage content on multiple servers all in one window, \"dragging and dropping\" files between locations.Konqueror 20.12.2 file manager screenshot.png|Konqueror's file managerKonqueror 20.12.2 start screen.png|A screenshot of Konqueror 20.12.2 showing the default homepageKonqi-audiocd.png|Konqueror displaying the contents of an audio CD"
],
[
"File viewer",
"Using the KParts object model, Konqueror executes components that are capable of viewing (and sometimes editing) specific filetypes and embeds their client area directly into the Konqueror panel in which the respective files have been opened.",
"This makes it possible to, for example, view an OpenDocument (via Calligra) or PDF document directly within Konqueror.",
"Any application that implements the KParts model correctly can be embedded in this fashion.KParts can also be used to embed certain types of multimedia content into HTML pages; for example, the KMPlayer KPart enables Konqueror to show embedded video on web pages."
],
[
"KIO",
"In addition to browsing files and websites, Konqueror utilizes KIO plugins to extend its capabilities well beyond those of other browsers and file managers.",
"It uses components of KIO, the KDE I/O plugin system, to access different protocols such as HTTP and FTP (support for these is built-in), WebDAV, SMB (Windows shares), SFTP and FISH (a handy replacement to the latter when the SFTP subsystem is disabled on the remote host).Similarly, Konqueror can use KIO plugins (called IOslaves) to access ZIP files and other archives, to process ed2k links (edonkey/emule), or even to browse audio CDs, (\"audiocd:/\") and rip them via drag-and-drop.",
"Likewise, the \"man:\" and \"info:\" IOslaves can be used to fetch man and info formatted documentation."
],
[
"Konqueror Embedded",
"Konqueror Embedded on a Linux PDAAn embedded systems version, '''Konqueror Embedded''' is available.",
"Unlike the full version of Konqueror, Embedded Konqueror is purely a web browser.",
"It does not require KDE or even the X window system.",
"A single static library, it is designed to be as small as possible, while providing all necessary functions of a web browser, such as support for HTML 4, CSS, JavaScript, cookies, and SSL."
],
[
"Download manager{{Anchor|KGet}}",
"'''KGet''' is a free download manager for KDE and is the default download manager for Konqueror.",
"It is part of the KDE Network package.",
"By default, it is the download manager used for Konqueror, but can also be used with Mozilla Firefox and Chromium-based web browsers as well as rekonq.",
"KGet was featured by ''Tux Magazine'' and ''Free Software Magazine''.===History===On KDE 3, KGet 0.8.x, 1 supported HTTP/FTP download.On KDE Software Compilation 4, KGet 2 was released; it supported bandwidth throttling segmentation, multi-threading, and the BitTorrent protocol.===Features===*Downloading files from FTP, HTTP(S) and BitTorrent sources.",
"*Pausing and resuming of downloading files, as well as the ability to restart a download.",
"*Gives of information about current and pending downloads.",
"*Embedding into system tray of the host system.",
"*Integration with the KDE Konqueror and Rekonq web browsers.",
"*Metalink support which contain multiple URLs for downloads, along with checksums and other information.",
"*Automatically tags downloaded files with download information (such as the download URL) using Nepomuk.",
"*Download from multiple servers to speed up download time (segmented file transfer)."
],
[
"See also",
"*Comparison of file managers*Comparison of web browsers*Comparison of download managers*KHTML*KJS*KSVG*List of web browsers*KIO"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"** Konqueror Embedded homepage"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Key signature"
],
[
"Introduction",
"B major or G minor)Key signature showing F and C (the key of D major or B minor)In Western musical notation, a '''key signature''' is a set of sharp (), flat (), or rarely, natural () symbols placed on the staff at the beginning of a section of music.",
"The initial key signature in a piece is placed immediately after the clef at the beginning of the first line.",
"If the piece contains a section in a different key, the new key signature is placed at the beginning of that section.In a key signature, a sharp or flat symbol on a line or space of the staff indicates that the note represented by that line or space is to be played a semitone higher (sharp) or lower (flat) than it would otherwise be played.",
"This applies through the end of the piece or until another key signature is indicated.",
"Each symbol applies to all notes in the same pitch class—for example, a flat on the third line of the treble staff (as in the diagram) indicates that all notes appearing as Bs are played as B-flats.",
"This convention was not universal until the late Baroque and early Classical period—music published in the 1720s and 1730s may have key signatures showing sharps or flats in both octaves for notes which fall within the staff.Most of this article addresses key signatures that represent the diatonic keys of Western music.",
"These contain either flats or sharps, but not both, and the different key signatures add flats or sharps according to the order shown in the circle of fifths.Each major and minor key has an associated key signature, showing up to seven flats or seven sharps, that indicates the notes used in its scale.",
"Music was sometimes notated with a key signature that did not match its key in this way—this can be seen in some Baroque pieces, or transcriptions of traditional modal folk tunes."
],
[
"Conventions",
"1.B major scale: no key signature; accidentals required throughout2.B major scale: key signature; accidentals not neededWith any note as a starting point, a certain series of intervals produces a major scale: whole step, whole, half, whole, whole, whole, half.",
"Starting on C, this yields C-D-E-F-G-A-B-C (a C-major scale).",
"There are no sharps or flats in this scale, so the key signature for C has no sharps or flats in it.",
"Starting on any other note requires that at least one of these notes be changed (raised or lowered) to preserve the major scale pattern.",
"These raised or lowered notes form the key signature.",
"Starting the pattern on D, for example, yields D-E-F-G-A-B-C-D, so the key signature for D major has two sharps—F and C. Key signatures indicate that this applies to the section of music that follows, showing the reader which key the music is in, and making it unnecessary to apply accidentals to individual notes.In standard music notation, the order in which sharps or flats appear in key signatures is uniform, following the circle of fifths: F, C, G, D, A, E, B, and B, E, A, D, G, C, F. Musicians can identify the key by the number of sharps or flats shown, since they always appear in the same order.",
"A key signature with one sharp must show F-sharp, which indicates G major or E minor.There can be exceptions to this, especially in 20th-century music, if a piece uses an unorthodox or synthetic scale and an invented key signature to reflect that.",
"This may consist of sharps or flats that are not in the usual order, or of sharps combined with flats (e.g., F and B).",
"Key signatures of this kind can be found in the music of Béla Bartók, for example.In a score, transposing instruments will show a different key signature to reflect their transposition but their music is in the same concert key as the other instruments.",
"Percussion instruments with indeterminate pitch will not show a key signature, and timpani parts are sometimes written without a key signature (early timpani parts were sometimes notated with the high drum as \"C\" and the low drum a fourth lower as \"G\", with actual pitches indicated at the beginning of the music, e.g., \"timpani in D–A\").",
"In polytonal music, where different parts are actually in different keys sounding together, instruments may be notated in different keys.Circle of fifths showing major and minor keys and their signatures=== Notational conventions ===The order in which sharps or flats appear in key signatures is illustrated in the diagram of the circle of fifths.",
"Starting the major scale pattern (whole step, whole, half, whole, whole, whole, half) on C requires no sharps or flats.",
"Proceeding clockwise in the diagram starts the scale a fifth higher, on G. Starting on G requires one sharp, F, to form a major scale.",
"Starting another fifth higher, on D, requires F and C. This pattern continues, raising the seventh scale degree of each successive key.",
"As the scales become notated in flats, this is shown by eliminating one of the flats.",
"This is strictly a function of notation—the seventh scale degree is still being raised by a semitone compared to the previous key in the sequence.",
"Going counter-clockwise from C results in lowering the fourth scale degree with each successive key (starting on F requires a B to form a major scale).",
"Each major key has a relative minor key that shares the same key signature.",
"The relative minor is always a minor third lower than its relative major.The key signatures with seven flats and seven sharps are usually notated in their enharmonic equivalents.",
"C major (seven sharps) is usually written as D major (five flats) and C major is usually written as B major.Key signatures can be extended through double sharps and double flats but this is extremely rare.",
"The key of G major can be expressed with a double sharp on F (F) and single sharps on the other six pitches.",
"As with the seven-sharp and seven-flat examples, the simpler enharmonic key can be used instead (A is enharmonically equivalent with only four flats).naturals () used to cancel the seven sharps () of the previous signature.The key signature may be changed at any time in a piece by providing a new signature.",
"If the new signature has no sharps or flats, a signature of naturals, as shown, is used to cancel the preceding signature.",
"If a change in signature occurs at the start of a new line on the page, where a signature would normally appear, the new signature is customarily repeated at the end of the previous line to make the change more conspicuous.=== Variants of standard conventions ===Traditionally, when the key signature changes from sharps to flats or vice versa, the old key signature is cancelled with the appropriate number of naturals before the new one is inserted.",
"Many more recent publications (newer music or newer editions of older music) dispense with the naturals (unless the new key signature is C major) and simply insert the new signature.Similarly, when a flat key changes to fewer flats, or a sharp key changes to fewer sharps, the convention was to use naturals to cancel the flats or sharps that are being subtracted before the new signature is written.",
"Again, more modern usage often simply shows the new signature without these naturals.When a flat key changes to more flats or a sharp key changes to more sharps, the new signature is simply written in without using naturals to cancel the old signature.",
"This convention applies in both traditional and newer styles.At one time it was usual to precede the new signature with a double barline even if it was not otherwise required, but it has become increasingly common to simply retain a single barline.",
"The courtesy signature that appears at the end of a line immediately before a change is usually preceded by an additional barline and the line at the very end of the staff is omitted.If both naturals and a new key signature appear at a key signature change, there are also modern variations about where a barline will be placed.",
"In some scores by Debussy the barline is placed after the naturals but before the new key signature.",
"Hitherto, it would have been usual to place all the symbols after the barline.The A which is the fifth sharp in the sharp signatures may occasionally be notated on the top line of the bass staff, whereas it is more usually found in the lowest space on that staff.",
"An example of this can be seen in the full score of Ottorino Respighi's ''Pines of Rome'', in the third section, \"Pines of the Janiculum\" (which is in B major), in the bass-clef instrumental parts.In the case of seven-flat key signatures, the final F may occasionally be seen on the second-top line of the bass staff, whereas it would more usually appear on the space below the staff.",
"An example of this can be seen in Isaac Albéniz's ''Iberia'': first movement, \"Evocación\", which is in A minor."
],
[
"Major scale structure",
"===Scales with sharp key signatures===There can be up to seven sharps in a key signature, appearing in this order: .",
"The key note or tonic of a piece in a major key is a semitone above the last sharp in the signature.",
"For example, the key of D major has a key signature of F and C, and the tonic (D) is a semitone above C. Each scale starting on the fifth scale degree of the previous scale has one new sharp, added in the order shown.",
"Major key Numberof sharps Sharp notes Minor key Enharmonicequivalent C major 0 – A minor None G major 1 F E minor None D major 2 F, C B minor None A major 3 F, C, G F minor None/G minor E major 4 F, C, G, D C minor None/D minor B major 5 F, C, G, D, A G minor C major/A minor F major 6 F, C, G, D, A, E D minor G major/E minor C major 7 F, C, G, D, A, E, B A minor D major/B minor===Scales with flat key signatures===There can be up to seven flats in a key signature, applied as: The major scale with one flat is F major.",
"In all major scales with flat key signatures, the tonic in a major key is a perfect fourth below the last flat.",
"When there is more than one flat, the tonic is the note of the second-to-last flat in the signature.",
"In the major key with four flats (B E A D), for example, the second to last flat is A, indicating a key of A major.",
"Each new scale starts a fifth ''below'' (or a fourth above) the previous one.",
"Major key Numberof flats Flat notes Minor key Enharmonicequivalent C major 0 – A minor None F major 1 B D minor None B major 2 B, E G minor None E major 3 B, E, A C minor None A major 4 B, E, A, D F minor None D major 5 B, E, A, D, G B minor C major/A minor G major 6 B, E, A, D, G, C E minor F major/D minor C major 7 B, E, A, D, G, C, F A minor B major/G minor"
],
[
"Relationship between ''key signature'' and ''key''",
"Key signatures are a notational device in diatonic or tonal music that define the key and its diatonic scale without the need for accidentals.",
"Music can be notated using other means, and the key of a piece of music may not always conform to the notated key signature.",
"This is particularly true in pre-Baroque music, when the concept of key had not yet evolved to its present state.More extensive pieces often change key (''modulate'') during contrasting sections.",
"These sections are sometimes indicated with a change of key signature, but are sometimes indicated using accidentals.Bach Cantata 106 is almost entirely in E major, but has only two flats, not three, in the key signature The Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 538 by Bach has a key signature with no sharps or flats, indicating that it may be in D, in Dorian mode, but the Bs indicated with accidentals make the music in D minor.===Additional terminology===Keys which are associated with the same key signature are called relative keys.When musical modes, such as Lydian or Dorian, are written using key signatures, they are called ''transposed modes''.== Use outside of the Western common-practice period ==Freygish scale Key signatures are also used in music that does not come from the Western common-practice-period.",
"This includes folk music, non-Western music, and Western music from before or after the common practice period.Klezmer music uses scales other than diatonic major or minor, such as Freygish (Phrygian).",
"Because of the limitations of the traditional highland bagpipe scale, key signatures are often omitted from written pipe music, which otherwise would be written with two sharps, F and C. (The pipes are incapable of playing F and C so the sharps are not notated.)",
"20th century composers such as Bartók and Rzewski (see below) experimented with non-diatonic key signatures.=== Earlier notation styles ===Victoria motet.",
"In the ''superius'' (soprano) part the E appears first, and in two other parts a flat occurs in two octaves.In music from the Baroque period, it is common to see key signatures in which the notes are annotated in a different order from the modern practice, or with the same note-letter annotated for each octave.=== Unusual signatures ===The 15 key signatures that form diatonic scales are sometimes called ''standard key signatures''.",
"Other scales are written either with a standard key signature and use accidentals as required, or with a nonstandard key signature.",
"Examples of the latter include the E (right hand), and F and G (left hand) used for the С diminished (С octatonic) scale in Bartók's ''Crossed Hands'' (no.",
"99, vol.",
"4, ''Mikrokosmos''); the B, E and F used for the D Phrygian dominant scale in Frederic Rzewski's ''God to a Hungry Child''; and the E and D (right hand) and the B, A, G (left hand) in György Ligeti's ''Galamb Borong'' (no.",
"7 from the second book of the ''Études pour piano''), and B, E, D,G (both hands) in ''Pour Irina'' (no.",
"16 from the same work's third book).There are also examples of conflicting standard signatures, as in no.",
"3 of Sergei Prokofiev's ''Sarcasms'', op.",
"17 (three sharps in the right hand, and five flats in the left hand), and four numbers of Ligeti's ''Études pour piano'': no.",
"1 from the first book (none in the right hand, and five sharps in the left hand), no.",
"10 from the second book (''Der Zauberlehrling''; none in the right hand, and five flats in the left hand in bars 67–87); no.",
"11 from the second book (''En Suspens''; five flats in the right hand and none in the left hand, with the opposite later on); and no.",
"12 from the second book (''Entrelacs''; none in the right hand and five flats in the left hand, with the opposite later on)No sharps or flats in a key signature can indicate that the music is in the key of C major / A minor or that the piece is modal or atonal, and does not have a key signature.",
"An example is Bartók's Piano Sonata, which has no fixed key and is highly chromatic."
],
[
"History",
"The use of a one-flat signature developed in the Medieval period, but signatures with more than one flat did not appear until the 16th century, and signatures with sharps not until the mid-17th century.When signatures with multiple flats first came in, the order of the flats was not standardized, and often a flat appeared in two different octaves, as shown at right.",
"In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, it was common for different voice parts in the same composition to have different signatures, a situation called a '''partial signature''' or '''conflicting signature'''.",
"This was actually more common than complete signatures in the 15th century.",
"The 16th-century motet ''Absolon fili mi'' by Pierre de La Rue (formerly attributed to Josquin des Prez) features two voice parts with two flats, one part with three flats, and one part with four flats.Baroque music written in minor keys often was written with a key signature with fewer flats than we now associate with their keys; for example, movements in C minor often had only two flats (because the A would frequently have to be sharpened to A in the ascending melodic minor scale, as would the B)."
],
[
"Table",
"Key signatureMajor keyMinor keyC Major key signatureno sharps or flats C major A minorKey signatureAdded Major keyMinor keyKey signatureAdded Major keyMinor keyG Major key signature1 sharp F G major E minorF Major key signature1 flat B F major D minorD Major key signature2 sharps C D major B minorB-flat Major key signature2 flats E B major G minorA Major key signature3 sharps G A major F minorE-flat Major key signature3 flats A E major C minorE Major key signature4 sharps D E major C minorA-flat Major key signature4 flats D A major F minorB Major key signature5 sharps A B major G minorD-flat Major key signature5 flats G D major B minorF-sharp Major key signature6 sharps E F major D minorG-flat Major key signature6 flats C G major E minorC-sharp Major key signature7 sharps B C major A minorC-flat Major key signature7 flats F C major A minor"
],
[
"See also",
"* Key signature names and translations* Major and minor* Parallel key* Relative key* Time signature* Theoretical key* Universal key"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kutia"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kutia''' or '''kutya''' (; ; ) is a ceremonial grain dish with sweet gravy traditionally served mostly by Eastern Orthodox Christians and some Catholic Christians predominantly in Belarus, Russia, Ukraine, but also in parts of Lithuania and Poland during the Christmas – Feast of Jordan holiday season or as part of a funeral feast.",
"The word with a descriptor is also used to describe the eves of Christmas, New Year, and Feast of Jordan days."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The word kutia is a borrowing from the Greek language κουκκί (bean) or κόκκος (grain)."
],
[
"In Ukraine",
"In Ukraine kutіa is one of the two essential ritual dishes at the Ukrainian Christmas Eve supper (also known as ''Svyata vecherya'').",
"The ritual significance of kutia, as well as uzvar, is quite ancient.",
"Ukrainian ethnographer Fedir Vovk traces the origins of these dishes to the Neolithic era.",
"Before dinner, the kutia is placed in the icon corner (\"kut\") , the most honorable place in the house where religious icons or images are placed.",
"The pot with the kutia was to stand there in a designated spot from Rizdvo (Christmas on December 25) to January 1, New Year's Day (formerly January 6 to the Old New Year in January 14).",
"There is also a custom of sending children with kutia to relatives, usually grandparents and godparents.",
"After dinner, the kutia is left on the table for the whole night with spoons for the dead ancestors, \"so that our relatives would have dinner and not be angry with us.\"",
"The religious nature of the dish is emphasized by an ancient custom, when the head of the family approached the window or went out into the yard with a spoonful of kutia and, addressing the frost, invited him three times to take part in dinner with the family.",
"When the frost does not appear, he is advised not to appear, not to do harm to crops, etc.",
": \"Frost, frost, come to us to eat kutia, and if you don't come, don't come for the rye, wheat and other crops.",
"\"Kutia is the first out of twelve dishes served for Svyata vecherya to be tasted.",
"The head of the family takes the first spoon of the kutia, raises it up and calls out to the souls of departed family members to join them on this night.",
"He then tastes the kutia, and throws the rest of the spoonful up to the ceiling.",
"In rural towns, as many kernels of grain as stick to the ceiling, there should be swarms of bees and newborn cattle in the coming year.",
"In the same vein, if there are many poppy seeds that remain on the ceiling, there would be a chance for more hen should lay as many eggs in the coming year than usual.",
"In cities the same would imply a prosperous new year for the family and also a show of remembrance for their rural roots.",
"Everyone present eats a spoonful of kutia, after which the other dishes are brought out and eaten.The main ingredients used to make traditional kutia are wheatberries, poppy seeds and honey.",
"At times, walnuts, dried fruit and raisins are added as well.",
"Kutia is a Lenten dish and no milk or egg products can be used in this – since December 24 is a paramony – strict fasting and abstinence – day in the Eastern Orthodox Church and in Byzantine Rite Catholics.",
"There are known kutia recipes that use pearl barley or millet instead of wheatberries.Kolyvo is a Ukrainian ritual dish similar to kutia, but includes no poppy seeds.",
"Kolyvo is served at remembrance services."
],
[
"In Poland",
"Polish ''kutia''Kutya is known in Poland as ''kutia'' and ''kucja'', where it can be served as part of the Twelve-dish Christmas Eve supper, though its origins predate Christianity in Poland and can be traced back to customs of the Slavic Native Faith.",
"However, it is eaten primarily (though not exclusively) in the eastern regions of Podlasie, the Lublin area, and Subcarpathia, near the borders with Belarus and Ukraine.",
"It can also be commonly found among Bug River Poles and other generations with ancestry in the Eastern Borderlands, who are scattered across all of Poland.",
"Besides Wigilia, kutia is also served on New Year's Eve and other special occasions, such as wakes.",
"Traditional old Polish kutia is made using wheat, poppy seeds (ground in a special pot called ''makutra''), honey, raisins, walnuts or hazelnuts, almonds, and vanilla; some recipes also include milk or ''śmietana''.",
"Kutia is sometimes prepared using rice or kasha instead of wheat.A number of customs and rituals in Polish tradition, such as fortune telling, are associated with kutia.",
"This is particularly true for older generations and rural areas of eastern Poland, as well as their descendants who can be found across all regions of Poland.",
"Kutia is also eaten among the Ukrainian and Belarusian minorities living in Poland."
],
[
"Other countries",
"Kutya and didukh as part of Ukrainian Orthodox Christmas celebrationsA dish of boiled grains (usually wheat berries) mixed with honey, nuts, spices, and a few other ingredients is traditional in other countries as well:* Bulgaria – kolivo* Greece – koliva* Lebanon, Palestine and Jordan – ameh masslouk or snuniye* Romania – colivă* Russia – (also) sochivo* Serbia – koljivo (to wit: sacrifice), or simply: žito (ie, wheat)* Sicily – cuccìa* Syria – sliha or burbara (for Eid il-Bur-bara, St. Barbara's Feast throughout the Middle East)Somewhat similar, but with a different origin, and somewhat different ingredients, is the Islamic, especially Turkish, sweet dish of Ashure."
],
[
"See also",
"*Frumenty*Koliva*List of desserts*Memorial service in the Eastern Orthodox Church*Slava (tradition)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Video-recipe of Kutia with English subtitles"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kid Rock"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Robert James Ritchie''' (born January 17, 1971), known professionally as '''Kid Rock''', is an American musician, singer, rapper, and songwriter.",
"After having established himself in the Detroit hip hop scene, he broke through into mainstream success with a rap rock sound before shifting his performance style to country rock.",
"A self-taught musician, he has said that he can play every instrument in his backing band and has overseen production on all but two of his albums.Kid Rock started his music career as a rapper and DJ, releasing his debut album ''Grits Sandwiches for Breakfast'' (1990) on Jive Records.",
"His subsequent independent releases ''The Polyfuze Method'' (1993) and ''Early Mornin' Stoned Pimp'' (1996) saw him developing a more distinctive style, which was fully realized on his breakthrough album ''Devil Without a Cause'' (1998), which sold 14 million copies.",
"This album and its follow-up, ''Cocky'' (2001), were noted for blending elements of hip hop, country and rock.His most successful single from that time period, \"Cowboy\" (1999), is considered a pioneering song in the country rap genre.",
"His best-selling singles overall are \"Picture\" (2002) and \"All Summer Long\" (2008).",
"Starting with his 2007 album ''Rock n Roll Jesus'', his musical output has tended to be in the country rock style.",
"Politically, Ritchie is a vocal supporter of the U.S. Republican Party and holds conservative views on fiscal issues and foreign policy, while considering himself more moderate on social issues."
],
[
"Early life",
"Kid Rock was born Robert James Ritchie in Romeo, Michigan, on January 17, 1971, the son of Susan and William Ritchie, who owned multiple car dealerships.",
"He was raised in his father's large home on extensive property, which included an apple orchard and barnyard for their horses.",
"He attended Romeo High School.",
"His younger sister, Jill Ritchie, is an actress.",
"In the 1980s, Kid Rock became interested in hip hop, began to breakdance, and taught himself how to rap and DJ while performing in talent shows in and around Detroit.",
"At age 15, he left home to move in with friends in the inner city."
],
[
"Career",
"===Early career, signing with Jive Records, and ''Grits Sandwiches for Breakfast'' (1988–1991)===Kid Rock began his professional music career as a member of a hip hop music group called the Beast Crew in the late 1980s.",
"During this time, he met rapper D-Nice.",
"That relationship would eventually lead to him becoming the opening act at local shows for Boogie Down Productions.During this time, Kid Rock began a professional association with producer Mike E. Clark, who, after some initial skepticism with the idea of a white rapper, found himself impressed with Kid Rock's energetic and well-received performance where the artist, using his own turntables and equipment, actually prepared his own beats to demonstrate his skills for Clark.In 1988, Clark produced a series of demos with Kid Rock, and that eventually led to offers from six major record labels, including Atlantic and CBS Records.In 1989, Kid Rock became a shareholder in an independent record label that was formed by Alvin Williams and Earl Blunt of EB-Bran Productions, called \"Top Dog\" Records.",
"Later, that investment would become a 25% ownership stake.With the help of D-Nice, Kid Rock signed with Jive Records at the age of 17, releasing his debut studio album, ''Grits Sandwiches for Breakfast'' in 1990.According to Kid Rock, the contract with Jive resulted in animosity from fellow rapper Vanilla Ice, who felt that he should have been signed with Jive instead of Kid Rock.The album made Kid Rock one of the two biggest rap stars in Detroit in 1990, along with local independent rapper Esham.",
"To promote the album, Kid Rock toured nationally with Ice Cube, D-Nice, Yo-Yo and Too Short; Detroit artist James \"Blackman\" Harris served as Kid Rock's DJ on this tour.",
"During instore promotions for the album, Kid Rock met and developed a friendship with local rapper Eminem, who frequently challenged Kid Rock to rap battles.Ultimately, unfavorable comparisons to Vanilla Ice led to Jive dropping Kid Rock, according to Mike E. Clark.===Signing with Continuum Records and ''The Polyfuze Method'' (1992–1995)===In 1992, Kid Rock signed with local independent record label Continuum.",
"Around this time, Kid Rock met local hip hop duo Insane Clown Posse through Mike E. Clark, who was producing the duo.",
"While ICP member Violent J disliked Kid Rock's music, he wanted the rapper to appear on ICP's debut album, ''Carnival of Carnage'', believing the appearance would gain ICP notice, since Kid Rock was a nationally successful artist.",
"Noting that local rapper Esham was paid $500 to appear on ICP's album, Violent J claims that Kid Rock demanded $600 () to record his guest appearance, alleging that Esham and Kid Rock had a feud over who was the bigger rapper.",
"Kid Rock showed up to record the song \"Is That You?\"",
"intoxicated, but re-recorded his vocals and record scratching the following day.In 1993, Kid Rock recorded his second studio album, ''The Polyfuze Method'', with producer Mike E. Clark, who worked with Kid Rock to help give the album more of a rock-oriented sound than his debut.Kid Rock also began releasing his \"Bootleg\" cassette series to keep local interest in his music.Later in the year, Kid Rock recorded the EP ''Fire It Up'' at White Room Studios in downtown Detroit, run by brothers Michael and Andrew Nehra, who were forming the rock-soul band Robert Bradley's Blackwater Surprise.",
"The EP featured the heavy rock song \"I Am the Bullgod\" and a cover of Hank Williams Jr.'s country song \"A Country Boy Can Survive\".By 1994, Kid Rock's live performances had mostly been backed by DJs Blackman and Uncle Kracker, but Kid Rock soon began to utilize more and more live instrumentation into his performances, and formed the rock band Twisted Brown Trucker.After breaking up with his girlfriend, Kid Rock moved engineer Bob Ebeling into his apartment.",
"During a recording session with Mike E. Clark, the producer discovered that Kid Rock could sing when he recorded a reworked cover of Billy Joel's \"It's Still Rock and Roll to Me\", entitled \"It's Still East Detroit to Me\", which Clark claims led him to encourage Kid Rock to sing more.During this time, Kid Rock developed animosity towards other Detroit artists, including Insane Clown Posse.Through extensive promoting, including distributing tapes on consignment to local stores and giving away free samplers of his music, Kid Rock developed a following among an audience which DJ Uncle Kracker described as \"white kids who dropped acid and liked listening to gangsta rap\"; this following included local rapper Joe C, who had been attending Kid Rock concerts as a fan, but upon meeting Kid Rock, was invited to perform on stage as Kid Rock's hype man.===''Early Mornin' Stoned Pimp'' and local breakthrough (1996)===A display of pyrotechnics during one of Kid Rock's performances.",
"His stage presence helped increase his local following in Detroit in the mid-1990s.Kid Rock's stage presence became honed with the addition of a light show, pyrotechnics, dancers and a light-up backdrop bearing the name \"Kid Rock\", and 1996 saw the release of his most rock-oriented album to date, ''Early Mornin' Stoned Pimp''; the album's title came from Bob Eberling, who told a sleepless, alcoholic, drug-using Kid Rock, \"Dude, you are the early-morning, stoned pimp.\"",
"According to Kid Rock, who distributed the album himself, ''Early Mornin' Stoned Pimp'' sold 14,000 copies.Kid Rock developed his stage persona, performing dressed in 1970s pimp clothing with a real, possibly loaded, gun down the front of his pants.Though Kid Rock became known for frequent partying, and using drugs and alcohol, he was primarily focused on increasing his success and fame, placing himself as a businessman first; the result of this drive led to increased success locally.===Signing with Atlantic Records, ''Devil Without a Cause'', and national success (1997–2000)===Kid Rock's attorney, Tommy Valentino, increased his stature by helping him get articles written about Kid Rock and Twisted Brown Trucker in major publications, including the Beastie Boys' ''Grand Royal'' magazine, but though his management tried to interest local record labels in his music, they told his management team that they were not interested in signing a white rapper, to which Valentino told them, \"He's not a white rapper.",
"He's a rock star and everything in between.",
"\"In 1997, Jason Flom, head of Lava Records, attended one of Kid Rock's performances, and met with Kid Rock, who later gave him a demo containing the songs \"Somebody's Gotta Feel This\" and \"I Got One for Ya\", which led to Kid Rock signing with Atlantic Records.",
"As part of his recording deal, Kid Rock received $150,000 from the label.By this time Kid Rock had fully developed his stage persona, and musical style and wanted to make a \"redneck, shit-kicking rock 'n' roll rap\" album, resulting in his fourth studio album, ''Devil Without a Cause'', recorded at the White Room in Detroit and mixed at the Mix Room in Los Angeles.The album was a commercial smash hit as it would be certified Gold and Platinum several months after its release.",
"In promotion of the record, Kid Rock would join Limp Bizkit on a national tour spanning 27 dates.",
"He made an appearance on the 1999 MTV VMA (including a performance alongside Aerosmith and Run-DMC) and also memorably performed Bawitdaba at Woodstock 1999.",
"''Devil Without a Cause'' sold over 14 million copies, the album's success initiated by Kid Rock's breakthrough hit single Bawitdaba.",
"In 1999, Kid Rock made his voice acting debut in an episode of ''The Simpsons'' in the episode \"Kill the Alligator and Run\" playing himself, alongside Joe C.Despite having been active in the music industry for over 10 years by then, Kid Rock was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best New Artist of 2000.Kid Rock's career was sometimes marked by tragedy, as in the death of friend and collaborator Joe C.In May 2000, Kid Rock released the compilation album ''The History of Rock'' behind the single \"American Bad Ass\".",
"The song sampled Metallica's 1991 song \"Sad but True\", peaking at No.",
"20 on the mainstream rock chart.",
"Kid Rock would join Metallica on their 2000 Summer Sanitarium Tour along with Korn and System of a Down.",
"Kid Rock and Jonathan Davis filled in on vocals for an injured James Hetfield in Atlanta on July 7, 2000.Kid Rock performed \"American Bad Ass\" along with the Metallica classics \"Sad but True\", \"Nothing Else Matters\", \"Fuel\" and \"Enter Sandman\" in addition to covers of \"Turn the Page\" and \"Fortunate Son\".",
"''The History of Rock'' was certified double platinum.===Continued success and shift away from hip hop (2001–2008)===In 2001, \"American Bad Ass\" was nominated for the Grammy for Best Hard Rock Performance, losing out to Rage Against the Machine's \"Guerrilla Radio\".",
"His song with Robert Bradley \"Higher\" was featured in a TV spot for Gatorade.",
"Kid Rock appeared in the comedy film ''Joe Dirt'', starring David Spade.",
"Kid Rock was in the live-action/animated film ''Osmosis Jones'', voicing a bacterial cell version of himself named \"Kidney Rock\"; Kid Rock and Joe C had also recorded the song \"Cool Daddy Cool\" for the film's soundtrack album before Joe C's death.In November 2001, Kid Rock released his fifth studio album, ''Cocky'', which was dedicated to Joe C. The album became a hit, spurred by the crossover success of the single \"Picture\", a country ballad featuring Sheryl Crow which introduced Kid Rock to a wider audience and was ultimately the most successful single on the album.In support of the album, Kid Rock performed on the Cocky Tour in 2002 and opened for Aerosmith with Run DMC on The Girls Of Summer Tour.",
"During this period, Uncle Kracker began his solo career full-time.",
"He was replaced by underground Detroit rapper Paradime.In 2002, Kid Rock covered ZZ Top's \"Legs\" to serve as WWE Diva Stacy Keibler's theme song; it also appeared on the album ''WWF Forceable Entry''.Kid Rock filed a lawsuit to gain full control over the Top Dog record label, resulting in his receiving full ownership of the label in 2003.2003 also saw the release of Kid Rock's self-titled sixth album, which shifted his music further away from hip hop; the lead single was a cover of Bad Company's \"Feel Like Makin' Love\".",
"The same year, Kid Rock contributed to the tribute album ''I've Always Been Crazy: A Tribute to Waylon Jennings'', honoring the late country singer by covering the song \"Luckenbach, Texas\" in collaboration with country singer Kenny Chesney.In 2004, he performed at the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show, in a controversial appearance that spurred criticism from Veterans of Foreign Wars and Senator Zell Miller for wearing the American flag with one slit in the middle, as a poncho; Kid Rock was accused of \"desecrating\" the flag.",
"Kid Rock also appeared on the track 'My Name is Robert Too' on American blues artist R. L. Burnside's final studio album, ''A Bothered Mind''.Kid Rock performing in Denver, Colorado in 2006In 2006, Kid Rock stopped displaying the Confederate flag at his concerts.",
"The following year, Kid Rock released his seventh studio album, ''Rock N Roll Jesus'', which was his first release to chart at #1 on the ''Billboard 200'', selling 172,000 copies in its first week and going on to sell over 5 million copies.",
"In July 2007, Kid Rock was featured in the cover of ''Rolling Stone'' magazine for the second time.",
"The album's third single, \"All Summer Long\", became a global hit, utilizing a mash up of Lynyrd Skynyrd's \"Sweet Home Alabama\" and Warren Zevon's \"Werewolves of London\".USO with Kellie Pickler and Zac Brown in 2008In 2008, Kid Rock recorded and made a music video for the song \"Warrior\" for a National Guard advertising campaign.===Continued recording (2009–present)===In 2010, Kid Rock released his country-oriented eighth studio album, ''Born Free'', produced by Rick Rubin, and featuring guest appearances by Sheryl Crow and Bob Seger.In 2011, Kid Rock was honored by the NAACP, which sparked protests stemming from his past display of the Confederate flag in his concerts.",
"During the ceremony, Kid Rock elaborated on his display of the flag, stating, \"I never flew the flag with hate in my heart ...",
"I love America, I love Detroit, and I love black people.\"",
"Kid Rock's publicist announced that 2011 was the year he officially distanced himself from the flag.The following year, Kid Rock performed alongside Travie McCoy and The Roots in honor of the Beastie Boys, during the band's induction to the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame.",
"2012 also saw the release of Kid Rock's ninth studio album, ''Rebel Soul''; he said that he wanted the album to feel like a greatest hits album, but with new songs.",
"One of the songs on the album, \"Cucci Galore\", introduced Kid Rock's alter ego, Bobby Shazam.In 2013, Kid Rock performed on the \"Best Night Ever\" tour, where he motioned to charge no more than $20 for his tickets ().",
"The following year, he moved to Warner Bros. Records, releasing his only album on the label, ''First Kiss'', which he self-produced.",
"The album debuted at number two on the ''Billboard'' 200 and sold more than 354,000 copies in the United States.",
"Subsequently, after leaving Warner Bros., Kid Rock signed with the country label Broken Bow Records.In 2015, following the Charleston church shooting, the Michigan chapter of the National Action Network protested outside of the Detroit Historical Museum which honored Kid Rock; activists urged Kid Rock to renounce the Confederate flag.",
"Kid Rock wrote an email to Fox News Channel host Megyn Kelly, stating, \"Please tell the people who are protesting to kiss my ass\".",
"The same day, the National Action Network protested Chevrolet for sponsoring Kid Rock's tour.On July 12, 2017, Kid Rock shared a photo of a \"Kid Rock for US Senate\" yard sign on Twitter.",
"However, he denied that he was running, citing his upcoming album release and tour.",
"He later clarified that the campaign was a hoax.",
"He donated $122,000, raised by selling \"Kid Rock for U.S. Senate\" merchandise, to a voter registration group.Also in July, he released two singles from his next album, \"Po-Dunk\" and \"Greatest Show on Earth\", both released on the same day.",
"In November of that year, he released his eleventh studio album, ''Sweet Southern Sugar''.",
"The same year also saw Kid Rock publicly advocate measures against ticket scalpers at his shows by making tickets more affordable for fans.",
"Instead of getting paid for the show, he gets a percentage of concession and ticket sales.In November 2017, Kid Rock fired his publicist, Kirt Webster, after Webster was accused of sexual misconduct.In January 2018, the National Hockey League announced Kid Rock as the headlining entertainer for their January 28 All-Star Game, sparking negative online responses from some hockey fans.",
"Former hockey player and commentator Jeremy Roenick praised the choice and condemned Kid Rock's critics.In March 2018, Kid Rock said he would perform on Lynyrd Skynyrd's final tour before the Southern rock band retired, alongside Hank Williams Jr., Bad Company, the Marshall Tucker Band and 38 Special.Kid Rock released his first greatest hits album titled ''Greatest Hits: You Never Saw Coming'' on September 21, 2018.On March 29, 2020, Kid Rock released his first single under the name \"DJ Bobby Shazam\", entitled \"Quarantine\", which featured an old-school hip hop sound.",
"The artist stated all proceeds from the single's sales will go to fight COVID-19.During Kid Rock's 50th birthday livestream, he announced that he would be releasing a triple album consisting of a hip hop disc, a country music disc and a rock disc which would contain 30 new songs and 20 previously unreleased songs; the first single from the album, \"Don't Tell Me How To Live\", featuring the band Monster Truck, was released on November 18, 2021, and featured a rap rock sound reminiscent of his ''Devil Without a Cause'' album.",
"On December 17, 2021, he released a cover of \"Ala-Freaking-Bama\" by Trace Adkins titled \"Ala-Fuckin-Bama\".On January 25, 2022, Kid Rock released a single, \"We the People\", in which he criticizes the media, Anthony Fauci, face masks, COVID-19 restrictions, and Big Tech to the chorus of \"Let's Go Brandon\".",
"That same day, he also released \"Rockin and \"The Last Dance\".",
"On January 28, 2022, he announced on his upcoming ''Bad Reputation Tour'' that he would not perform at venues that require masks and proof of vaccination and would cancel shows at such places.On March 10, 2022, Kid Rock announced his upcoming twelfth studio album ''Bad Reputation'', which would include his five previously released singles.",
"It digitally released on March 21, while a physical release of the album occurred on April 6.In January 2023, Kid Rock collaborated with Fueled by 808, Austin Mahone and Jimmie Allen on the single \"No Limits\"."
],
[
"Musical style, artistry and lyrics",
"Kid Rock at Camp Phoenix in 2007In the book ''Is Hip Hop Dead?",
"The Past, Present, and Future of America's Most Wanted Music'', author Mickey Hess identified Kid Rock as connecting hip hop music to rap rock, due to having started out as a hip hop artist, before shifting his style from sample-based hip hop to guitar-driven alternative rock that fused hip hop beats, boasting and fashion with hard rock guitar and Southern rock attitude, influenced by classic rock and country music.",
"He is a self-taught musician and has said that he can play every instrument used in his band.",
"According to ''The Village Voice'', \"Kid Rock's own love and incorporation of his musical references isn't rooted in a nostalgia or a 'tribute,' but rather in his actively engaging the elements he finds compelling into a wholly new hodgepodge of his own invention.\"",
"Because of this unique musical approach, Kid Rock has been described as a postmodern artist.",
"''American Songwriter'' says that Kid Rock's style ranges from hard rap to hard rock.",
"''CBS'' says that Kid Rock's style is a mix of \"urban rap, rock and roll and country and western.\"",
"The musician jokingly described his own style as being \"creatively confused\".",
"Reviewing his compilation album ''The History of Rock'', David Browne wrote that \"Unlike most of his rap-metal peers, Kid Rock doesn't merely have personality to burn (and a surprisingly likable one) but a sense of history as well.",
"He may be the first rock star who views Americana as not simply blues, country, and boogie rock but classic hard rock and rap as well.\"",
"A 2015 piece by the ''Detroit Free Press'' said that Kid Rock reinvented \"his persona from scrappy hip-hop street kid to swaggering rock-rap showman.\"",
"Covering him in a 1998 piece, ''MTV'' described his sound as having \"heavy-metal licks and rap riffs\".",
"''AllMusic'' described him as a \"country rap-rocker\" and his music as \"rap-meets-rock-meets-country\".",
"''MTV'' said that Kid Rock's album ''Devil Without a Cause'' helped to \"ignite the rap-rock genre\" and that the musician broke through into mainstream success \"during the peak of rap-rock and nü-metal\".",
"In a 2015 interview with ''Rolling Stone'', Kid Rock disavowed nu metal, saying that the genre was \"not melodic and doesn't stand the test of time.\"",
"In a review of his album ''Sweet Southern Sugar'', ''Cryptic Rock'' said that after ''Devil Without a Cause'' established him as a rap rock artist, \"albums that were saturated in old school hip hop slowly but surely began to transform into the Southern country rock landscape that has built Kid Rock's persona.\"",
"In a review of his album ''Born Free'', Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that the musician \"has slowly abandoned rap for country as he crept closer to middle age\", and while reviewing the subsequent album ''Rebel Soul'', Erlewine said that Kid Rock \"planted his flag on that old-time rock & roll\".",
"''Billboard'' said that Kid Rock \"fits comfortably into a modern country-rock landscape that seems practically tailor-made for him: a God-fearing good old boy with a hard-rock heart and an outlaw-country spirit.\"",
"Kid Rock's influences include Bob Seger and the Beastie Boys.",
"Regarding his influences, Kid Rock said, \"I don't think there isn't anything that hasn't influenced me musically.",
"\"Summarizing his lyrical themes in a review of his album ''Cocky'', ''Entertainment Weekly'' wrote of Kid Rock, \"Anyone willing to chug Buds, smoke pot, and salute the flag can find a place in Rock's unexpectedly optimistic dreamworld, where the sleaze nation commingles in a warped fantasy of pan-trash peace and harmony.\"",
"The magazine categorized his lyrics as describing the \"ideal of a world where rappers can sip whiskey with rednecks\".",
"According to Kid Rock, a fundamental theme in the lyrics of his songs is that \"there's still a lot of good left in people, no matter what they do\", reflected in his lyrics for \"Bawitdaba\", which he dedicated to, among others, \"topless dancers\" and drug users.",
"He explained in a 2000 ''Rolling Stone'' interview, \"I've got a lot of faith in people.",
"Whether it's some kid with a trust fund that people tease because he's got a trust fund, you know.",
"I think there's some good ones out there, just like I think there's some good crackheads out there.",
"It works both ways.\"",
"Kid Rock developed a \"redneck pimp\" alter ego to complement his humorous lyrics.",
"According to Kid Rock, \"I use straightforward words, you know.",
"I'm not politically correct.",
"\"His song \"Cowboy\" is considered a pioneering song in the country rap genre.",
"''Cowboys & Indians'' claims that \"Cowboy\" had a major impact on the country music scene; the magazine wrote that artists Jason Aldean and Big & Rich, among others, were influenced by the song's country rap style.",
"Kid Rock also had an impact on hip hop, serving as an influence on rappers like Yelawolf."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Kid Rock and former spouse Pamela Anderson in 2003In eighth grade, Ritchie began an on-and-off relationship with classmate Kelley South Russell that lasted for the next decade.",
"In summer 1993, Russell gave birth to their son, Robert James Ritchie Jr.",
"They raised a total of three children together, two of whom Ritchie believed to be his.",
"They split up in late 1993 when Ritchie discovered that only one of the two was his.",
"He subsequently raised his son as a single father.In 2000, ''Rolling Stone'' reported that Ritchie was dating model Jaime King.",
"He began dating actress Pamela Anderson in 2001 and they became engaged in April 2002, but ended their relationship in 2003.They later reconciled and were married in July 2006.Three months later, on November 10, it was announced that Anderson, who had been pregnant with Ritchie's child, had miscarried.",
"On November 27, she filed for divorce from Ritchie in Los Angeles County Superior Court, citing irreconcilable differences.",
"Ritchie later claimed that the divorce was due to Anderson openly criticizing his mother and sister in front of his son.In 2014, Ritchie became a grandfather when his son's girlfriend gave birth to a daughter.",
"In November 2017, he became engaged to longtime girlfriend Audrey Berry.Ritchie is an ordained minister and has a firearm collection."
],
[
"Public image and controversies",
"Kid Rock performs at the USO Holiday Tour stop at Logistics Support Area Anaconda, Balad, Iraq, Dec. 20, 2007.A philanthropist, Ritchie oversees The Kid Rock Foundation, a charity which raises funds for multiple causes, including campaigns which sent \"Kid Rock care packages\" to U.S. military personnel stationed overseas.Ritchie is an advocate for affordable concert tickets, and makes an effort to try and sell tickets to his performances for as low as possible to encourage increased concert attendance for lower income consumers and discourage scalping.",
"Instead of getting paid for the show, he gets a percentage of concession and ticket sales.In 1989, Ritchie became a shareholder of the independent record label Top Dog Records, formed by Alvin Williams and Earl Blunt of EB-Bran Productions, in 1988; Ritchie's investment in the company gave him 25% ownership.",
"In 2001, he filed a lawsuit to gain full control over the Top Dog record label, resulting in his receiving full ownership of the label in 2003.Ritchie also founded Kid Rock's Made in Detroit restaurant and bar, which specializes in Southern-style cuisine.In March 1991 and again in September 1997, Ritchie faced misdemeanor charges stemming from alcohol-related arrests in Michigan.In 2002, Kid Rock performed alongside Chuck D and Grandmaster Flash in tribute to slain DJ Jam Master Jay.",
"In September 2005, Kid Rock filled in for Johnny Van Zant, the lead singer of Lynyrd Skynyrd, on the band's hit \"Sweet Home Alabama\" at the Hurricane Katrina benefit concert.Kid Rock's performance at Super Bowl XXXVIII in 2004 drew criticism from Veterans of Foreign Wars and Senator Zell Miller for his wearing of the American flag with one slit in the middle, as a poncho; Ritchie was accused of \"desecrating\" the flag.In January 2005, Ritchie performed at the inaugural address of reelected president George W. Bush, sparking criticism from conservative groups, due to Ritchie's lyrics.Also in 2005, Ritchie was charged with assaulting a DJ in a strip club.In 2006, California pornographic film company Red Light District attempted to distribute a 1999 sex tape in which Kid Rock and Scott Stapp, lead singer of the band Creed, are seen partying and receiving oral sex from groupies; both Rock and Stapp filed with the California courts to sue the pornographers to stop the tape's distribution.At the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards, Ritchie got into a fistfight with Mötley Crüe drummer Tommy Lee, another ex of Pamela Anderson's, and was charged with assault.",
"A month later, he was arrested and charged with battery after fighting with a Waffle House customer.",
"He pleaded no contest to one count and was fined $1,000, as well as being required to perform 80 hours of community service and complete a six-hour anger management course.In 2007 and 2008, Ritchie toured for the United Service Organizations.",
"Also in 2008, Ritchie recorded and made a music video for the song \"Warrior\" for a National Guard advertising campaign.Kid Rock performs for service members during a USO tour at Al Asad Airbase's Jordan-Hare Stadium in Iraq, 2008In 2011, Ritchie was honored by the NAACP, which sparked protests stemming from his past display of the Confederate flag in his concerts.",
"During the ceremony, Kid Rock elaborated on his display of the flag, stating, \"I never flew the flag with hate in my heart ...",
"I love America, I love Detroit, and I love black people.\"",
"Ritchie's publicist announced that 2011 was the year he officially distanced himself from the flag.In 2012, Kid Rock performed alongside Travie McCoy and the Roots in honor of the Beastie Boys, during the band's induction to the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame.In 2013, Ritchie criticized Republican lawmakers in New York for passing laws which made it difficult for him to keep concert ticket prices low.In January 2015, Ritchie was criticized by fans for appearing in a photograph holding up a dead cougar that was killed on a hunting trip with Ted Nugent.In 2015, following the Charleston church shooting, the Michigan chapter of the National Action Network protested outside of the Detroit Historical Museum which honored Ritchie; activists urged Ritchie to renounce the Confederate flag, which he had displayed in concerts from 2001 to 2006.Ritchie wrote an email to Fox News Channel host Megyn Kelly, stating, \"Please tell the people who are protesting to kiss my ass\".",
"The same day, the National Action Network protested Chevrolet for sponsoring Ritchie's tour.In September 2016, Ritchie was criticized for allegedly saying \"man, fuck Colin Kaepernick\" during a live performance of his song \"Born Free\".On April 6, 2018, Ritchie was inducted into the Celebrity Wing of the WWE Hall of Fame during the weekend of WrestleMania 34.On November 30, 2019, Ritchie drew controversy after he was recorded making a series of inappropriate and inflammatory statements while intoxicated at his restaurant in Nashville, including about Oprah Winfrey and Joy Behar.",
"After receiving major pushback for his comments, Ritchie decided to close the Detroit branch of his restaurant in December 2019, located at the Little Caesar's Arena.",
"When asked for comment about the closure, he stated that \"it's wise to go where you're celebrated, not tolerated\".",
"In a June 2022 interview with Tucker Carlson on ''Tucker Carlson Originals: Life of a Rockstar'', Richie said he had nothing to apologize for regarding the incident.In June 2021, Kid Rock attracted further controversy for using the word \"faggot\" onstage during a tirade against fans who were filming his performance.",
"He later defended his remarks while \"reaffirming his love for his homosexual friends\".",
"In July 2022 he faced additional accusations of homophobia after, on June 30, 2022, he posted a meme on Truth Social and on Twitter stating, \"If you're anti-gun, you don't get to celebrate the 4th of July, You would have never fought back.",
"Enjoy your pride month.",
"Pussy.",
"\"On April 3, 2023, Kid Rock posted a video on Twitter in which he is shown shooting cases of Bud Light beer cans with a semiautomatic rifle, which was seen as being in response to an advertising campaign by Anheuser-Busch that features transgender influencer Dylan Mulvaney.",
"After the shooting, he exclaims, \"Fuck Bud Light.",
"Fuck Anheuser-Busch.\"",
"He was one of key conservative influencers, alongside Sebastian Gorka, Candace Owens and Vince Dao whose push eventually led to the 2023 Bud Light boycott and which caused a large drop in sales of Bud Light.",
"He later promoted the Happy Dad brand; which has partnered with Caitlyn Jenner, who is a transgender woman.",
"In August, he was pictured drinking a can of Bud Light at a Colt Ford concert in Nashville."
],
[
"Politics and views",
"Ritchie at the White House in 2017Ritchie is a supporter of the Republican Party, although he has routinely proclaimed himself as libertarian philosophically, stating he has socially liberal views on topics like abortion and gay marriage but conservative views on economics.",
"Ritchie has advocated legalizing and taxing marijuana, cocaine, and heroin.",
"He has also stated, \"I don't think crazy people should have guns.\"",
"He was a vocal supporter of American military involvement in the Iraq War.",
"Ritchie has met with presidents Bill Clinton, Barack Obama, and Donald Trump while they were in office.",
"Regarding his political views, Ritchie said, \"I have friends everywhere.",
"Democrat, Republican, this that and the other.",
"... We're all human beings first, Americans second.",
"Let's find some common ground and get along.\"",
"During his speech at the 2018 WWE Hall of Fame ceremony, he stated that he wanted to \"body slam some Democrats\".Ritchie supported Bill Clinton and George W. Bush during their presidencies.",
"In 2008, Ritchie supported newly elected President Barack Obama, saying that the president's election was \"a great thing for black people.\"",
"In 2012, Ritchie campaigned for Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney; the candidate used Ritchie's song \"Born Free\" as his campaign theme.",
"In 2015, Ritchie publicly endorsed Ben Carson for the Republican nomination for President of the United States in the 2016 election.",
"In February 2016, he voiced approval for Donald Trump's campaign for the same office.",
"In December, Kid Rock sparked controversy for selling T-shirts supporting Trump at concerts, including one showing a map of the United States which labelled the states which had voted against Trump as \"Dumbfuckistan\".On July 12, 2017, Ritchie shared a photo of a \"Kid Rock for US Senate\" yard sign on Twitter.",
"He also launched a website at kidrockforsenate.com, which sold merchandise bearing that inscription.",
"Several weeks later, he wrote a post on his blog stating that he was still \"exploring my candidacy\", and that, whether or not he ran, he wanted to register people to vote, because \"although people are unhappy with the government, too few are even registered to vote or do anything about it.\"",
"He added that he wanted \"to help working class people in Michigan and America all while still calling out these jackass lawyers who call themselves politicians.\"",
"His statements sparked media speculation that he would try to run on the Republican ticket against sitting Michigan senator Debbie Stabenow, as well as enthusiasm from some prominent Republicans, including former New York Governor George Pataki, who wrote on Twitter, \"Kid Rock is exactly the kind of candidate the GOP needs right now.\"",
"In an October 2017 interview with Howard Stern, Ritchie put an end to the speculation, saying that he had never intended to run for Senate, adding rhetorically, \"Who couldn't figure that out?\".",
"He later clarified that the campaign was a joke that he had started after a Michigan state legislator encouraged him to run for Senate.",
"He expressed surprise at the interest his potential candidacy had received, but also disappointment that some opposed to his candidacy had brought up his previous use of the Confederate flag to label him a racist.",
"He donated the $122,000 he had raised by selling \"Kid Rock for U.S. Senate\" merchandise to CRNC Action, a College Republican group."
],
[
"Discography",
"* ''Grits Sandwiches for Breakfast'' (1990)* ''The Polyfuze Method'' (1993)* ''Early Mornin' Stoned Pimp'' (1996)* ''Devil Without a Cause'' (1998)* ''Cocky'' (2001)* ''Kid Rock'' (2003)* ''Rock n Roll Jesus'' (2007)* ''Born Free'' (2010)* ''Rebel Soul'' (2012)* ''First Kiss'' (2015)* ''Sweet Southern Sugar'' (2017)* ''Bad Reputation'' (2022)"
],
[
"Awards and nominations",
"Award Year Category Nominee(s) ResultsReferencesMTV Video Music Awards 1999 Best Rock Video Bawitaba Best New Artist Himself 2000 Best Rock Video Cowboy Best Male Video Grammy Awards 2000 Best Hard Rock Performance Bawitaba Best New Artist Himself American Music Awards2000 Favorite Alternative Artist Himself Favorite Pop/Rock New Artist Himself Grammy Awards2001Best Hard Rock PerformanceAmerican Bad Ass Blockbuster Entertainment Awards2001Favorite Artist – RockHimself Favorite Male ArtistHimself Country Music Association Awards2003Music Event of the YearPicture American Music Awards2003Favorite Pop/Rock AlbumCocky Favorite Pop/Rock Male ArtistHimself MTV Europe Music Awards2008Most Addictive TrackAll Summer Long World Music Awards2008World's Best Selling Pop/Rock Male ArtistHimself World's Best Selling Pop Male ArtistHimself People's Choice Awards2009Favorite Rock SongAll Summer Long Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards2009Favorite Male SingerHimself MTV Europe Music Awards2009Best World Stage Live PerformanceHimself Grammy Awards2009Best Rock AlbumRock N Roll Jesus Best Male Pop Vocal PerformanceAll Summer Long ECHO Awards2009Best International Male ArtistHimself Single of the YearAll Summer Long CMT Music Awards2009Video of the YearAll Summer Long Wide Open Country Video of the Year Country Music Association Awards2010Musical Event of the YearCan't You See CMT Music Awards2010Collaborative Video of the YearCollide Billboard Music Awards2011Top Rock AlbumBorn Free Academy of Country Music Awards2011Vocal Event of the YearGood to Be Me WWE Hall of Fame2018Celebrity Wing"
],
[
"Filmography",
"===Film=== Year Title Role Notes 2001 ''Joe Dirt'' Robbie Live-action acting debut ''Osmosis Jones'' Kidney Rock Voice 2003 ''Biker Boyz'' Dogg 2006 ''Larry the Cable Guy: Health Inspector'' Kid Rock 2012 ''Americans'' Troglodyte Short film with Sean Penn, also story ''A Band Called Death'' Himself Documentary ''$ellebrity'' Himself Documentary 2014 ''Who Is Vermin Supreme?",
"An Outsider Odyssey'' Himself Documentary===Television=== Year Title Role Notes 2000 ''The Simpsons'' Kid Rock Voice, episode: \"Kill the Alligator and Run\" 2002 ''King of the Hill'' Kid Rock Voice, episode: \"The Fat and the Furious\" 2003 ''Stripperella'' Kid Rock/Stiffy Woods Voice, episode: \"You Only Lick Twice\"; also performed the series theme song \"Erotica\" 2005 ''Fat Actress'' Kid RockEpisode: \"Charlie's Angels\" ''Stacked'' Delivery manEpisode: \"Nobody Says I Love You\" 2006 ''CSI: NY'' Kid RockEpisode: \"All Access\" 2014 ''30 for 30'' Narrator Documentary series; episode: \"Bad Boys\" ''Silicon Valley'' Kid RockEpisode: \"Minimum Viable Product\""
],
[
"Tours",
"* Straight from the Underground Tour (1990) (opened for Ice Cube, Too $hort, D Nice and Yo-Yo)* Pimp of the Nation Tour (1996–1997)* Warped Tour (1998)* Devil Without a Cause (1998–1999)* M2K (2000)* Summer Sanitarium Tour (2000)* History of Rock Tour (2000)* The American Badass Tour (2001)* Cocky Tour (2002)* Girls of Summer (2002)* Rock N' Roll Pain Train Tour (2004)* Live Trucker (2006)* Ballroom Blitz Tour (2007)* Rock N' Roll Revival Tour (2008)* Rock N' Rebels Tour (2008-2009)* The Circle Tour (2010)* Born Free Tour (2011)* Care Tour (2011)* Rebel Soul Tour (2013)* $20 Best Night Ever Tour (2013)* Because We Can Tour (2013)* Rock N' Rollin Tour (2014)* First Kiss (2015)* Kid Rock 2016 Tour (2016)* American Rock N' Roll Tour (2018)* Red Blooded Rock 'n' Roll Redneck Extravaganza (2018)* Hot September Nights (2019)* Bad Reputation Tour (2022)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * Appearances on C-SPAN"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Knaresborough Castle"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Knaresborough Castle''' is a ruined fortress overlooking the River Nidd in the town of Knaresborough, North Yorkshire, England."
],
[
"History",
"The castle was first built by a Norman baron in on a cliff above the River Nidd.",
"There is documentary evidence dating from 1130 referring to works carried out at the castle by Henry I.",
"In the 1170s Hugh de Moreville and his followers took refuge there after assassinating Thomas Becket.William de Stuteville was appointed as Governor of Knaresborough castle in Easter 1173.After de Stuteville's death in 1203, King John gave Hubert Walter, Archbishop of Canterbury, custody of all of William de Stuteville's lands and castles and the wardship of his son and heir Robert de Stuteville.",
"However, Robert died in 1205 and William's brother Nicholas de Stuteville became William's heir.",
"A charter dated at Lambeth 5 August 1205 confirmed that Nicholas had paid a fine of 10,000 marks for his inheritance, with the exception of the castles of Knaresborough and Boroughbridge, which were retained by the King.The King regarded Knaresborough as an important northern fortress and spent £1,290 on improvements to the castle.",
"In August 1304, Elizabeth of Rhuddlan, a daughter of Edward I, travelled from Linlithgow Palace to Knaresborough Castle.",
"She gave birth to her son, Humphrey, in September, assisted by a holy relic of the girdle of the Virgin, brought especially from Westminster Abbey.The castle was rebuilt at a cost of £2,174 between 1307 and 1312 by Edward I and completed by Edward II, including the great keep.",
"Edward II gave the castle to Piers Gaveston and stayed there himself when the unpopular nobleman was besieged at Scarborough Castle.Philippa of Hainault took possession of the castle in 1331, at which point it became a royal residence.",
"The queen often spent summers there with her family.",
"Her son, John of Gaunt acquired the castle in 1372, adding it to the vast holdings of the Duchy of Lancaster.",
"Katherine Swynford, Gaunt's third wife, obtained the castle upon his death.A detailed survey of the state of the castle buildings was made in 1561.The building was used by estate auditors and law courts were held in the hall.The castle was taken by Parliamentarian troops in 1644 during the Civil War and largely destroyed in 1648, not as the result of warfare but because of an order from Parliament to dismantle all Royalist castles.",
"Indeed many town-centre buildings are built of 'castle stone'."
],
[
"Present day",
"The remains of the castle are open to the public and there is a charge for entry to the interior remains.",
"The grounds are used as a public leisure space, with a bowling green and putting green open during the summer.",
"It is also used as a performing space.",
"It plays host to frequent events, such as the annual FEVA (Festival of Visual Arts and Entertainment).",
"The property is owned by the monarch as part of the Duchy of Lancaster holdings, but is administered by North Yorkshire Council.Crags below Knaresborough Castle.",
"There is an unconformity between mid-Carboniferous sandstones at the road level and late Permian grits and limestones above."
],
[
"Description",
"The castle, now much ruined, comprised two walled baileys set one behind the other, with the outer bailey on the town side and the inner bailey on the cliff side.",
"The enclosure wall was punctuated by solid towers along its length, and a pair, visible today, formed the main gate.",
"At the junction between the inner and outer baileys, on the north side of the castle stood a tall five-sided keep, the eastern parts of which have been pulled down.",
"The keep had a vaulted basement, at least three upper stories, and served as a residence for the lord of the castle throughout the castle's history.",
"The castle baileys contained residential buildings, and some foundations have survived.",
"In 1789, historian Ely Hargrove wrote that the castle contained \"only three rooms on a floor, and measures, in front, only fifty-four feet.",
"\"The upper storey of the Courthouse features a museum that includes furniture from the original Tudor Court, as well as exhibits about the castle and the town."
],
[
"References",
";Notes;Bibliography**Fry, Plantagenet Somerset, ''The David & Charles Book of Castles'', David & Charles, 1980, p. 249.",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* Knaresborough Castle & Museum* Knaresborough Castle on castlexplorer.co.uk"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Calligra"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Calligra Suite''' is a graphic art and office suite by KDE.",
"It is available for desktop PCs, tablet computers, and smartphones.",
"It contains applications for word processing, spreadsheets, presentation, databases, vector graphics, and digital painting.Calligra uses the OpenDocument format as its default file format for most applications and can import other formats, such as Microsoft Office formats.",
"Calligra relies on KDE technology and is often used in combination with KDE Plasma Workspaces."
],
[
"Supported systems",
"=== Desktops ===Calligra's main platform is desktop PCs running Linux, FreeBSD, macOS, and Windows, of which Linux is the best supported system.On desktop systems, the whole range of features is available.=== Smartphones and tablets ===, Calligra's efforts to create touchscreen-friendly versions are centered on reusable Qt Quick components.",
"For smartphone-like formfactors 3rd party documents viewers Coffice for Android and Sailfish Office for Sailfish OS are available that make use of these components.Icon of Calligra GeminiThe Calligra project shipped Krita Sketch/Gemini and the tablet-focused Plasma Active document viewer with Calligra 2.8.Calligra 2.9 ships Calligra Gemini, an enhanced version of Calligra Active with added document editing features and runtime switching between desktop and touchscreen interfaces."
],
[
"History",
"+ Major releases Version Key feature Date 2.4 First release 2012-04-11 2.5 Tablet version 2012-08-13 2.6 Calligra Author 2013-02-05 2.7 New toolbox for Words 2013-08-01 2.8 Krita Gemini 2014-03-05 2.9 Calligra Gemini 2015-02-26 3.0 Remove Author, Stage,Flow, Braindump 2017-01-15 3.1.0 Words, Sheets, Karbon, Gemini, and Plan.",
"2018-02-013.2Gemini, Karbon and Stage2020-04-29Calligra Active 2.5 displaying a presentationCalligra was created after disagreements within the KOffice community in 2010 – between KWord maintainer Thomas Zander and the other core developers.",
"(See .)",
"Following arbitration with the community members, several applications were renamed by both parties.",
"Most developers, and all but KWord maintainer Thomas Zander, of particular applications joined the Calligra project.",
"Three applications, Kexi, Krita and KPlato and the user interfaces for mobile devices have been completely moved out of KOffice and are only available within Calligra.",
"A new application called Braindump has been added to Calligra after the split and KWord was replaced by the new word processor Calligra Words.KOffice 2.3, released 31 December 2010, along with subsequent bugfix releases (2.3.1–2.3.3) was still a collaborative effort of both the KOffice and Calligra development teams.",
"According to its developers, this version is stable enough for real use, and Karbon14, Krita and KSpread are recommended for production work.On 18 May 2011, the Calligra team began releasing monthly snapshots while preparing for the release of Calligra 2.4.The first version of the Calligra Suite for Windows was released on 21 December 2011.The package is labeled as “highly experimental” and “not yet suitable for daily use”.The Calligra team was originally scheduled to release the final 2.4 version in January 2012 but problems in the undo/redo feature of Words and Stage required a partial rewrite and caused a delay.",
"Calligra 2.4 was released on 11 April 2012.Calligra 2.4 launched with two mobile-oriented user interfaces: Calligra Mobile and Calligra Active.",
"Calligra Mobile's development was initiated in summer 2009 and was first shown during Akademy / Desktop Summit 2009 by KO GmbH as a simple port of KOffice to Maemo.",
"Later Nokia hired KO to assist them with a full-fledged mobile version, including a touchscreen-friendly user interface which was presented by Nokia during Maemo Conference in October 2009.The first alpha version was made available in January 2010.Along with the launch of the Nokia N9 smartphone, Nokia released its own Poppler and Calligra-based office document viewer under GPL.",
"''Calligra Active'' was launched in 2011 after the Plasma Active initiative to provide a document viewer similar to ''Calligra Mobile'' but for tablet computers.In December 2012, KDE, KO GmbH, and Intel released Krita Sketch, a variant of Calligra's Krita painting application, for Windows 7 and 8.On 24 March 2013, KDE developer Sebastian Sauer released ''Coffice'', a Calligra-based document viewer, for Android.Jolla continued Nokia's efforts on a smartphone version.",
"In 2013 Jolla launched Sailfish Office.",
"Sailfish Office reuses the Qt Quick components from Calligra Active.Calligra Gemini displaying a presentationIn September 2013 a merger of Krita and Krita Sketch, named Krita Gemini, was launched on Windows 8.1.Development was funded by Intel to promote ''2in1'' convertible notebooks.",
"On 5 March 2014 Krita Sketch and Gemini were also released as part of Calligra 2.8 for non-Windows platforms.In April 2014, Intel and KO GmbH extended the promotion deal to Gemini versions of Stage and Words.",
"On 28 August 2014, the first snapshot of Calligra Gemini was released by KO GmbH for Windows.",
"On 21 November 2014, KDE announced that Calligra Gemini would officially be released as part of Calligra 2.9.As with Krita, this Gemini release adds a touchscreen interface to Words and Stage and users can switch between desktop and touch mode at runtime.",
"Calligra Gemini is a continuation of Calligra Active and Sailfish Office developments but with added editing capabilities.",
"On 19 October 2014, a Linux version was presented.The koffice.org website was replaced by a placeholder in early September 2012.KOffice was declared unmaintained by KDE.",
"The koffice.org domain now redirects to Calligra.org.In Autumn 2015, Krita was split off into a project independent from Calligra, with the then current 2.9 versions though still developed as part of Calligra 2.9."
],
[
"Components",
"+ Current list of components Icon Name Description 48px '''Words''' A word processor with the ability to edit and save ISO/IEC 26300 OpenDocument Text (.odt) as part of OpenDocument Type ISO standard.",
"48px '''Sheets''' A spreadsheet program, formerly known as ''KSpread'' and ''Calligra Tables''.",
"48px '''Stage''' A presentation program.",
"It was removed in Calligra 3.0, but returned in Calligra 3.2.48px '''Kexi''' KEXI is a visual database applications creator.",
"It can be used for designing database applications, inserting and editing data, performing queries, and processing data.",
"Forms can be created to provide a custom interface to your data.",
"All database objects – tables, queries, forms, reports – are stored in the database, making it easy to share data and design.",
"48px '''Plan''' A project management application that can create Gantt charts.",
"Formerly known as ''KPlato''.",
"48px '''Karbon''' A vector graphics editor, formerly known as ''Karbon14''.+ Former list of components Icon Name Description 48px '''Braindump''' A digital notetaking tools, similar to Microsoft OneNote.",
"It was removed in Calligra 3.0 48px '''Flow''' A programmable flowchart drawing program with dynamically loadable stencils, successor of koffice ''Kivio'' (though it could not load/import ''kivio'' files).",
"It was removed in Calligra 3.0, then was retired and replaced by Karbon in 3.2.0.48px '''Krita''' A digital painting program with some image editing features.",
"Formerly known as ''Krayon'' and ''KImageshop''.",
"It was removed from Calligra 3.0 after becoming an independent product.",
"48px '''Author''' An e-book authoring application like iBooks Author with EPUB export, introduced with Calligra Suite 2.6.It was removed in Calligra 3.0"
],
[
"Reception",
"KDE mascot Konqi and Calligra Suite.Initial reception shortly after the 2.4 release was positive.",
"Linux Pro Magazine Online's Bruce Byfield wrote \"Calligra needed an impressive first release.",
"Perhaps surprisingly, and to the development team's credit, it has managed one in 2.4\", but also noted that \"Words in particular is still lacking features\".",
"He concluded that Calligra is \"worth keeping an eye on\".The German sister publication LinuxUser 10/2012 reviewed Calligra 2.5 on 12 September 2012.Its reception was mostly positive.",
"Negative criticism centered on Words' stability: \"During our review no Calligra module was completely free of crashes, however Words' crashes reached an amount that we cannot recommend it for general use.\"",
"The reviewer Thomas Drilling on the other hand praised Calligra's usability, writing: \"The consistent work flow, often stunningly intuitive workflows, and clear menu structure are well received.\"",
"He then concluded: \"The individual modules' quality varies: While Words shows weakness, image editor Krita, spreadsheet application Sheets, and presentation program Stage completely won us over.",
"Flowcharting application Flow allures with its wide range of stencils which makes drawing flow charts come easy.",
"\"LinuxUser reviewed Calligra 2.6 in issue 3/2013.Reviewer Vincze-Aron Szabo reiterated positive criticism about Calligra's user interface and noted increased stability of Words compared to Calligra 2.5.Szabo's major point for negative criticism was Author's and Word's handling of long documents, resulting in decreased performance and crashes.",
"The other reviewed components – Plan, Stage, Sheets, and Krita – were praised in terms of stability and intuitiveness.Calligra 2.7 was reviewed by LinuxUser in its October 2013 issue.",
"Thomas Drilling, the reviewer, drew a positive conclusion overall.",
"Among the positive aspects he pointed out were better ''.docx'' file import than LibreOffice and the amount of new features gained by the new version of the suite.",
"Source for negative criticism was once again Words' stability, although Drilling noted improvements in this regard.Network World editor Bryan Lunduke wrote about Calligra 2.8 in March 2014: “Karbon is an astoundingly nice vector design tool, and Flow, a diagramming tool, is incredibly handy from the design point of view as well.",
"… And Words is a great word processor.” In August 2014 he wrote: “Calligra Suite has become a staple of my workflow even on non-KDE desktops.” Linux Insider also reviewed Calligra 2.8, concluding “Calligra Suite is a solid offering that has grown considerably since branching out from its traditional KOffice roots.",
"It has something for everyone.",
"Its tools fills the needs of writers, artists, content designers and office workers.”In 2017, sempreupdate.com.br wrote: “''If you do not depend on proprietary formats ... especially .xls, .xlsx and .doc ... and you use KDE it's worth trying.",
"Yes, regarding LibreOffice Calligra is still two steps behind but it also brings small differentials that would be welcomed in LibreOffice.",
"''“"
],
[
"Technical details",
"Calligra is written with dependencies on KDE Frameworks 5 and Qt 5.Older versions depend on KDE Platform 4 and Qt 4, and even older versions of KOffice depend on KDElibs and Qt 3.Despite that Calligra Suite is released independently of the KDE Software Compilation or of the KDE Applications.All components of the Calligra Suite are released under free software licenses and use OpenDocument as their native file format when applicable.The developers of Calligra plan to share as much infrastructure as possible between applications to reduce bugs and improve the user experience.",
"This is done by common technologies like Flake and Pigment.",
"Flake provides a way to handle shapes, which can contain text, images, formulas (via KFormula), charts (via KChart) or other objects, in a consistent way across all applications.",
"The Calligra team also wants to create an OpenDocument library for use in other KDE applications that will allow developers to easily add support for reading and outputting OpenDocument files to their applications.",
"Automating tasks and extending the suite with custom functionality can be done with D-Bus or with scripting languages like Python, Ruby, and JavaScript through the Kross scripting framework."
],
[
"See also",
"* Comparison of office suites* List of office suites"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Calligra development home"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Fumimaro Konoe"
],
[
"Introduction",
" was a Japanese politician who served as prime minister of Japan from 1937 to 1939 and from 1940 to 1941.He presided over the Japanese invasion of China in 1937 and the breakdown in relations with the United States, which ultimately culminated in Japan's entry into World War II.",
"He also played a central role in transforming his country into a totalitarian state by passing the State General Mobilization Law and founding the Imperial Rule Assistance Association by dissolving all other political parties.Born in Tokyo to a prominent aristocratic family, Konoe took up his father's seat in the House of Peers of the Imperial Diet in 1916.He was a member of the Japanese delegation at the Paris Peace Conference.",
"In 1933, Konoe assumed the presidency of the House of Peers.",
"In 1937, on the recommendation of his mentor Saionji Kinmochi, Konoe was appointed prime minister by Emperor Hirohito.",
"The Marco Polo Bridge Incident took place a month after his appointment and escalated into full-scale warfare.",
"Konoe oversaw Japanese victories during the early phase of the Second Sino-Japanese War and pushed through the State General Mobilization Law, placing the country on war-time footing.",
"Konoe resigned as prime minister in 1939 as Chinese resistance continued and the war dragged on.Konoe served as chairman of the Privy Council until 1940 when he was again appointed prime minister.",
"The Imperial Rule Assistance Association was founded later that year, while Japan concluded the Tripartite Pact with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, launched an invasion of French Indochina and formally recognized the Wang Jingwei's government in Nanjing.",
"In 1941, Japan concluded the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact.",
"Despite Konoe's attempts to resolve tensions with the United States, the rigid timetable imposed on negotiations by the military and his own administration's inflexibility set Japan on the path to war.",
"Politically isolated, Konoe resigned as prime minister in October 1941 and was replaced by Hideki Tojo.",
"Six weeks later the Pacific War broke out following Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor.Konoe remained a close advisor to Hirohito until the end of World War II and played a role in the fall of Tojo cabinet in 1944.At the start of the Allied occupation of Japan, he served in the cabinet of Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni.",
"After coming under suspicion of war crimes, Konoe committed suicide in December 1945 by ingesting cyanide."
],
[
"Early life",
"Konoe in his 20sFumimaro Konoe (often ''Konoye''), was born in Tokyo on 12 October 1891 to the prominent Konoe family, one of the main branches of the ancient Fujiwara clan.",
"This made the Konoe \"head of the most prestigious, and highest ranking noble house in the realm.\"",
"They had first become independent of the Fujiwara in the 12th century, when Minamoto no Yoritomo divided the Fujiwara into the Five Regent Houses (''go-sekke'').",
"Japanese historian Eri Hotta described the Konoe as \"''First among the go-sekke''\"; Fumimaro would be its 29th leader.",
"While the average height of Japanese people at that time was around 160 cm (5 ft 3 in), Konoe was over 180 cm (5 ft 11 in) tall.Konoe's father, Atsumaro, had been politically active, having organized the Anti-Russia Society in 1903.Fumimaro's mother died shortly after his birth; his father then married her younger sister.",
"Fumimaro was misled into thinking she was his real mother, and found out the truth when he was 12 years old after his father's death.Fumimaro inherited family debt when his father died.",
"Thanks to the financial support of the zaibatsu Sumitomo, which he received throughout his career, and the auction of Fujiwara heirlooms, the family was able to become solvent.Fumimaro was not the only talented member of his family: his younger brother Hidemaro Konoye later became a symphony conductor and founded NHK Symphony Orchestra.At Kyoto Imperial University, Fumimaro studied socialism, translating Oscar Wilde's \"The Soul of Man Under Socialism\" into Japanese.",
"There, he met genrō Saionji Kinmochi and became his protégé.",
"After graduation, Fumimaro turned to Saionji for advice about starting a political career, and worked briefly in the home ministry before accompanying his mentor to Versailles as part of the Japanese peace delegation.But first, Konoe completed two tasks.",
"With Kiku, one of several geisha lovers in his life, he fathered an illegitimate child.",
"And in December 1918, he also published an essay entitled \"Reject the Anglo-American-Centered Pacifism\" (英米本位の平和主義を排す, ''eibei-hon'i no heiwashugi o haisu'').",
"In this article, he argued that western democracies were supporting democracy, peace, and self-determination only hypocritically, while actually undermining those ideals through racially discriminatory imperialism.",
"He attacked the League of Nations as an effort to institutionalize the status quo: colonial hegemony by the western powers.",
"Following a translation by American journalist Thomas Franklin Fairfax Millard, Saionji wrote a rebuttal in his journal, ''Millard's Review of the Far East''.",
"Saionji considered Konoe's writing reckless, but, after it became internationally read, Konoe was invited to dinner by Sun Yat-sen. Sun admired Japan's quick modernization; at the dinner, they discussed pan-Asian nationalism.During the Paris Peace Conference, Konoe was one of the Japanese diplomats who proposed the Racial Equality Proposal for the Covenant of the League of Nations.",
"When the Racial Equality Clause came up before the committee, it received the support of Japan, France, Serbia, Greece, Italy, Brazil, Czechoslovakia, and China.",
"However, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson overturned the vote, declaring that the clause needed unanimous support.",
"Konoe took the rejection of the Racial Equality Clause very badly, seeing it as a humiliation of Japan.Upon his return to Japan he published a booklet where he described his travels to France, Britain and the U.S., how he was angered by rising anti-Japanese sentiment there, and how government policy in the US discriminated against Japanese immigration.",
"He also described China as a rival to Japan in international relations."
],
[
"House of Peers",
"Konoe reading imperial rescript as president of the House of Peers, 1936In 1916, while at university, Fumimaro took his father's seat in the House of Peers, upper house of the Imperial Diet.",
"After his return from Europe he was aggressively recruited by the most powerful political faction of Japan's budding Taishō democracy of the 1920s: the ''kenkyukai'', a conservative, militaristic faction, led by Yamagata Aritomo and generally opposed to democratic reform.",
"In September 1922, he joined them.The opposing faction was the ''seiyukai'', led by Hara Takashi, which drew its strength from the lower house.",
"Eventually the ''seiyukai'' was able to gain the Aritomo's support, and Hara Takashi became prime minister in 1918.Konoe believed the House of Peers should stay neutral in factional party politics, lest a partisan-seeming peerage have their privileges restricted.",
"He therefore supported Takashi's ''seiyukai'' government, as did most of the ''kenkyukai''.However, by 1923, the ''seiyukai'' had split into two factions and could no longer control the government.",
"During the premiership of Kato Komei and his party, the ''kenseikai'', Konoe supported universal male suffrage to forestall serious curtailment of the noble privileges.",
"Konoe believed universal male suffrage was the best way to channel popular discontent and thereby reduce the chance of violent revolution.",
"As the house of peers became allied with different political factions in the lower house, Konoe left the ''kenkyukai'' in November 1927.Like his position in regard to the nobility, he believed that the emperor should not take political positions.",
"In his eyes, a political emperor would diminish the imperial prestige, undermine the unifying power of the throne, expose the emperor to criticism, and potentially undermine domestic tranquillity.",
"His greatest fear in this period of rapid industrialization would become the threat of left-wing revolution, facilitated by the petty factionalism of Taishō democracy's political factions.",
"He saw the peerage as a bulwark of stability committed to tranquillity, harmony, and the maintenance of the status quo.",
"Its function was to restrain the excesses of the elected government, but its power had to be used sparingly."
],
[
"Alliance with Home Ministry",
"The Japanese home ministry was extremely powerful, in charge of the police, elections, public works, Shinto shrines, and land development.",
"The home ministry was also abused to influence elections in favour of the ruling party.",
"Despite having once believed it to be beneath the dignity of a nobleman, Konoe entered into an alliance with important home ministry officials.",
"The most important among these officials was Yoshiharu Tazawa, whom he met after he became the managing director of the Japan Youth Hall (''Nippon Seinenkan'') in 1921.Konoe and his allies saw the influence of local ''meiboka'' political bosses as a threat to Japan's political stability.",
"Universal suffrage had opened the vote to the undereducated peasantry, but local bosses, using pork-barrel politics, manipulated their influence on the government.",
"These officials also shared Konoe's concern about party influence within the home ministry, which had seen great turnover mirroring the political upheaval occurring in the Diet.",
"Konoe's association with the youth hall began two months after the publication of an article in July 1921, where he stressed education of the electorate's political wisdom and morality, and lamented that education only taught youth to accept ideas passively from their superiors.",
"The Youth Corps (''Seinendan'') was thereafter created to foster a moral sense of civic duty among the people, with the overall purpose of destroying the ''meiboka'' system.In 1925, Konoe and these officials formed the Alliance for a New Japan (''Shin Nippon Domei''), which endorsed the concept of representative government but rejected the value of party and local village bosses, instead advocating that new candidates from outside the parties should run for office.",
"The Association for Election Purification (''Senkyo Shukusei Dōmeikai'') was also created, an organization whose purpose was to circumvent and weaken pork-barrel local politics by supporting candidates that were not beholden to ''meiboka'' bosses.",
"The alliance formed a political party (''meiseikai'') but was unable to secure popular support and dissolved within two years of formation (in 1928)."
],
[
"Road to First Premiership",
"In the 1920s Japanese foreign policy was largely in line with Anglo-American policy, the Treaty of Versailles, and the Washington Naval Conference treaty, and there was agreement between the great powers over the establishment of an independent Chinese state.",
"A flourishing party system controlled the cabinet in alliance with industry.",
"The Great Depression of the 1930s, the rise of Soviet military power in the east, further insistence on limitations to Japanese naval power, and increased Chinese resistance to Japanese aggression in Asia marked the abandonment of Japanese cooperation with the Anglo-American powers.",
"The Japanese government began to seek autonomy in foreign policy, and — as the sense of crisis deepened — unity and mobilization became overarching imperatives.Konoe assumed the vice presidency of the House of Peers in 1931.In 1932, political parties lost control of the cabinet.",
"Thenceforth, cabinets were formed by alliances of political elites and military factions.",
"As Japan mobilized its resources for war, the government increased suppression of political parties and what remained of the left wing.",
"Konoe ascended to the presidency of the House of Peers in 1933 and spent the next few years mediating between elite political factions, elite policy consensus, and national unity.Meanwhile, Fumimaro sent his eldest son Fumitaka to study in the U.S., at Princeton, wishing to prepare him for politics and make him an able proponent of Japan in America.",
"Unlike most of his elite contemporaries, Fumimaro had not been educated abroad due to his father's poor finances.",
"Fumimaro visited Fumitaka in 1934 and he was shocked by rising anti-Japanese sentiment.",
"This experience deepened his resentment of the U.S., which he perceived as selfish and racist, and which he blamed for its failure to avert economic disaster.",
"In a speech in 1935, Konoe said that the \"monopolization\" of resources by the Anglo-American alliance must end and be replaced by an \"''international new deal''\" to help countries like Japan take care of their growing populations.Konoe's views were thus a recapitulation of those he had expressed at Versailles almost 20 years earlier.",
"He still believed that Japan was the equal and the rival of the western powers, that Japan had a right to expansion in China, that such expansion was ''survival'', and that the \"Anglo-American powers were hypocrites seeking to enforce their economic dominance of the world.\""
],
[
"Prime Minister and war with China",
"Konoe and his first cabinet ministers in 1937Konoe in 1938Despite his tutelage under the liberal-leaning Saionji Kinmochi, his study of socialism at university, and his support of universal suffrage, he seemed to have had a contradictory attraction to fascism, which angered and alarmed the ageing ''genrō''.",
"At a costume party before Saionji's daughter was married in 1937, he was reported to have dressed as Hitler.",
"Despite these misgivings, Saionji nominated Konoe to the Emperor Hirohito, and in June 1937 Konoe became Prime Minister.Upon assuming office, First Konoe Cabinet spent the short time between then and war with China attempting to secure pardons for the ultranationalist leaders of the 26 February incident, who had attempted to assassinate his mentor Saionji.",
"Konoe retained the military and legal ministers from the previous cabinet upon assumption of the premiership, and refused to take ministers from the political parties, as he was not interested in resurrecting party government.",
"One month later, Japanese troops clashed with Chinese troops near Beijing in the Marco Polo Bridge Incident.",
"Nevertheless, a consensus emerged among Japanese military leadership that the nation was not ready for war with China, and a truce was made on July 11.The ceasefire was broken by July 20 after Konoe's government sent more divisions to China, causing full-scale war to erupt.In November 1937 Konoe instituted a new system of joint conference between the civil government and the military called liaison conferences.",
"In attendance at these liaison meetings were the prime minister, the foreign minister, the ministers of the army and navy, and their chiefs of general staff.",
"This arrangement resulted in an imbalance in favor of the military, since each member in attendance had an equal say in policymaking.Prime Minister Kiichirō Hiranuma (1867–1952, in office January–August 1939, center, front row) and the members of his cabinet, including Minister-without-Portfolio Fumimaro Konoe (to the right of Hiranuma), Interior Minister Kōichi Kido (second row, between Hiranuma and Konoe), Naval Minister Mitsumasa Yonai (back row, with dark military suit) and War Minister Seishirō Itagaki (to the right of Yonai, with light military suit), on the inaugural day of his administrationPrior to the capture of Nanjing, Chang Kai-shek, through the German ambassador in China, attempted to negotiate, but Konoe rejected the overture.After taking Nanjing, the Imperial Japanese Army was doubtful about its ability to advance up the Yangtze river valley, and favoured taking up a German offer of mediation to end the war with China.",
"Konoe, by contrast, was not interested in peace, and instead chose to escalate the war by suggesting deliberately humiliating terms that he knew Chiang Kai-shek would never accept in order to win a \"total victory\" over China.In January 1938, Konoe issued a statement declaring that Kuomintang aggression had not ceased despite its defeat, that it was \"subjecting its people to great misery\", and that Japan would no longer deal with Chiang.",
"Six days later, he gave a speech where he blamed China for the continued conflict.",
"When later asked for clarifications, Konoe said he meant more than just non-recognition of Chiang's regime but \"rejected it\" and would \"eradicate it\".",
"The American historian Gerhard Weinberg wrote about Konoe's escalation of the war: \"The one time in the decade between 1931 and 1941 that the civilian authorities in Tokyo mustered the energy, courage and ingenuity to overrule the military on a major peace issue they did so with fatal results — fatal for Japan, fatal for China, and for Konoe himself.",
"\"Due to a trade imbalance, Japan had lost a large amount of its gold reserves by late 1937.Konoe believed that a new economic system geared toward exploitation of northern China's resources was the only way to stop this economic deterioration.",
"In response to continued U.S. support for the so-called Open Door Policy, Konoe rejected it \"as he had since Versailles, but left open possible western interests in southern China.\"",
"In a declaration on 3 November 1938, Konoe said Japan sought a new order in east Asia, that Chiang no longer spoke for China, that Japan would reconstruct China without help from foreign powers, and that a \"tripartite relationship of .",
".",
".",
"Japan, Manchukuo, and China\" would \"create a new culture, and realize close economic cohesion throughout east Asia.",
"\"In April 1938, Konoe and the military pushed a State General Mobilization Law through the Diet, which declared a state of emergency, allowed the central government to control all manpower and material, and rationed the flow of raw materials into the Japanese market.",
"Japanese victories continued at Xuzhou, Hankow, Canton, Wuchang, and Hanyang, but Chinese resistance nonetheless continued.",
"Konoe resigned in January 1939, leaving the war that he had a large part in making to be finished by someone else, and was appointed chairman of the Privy Council.",
"The Japanese public, which had been told that the war was an endless series of victories, was bewildered.Kiichirō Hiranuma succeeded him as Prime Minister.",
"Konoe was awarded the 1st class of the Order of the Rising Sun in 1939."
],
[
"Konoe's second premiership, the Matsuoka foreign policy",
"Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe (1891–1945, in office 1937–39 and 1940–41)Konoe with his second cabinet ministers, including War Minister Hideki Tojo, the second row, second from the left (22 July 1940)Due to dissatisfaction with the policies of Prime Minister Mitsumasa Yonai later that year, the Japanese Army demanded Konoe's return.",
"Yonai had refused to align Japan with the Nazis; in response, the army minister Shunroku Hata resigned and the army refused to nominate a replacement.",
"Konoe was recalled after Saionji — for the last time before his death later that year — again endorsed him.On 23 June, Konoe resigned his position as Chairman of the Privy Council, and on 16 July 1940, the Yonai Cabinet resigned and Konoe was appointed Prime Minister again.",
"Konoe did set out to end the war in with China.",
"But Konoe also deemed political parties as too liberal and divisive, thereby aiding the pro-war factions in the military.",
"The Imperial Rule Assistance Association (IRAA) was created in 1940 under Second Konoe Cabinet as a wartime mobilization organization, ironically in alliance with local ''meiboka'', since their cooperation was required to mobilize the rural population.",
"Konoe's government pressured political parties to dissolve into the IRAA, though he resisted calls to form a political party akin to Nazi party, believing it would revive the political strife of the 1920s.",
"Additionally, he worried that becoming the head of a political party would be beneath the dignity of a nobleman.",
"Instead, he worked to promote the IRAA as the sole political order.Even before Konoe had been recalled, the army had already planned an invasion of French Indochina.",
"The invasion would secure needed resources to wage war with China, cut off western supply of Kuomintang armies, put the Japanese military in a strategic location to threaten more territory, and would hopefully intimidate the Dutch East Indies into supplying Japan with oil.",
"The U.S. responded with the Export Control Act and increased aid to Chiang.",
"Despite this response, foreign minister Yosuke Matsuoka signed the Tripartite Pact on September 27, 1940, over the objection of some of Konoe's advisors, including former Japanese ambassador to the U.S. Kikujiro Ishii.",
"In an October 4 press conference, Konoe said that the U.S. should not misunderstand the intentions of the tripartite powers and should help them to build a new world order.",
"Additionally he said that if the U.S. did not end its provocative actions and deliberately chose to misunderstand the actions of the tripartite powers, there would be no option left but war.",
"In November 1940, Japan signed the Sino-Japanese treaty with Wang Jingwei, who had been a disciple of Sun Yat-sen and headed a rival Kuomintang government in Nanjing.",
"But Konoe's Government did not relinquish all held territory to Jinwei's government, undercutting its authority, and Wang's government was largely seen as an illegitimate puppet.",
"In December 1940 the British reopened the Burma road and lent 10 million pounds to Chiang's Kuomintang.",
"Konoe recommenced negotiations with the Dutch in January 1941 in an attempt to secure an alternate source of oil.In February 1941 Konoe chose Admiral Kichisaburō Nomura as Japanese ambassador to the U.S. Matsuoka and Stalin signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in Moscow on 13 April 1941, which made it clear that the Soviets would not help the Allies in the event of war with Japan.",
"On April 18, 1941, word arrived from Nomura of a diplomatic breakthrough, a draft of understanding between the US and Japan.",
"The basis of this agreement had been drafted by two American Maryknoll priests James Edward Walsh and James M. Drought, who had met Roosevelt through Postmaster General Frank C. Walker.",
"The outline of the proposal, which had been drafted in consultation with banker Tadao Ikawa, Colonel Hideo Iwakura, and Nomura, included American recognition of Manchukuo, the merging of Chiang's government with the Japanese-backed Reorganized National Government of China, normalization of trade relations, withdrawal of Japanese troops from China, mutual respect for Chinese independence, and an agreement that Japanese immigration to the United States would proceed on the basis of equality with other nationals free from discrimination.When Matsuoka returned to Tokyo, a liaison conference was held, during which he voiced his opposition to the draft of understanding, believing it would betray their Nazi allies.",
"After arguing that Japan should let Germany see this draft, he left the meeting, citing exhaustion, Konoe also retreated to his villa, also claiming a fever, instead of forcing the issue.",
"Matsuoka pushed for an immediate attack on British Singapore and began to openly criticise Konoe and his cabinet, leading to suspicions that he wanted to replace Konoe as prime minister.",
"Matsuoka changed the U.S. draft into a counteroffer that essentially gutted most of the Japanese concessions in regard to China and expansion in the Pacific and had Nomura deliver it to Washington.On Sunday, June 22, 1941, Hitler broke the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact by invading the Soviet Union.",
"Coincident with the invasion, Cordell Hull delivered another amendment of the draft on understanding to the Japanese, but this time there was no recognition of the Japanese right to control of Manchukuo.",
"The new draft also completely rejected the Japanese right of military expansion in the Pacific.",
"Hull included a statement that in summary said that as long as Japan was allied to Hitler an agreement would be next to impossible to achieve.",
"He did not specifically mention Matsuoka, but it was implied that he would have to be removed, as the foreign minister was now advocating an immediate attack on the Soviet Union, and did so directly to the emperor.",
"Konoe was forced to apologize to the emperor and assure him that Japan was not about to go to war with the Soviet Union.",
"Masanobu Tsuji had planned to assassinate Konoe if peace had occurred with the United States in order for Japan to attack the Soviet Union, which was at war with Japan's ally Germany.Matsuoka was convinced that Barbarossa would be a quick German victory, and he was now opposed to attacking Singapore because he believed it would provoke war with the western allies.",
"After a series of liaison conferences where Matsuoka argued forcefully in favour of an attack against the Soviet Union and against further expansion southward, the decision was made to invade and occupy the southern half of French Indochina, which was formalized in an imperial conference on 2 July.",
"Included in this imperial conference resolution was a statement that Japan would not flinch from war with the U.S. and Britain if necessary.",
"Beginning on 10 July Konoe held a series of liaison conferences to discuss the Japanese response to Hull's latest amendment to the draft of understanding.",
"It was decided that a reply would not be given until the Japanese takeover of southern Indochina was complete, hoping that if it went peacefully, perhaps the U.S. could be convinced to tolerate the occupation without intervention.",
"On 14 July Matsuoka drafted a response — through illness — which said Japan would not abandon the tripartite pact.",
"He attacked Hull's statement, which had been aimed largely at him, and the next day he sent the response to Germany for approval.",
"Sending the draft to the Germans without the cabinet's permission was the final straw.",
"Konoe and his cabinet resigned en masse and reformed the government without Matsuoka on 16 July, when Matsuoka did not attend due to illness."
],
[
"Third government and attempt to avoid war with the United States",
"Konoe with his third cabinet ministersThird Konoe Cabinet was formally created on 18 July 1941, with admiral Teijirō Toyoda as foreign minister.",
"Franklin D. Roosevelt administration hoped that Matsuoka's dismissal would mean Japan was standing down from continued aggressive action; these hopes were dashed when the French government, after being threatened with military action, allowed the Japanese army to occupy all of French Indochina on July 22.Two days later, the U.S. cut off negotiations and froze Japanese assets, the British, Dutch, and Canadian governments following suit shortly thereafter.",
"The same day Roosevelt met with Nomura, where he told the ambassador that if Japan would agree to pull out of Indochina and agree to its being granted a status of neutrality, Japanese assets could be unfrozen.",
"Roosevelt implied that Japanese expansion in China would be tolerated, but Indochina was a red line.",
"He also expressed how disturbed he was that Japan could not see that Hitler was bent on world domination.",
"Konoe did not take aggressive action in implementing Roosevelt's offer, and could not restrain militarists, led by Hideki Tojo.",
"As minister of war, Tojo regarded the seizure as irreversible due to its approval by the emperor.On July 28 the Japanese began to formally occupy southern Indochina.",
"In response, on August 1, the U.S. embargoed oil exports to Japan, surprising Konoe's cabinet.",
"Finding a replacement source of petroleum was paramount, as the U.S. supplied 93% of Japan's oil in 1940.Navy chief of staff Osami Nagano informed Emperor Hirohito that Japan's oil stockpiles would be completely depleted in two years.",
"The same day, Hachirō Arita wrote Konoe a letter telling him that he should not have let the military occupy southern Indochina while negotiations with the U.S. were still ongoing.",
"Konoe responded that the ships were already dispatched and could not turn back in time, and that all he could do was pray for \"divine intervention.",
"\"On August 6, Konoe's government announced that it would only pull out of Indochina when the war in China was concluded, rejected Roosevelt's neutralization proposal, but promised not to expand further and asked for US mediation in ending the war in China.",
"On 8 August Konoe requested, through Nomura, a meeting with Roosevelt.",
"The suggestion came from Kinkazu Saionji, the grandson of his deceased mentor Saionji Kinmochi.",
"Kinkazu advised Konoe through a monthly informal breakfast club, where Konoe consulted with civilian elites about policy.",
"Hotsumi Ozaki, who was a friend and advisor to Konoe, was a member of this same breakfast club; he was also a member of Richard Sorge's soviet spy ring.Nomura met with Roosevelt and told him about Konoe's summit proposal.",
"After condemning Japanese aggression in Indochina, Roosevelt said he was open to the meeting, and suggested they could meet in Juneau, Alaska.",
"On September 3, a liaison conference was held where it was decided that Konoe would continue to seek peace with Roosevelt, but, at the same time, Japan would commit to war if a peace agreement did not materialize by mid-October.",
"Moreover, Japan would not abandon the tripartite pact.",
"Konoe, Saionji, and his supporters had drafted a proposal that emphasized a willingness to withdraw troops from China, but Konoe did not introduce this proposal and instead acceded to a proposal from the foreign ministry.",
"The difference in the proposals was that the foreign ministry's was conditioned on an agreement being reached between China and Japan before troops would be withdrawn.On September 5, Konoe met the emperor with chiefs of staff General Hajime Sugiyama and Admiral Osami Nagano to inform him of the cabinet's decision to commit to war in the absence of a diplomatic breakthrough.",
"Alarmed, the emperor asked what had happened to the negotiations with Roosevelt.",
"He asked Konoe to change the emphasis from war to negotiation; Konoe replied that would be politically impossible, and the emperor then asked why he had been kept in the dark about these military preparations.",
"The emperor then questioned Sugiyama about the chances of success of an open war with the West.",
"After Sugiyama answered positively, Hirohito scolded him, remembering that the Army had predicted that the invasion of China would be completed in only three months.On September 6, the Emperor approved the cabinet's decision at an imperial conference after being given assurance by the two chiefs of staff that diplomacy was the primary emphasis, with war only as a fall-back option in the event of diplomatic failure.",
"That same evening, Konoe arranged a dinner in secrecy with U.S. ambassador to Japan Joseph Grew.",
"(This was somewhat perilous: on August 15, Hiranuma Kiichiro, a member of Konoe's cabinet and former prime minister, had been shot six times by an ultra-nationalist because he was seen as too close to Grew.)",
"Konoe told Grew that he was prepared to travel to meet Roosevelt on a moment's notice.",
"Grew then urged his superiors to advise Roosevelt to accept the summit proposal.The day after the imperial conference, Konoe arranged a meeting between Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni and army minister Tojo, which was an attempt to bring the war hawk in line with Konoe.",
"Higashikuni told Tojo that since the Emperor and Konoe favoured negotiation over war, the army minister should too, and that he should quit if he could not follow a policy of non-confrontation.",
"Tojo replied that if the western encirclement of Japan were to be accepted, Japan would cease to exist.",
"Tojo believed that even if there was only a small chance of winning a war with the U.S., Japan must prepare for it and wage it rather than be encircled and destroyed.Konoe in late 1941On September 10, Nomura met with Hull, who told him that the latest Japanese offer was a non-starter and that Japan would have to make concessions in regard to China before the summit meeting could take place.",
"On September 20, a liaison meeting passed a revised proposal that actually ''hardened'' conditions for a withdrawal from China.",
"At the liaison conference of September 25, sensing that summit negotiations were stalling, Tojo and the militarists pressed the cabinet to commit to an actual deadline for war of October 15.After this meeting, Konoe told lord keeper of the privy seal Kōichi Kido that he was going to resign, but Kido talked him out of it.",
"Konoe then secluded himself in a villa at Kamakura until October 2, leaving foreign minister Toyoda to take charge of negotiations in his absence.",
"Toyoda asked ambassador Grew to tell Roosevelt that Konoe would only be able to grant concessions at the summit but could not commit beforehand due to the influence of the militarists and the risk that any conciliation beforehand would be leaked to the Germans in an effort to bring down the Konoe cabinet.",
"Grew argued in favour of the summit to Roosevelt in a communication on September 29.On October 1, Konoe summoned navy minister Koshirō Oikawa to Kamakura, where he secured his commitment of cooperation in acceptance American demands, the navy being acutely aware of the long odds of victory in the event of war with the U.S. Oikawa returned to Tokyo and seemed to secure the cooperation of navy chief of staff Nagano, including Toyoda as foreign minister they formed a potential majority in the next liaison conference.",
"On October 2, Hull delivered to Nomura a statement constituting the preconditions for a summit meeting.",
"Hull made it clear that the Japanese army would have to demonstrate that they were going to pull troops out of French Indochina and China.At the October 4 liaison conference, Hull's response was still being processed and could not be fully discussed; Nagano changed his position and now agreed with the army and advocated a deadline for war.",
"Konoe and Oikawa were largely silent and did not try to bring him back to the side of negotiation, further postponing a final decision.",
"The army and the navy were in opposition to each other and held separate high-level meetings, each respectively confirming their resolve to either go to war or pull back from the brink.",
"But Nagano continued to oppose open confrontation of the army, while Oikawa did not want to take the lead as the only member of the liaison conference to oppose war.Konoe met privately with Tojo twice in a failed attempt to convince him to a troop withdrawal and to take the war option off the table on October 5 and 7.In the October 7 meeting, Konoe told Tojo that \"military men take wars too lightly.\"",
"Tojo's response was, \"occasionally one must gather up enough courage, close one's eyes and jump off the platform of the Kiyomizu.\"",
"Konoe responded that, while such a policy was okay for the individual, \"if I think of the national polity that has lasted twenty six hundred years and of the hundred million Japanese belonging to this nation, I, as a person in the position of great responsibility, cannot do such a thing.\"",
"The next day Tojo met with Oikawa and showed some doubt when he told him that it would be a betrayal of those who had already died in the war for the army to pull troops out of China, but that he was also worried about the many more who would die in an eventual war with the U.S., and that he was considering a troop withdrawal.Konoe held a meeting on October 12 with military ministers Tojo and Oikawa and foreign minister Toyoda, which became known as the Tekigaiso conference.",
"Konoe began by saying that he had no confidence in the war they were about to wage and would not lead it, but neither Oikawa or Konoe was willing to take the lead in demanding that the army agree to taking the war option off the table.",
"Toyoda was the only member willing to declare that the imperial conference of September 6 was a mistake, implying that the war option should be taken off the table, while Tojo forcefully argued that an imperial resolution could not be violated.On October 14, one day before the deadline, Konoe and Tojo met one last time, where Konoe attempted to impress upon Tojo the need to stand down from war and accede to U.S. demands for a military withdrawal from China and Indochina.",
"Tojo ruled a troop withdrawal as out of the question.",
"In the cabinet meeting that followed, Tojo declared that the decision of the imperial conference had been thoroughly deliberated, that hundreds of thousands of troops were being moved south as they spoke, that if diplomacy were to continue they must be sure that it would result in success, and that the imperial edict had specifically declared that negotiations must bear fruit by early October (which meant the deadline had already been passed).",
"After this conference Tojo went to see lord keeper of the privy seal Kido, to push for Konoe's resignation.That same evening Tojo sent Teiichi Suzuki (at that time the head of the cabinet planning board) to Konoe with a message urging him to resign, stating that if he resigned Tojo would endorse prince Higashikuni as the next prime minister.",
"Suzuki told Konoe that Tojo realized now that the navy was unwilling to admit that it could not fight the U.S.",
"He also told Konoe that Tojo believed the current cabinet must resign and bear the responsibility of wrongfully calling for the imperial edict, and only someone of Higashikuni's imperial background could reverse it.",
"The next day on 15 October Konoe's friend and advisor Hotsumi Ozaki was exposed and arrested as a Soviet spy.Konoe resigned on 16 October 1941, one day after having recommended Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni to the Emperor as his successor.",
"Two days later, Hirohito appointed war minister, General Hideki Tojo as the next Prime Minister by following Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal Kōichi Kido's advice.",
"In 1946, Hirohito explained this decision: \"I actually thought Prince Higashikuni suitable as chief of staff of the Army; but I think the appointment of a member of the imperial house to a political office must be considered very carefully.",
"Above all, in time of peace this is fine, but when there is a fear that there may even be a war, then more importantly, considering the welfare of the imperial house, I wonder about the wisdom of a member of the imperial family serving as prime minister.\"",
"Six weeks later, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor.Konoe justified his demission to his secretary Kenji Tomita.",
"\"Of course His Imperial Majesty is a pacifist and he wished to avoid war.",
"When I told him that to initiate war was a mistake, he agreed.",
"But the next day, he would tell me: 'You were worried about it yesterday but you do not have to worry so much.'",
"Thus, gradually he began to lead to war.",
"And the next time I met him, he leaned even more to war.",
"I felt the Emperor was telling me: 'My prime minister does not understand military matters.",
"I know much more.'",
"In short, the Emperor had absorbed the view of the army and the navy high commands.\""
],
[
"Post premiership, final years of the war and suicide",
"On 29 November 1941, at a luncheon with the Emperor with all living former prime ministers in attendance, Konoe voiced his objection to war.",
"Upon hearing of the attack on Pearl Harbor, Konoe said regarding Japan's military success, \"What on earth?",
"I really feel a miserable defeat coming; this will only last 2 or 3 months.",
"\"Konoe played a role in the fall of the Tōjō Cabinet in 1944 according to the defeat in the Battle of Saipan.",
"In February 1945, during the first private audience he had been allowed in three years, he advised the Emperor to begin negotiations to end World War II.",
"According to Grand Chamberlain Hisanori Fujita, Shōwa, still looking for a ''tennozan'' (a great victory), firmly rejected Konoe's recommendation.After the beginning of the Allied occupation according to the surrender of Japan, Konoe served in the cabinet of Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni, the first post-war government.",
"He came under suspicion of war crimes after he refused to collaborate with U.S. Army officer Bonner Fellers in \"Operation Blacklist\", which aimed to exonerate Emperor Hirohito and the imperial family of criminal responsibility for the war.",
"Konoe preferred death to the humiliation of a war crimes trial.",
"The night before he was to leave to Sugamo prison on December 15, 1945, his son Michitaka searched his room for weapons and poison.",
"Konoe and his son talked at length that night about the China incident, negotiations with the US, and the heavy responsibility he felt toward the emperor and the Japanese people.",
"Fumimaro recorded his feelings about these issues in pencil at the urging of his son.",
"According to Michitaka he apologized to his father for his failure to be a filial son, sensing that these may be their last moments together.",
"His father rebuffed him, replying \"What does 'to be filial' mean?\"",
"he then turned away.",
"They sat in silence until Michitaka told his father to go to sleep and asked him if he was going to leave tomorrow.",
"Fumimaro didn't reply, but Michitaka gazed at him, and Fumimaro gazed back, Michitaka had never seen such a strange and distasteful expression on his father's face and for the first time he perceived his intention to die.",
"Just before dawn Michitaka was awakened by his mother's excited voice, when he entered his father's room Fumimaro was stretched out, looking calm and serene, as if asleep.",
"A brownish bottle, empty, lay beside his pillow.",
"He had died by suicide by taking potassium cyanide.",
"His grave is at the Konoe clan cemetery at the temple of Daitoku-ji in Kyoto.His grandson, Morihiro Hosokawa became Prime Minister fifty years later, on 9 August 1993.SCAP coroner performing a postmortem on Konoe (17 December 1945)"
],
[
"See also",
"* Events leading to the attack on Pearl Harbor* ''Nanshin-ron'' policy* Tekigai-sō, Konoe's villa in Suginami, Tokyo"
],
[
"Ancestry"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* *Connors, Lesley.",
"''The Emperor's Advisor: Saionji Kinmochi and Pre-War Japanese Politics'', Croom Helm, London, and Nissan Institute for Japanese Studies, University of Oxford, 1987** Iriye, Akira.",
"''The Origins of the Second World War in Asia and the Pacific'', Longman, London and New York, 1987.",
"* Jansen, Marius B.",
"(2000).",
"''The Making of Modern Japan.''",
"Cambridge: Harvard University Press.",
"; * Lash, Joseph P. ''Roosevelt and Churchill, 1939–1941'', W. W. Norton and Co, New York, 1976.",
"* Oka, Yoshitake.",
"''Konoe Fumimaro: A Political Biography'', Translated by Shumpei Okamoto and Patricia Murray, University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, Japan, 1983."
],
[
"External links",
"* Konoe biography from Spartacus Educational* Annotated bibliography for Fumimaro Konoe from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues* Fumimaro Konoe and Asian Pacific War*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kowtow"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''kowtow''' is the act of deep respect shown by prostration, that is, kneeling and bowing so low as to have one's head touching the ground.",
"In Sinospheric culture, the kowtow is the highest sign of reverence.",
"It was widely used to show reverence for one's elders, superiors, and especially the Emperor of China, as well as for religious and cultural objects of worship.",
"In modern times, usage of the kowtow has been reduced."
],
[
"Terminology",
"The word Kowtow is derived from 叩頭/叩头 ().",
"An alternative Chinese term is 磕頭/磕头 (); however, the meaning is somewhat altered: has the general meaning of ''knock'', whereas has the general meaning of \"touch upon (a surface)\", / meaning head.",
"The date of this custom's origin is probably sometime during the Spring and Autumn period or the Warring States period of China's history (771–221 BC), because it was a custom by the time of the Qin dynasty (221 BC – 206 BC)."
],
[
"Traditional usage",
"Kowtowing official, Song dynastyIn Imperial Chinese protocol, the kowtow was performed before the Emperor of China.",
"Depending on the solemnity of the situation different grades of kowtow would be used.",
"In the most solemn of ceremonies, for example at the coronation of a new Emperor, the Emperor's subjects would undertake the ceremony of the \"three kneelings and nine kowtows\", the so-called grand kowtow, which involves kneeling from a standing position three times, and each time, performing the kowtow three times while kneeling.",
"Immanuel Hsu describes the \"full kowtow\" as \"three kneelings and nine knockings of the head on the ground\".As government officials represented the majesty of the Emperor while carrying out their duties, commoners were also required to kowtow to them in formal situations.",
"For example, a commoner brought before a local magistrate would be required to kneel and kowtow.",
"A commoner is then required to remain kneeling, whereas a person who has earned a degree in the Imperial examinations is permitted a seat.Since one is required by Confucian philosophy to show great reverence to one's parents and grandparents, children may also be required to kowtow to their elderly ancestors, particularly on special occasions.",
"For example, at a wedding, the marrying couple was traditionally required to kowtow to both sets of parents, as acknowledgement of the debt owed for their nurturing.Confucius believed there was a natural harmony between the body and mind and therefore, whatever actions were expressed through the body would be transferred over to the mind.",
"Because the body is placed in a low position in the kowtow, the idea is that one will naturally convert to his or her mind a feeling of respect.",
"What one does to oneself influences the mind.",
"Confucian philosophy held that respect was important for a society, making bowing an important ritual."
],
[
"Modern Chinese usage",
"Vietnamese graduates pay gratitude by performing a Kowtow for their own teachers during the Confucian court examination in 1897.The kowtow, and other traditional forms of reverence, were much maligned after the May Fourth Movement.",
"Today, only vestiges of the traditional usage of the kowtow remain.",
"In many situations, the standing bow has replaced the kowtow.",
"For example, some, but not all, people would choose to kowtow before the grave of an ancestor, or while making traditional offerings to an ancestor.",
"Direct descendants may also kowtow at the funeral of an ancestor, while others would simply bow.",
"During a wedding, some couples may kowtow to their respective parents, though the standing bow is today more common.",
"In extreme cases, the kowtow can be used to express profound gratitude, apology, or to beg for forgiveness.The kowtow remains alive as part of a formal induction ceremony in certain traditional trades that involve apprenticeship or discipleship.",
"For example, Chinese martial arts schools often require a student to kowtow to a master.",
"Likewise, traditional performing arts often also require the kowtow."
],
[
"Religion",
"Prostration is a general practice in Buddhism, and not restricted to China.",
"The kowtow is often performed in groups of three before Buddhist statues and images or tombs of the dead.",
"In Buddhism it is more commonly termed either \"worship with the crown (of the head)\" (頂禮 ding li) or \"casting the five limbs to the earth\" (五體投地 wuti tou di)—referring to the two arms, two legs and forehead.",
"For example, in certain ceremonies, a person would perform a sequence of three sets of three kowtows—stand up and kneel down again between each set—as an extreme gesture of respect; hence the term ''three kneelings and nine head knockings'' ().",
"Also, some Buddhist pilgrims would kowtow once for every three steps made during their long journeys, the number three referring to the Triple Gem of Buddhism, the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha.",
"Prostration is widely practiced in India by Hindus to give utmost respect to their deities in temples and to parents and elders.",
"Nowadays in modern times people show the regards to elders by bowing down and touching their feet.",
"Prostration is also common among the Yoruba people in West Africa.",
"Parents raised their male children to prostrate as a sign of respect and indication of good home training while the female children are trained to kneel to elders when greeting.",
"Due to modernisation of some sort, it is not uncommon to see boys or men slightly bow their head to an older person rather than having to fully prostrate.",
"Similarly, girls and women now slightly tilt their knees as a sign of respect, rather than having to fully kneel down all the time."
],
[
"Diplomacy",
"The word \"kowtow\" came into English in the early 19th century to describe the bow itself, but its meaning soon shifted to describe any abject submission or groveling.",
"The term is still commonly used in English with this meaning, disconnected from the physical act and the East Asian context.Dutch ambassador Isaac Titsingh did not refuse to kowtow during the course of his 1794–1795 mission to the imperial court of the Qianlong Emperor.",
"The members of the Titsingh mission, including Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest and Chrétien-Louis-Joseph de Guignes, made every effort to conform with the demands of the complex Imperial court etiquette.The Qing courts gave bitter feedback to the Afghan emir Ahmad Shah when its Afghan envoy, presenting four splendid horses to Qianlong in 1763, refused to perform the kowtow.",
"Coming amid tense relations between the Qing and Durrani empires, Chinese officials forbade the Afghans from sending envoys to Beijing in the future.On two occasions, the kowtow was performed by Chinese envoys to a foreign ruler – specifically the Russian Tsar.",
"T'o-Shih, Qing emissary to Russia whose mission to Moscow took place in 1731, kowtowed before Tsarina Anna, as per instructions by the Yongzheng Emperor, as did Desin, who led another mission the next year to the new Russian capital at St. Petersburg.",
"Hsu notes that the Kangxi Emperor, Yongzheng's predecessor, explicitly ordered that Russia be given a special status in Qing foreign relations by not being included among tributary states, i.e.",
"recognition as an implicit equal of China.The kowtow was often performed in intra-Asian diplomatic relations as well.",
"In 1636, after being defeated by the invading Manchus, King Injo of Joseon (Korea) was forced to surrender by kowtowing three times to pledge tributary status to the Qing Emperor, Hong Taiji.",
"As was customary of all Asian envoys to Qing China, Joseon envoys kowtowed three times to the Qing emperor during their visits to China, continuing until 1896, when the Korean Empire withdrew its tributary status from Qing as a result of the First Sino-Japanese War.The King of the Ryukyu Kingdom also had to kneel three times on the ground and touch his head nine times to the ground (), to show his allegiance to the Chinese emperors."
],
[
"See also",
"*Chinese social relations*Culture of China*Dogeza*Emoticons for posture*Finger kowtow:**Finger tapping in Chinese tea culture**Finger tapping in Yum Cha*Fist-and-palm, a Chinese gesture for showing respect*Gadaw, a Burmese form of obeisance akin to kowtow*Hand-kissing*John Moyse*Maundy (foot washing), another act of extreme humility*Orz*Proskynesis*Prostration*Salute*''Sankin-kōtai''*Shuysky Tribute, a similar Eastern European practice*Sifu*Sujud, prostration to Allah*Yeongeunmun"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"=== Citations ====== Sources ===* Fairbank, John K., and Ssu-yu Teng.",
"\"On the Ch'ing tributary system.\"",
"''Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies'' 6.2 (1941): 135–246.online* Frevert, Ute.",
"\"Kneeling and the Protocol of Humiliation.\"",
"in by Benno Gammerl, Philipp Nielsen, and Margrit, eds.",
"''Encounters with Emotions: Negotiating Cultural Differences since Early Modernity'' (2019): pp.",
"133–159 excerpt.",
"* Gao, Hao.",
"\"The \"Inner Kowtow Controversy\" During the Amherst Embassy to China, 1816–1817.\"",
"''Diplomacy & Statecraft'' 27.4 (2016): 595–614.",
"* Hevia, James L. \"‘The ultimate gesture of deference and debasement’: kowtowing in China.\"",
"''Past and Present'' 203.suppl_4 (2009): 212–234.",
"* Pritchard, Earl H. \"The kotow in the Macartney embassy to China in 1793.\"",
"''Journal of Asian Studies'' 2.2 (1943): 163–203.online* * Rockhill, William Woodville.",
"\"Diplomatic Missions to the Court of China: The Kotow Question I,\" ''The American Historical Review,'' Vol.",
"2, No.",
"3 (Apr.",
"1897), pp.",
"427–442.online* Rockhill, William Woodville.",
"\"Diplomatic Missions to the Court of China: The Kotow Question II,\" ''The American Historical Review,'' Vol.",
"2, No.",
"4 (Jul.",
"1897), pp.",
"627–643.online"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kamchatka Oblast"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kamchatka Oblast''' () was, until being incorporated into Kamchatka Krai on July 1, 2007, a federal subject of Russia (an oblast).",
"To the north, it bordered Magadan Oblast and Chukotka Autonomous Okrug.",
"Koryak Autonomous Okrug was located in the northern part of the oblast.",
"Including the autonomous okrug, the total area of the oblast was , encompassing the southern half of the Kamchatka Peninsula.",
"The administrative center of Kamchatka Oblast was the city of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.",
"Population: Kamchatka's natural resources include coal, gold, mica, pyrites, and natural gas.",
"Most of the inhabitants live in the administrative center, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.",
"The main employment sectors are fishing, forestry, tourism (a growing industry), and the Russian military.",
"There is still a large military presence on the peninsula; the home base of Russia's Pacific submarine fleet is across Avacha Bay from Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky at the Rybachy base.",
"There are also several air force bases and radar sites in Kamchatka.As of the 2002 All-Russian Population Census, the majority of the 358,801 population is Russian (290,108), largest minorities are Ukrainian (20,870) and Koryak (7,328).",
"The northern part of the peninsula is occupied by Koryak Autonomous Okrug, where around 6,700 Koryaks live.",
"A small number of Evens also live here.The oblast was established on October 20, 1932, subordinated to the Far Eastern Krai (later Khabarovsk Krai).",
"In 1956, it became a separate oblast under its own jurisdiction."
],
[
"Administrative divisions"
],
[
"Chairmen",
"'''The Chairman of the Council of People's Deputies of Kamchatka Oblast''' was the presiding officer of that legislature 1997-2007.They were preceded by The Chairman of the Legislative Assembly of Kamchatka Oblast 1995-1997.Name Took office Left office Mikhail Mashkovtsev 1995 1997 Lev Boitsov 1997 2001 Nikolay Tokmantsev 2001 2007"
],
[
"References",
"===Sources===*"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Wonders of Kamchatka* Commander Islands* Images from the Central Eurasian Information Resource - University of Washington Digital Collection"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kuznetsov"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kuznetsov''', '''Kuznyetsov''', '''Kuznetsoff''', or '''Kouznetsov''' (masculine, ) or '''Kuznetsova''' (feminine, ) is the third most common Russian surname, an equivalent of the English \"Smith\" (derived from a Russian word ''kuznets'' that means ''blacksmith'')."
],
[
"Men",
"*Aleksandr Kuznetsov (disambiguation), several people*Aleksey Kuznetsov (disambiguation), several people===Artists and entertainers===*Aleksey Alekseevich Kuznetsov (born 1941), Soviet/Russian jazz guitarist and composer*Anatoly Borisovich Kuznetsov (1930–2014), Soviet/Russian actor*Anatoly Vasilievich Kuznetsov (1929–1979), Soviet writer, author of ''Babi Yar''*I. Kuznetsov, Russian soloist with the Alexandrov Ensemble*Ivan Sergeyevich Kuznetsov (1867–1942), Russian architect*Mikhail Kuznetsov (actor) (1918–1986), Soviet actor*Nikolai Dmitriyevich Kuznetsov (1850–1929), Ukrainian portrait painter*Pavel Varfolomevich Kuznetsov (1878–1968), Russian painter*Sergey Kuznetsov, (born 1966), Russian writer*Yury Kuznetsov, (born 1946), Russian actor *Andy Kusnetzoff (born 1970), Argentine TV and radio personality===In sports===*Alex Kuznetsov (born 1987), Ukrainian-American male tennis player*Andrey Kuznetsov (born 1991), Russian tennis player*Artur Kuznetsov (Russian footballer) (born 1972)*Artur Kuznetsov (Ukrainian footballer) (born 1995)*Dmitri Kuznetsov (footballer born 1965), association football coach and former player*Dmitri Anatolyevich Kuznetsov (born 1972), retired Russian footballer*Evgeny Kuznetsov (born 1992), Russian ice hockey player*Evgeny Kuznetsov (diver) (born 1990), Russian diver*Maxim Kuznetsov (born 1977), Russian ice hockey player*Mikhail Kuznetsov (figure skater) (born 1988), Russian figure skater*Mikhail Kuznetsov (triathlete) (born 1971), Kazakhstani triathlete*Oleh Kuznetsov (born 1963), Ukrainian footballer and manager*Ruslan Kuznetsov (born 1980), Russian para-cyclist*Pavel Kuznetsov (weightlifter), (born 1961), Russian weightlifter*Syarhey Kuznyatsow, (born 1979), Belarusian footballer*Serhiy Kuznetsov (footballer born 1982), Ukrainian footballer*Vasili Kuznetsov (athlete) (1932–2001), Soviet decathlete*Vasili Kuznetsov (footballer) (born 1978), Russian footballer*Viktor Kuznyetsov (athlete) (born 1986), Ukrainian athlete*Viktor Kuznetsov (footballer, born 1949) (born 1949), Soviet international footballer*Viktor Kuznetsov (swimmer) (born 1961), Soviet backstroke swimmer*Vitali Kuznetsov (footballer) (born 1986), Russian footballer*Vitali Kuznetsov (judoka) (1941–2011), Soviet judoka===In politics===*Alexey Kuznetsov (1905–1950), Soviet politician*Eduard Kuznetsov (dissident) (born 1939), Jewish Soviet dissident and human rights activist*Eduard Kuznetsov (politician) (born 1967), Russian politician*Vasili Kuznetsov (politician) (1901–1990), Soviet politician*Vyacheslav Nikolayevich Kuznetsov (born 1947), Belarusian politician===In the military===*Fyodor Kuznetsov (1898–1961), Soviet military leader *Nikolai Gerasimovich Kuznetsov (1904–1974), Admiral of the Fleet of the Soviet Union*Nikolai Ivanovich Kuznetsov (1911–1944), Soviet intelligence agent and partisan *Pavel Grigoryevich Kuznetsov (1901–1982), Soviet general *Vasily Kuznetsov (general) (1894–1964), Soviet military leader and Hero of the Soviet Union*Yuri Viktorovich Kuznetsov (1946–2020), Soviet military leader and Hero of the Soviet Union===In science and engineering===*Alexander Kuznetsov (mathematician) (born 1973), Russian mathematician*Pobisk Georgievich Kuznetsov (1924-2000), Soviet Russian philosopher and scientist*Nikolai Dmitriyevich Kuznetsov (1911–1995), Soviet aerospace engineer and the chief of the Kuznetsov Design Bureau*Nikolai Yakovlevich Kuznetsov (1873–1948), Russian entomologist, paleoentomologist and physiologist*Nikolay V. Kuznetsov (born 1979), Russian scientist, specialist in nonlinear dynamics and control theory*Yuri A. Kuznetsov, Russian-American mathematician===In other areas===*Boris Kuznetsov (lawyer) (born 1944), Russian lawyer*Pyotr Kuznetsov (born 1964), Russian religious leader"
],
[
"Women",
"=== Artists and entertainers ===*Agniya Kuznetsova (born 1985), Russian theatre and film actress*Dina Kuznetsova, American lyric dramatic operatic soprano*Lyubov Kuznetsova (born 1928), Russian calligrapher and font designer*Maria Kouznetsova (violinist) (born 1991), Russian violinist*Maria Kuznetsova (novelist), Ukrainian American novelist*Mariya Kuznetsova (born 1950), Russian actress in 2001 film ''Taurus''* Mariya Kuznetsova (singer) (1880–1966), Russian opera singer and dancer* Marina Kuznetsova (1925–1996), Soviet stage and film actress* Vera Kuznetsova (1907—1994) was a Russian film actress=== In sports ===*Alesya Kuznetsova (born 1992), Russian judoka*Elena Kuznetsova (born 1982), Uzbekistani sport shooter*Evgeniya Kuznetsova (born 1980), former Olympic gymnast who competed for Russia and later Bulgaria*Galyna Kuznetsova (born 1960), Ukrainian Paralympic volleyball player*Maria Kuznetsova (wrestler) (born 1997), Russian wrestler*Nataliya Kuznetsova (born 1991), Russian powerlifter and bodybuilder*Olga Kuznetsova (born 1967), Russian middle distance runner*Olga Kuznetsova (sport shooter) (born 1968), Russian sport shooter*Polina Kuznetsova (born 1987), Russian handball player*Svetlana Kuznetsova (born 1985), Russian tennis player*Svetlana Kuznetsova (basketball) (born 1965), Russian basketball player*Svetlana Kuznetsova (cyclist) (born 1995), Russian cyclist*Yelena Kuznetsova (born 1977), Kazakhstani race walker*Yevgeniya Kuznetsova (athlete) (born 1936), Soviet athlete, competed in discus throwing in 1960 and 1964 Olympics=== In politics ===*Anna Kuznetsova (born 1982), Russian human rights activist*Irina Davydovna Kuznetsova (1923–?",
"), Soviet-Latvian politician=== In business ===*Inna Kuznetsova (born 1968), CEO of ToolsGroup=== In science and engineering ===* Irina Levshakova (née Kuznetsova) (1959–2016), Soviet/Russian paleontologist and artist* Valentina Kuznetsova (1937–2010), Soviet and Russian polar researcher and skier=== In the military ===*Mariya Kuznetsova (pilot) (1918–1990), Soviet fighter pilot=== In other areas ===*Nataliya Kuznetsova-Lobanova (1947–1998), a Russian diver*Tatyana Kuznetsova (1941–2018), Soviet cosmonaut"
],
[
"See also",
"*2233 Kuznetsov, an asteroid named for Nikolai Ivanovich Kuznetsov (1911–1944)*Kuznetsov Design Bureau, a Soviet/Russian aircraft engine design bureau*''Admiral Kuznetsov'' class aircraft carrier**Russian aircraft carrier ''Admiral Kuznetsov''"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kołobrzeg"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kołobrzeg''' (; ; ) is a port city in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship in north-western Poland with about 47,000 inhabitants ().",
"Kołobrzeg is located on the Parsęta River on the south coast of the Baltic Sea (in the middle of the section divided by the Oder and Vistula Rivers).",
"It is the capital of Kołobrzeg County.During the Early Middle Ages, the Pomeranian tribes established a settlement at the site of modern-day Budzistowo.",
"Thietmar of Merseburg first mentioned the site as ''Salsa Cholbergiensis''.",
"Around the year 1000, when the city was part of Poland, it became the seat of the Diocese of Kołobrzeg, one of five oldest Polish dioceses.",
"During the High Middle Ages, the town was expanded with an additional settlement inhabited by German settlers a few kilometers north of the stronghold and chartered with Lübeck law, which settlement eventually superseded the original Pomeranian settlement.",
"The city later joined the Hanseatic League.",
"Within the Duchy of Pomerania the town was the urban center of the secular reign of the prince-bishops of Cammin and their residence throughout the High and Late Middle Ages.",
"When it was part of Brandenburgian Pomerania during the Early Modern Age, it withstood Polish and Napoleon's troops in the siege of Kolberg.",
"From 1815, it was part of the Prussian province of Pomerania.In the late 19th century Kolberg became a popular spa town at the Baltic Sea.",
"In 1945, Polish and Soviet troops captured the town, while the remaining German population which had not fled the advancing Red Army was expelled in accordance to the Potsdam Agreement.",
"Kołobrzeg, now part of post-war Poland and devastated in the preceding Battle of Kolberg, was rebuilt, but lost its status as the regional center to the nearby city of Koszalin."
],
[
"Etymology",
"\"Kołobrzeg\" means \"by the shore\" in Polish; \"koło\" translates as \"by\" and \"brzeg\" means \"coast\" or \"shore\".",
"has a similar etymology.",
"The original name of Cholberg was taken by Polish and Kashubian linguists in the 19th and 20th centuries to reconstruct the name.",
"After German settlement, the original name of ''Cholberg'' evolved into ()."
],
[
"History",
"=== Pomeranian stronghold at modern Budzistowo ===According to Piskorski (1999) and Kempke (2001), Slavic and Lechitic immigration reached Farther Pomerania in the 7th century.",
"First Slavic settlements in the vicinity of Kołobrzeg were centered around nearby deposits of salt and date to 6th and 7th century.In the late 9th century, the Pomeranian tribes erected a fortified settlement at the site of modern part of Kołobrzeg county called Budzistowo near modern Kołobrzeg, replacing nearby Bardy-Świelubie, a multi-ethnic emporium, as the center of the region.",
"The Parseta valley, where both the emporium and the stronghold were located, was one of the Pomeranians' core settlement areas.",
"The stronghold consisted of a fortified burgh with a suburbium.The Pomeranians mined salt in salt pans located in two downstream hills.",
"They also engaged in fishing, and used the salt to conserve foodstuffs, primarily herring, for trade.",
"Other important occupations were metallurgy and smithery, based on local iron ore reserves, other crafts like the production of combs from horn, and in the surrounding areas, agriculture.",
"Important sites in the settlement were a place for periodical markets and a tavern, mentioned as ''forum et taberna'' in 1140.In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Budzistowo stronghold was the largest of several smaller ones in the Persante area, and as such is thought to have functioned as the center of the local Pomeranian subtribe.",
"By the turn from the 10th to the 11th century, the smaller burghs in the Parseta area were given up.",
"With the area coming under the control of the Polish Duke Mieszko I, only two strongholds remained and underwent an enlargement, the one at Budzistowo and a predecessor of later Białogard.",
"These developments were most likely associated with the establishment of Polish power over this part of the Baltic coast.",
"In the 10th century, the trade of salt and fish led to the development of the settlement into a town.=== Piast Poland and conversion ===St John's Church, the remains of an early medieval settlement in modern BudzistowoDuring Polish rule of the area in the late 10th century, the chronicle of Thietmar of Merseburg (975–1018) mentions ''salsa Cholbergiensis'' as the see of the Bishopric of Kołobrzeg, set up during the Congress of Gniezno in 1000 and placed under the Archdiocese of Gniezno.",
"The congress was organized by Polish duke Bolesław Chrobry and Holy Roman Emperor Otto III, and also led to the establishment of bishoprics in Kraków and Wrocław, connecting the territories of the Polish state.",
"It was an important event not only in religious, but also political dimension in the history of the early Polish state, as it unified and organized medieval Polish territories.The missionary efforts of bishop Reinbern were not successful, the Pomeranians revolted in 1005 and regained political and spiritual independence.",
"In 1013 Bolesław Chrobry removed his troops from Pomerania in face of war with Holy Roman Emperor Henry III.",
"The Polish–German war ended with Polish victory, which was confirmed by the 1018 Peace of Bautzen.During his campaigns in the early 12th century, Bolesław III Wrymouth reacquired Pomerania for Poland, and made the local \"Griffin\" dynasty his vassals.",
"The stronghold was captured by the Polish army in the winter of 1107/08, when the inhabitants (''cives et oppidani'') including a duke (''dux Pomeranorum'') surrendered without resistance.",
"A previous Polish siege of the burgh had been unsuccessful; although the duke had fled the burgh, the Polish army was unable to break through the fortifications and the two gates.",
"The army had however looted and burned the suburbium, which was not or only lightly fortified.",
"The descriptions given by the contemporary chroniclers make it possible that a second, purely militarily used castle existed near the settlement, yet neither is this certain nor have archaeological efforts been able to locate traces thereof.",
"In the 12th-century Polish chronicle ''Gesta principum Polonorum'' Kołobrzeg was named a significant and ''famous city''.During the subsequent Christianization of the area by Otto of Bamberg at the behest of Bolesław, a St. Mary's church was built.",
"This marked the first beginnings of German influence in the area.",
"After Bolesław's death, as a result of the fragmentation of Poland, the Duchy of Pomerania became independent, before the dukes became vassals of Denmark and the Holy Roman Empire in the late 12th century.Besides St. Mary's, a St. John's church and a St. Petri's chapel were built.A painting of the town of Kołobrzeg from the 13th century is located in the Museum of Polish Arms in the city.=== From the late Middle Ages to the Thirty Years' War ===During the Ostsiedlung, a settlement was founded by German settlers some kilometres off the site of the Slavic/Lechitic one.",
"It was located within the boundaries of today's downtown of Kołobrzeg and some of the inhabitants of the Polish town moved to the new settlement.",
"On 23 May 1255 it was chartered under Lübeck law by Duke Wartislaw III of Pomerania, and more settlers arrived, attracted by the duke.",
"Hermann von Gleichen, German bishop of Kammin also supported the German colonisation of the region.",
"The settlers received several privileges such as exemption from certain taxes and several benefits, making it difficult for the indigenous Pomeranian population to compete with Germans.Henceforth, the nearby former stronghold was turned into a village and renamed \"Old Town\" (, , ), first documented in 1277 and used until 1945 when it was renamed \"Budzistowo\".",
"A new St. Mary's church was built within the new town before the 1260s, while St. Mary's in the former Pomeranian stronghold was turned into a nuns' abbey.",
"In 1277 St. Benedict's monastery for nuns was founded, which in the framework of the Pomeranian Reformation in 1545 was then changed into an educational institution for noble Protestant ladies.Fuse Tower, last remnant of the medieval fortificationAlready in 1248, the Kammin bishops and the Pomeranian dukes had interchanged the ''terrae'' Stargard and Kolberg, leaving the bishops in charge of the latter.",
"When in 1276 they became the souvereign of the town also, they moved their residence there, while the administration of the diocese was done from nearby Köslin (Koszalin).",
"In 1345, the bishops became Imperial immediate dukes in their secular reign.In 1361, the city joined the Hanseatic League.",
"In 1446 it fought a battle against the nearby rival city of Koszalin.When the property of the Bishopric of Kammin was secularized during the Protestant Reformation in 1534, their secular reign including the Kolberg area became intermediately ruled by a Lutheran titular bishop, before it was turned into a ''Sekundogenitur'' of the House of Pomerania.In the 15th century the city traded with Scotland, Amsterdam and Scandinavia.",
"Beer, salt, honey, wool and flour were exported, while merchants imported textiles from England, southern fruits, and cod liver oil.",
"In the 16th century, the city reached 5,000 inhabitants.",
"The indigenous Slavs in the city were discriminated, and their rights in trade and crafts were limited, with bans on performing certain types of professions and taking certain positions in the city, for instance in 1564 it was forbidden to admit native Slavs to the blacksmiths' guild.During the Thirty Years' War, Kolberg was occupied by imperial forces from 1627 to 1630, and thereafter by Swedish forces.===Modern era: In Prussia===Town hall.",
"Karl Friedrich Schinkel originally planned the Neo-Gothic building in 1826 to replace the old town hall, destroyed during the siege of Kolberg (1807).",
"The plans were altered and the final building was by Ernst Friedrich Zwirner 1829–1832.Kolberg, with most of Farther Pomerania, was granted to Brandenburg-Prussia in 1648 by the Treaty of Westphalia and, after the signing of the Treaty of Stettin (1653), and in accordance with the Treaty of Grimnitz, was part of the Province of Pomerania.",
"It became part of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701.In the 18th century, trade with Poland declined, while the production of textiles was developed.",
"In 1761, during the Seven Years' War, the town was captured after three subsequent sieges by the Russian commander Peter Rumyantsev.",
"At the end of the war, however, Kolberg was returned to Prussia.Antoni Paweł Sułkowski, who led the Polish troops during the siege of 1807, is the namesake of a Kołobrzeg street todayDuring Napoleon's invasion of Prussia during the War of the Fourth Coalition, the town was besieged from mid-March to 2 July 1807 by the Grande Armée and by insurgents from Poland against Prussian rule (a street named after General Antoni Paweł Sułkowski, who led Polish them, is located within the present-day city).",
"As a result of forced conscription, some Poles were also among Prussian soldiers during the battle.",
"The city's defense, led by then Lieutenant-Colonel August von Gneisenau, held out until the war was ended by the Treaty of Tilsit.",
"Kolberg was returned to the Prussian province of Pomerania in 1815, after the final defeat of Napoleon; until 1872, it was administered within the Fürstenthum District (\"Principality District\", recalling the area's former special status), then it was within Landkreis Kolberg-Körlin.Marcin Dunin, Archbishop of Poznań and Gniezno and Roman Catholic primate of Poland, was imprisoned for sedition by the Prussian authorities for ten months in 1839–1840 in the city and after his release, he tried to organise a chaplaincy for the many Polish soldiers stationed in Kolberg.In the 19th century the city had a small but active Polish population that increased during the century to account for 1.5% of the population by 1905.The Polish community funded a Catholic school and the Church of Saint Marcin where masses in Polish were held (initially throughout the season, after about 1890 all the year), were established.",
"Dating back to 1261 Kolberg's Jewish population amounted to 528 people in 1887, rising to 580 two years later, and although many moved to Berlin after that date they numbered around 500 by the end of the Nineteenth centuryLapidarium to Jewish minority from the city murdered by Nazi Germany.",
"Lapidarium raised by Polish authorities in Kołobrzeg in 2000.The inscription is in Polish, Hebrew, and GermanBetween 1924 and 1935, the American-German painter Lyonel Feininger, a tutor at the Staatliches Bauhaus, visited Kolberg repeatedly and painted the cathedral and environs of the town.In the May elections of 1933, the Nazi Party received by far the most votes, 9,842 out of 19,607 cast votes.When the Nazis took power in Germany in 1933, the Jewish community in Kolberg comprised 200 people, and the antisemitic repression by Germany's ruling party led several of them to flee the country.",
"A Nazi newspaper, the ''Kolberger Beobachter'', listed Jewish shops and business that were to be boycotted.",
"Nazis also engaged in hate propaganda against Jewish lawyers, doctors, and craftsmen.",
"At the end of 1935, Jews were banned from working in the city's health spas.",
"During Kristallnacht, the Jewish synagogue and homes were destroyed, and in 1938 the local Jewish cemetery was vandalised, while a cemetery shrine was turned to stable by German soldiers.",
"In 1938, all Jews in Kolberg, as all over Germany, were renamed in official German documents as \"Israel\" (for males) or \"Sarah\" (for females).",
"In the beginning of 1939, Jews were banned from attending German schools and the entire adult population had its driving licenses revoked.",
"After years of discrimination and harassment, local Jews were deported by the German authorities to concentration camps in 1940.===Second World War===Statue of the Nurse – a statue in memory of women who fought for the Polish state during the Second World War and in battle for Kołobrzeg, the woman is based on Ewelina Nowak who died in 1945 in the city while trying to save a wounded soldierDuring the World War II the German state brought in numerous forced laborers to the city, among them many Poles.",
"The city's economy was changed to military production-especially after the German invasion of the Soviet Union.",
"The forced laborers were threatened with everyday harassment and repression; they were forbidden from using phones, holding cultural events and sports events, they could not visit restaurants or swimming pools, or have contact with the local German population.",
"Poles were only allowed to attend a church mass once a month – and only in the German language.",
"They also had smaller food rations than Germans, and had to wear a sign with the letter P on their clothes indicating their ethnic background.",
"Additionally, medical help for Polish workers was limited by the authorities.",
"Arrests and imprisonment for various offences, such as \"slow pace of work\" or leaving the workspace, were everyday occurrences.In 1944, the city was selected as a fortress — ''Festung Kolberg''.",
"The 1807 siege was used for the last Nazi propaganda film, ''Kolberg'' shortly before the end of the war by Joseph Goebbels.",
"It was meant to inspire the Germans with its depiction of the heroic Prussian defence during the Napoleonic Wars.",
"Tremendous resources were devoted to filming this epic, even diverting tens of thousands of troops from the front lines to have them serve as extras in battle scenes.",
"Ironically, the film was released in the final few weeks of Nazi Germany's existence, when most of the country's cinemas were already destroyed.On 10 February 1945, the German torpedo-boat T-196 brought about 300 survivors of the , which had been sunk by Soviet submarine S-13 to Kolberg.",
"As the Red Army advanced on Kolberg, most of the inhabitants and tens of thousands of refugees from surrounding areas (about 70,000 were trapped in the Kolberg Pocket), as well as 40,000 German soldiers, were evacuated from the besieged city by German naval forces in Operation Hannibal.",
"Only about two thousand soldiers were left on 17 March to cover the last sea transports.Between 4 and 18 March 1945, there were major battles between the Soviet and Polish forces and the German army.",
"Because of a lack of anti-tank weapons, German destroyers used their guns to support the defenders of Kolberg until nearly all of the soldiers and civilians had been evacuated.",
"During the fights, Polish soldiers' losses were 1,013 dead, 142 MIA and 2,652 wounded.",
"On 18 March, the Polish Army re-enacted ''Poland's Wedding to the Sea'' ceremony, which had been celebrated for the first time in 1920 by General Józef Haller.After the battle the city for several weeks was under Soviet administration, the Germans that had not yet fled were expelled and the city was plundered by the Soviet troops.",
"Freed Polish forced laborers remained and were joined by Polish railwaymen from Warsaw destroyed by the Germans.File:Kolobrzeg c1890-1905 LOC 00729u.jpg|Kolberg between 1890 and 1905File:Kolberg Strandschloss Rosengarten 1900.jpg|Strandschloss (Beach Castle) in Kolberg c. 1900File:Kolobrzeg1945.JPG|80% of the city destroyed in 1945File:Kołobrzeg.jpg|Ratuszowy Square, Kołobrzeg in 2019===Post-war Poland===Aerial view of Port of KołobrzegAfter World War II the region became part of Poland, under territorial changes demanded by the Soviet Union and the Polish Communist regime at the Potsdam Conference.",
"Most Germans that had not yet fled were expelled from their homes.",
"The town was resettled by Polish citizens, many of whom were themselves Polish refugees from regions east of the Curzon line, the Kresy, from where they had been displaced by Soviet authorities.In 2000 the city business council of Kołobrzeg commissioned a monument called the Millennium Memorial as a commemoration of \"1000 years of Christianity in Pomerania\", and as a tribute to Polish-German Reconciliation, celebrating the meeting of King Bolesław I of Poland and King Otto III of Germany, at the Congress of Gniezno, in the year 1000.It was designed and built by the artist Wiktor Szostalo in welded stainless steel.",
"The two figures sit at the base of a 5-meter cross, cleft in two and being held together by a dove holding an olive branch.",
"It is installed outside the Basilica Cathedral in the city center."
],
[
"Climate",
"Kołobrzeg has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: ''Cfb'')."
],
[
"Demographics",
"Before the end of World War II the town was predominantly German Protestant with small Polish and Jewish minorities.",
"Almost all of the pre-war German population fled or was expelled so that since 1945, Polish Catholics make up the majority of the population.",
"Around the turn from the 18th to the 19th century an increase of the number of Catholics was observed, because military personnel had been moved from West Prussia to the town.Lighthouse in KołobrzegKołobrzeg eastern beach+ Number of inhabitants in years Year Inhabitants 1740 5,027 1782 4,006 1794 4,319 1812 5,597 1816 5,210 1831 6,221 1843 7,528 1852 8,658 1861 10,082 1900 20,200 1925 30,115 1940 36,800 1945 approx.",
"3,000 1950 6,800 1960 16,700 1975 31,800 1990 45,400 2002 47,500 2004 45,500 2014 46,830"
],
[
"Tourist destination",
"Kołobrzeg today is a popular tourist destination for Poles, Germans and due to the ferry connection to Bornholm also Danish people.",
"It provides a unique combination of a seaside resort, health resort, an old town full of historic monuments and tourist entertainment options (e.g.",
"numerous \"beer gardens\").Panorama of Kołobrzeg=== Bike path to Podczele ===The town is part of the European Route of Brick Gothic network.",
"A bike path \"to Podczele\", located along the seaside was commissioned on 14 July 2004.The path extends from Kołobrzeg to Podczele.",
"The path has been financed by the European Union, and is intended to be part of a unique biking path that will ultimately circle the entire Baltic Sea.",
"The path was breached on 24 March 2010 due to the encroachment of the sea associated with the draining of the adjacent unique Eco-Park marsh area.",
"The government of Poland has allocated PLN 90,000 to repair the breach, and the path re-opened within a year.",
"It was also extended in 2011 to connected with Ustronie Morskie to the east.=== Oldest oak ===South of Bagicz, some from Kołobrzeg, there is an 806-year-old oak (2008).",
"Dated in the year 2000 as the oldest oak in Poland, it was named Bolesław to commemorate the king Boleslaus the Brave.=== Cultural center ===Kołobrzeg is also a regional cultural center.",
"In the summer take place – a number of concerts of popular singers, musicians, and cabarets.",
"Municipal Cultural Center, is located in the ''Park teatralny''.",
"Keep under attachment artistic arts, theater and dance.",
"Patron of youth teams and the vocal choir.",
"Interfolk organizes the annual festival, the International Meeting of the folklore and other cultural events.",
"Cinema is a place for meetings Piast Discussion Film Club.In Kołobrzeg there are many permanent and temporary exhibitions of artistic and historical interest.",
"In the town hall of Kołobrzeg is located Gallery of Modern Art, where exhibitions are exposed artists from Kołobrzeg, as well as outside the local artistic circles.",
"Gallery also conducts educational activities, including organized by the gallery of art lessons for children and young people from schools.=== Pier ===Pier by nightThe Kołobrzeg Pier is currently the second longest pier in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship, after the pier in Międzyzdroje.",
"A jetty positioned on the end of the pier enables small ships to sail for sightseeing excursions.=== Museums ===ORP ''Fala'', a museum ship in KołobrzegIn town, there is a museum of Polish weapons (Muzeum Oręża Polskiego), which are presented in the collections of militaria from the early Middle Ages to the present.",
"The palace of Braunschweig include part of museum dedicated to the history of the city.",
"In their collections branch presents a collection of rare and common measurement tools, as well as specific measures of the workshop.",
"The local museum is also moored at the port of ORP Fala patrol ship, built in 1964, after leaving the service transformed into a museum."
],
[
"Transport",
"===Train connections===Kołobrzeg train stationKołobrzeg has connections among others to Szczecin, \"Solidarity\" Szczecin–Goleniów Airport, Gdańsk, Poznań, Warsaw, Kraków and Lublin.===Ferry===A seasonal ferry service to Nexø on the Danish island of Bornholm is offered by the catamaran ''Jantar''.",
"The trip takes 15 hours and carries passengers but no cars."
],
[
"Sport",
"*SKK Kotwica Kołobrzeg – basketball club, which in the 2000s and 2010s competed in the Polish Basketball League, country's top flight*Kotwica Kołobrzeg – football club"
],
[
"Notable people",
"Monument of Marcin Dunin, 19th-century primate of Poland, in KołobrzegRyszard Kukliński, Polish colonel who spied for NATO during the Cold War.",
"*Petrus Pachius (1579–1641/42) a German Protestant minister, teacher and poet*Karl Wilhelm Ramler (1725–1798), poet, translator, director at Berlin theater === 19th century ===*Hermann Plüddemann (1809–1868) a German historical painter*Ernst Maass (1856–1929) a German classical philologist.",
"*Magnus Hirschfeld (1868–1935), physician, sociologist and early 20th century Gay rights campaigner*Paul Oestreich (1878–1959), educator, reformer*Arnold Zadikow (1884–1943), German-Jewish sculptor*Hans-Jürgen Stumpff (1889–1968), German general of Luftwaffe, co-signer of unconditional surrender 8 May 1945 in Berlin*Günther Angern (1893–1943), Wehrmacht general=== 20th century ===*Werner Krüger (1910–2003), German engineer, invented Krueger flap in 1943*Erika von Brockdorff (1911–1943), German resistance fighter*Karl-Heinz Marbach (1917–1995), German U-boat commander *Egon Krenz (born 1937), last communist leader of East Germany*Christine Lucyga (born 1944), politician*Joanna Nowicka (born 1966) a Polish archer, competed in four consecutive Summer Olympics from 1988.",
"*Sebastian Karpiniuk (1972–2010) a Polish politician, an assistant to President of Kołobrzeg, died in plane crash*Dariusz Trafas (born 1972), athlete, javelin throw national record holder*Daria Korczyńska (born 1981) a retired track and field sprint athlete *Robert Szpak (born 1989), athlete, javelin throw, 2008 World Junior Champion*Maja Hyży (born 1989) a Polish singer, participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 2018=== Famous persons connected with the city ===*Marcin Dunin (1774–1842) archbishop of Poznań and Gniezno, primate of Poland.",
"Imprisoned in the fortress in the city*Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, (1778–1852), ''father of gymnastics'', was imprisoned in Kolberg fortress in the 1820s *Adolf von Lützow, (1782–1834) a Prussian officer, served with distinction in the siege of Kolberg in 1807 *Wiktor Szostalo, (born 1952) sculptor and former Solidarity activist.",
"*Jan Pogány, (born 1960) classical composer, conductor and cellist.",
"*Ryszard Kukliński, (1930–2004) colonel and spy for NATO in the Cold War period, attended high school in the city."
],
[
"International relations",
"===Twin towns – sister cities===Kołobrzeg is twinned with:* Bad Oldesloe, Germany* Barth, Germany* Berlin Pankow, Germany* Feodosia, Ukraine* Follonica, Italy* Koekelberg, Belgium* Landskrona, Sweden* Nexø, Denmark* Nyborg, Denmark* Pori, Finland* Simrishamn, Sweden"
],
[
"See also",
"*Herbertiada"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* Gustav Kratz: ''Die Städte der Provinz Pommern – Abriss ihrer Geschichte, zumeist nach Urkunden'' (''The Towns of the Province of Pomerania – Sketch of their History, mostly according to historical Records'').",
"Berlin 1865 (reprinted in 1996 by Sändig Reprint Verlag, Vaduz, ; reprinted in 2011 by Kessinger Publishing, U.S.A., ), pp.",
"81–99 ( online)"
],
[
"External links",
"** Municipal website * History of the town on the tourist promotion site * dutchy of Cassubia"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Konix Multisystem"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Konix Multisystem''' was a cancelled video game system under development by '''Konix''', a British manufacturer of computer peripherals."
],
[
"Background",
"The '''Konix Multisystem''' began life in 1988 as an advanced Konix peripheral design intended to build on the success of the company's range of joysticks.",
"The design, codenamed Slipstream, resembled a dashboard-style games controller, and could be configured with a steering wheel, a flight yoke, and motorbike handles.",
"It promised advanced features such as force feedback, hitherto unheard of in home gaming.However, it soon became apparent that the Slipstream project had the potential to be much more than a peripheral.",
"Konix turned to their sister company Creative Devices Ltd, a computer hardware developer, to design a gaming computer to be put inside the controller to make it a stand-alone console in its own right.",
"It was shortly after this development began that Konix founder and chairman Wyn Holloway came across a magazine article that described the work of a British group of computer hardware designers whose latest design was looking for a home.The article in question, published in issue 10 of ''ACE'' magazine in July 1988, featured Flare Technology, a group of computer hardware designers who, having split from Sinclair Research (creators of the ZX81 and ZX Spectrum home computers), had built on their work on Sinclair's aborted Loki project to create a system known as Flare One.Flare's prototype system was Z80 based but featured four custom chips to give it the power to compete with peers such as the Amiga and Atari ST.",
"The 1MB machine (128k of ROM, 128k of video RAM, 768k of system RAM) promised graphics with 256 colours on-screen simultaneously, could handle 3 million pixels per second, output 8 channel stereo sound and had a blitter chip that allowed vertical and horizontal hardware scrolling.Flare were specifically aiming their machine at the gaming market, eschewing such features as 80 column text display (considered the requisite for business applications such as word processing) in favour of faster graphics handling.",
"This meant that in spite of its modest 8-bit CPU the system compared well against the 16-bit machines in the market at the time.",
"It could move sprites and block graphics faster than an Atari ST, and in 256 colours under conditions when the ST would only show 16 colours.",
"It could also draw lines 3 times faster than an Amiga and even handle the maths of 3D models faster than the 32-bit Acorn Archimedes.In spite of these specifications and bearing in mind their target gaming market, Flare aimed to retail their machine for around , half of what the Amiga and ST were selling for.",
"Ultimately, Flare's resources to put it into mass production were limited."
],
[
"Development",
"Holloway approached Flare and proposed a merger of their respective technologies to create an innovative new kind of gaming console with the computer hardware built into the main controller and in July 1988 a partnership was formed.",
"Development work was carried out by Flare, with assistance from British games programmer Jeff Minter.Konix wanted the machine to use a 16-bit processor, so the Z80 was removed and replaced with an 8086 processor.",
"They also demanded that the colour palette be expanded to 4096 colours, the same as that of the Amiga.",
"To reduce manufacturing costs, the Flare One's four custom chips were integrated into one large chip.",
"In order to keep the cost of software down, it was decided that the software media would be 3.5” floppy discs rather than ROM cartridges used universally by consoles up to that time.The embryonic console was revealed to the computing press at a toy fair held at Earls Court Exhibition Centre in February 1989.It boasted market leading performance, MIDI support and revolutionary peripherals including a light gun with recoil action and the Power Chair, a motorised seat designed to reproduce in the home what \"sit-in\" arcade games such as ''After Burner'' and ''Out Run'' delivered in the arcades.",
"Another innovative feature was the ability to link two MultiSystems together to allow for head-to-head two player gaming.",
"Release was slated for August that year.Several games in development had a version produced for the Konix Multisystem, including Vivid Image's ''Hammerfist''.A redesigned system oriented around a 32-bit processor clocked at 30 MHz with support for CDs exclusively was announced in 1993 in collaboration with TXC."
],
[
"Specifications",
"*CPU: 16-bit 8086 processor (running at 6 MHz)*Co-processor: ASIC processor *RAM: 128K RAM - later it would be upgraded to 256K RAM after complaints from developers.An optional 512K RAM cartridge was considered to boost the total RAM for the machine to 768K.",
"*Graphics:**Custom blitter**4096 colour palette**Resolutions:***256×200 (256 colours)***512×200 (16 colours)***256×200 (16 colours)*Sound:**Custom RISC-based DSP**Stereo sound*Storage: Custom 880KB 3.5\" disk drive*Misc: Cartridge expansion slot===Issues and limitations===Despite the impressive specification on paper, the design did suffer from some limitations.",
"Nick Speakman of software developer Binary Designs pointed out that \"the custom chips are very powerful, but they require a lot of programming talent to get anything out of them.",
"The screen handling also isn't as fast as we anticipated it to be.",
"\"Brian Pollock of software publisher Logotron highlighted the limitations caused by the shortage of RAM (kept low to keep prices down), “My only concern is memory, or lack of it.",
"For instance, in the game that I'm writing I am using six-channel FM synthesized sound.",
"Now that takes up a hell of a lot of memory.",
"I couldn't usefully fit any more samples, and that's sad.”The memory issue was also flagged by ''Crash'' magazine, which pointed out that the floppy disk format meant that games had to be loaded into the machine's RAM (originally intended to be 128k) in turn requiring the system to be constantly accessing the disk drive.",
"Konix intended to remedy the problem with RAM upgrade cartridges, provided that the price of RAM fell in the future.Overall though, programmers received the system positively.",
"Jeff Minter described the controller itself as \"superb,\" while Chris Walsh of Argonaut Games stated that \"Polygon based games like ''Starglider 2'' are going to be easy to program.",
"The machine is geared up to rotating masses of vertices at incredible rates.\"",
"However, of the original Flare One's vertex computation performance, ''Zarch'' author David Braben had noted that whilst similar levels of performance might be difficult to achieve on an Archimedes computer, the performance bottlenecks in solid 3D games were actually \"scanning databases of shapes and putting polygons on screen\".Numerous game developers were recruited to produce games for the system, including Jeff Minter's Llamasoft, Electronic Arts, Psygnosis, Ocean, Palace and U.S. Gold, with Konix promising 40 games to be available by Christmas.",
"Lucasfilm was mooted as a developer with the possibility of releasing their own branded version of the machine in the US, but nothing was ever confirmed.Games known to be in development for the system during 1988 included Llamasoft's ''Attack of the Mutant Camels'', System 3's ''Last Ninja 2'', Vivid Image's ''Hammerfist'', and Logotron's ''Star Ray''.",
"A game called Bikers was to be developed by Argonaut Software to be included as a free game with the system."
],
[
"Demise",
"Signs of trouble in the progress to the release of the console did not take long to arrive.",
"By May the release date had slipped from August to October.",
"By October, a first quarter 1990 release was envisaged.",
"The December edition of ''The Games Machine'' magazine revealed the scale of the problem.",
"According to company sources, Konix had been on the brink of calling in receivers.",
"Cheques had bounced, employees hadn't been paid and software development had been brought to a halt in mid-October as developers had reached the stage where they could continue no further without a finished machine.In March 1990 it was revealed that Konix had sold the rights to sell their joystick range in the UK to Spectravision who also manufactured the rival QuickShot joystick range.",
"They had effectively sold off the family silver in order to keep the MultiSystem project alive.",
"Autumn 1990 was to be the new release time.Eventually, beset by delays and in spite of all of the media coverage and apparent demand for the machine, the project ultimately went under when Konix ran out of cash without a completed system ever being released."
],
[
"Legacy",
"After the project was abandoned, Flare Technology began work on a new project, ''Flare Two'', which was eventually bought by Atari and, after further development, formed the basis for the Atari Jaguar game console.The original Flare One technology was purchased by arcade gambling machine manufacturer Bellfruit for use in their quiz machines.",
"Drivers for these games are also included in the multi emulator MAME.The Konix Multisystem's design was later released independently by a Chinese company called MSC (MultiSystem China) as the MSC Super MS-200E Multi-System, although this was simply an inexpensive PC games controller, without any special internal hardware.Video taped footage showing several games being worked on for the system survives.",
"Excerpts from the footage were later issued on the cover disc of issue 8 of ''Retro Gamer'' magazine."
],
[
"References",
"===Footnotes======Works cited===* Konix MultiSystem Archive"
],
[
"External links",
"* At Old-Computers.com* Press coverage* The MSC Multi-System"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Klein bottle"
],
[
"Introduction",
"immersed in three-dimensional spaceIn mathematics, the '''Klein bottle''' () is an example of a non-orientable surface; that is, informally, a one-sided surface which, if traveled upon, could be followed back to the point of origin while flipping the traveler upside down.",
"More formally, the Klein bottle is a two-dimensional manifold on which one cannot define a normal vector at each point that varies continuously over the whole manifold.",
"Other related non-orientable surfaces include the Möbius strip and the real projective plane.",
"While a Möbius strip is a surface with a boundary, a Klein bottle has no boundary.",
"For comparison, a sphere is an orientable surface with no boundary.The Klein bottle was first described in 1882 by the mathematician Felix Klein."
],
[
"Construction",
"The following square is a fundamental polygon of the Klein bottle.",
"The idea is to 'glue' together the corresponding red and blue edges with the arrows matching, as in the diagrams below.",
"Note that this is an \"abstract\" gluing in the sense that trying to realize this in three dimensions results in a self-intersecting Klein bottle.",
":Image:Klein Bottle Folding 1.svgTo construct the Klein bottle, glue the red arrows of the square together (left and right sides), resulting in a cylinder.",
"To glue the ends of the cylinder together so that the arrows on the circles match, one would pass one end through the side of the cylinder.",
"This creates a curve of self-intersection; this is thus an immersion of the Klein bottle in the three-dimensional space.Image:Klein Bottle Folding 1.svgImage:Klein Bottle Folding 2.svgImage:Klein Bottle Folding 3.svgImage:Klein Bottle Folding 4.svgImage:Klein Bottle Folding 5.svgImage:Klein Bottle Folding 6.svgThis immersion is useful for visualizing many properties of the Klein bottle.",
"For example, the Klein bottle has no ''boundary'', where the surface stops abruptly, and it is non-orientable, as reflected in the one-sidedness of the immersion.Science Museum in LondonA hand-blown Klein BottleThe common physical model of a Klein bottle is a similar construction.",
"The Science Museum in London has a collection of hand-blown glass Klein bottles on display, exhibiting many variations on this topological theme.",
"The bottles date from 1995 and were made for the museum by Alan Bennett.The Klein bottle, proper, does not self-intersect.",
"Nonetheless, there is a way to visualize the Klein bottle as being contained in four dimensions.",
"By adding a fourth dimension to the three-dimensional space, the self-intersection can be eliminated.",
"Gently push a piece of the tube containing the intersection along the fourth dimension, out of the original three-dimensional space.",
"A useful analogy is to consider a self-intersecting curve on the plane; self-intersections can be eliminated by lifting one strand off the plane.Time evolution of a Klein figure in ''xyzt''-spaceSuppose for clarification that we adopt time as that fourth dimension.",
"Consider how the figure could be constructed in ''xyzt''-space.",
"The accompanying illustration (\"Time evolution...\") shows one useful evolution of the figure.",
"At the wall sprouts from a bud somewhere near the \"intersection\" point.",
"After the figure has grown for a while, the earliest section of the wall begins to recede, disappearing like the Cheshire Cat but leaving its ever-expanding smile behind.",
"By the time the growth front gets to where the bud had been, there is nothing there to intersect and the growth completes without piercing existing structure.",
"The 4-figure as defined cannot exist in 3-space but is easily understood in 4-space.More formally, the Klein bottle is the quotient space described as the square 0,1 × 0,1 with sides identified by the relations for and for ."
],
[
"Properties",
"Like the Möbius strip, the Klein bottle is a two-dimensional manifold which is not orientable.",
"Unlike the Möbius strip, it is a ''closed'' manifold, meaning it is a compact manifold without boundary.",
"While the Möbius strip can be embedded in three-dimensional Euclidean space '''R'''3, the Klein bottle cannot.",
"It can be embedded in '''R'''4, however.Continuing this sequence, for example creating a 3-manifold which cannot be embedded in '''R'''4 but can be in '''R'''5, is possible; in this case, connecting two ends of a spherinder to each other in the same manner as the two ends of a cylinder for a Klein bottle, creates a figure, referred to as a \"spherinder Klein bottle\", that cannot fully be embedded in '''R'''4.The Klein bottle can be seen as a fiber bundle over the circle ''S''1, with fibre ''S''1, as follows: one takes the square (modulo the edge identifying equivalence relation) from above to be ''E'', the total space, while the base space ''B'' is given by the unit interval in ''y'', modulo ''1~0''.",
"The projection π:''E''→''B'' is then given by .The Klein bottle can be constructed (in a four dimensional space, because in three dimensional space it cannot be done without allowing the surface to intersect itself) by joining the edges of two Möbius strips, as described in the following limerick by Leo Moser:The initial construction of the Klein bottle by identifying opposite edges of a square shows that the Klein bottle can be given a CW complex structure with one 0-cell ''P'', two 1-cells ''C''1, ''C''2 and one 2-cell ''D''.",
"Its Euler characteristic is therefore .",
"The boundary homomorphism is given by and , yielding the homology groups of the Klein bottle ''K'' to be , and for .There is a 2-1 covering map from the torus to the Klein bottle, because two copies of the fundamental region of the Klein bottle, one being placed next to the mirror image of the other, yield a fundamental region of the torus.",
"The universal cover of both the torus and the Klein bottle is the plane '''R'''2.The fundamental group of the Klein bottle can be determined as the group of deck transformations of the universal cover and has the presentation .",
"It follows that it is isomorphic to , the only nontrivial semidirect product of the additive group of integers with itself.A 6-colored Klein bottle, the only exception to the Heawood conjectureSix colors suffice to color any map on the surface of a Klein bottle; this is the only exception to the Heawood conjecture, a generalization of the four color theorem, which would require seven.A Klein bottle is homeomorphic to the connected sum of two projective planes.",
"It is also homeomorphic to a sphere plus two cross-caps.When embedded in Euclidean space, the Klein bottle is one-sided.",
"However, there are other topological 3-spaces, and in some of the non-orientable examples a Klein bottle can be embedded such that it is two-sided, though due to the nature of the space it remains non-orientable."
],
[
"Dissection",
"Dissecting the Klein bottle results in Möbius strips.Dissecting a Klein bottle into halves along its plane of symmetry results in two mirror image Möbius strips, i.e.",
"one with a left-handed half-twist and the other with a right-handed half-twist (one of these is pictured on the right).",
"Remember that the intersection pictured is not really there."
],
[
"Simple-closed curves",
"One description of the types of simple-closed curves that may appear on the surface of the Klein bottle is given by the use of the first homology group of the Klein bottle calculated with integer coefficients.",
"This group is isomorphic to '''Z'''×'''Z'''2.Up to reversal of orientation, the only homology classes which contain simple-closed curves are as follows: (0,0), (1,0), (1,1), (2,0), (0,1).",
"Up to reversal of the orientation of a simple closed curve, if it lies within one of the two cross-caps that make up the Klein bottle, then it is in homology class (1,0) or (1,1); if it cuts the Klein bottle into two Möbius strips, then it is in homology class (2,0); if it cuts the Klein bottle into an annulus, then it is in homology class (0,1); and if bounds a disk, then it is in homology class (0,0)."
],
[
"Parametrization",
"The \"figure 8\" immersion of the Klein bottle.Klein bagel cross section, showing a figure eight curve (the lemniscate of Gerono).=== The figure 8 immersion ===To make the \"figure 8\" or \"bagel\" immersion of the Klein bottle, one can start with a Möbius strip and curl it to bring the edge to the midline; since there is only one edge, it will meet itself there, passing through the midline.",
"It has a particularly simple parametrization as a \"figure-8\" torus with a half-twist::for 0 ≤ ''θ'' 2.In this immersion, the self-intersection circle (where sin(''v'') is zero) is a geometric circle in the ''xy'' plane.",
"The positive constant ''r'' is the radius of this circle.",
"The parameter ''θ'' gives the angle in the ''xy'' plane as well as the rotation of the figure 8, and ''v'' specifies the position around the 8-shaped cross section.",
"With the above parametrization the cross section is a 2:1 Lissajous curve.=== 4-D non-intersecting ===A non-intersecting 4-D parametrization can be modeled after that of the flat torus::where ''R'' and ''P'' are constants that determine aspect ratio, ''θ'' and ''v'' are similar to as defined above.",
"''v'' determines the position around the figure-8 as well as the position in the x-y plane.",
"''θ'' determines the rotational angle of the figure-8 as well and the position around the z-w plane.",
"''ε'' is any small constant and ''ε'' sin''v'' is a small ''v'' dependent bump in ''z-w'' space to avoid self intersection.",
"The ''v'' bump causes the self intersecting 2-D/planar figure-8 to spread out into a 3-D stylized \"potato chip\" or saddle shape in the x-y-w and x-y-z space viewed edge on.",
"When ''ε=0'' the self intersection is a circle in the z-w plane .=== 3D pinched torus / 4D Möbius tube ===The pinched torus immersion of the Klein bottle.The pinched torus is perhaps the simplest parametrization of the klein bottle in both three and four dimensions.",
"It's a torus that, in three dimensions, flattens and passes through itself on one side.",
"Unfortunately, in three dimensions this parametrization has two pinch points, which makes it undesirable for some applications.",
"In four dimensions the ''z'' amplitude rotates into the ''w'' amplitude and there are no self intersections or pinch points.",
":One can view this as a tube or cylinder that wraps around, as in a torus, but its circular cross section flips over in four dimensions, presenting its \"backside\" as it reconnects, just as a Möbius strip cross section rotates before it reconnects.",
"The 3D orthogonal projection of this is the pinched torus shown above.",
"Just as a Möbius strip is a subset of a solid torus, the Möbius tube is a subset of a toroidally closed spherinder (solid spheritorus).=== Bottle shape ===The parametrization of the 3-dimensional immersion of the bottle itself is much more complicated.",
"Klein Bottle with slight transparency:for 0 ≤ ''u'' < π and 0 ≤ ''v'' < 2π."
],
[
"Homotopy classes",
"Regular 3D immersions of the Klein bottle fall into three regular homotopy classes.",
"The three are represented by:* the \"traditional\" Klein bottle;* the left-handed figure-8 Klein bottle;* the right-handed figure-8 Klein bottle.The traditional Klein bottle immersion is achiral.",
"The figure-8 immersion is chiral.",
"(The pinched torus immersion above is not regular, as it has pinch points, so it is not relevant to this section.",
")If the traditional Klein bottle is cut in its plane of symmetry it breaks into two Möbius strips of opposite chirality.",
"A figure-8 Klein bottle can be cut into two Möbius strips of the ''same'' chirality, and cannot be regularly deformed into its mirror image.Painting the traditional Klein bottle in two colors can induce chirality on it, splitting its homotopy class in two."
],
[
"Generalizations",
"The generalization of the Klein bottle to higher genus is given in the article on the fundamental polygon.In another order of ideas, constructing 3-manifolds, it is known that a solid Klein bottle is homeomorphic to the Cartesian product of a Möbius strip and a closed interval.",
"The ''solid Klein bottle'' is the non-orientable version of the '''solid torus''', equivalent to"
],
[
"Klein surface",
"A '''Klein surface''' is, as for Riemann surfaces, a surface with an atlas allowing the transition maps to be composed using complex conjugation.",
"One can obtain the so-called dianalytic structure of the space and has only one side."
],
[
"See also",
"* Algebraic topology* Alice universe* Bavard's Klein bottle systolic inequality* Boy's surface"
],
[
"References",
"=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * (A classical on the theory of Klein surfaces) *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Imaging Maths - The Klein Bottle* The biggest Klein bottle in all the world* Klein Bottle animation: produced for a topology seminar at the Leibniz University Hannover.",
"* Klein Bottle animation from 2010 including a car ride through the bottle and the original description by Felix Klein: produced at the Free University Berlin.",
"* Klein Bottle, XScreenSaver \"hack\".",
"A screensaver for X 11 and OS X featuring an animated Klein Bottle."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kennedy"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kennedy''' may refer to:"
],
[
"People",
"* John F. Kennedy (1917–1963), 35th president of the United States from 1961 to 1963* John Kennedy (Louisiana politician), (born 1951), US Senator from Louisiana* Kennedy (surname), a family name (including a list of persons with the surname)* Kennedy (given name), a given name (including a list of person with the first name)* Kennedy (commentator) (born 1972), former MTV VJ Lisa Kennedy Montgomery, who uses \"Kennedy\" as a stage name* Ken Anderson (wrestler) (born 1976), American professional wrestler and actor formerly known as Mr. Kennedy===Families===* Kennedy family, members of which have held high political US office* Kennedy (Ireland), or O'Kennedy, a royal dynasty* Clan Kennedy, of Scotland===Fictional characters===* Leon S. Kennedy, a fictional character in ''Resident Evil''* Kennedy (''Buffy the Vampire Slayer''), a fictional character in ''Buffy the Vampire Slayer''"
],
[
"Places",
"=== Australia ===*Kennedy, Queensland, a locality in the Cassowary Coast Region, Queensland, Australia*Division of Kennedy, a Federal electoral district in Queensland, Australia*Electoral district of Kennedy, a former State electoral district in Queensland, Australia=== Brazil ===*Presidente Kennedy, Espírito Santo, a municipality in Brazil*Presidente Kennedy, Tocantins, a municipality in Brazil=== Canada ===*Kennedy (TTC), a subway station located in Toronto, Ontario*Kennedy GO Station, a GO Transit station in Toronto, Ontario*Kennedy, Saskatchewan*Kennedys, Ontario, a community within the township of Strong, Ontario*Kennedy Channel, a sea passage between Canada and Greenland=== China ===*Kennedy Town, Hong Kong*Kennedy Town station, a Mass Transit Railway terminus in Kennedy Town, Hong Kong=== Colombia ===* Kennedy, Bogotá, Colombia=== Lebanon ===* Rue John Kennedy, a street in Beirut, Lebanon=== Luxembourg ===* Avenue John F. Kennedy=== Solomon Islands ===* Kennedy Island, Solomon Islands=== United States ===* Kennedy, Alabama* Kennedy, California* Kennedy, Illinois* Kennedy, Indiana* Kennedy, Minnesota* Kennedy, Missouri* Kennedy, Nebraska* Kennedy, New York* John F. Kennedy International Airport, Queens, New York* Kennedy, Wisconsin* Kennedy Plaza, Providence, Rhode Island* Kennedy Township, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania* Kennedy Space Center, Cape Canaveral, Florida===Other places===* Kennedy Lake (disambiguation)* Kennedy Road (disambiguation)* List of peaks named Kennedy"
],
[
"Film and television",
"* ''Kennedy'' (film), a 2023 Indian Hindi-language film* ''Kennedy'' (talk show), an Irish television chat show* ''Kennedy'' (1983 miniseries), a TV miniseries about the life of President Kennedy from 1961 to 1963* Kennedy (2023 miniseries), an American television documentary miniseries* ''The Kennedys'' (miniseries), a TV miniseries chronicling the lives of the Kennedy family* ''The Kennedys'' (TV series), a British sitcom"
],
[
"Organizations",
"* Kathryn Kennedy Winery, a winery in California, US* Kennedy Mall, in Dubuque, Iowa, US* Kennedy Mine, in Jackson, California, US* Kennedy's, a defunct department store in the US* Kennedy Company, a defunct computer storage company in the US* Kennedy Middle School (disambiguation)"
],
[
"Court cases",
"* ''Kennedy v. Mendoza-Martinez'', a 1963 U.S.Supreme Court case* ''Kennedy v. Louisiana'', a 2008 U.S.Supreme Court case* ''Kennedy v. Bremerton School District'', a 2022 U.S. Supreme Court case"
],
[
"Other uses",
"* Kennedy's disease, neuromuscular disease* Kennedy Doctrine, U.S. policy towards Latin America in the early 1960s* Kennedy march, a 50-mile-walk completed within 20 hours* Kennedy Round, international trade negotiations held during the mid-1960s* USS ''Kennedy'', any of several U.S. naval vessels* Kennedy (horse)"
],
[
"See also",
"* John F. Kennedy High School (disambiguation)* Justice Kennedy (disambiguation)* Kenedy (disambiguation)* Harrison H. Kennedy Award, an American high school sports award* Kennedy Award (journalism), an Australian award for journalism"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Icehenge"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Icehenge''''' is a science fiction novel by American author Kim Stanley Robinson, published in 1984.Though published almost ten years before Robinson's Mars trilogy, and taking place in a different version of the future, ''Icehenge'' contains elements that also appear in his Mars series, such as extreme human longevity, Martian political revolution, historical revisionism, and shifts between primary characters."
],
[
"Plot",
"''Icehenge'' is set at three distinct time periods, and told from the perspective of three different characters.The first narrative is the diary of an engineer caught up in a Martian political revolution in 2248.Effectively kidnapped aboard a mutinous Martian spaceship, she provides assistance to the revolutionaries in their quest for interstellar travel, but ultimately chooses not to travel with them but to return to the doomed revolution on Mars.The second narrative is told from the perspective of an archaeologist three centuries later.",
"He is involved in a project investigating the failed revolution, and during this finds the engineer's diary buried near the remains of a ruined city.",
"At the same time, a mysterious monument is found at the north pole of Pluto, tying up with a passing mention in the engineer's diary.In the final narrative, the great-grandson of the archaeologist visits the monument on Pluto, a scaled-up version of Stonehenge carved in ice.",
"He is investigating the possibility that both the diary and the monument were planted by a reclusive and wealthy businesswoman who lives in the orbit of Saturn."
],
[
"Development history",
"The first part of this novel was originally published as the novella ''To Leave a Mark'' in the November 1982 issue of ''The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction''.",
"The third part of ''Icehenge'' was originally published as the novella ''On the North Pole of Pluto'' in 1980 in the anthology ''Orbit'' 18 edited by Damon Knight.",
"Robinson gave the novella in rough form to Ursula K. Le Guin to read and edit while he was enrolled in her writing workshop at UCSD in the spring of 1977.Views of Saturn from the space station visited by the narrator of the novel's third section were inspired by images of Saturn taken during the Voyager flybys in 1980–1981.===Publication history===* 1984, United States, Ace Books , Pub date October 1984, paperback* 1985, United Kingdom, Futura Orbit , Pub date December 1985, paperback* 1986, United Kingdom, MacDonald , Pub date October 1986, hardback* 1986, France, Denoël , Pub date September 1986, paperback* 1986, Italy, Editrice Nord , Pub date 1986, paperback* 1987, West Germany, Bastei-Lübbe , Pub date 1987, paperback* 1990, United States, Tor Books , Pub date September 1990, paperback* 1997, United Kingdom, Voyager , Pub date 15 September 1997, paperback* 1997, Croatia, Zagrebačka naklada , Pub date 1997, paperback* 1997, Bulgaria, Лира Принт , Pub date 1997, paperback* 1998, United States, Tor Orb , Pub date July 1998, paperback* 2001, People's Republic of China, 漓江出版社 , Pub date 2001, paperback* 2003, France, Gallimard , Pub date December 2003, paperback* 2004, Spain, Minotauro , Pub date 9 March 2004, paperback* 2009, United Kingdom, Voyager , Pub date 1 August 2009, paperback"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* The work of disenchantment never ends: Kim Stanley Robinson’s Icehenge by Jo Walton*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Knights Who Say \"Ni!\""
],
[
"Introduction",
"The head knight, as portrayed by Michael PalinThe '''Knights Who Say''' \"'''Ni!",
"'''\", also called the '''Knights of Ni''', are a band of knights encountered by King Arthur and his followers in the 1975 film ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' and the play ''Spamalot''.",
"They demonstrate their power by shouting \"Ni!\"",
"(pronounced \"nee\" ), terrifying the party, whom they refuse to allow passage through their forest unless appeased through the gift of a shrubbery."
],
[
"Description",
"The knights appear silhouetted in a misty wood, wearing robes and horned helmets; their full number is never apparent, but there are at least six.",
"The leader of the knights, played by Michael Palin, is the only one who speaks to the party.",
"He is nearly double Arthur's height, and wears a great helm decorated with long antlers.",
"The other knights are large, but of human proportions, and wear visored sallet helmets decorated with cow horns.",
"The knight explains that they are the \"keepers of the sacred words 'Ni', 'Peng', and 'Neee-Wom'\".",
"Arthur confides to Sir Bedivere, \"those who hear them seldom live to tell the tale!\""
],
[
"Tasks",
"The knights demand a sacrifice, and when Arthur states that he merely wishes to pass through the woods, the knights begin shouting \"Ni!",
"\", forcing the party to shrink back in fear.",
"After this demonstration of their power, the head knight threatens to say \"Ni!\"",
"again unless the travellers appease them with a shrubbery; otherwise they shall never pass through the wood alive.",
"When Arthur questions the demand, the knights again shout \"Ni!\"",
"until the travellers agree to bring them a shrubbery, which the head knight specifies must be \"one that looks nice.",
"And not too expensive.",
"\"In order to fulfill their promise to the Knights of Ni, the party visits a small village, where Arthur and Bedivere ask an old crone where they can obtain a shrubbery.",
"The woman questions them, and Arthur admits that it is for the Knights who say \"Ni!",
"\", whereupon she refuses to cooperate.",
"Arthur then threatens to say \"Ni!\"",
"to the old woman unless she helps them, and when she still refuses, begins shouting \"Ni!\".",
"Bedivere has trouble saying the sacred word, which he pronounces \"Nu!\"",
"until Arthur demonstrates the correct technique.",
"As the crone shrinks back from their combined assault, they are interrupted by Roger the Shrubber, who laments the lack of law and order that allows ruffians to say \"Ni!\"",
"to an old woman.",
"Arthur obtains a shrubbery from Roger, and brings it to the Knights of Ni.The head knight acknowledges that \"it is a good shrubbery\", but asserts that the knights cannot allow Arthur and his followers to pass through the wood because they are no longer the Knights who say \"Ni!\"",
"They are now the Knights who say \"Ekke Ekke Ekke Ekke Ptang Zoo Boing!\"",
"and must therefore give Arthur a test.",
"Unable to pronounce the new name, Arthur addresses them as \"Knights who until recently said 'Ni!, inquiring as to the nature of the test.The head knight demands another shrubbery, to be placed next to but slightly higher than the first; and then Arthur \"must cut down the mightiest tree in the forest—with a herring!\"",
"The knight presents a herring to be used.",
"Arthur objects, asserting that \"it can't be done!\"",
"upon which the knights recoil as though in fear and pain.",
"It soon emerges that the knights are unable to withstand the word \"it\", which Arthur's party is unable to avoid saying.",
"The knights are soon incapacitated by the word, which even the head knight cannot stop repeating, allowing Arthur and his followers to make their escape."
],
[
"Film notes",
"In the original screenplay, it was suggested that the head knight be played by \"Mike standing on John's shoulders\".",
"In the DVD commentary for the film, Michael Palin states that their use of the word \"Ni!\"",
"was derived from ''The Goon Show''.",
"Later, Palin gave another inspiration – his history teacher at Shrewsbury School, Laurence Le Quesne, who had the habit of saying \"Ni\" while searching for books.",
"Upon Arthur's return, the knights were to have said, \"Neeeow...wum...ping!\""
],
[
"Contemporary scholarship",
"The Knights who say \"Ni!\"",
"have been cited as an example of intentional disregard for historical accuracy in neo-medievalism, which may be contrasted with the casual disregard for historical accuracy inherent in more traditional works of the fantasy genre.",
"However, in ''Medievalisms: Making the Past in the Present'', the authors suggest that the original characters of ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' actually represent medievalism, rather than neomedievalism, as many of the film's details are in fact based on authentic medieval texts and ideas.",
"With respect to the Knights who say \"Ni!",
"\", the authors suggest that Sir Bedivere's difficulty pronouncing \"Ni!",
"\", despite its levity, \"carries a very learned joke about the difficulties of pronouncing Middle English\", alluding to the Great Vowel Shift, which occurred in English during the late medieval period."
],
[
"Footnotes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Knights Who Say \"Ni!\"",
"– ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' – Official Monty Python Channel"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Künstlerroman"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''''Künstlerroman''''' (; plural ''-ane''), meaning \"artist's novel\" in English, is a narrative about an artist's growth to maturity.",
"It could be classified as a sub-category of ''Bildungsroman'': a coming-of-age novel.",
"According to ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', one way a Künstlerroman may differ from a Bildungsroman is its ending, where a Künstlerroman hero rejects the everyday life, but a Bildungsroman hero settles for being an ordinary citizen.",
"According to ''Oxford Reference'', the difference may lie in a longer view across the Künstlerroman hero's whole life, not just their childhood years."
],
[
"Examples by language",
"===German===*Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's 1795 ''Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship''*Ludwig Tieck's 1798 ''Franz Sternbalds Wanderungen''*Novalis's 1802 ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''*Hermann Hesse's ''Demian'' (1919) and ''Klingsor's Last Summer'' (1920)*Thomas Mann's ''Tonio Kröger'' (1903), and ''Doctor Faustus'' (1947)*Jakob Wassermann's 1915 ''Das Gänsemännchen''*Rainer Maria Rilke's 1910 ''The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge''*Eduard Mörike's 1856 ''Mozart on the way to Prague''===English===*1805 William Wordsworth's ''The Prelude''*1833–34 Thomas Carlyle's ''Sartor Resartus''*1847 Charlotte Brontë's ''Jane Eyre''*1848 Anne Brontë's ''The Tenant of Wildfell Hall''*1850 Charles Dickens' ''David Copperfield''*1852 Herman Melville's ''Pierre: or, The Ambiguities''*1856 Elizabeth Barrett Browning's ''Aurora Leigh''*1875 Henry James's ''Roderick Hudson''*1890 Henry James's ''The Tragic Muse''*1903 Samuel Butler's ''The Way of All Flesh''*1909 Jack London's ''Martin Eden''*1913 D. H. Lawrence's ''Sons and Lovers''*1915 W. Somerset Maugham's ''Of Human Bondage''*1915 Willa Cather's ''The Song of the Lark''*1916 James Joyce's ''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man''*1918 Wyndham Lewis's ''Tarr''*1920 F. Scott Fitzgerald's ''This Side of Paradise''*1928 Radclyffe Hall's ''The Well of Loneliness''*1929 Thomas Wolfe's ''Look Homeward, Angel''*1933 Malcolm Lowry's ''Ultramarine''*1936 George Orwell's ''Keep the Aspidistra Flying''*1939 John Fante's ''Ask the Dust''*1943 Betty Smith's ''A Tree Grows in Brooklyn''*1945 Richard Wright's ''Black Boy''*1946 Philip Larkin's ''Jill''*1947 W.O.",
"Mitchell's ''Who Has Seen the Wind''*1952 Patricia Highsmith's ''The Price of Salt''*1952 Ernest Buckler's ''The Mountain and the Valley''*1955 William Gaddis's ''The Recognitions''*1961 Irving Stone's ''The Agony and the Ecstasy''*1963 Leonard Cohen's ''The Favourite Game''*1970 Patrick White's ''The Vivisector''*1971 Alice Munro's ''Lives of Girls and Women''*1972 Chaim Potok's ''My Name Is Asher Lev''*1973 Milan Kundera's ''Life Is Elsewhere''*1974 Margaret Laurence's ''The Diviners''*1978 John Irving's ''The World According to Garp''*1981 Alasdair Gray's ''Lanark: A Life in Four Books''*1982 Charles Bukowski's ''Ham on Rye''*1985 Jeanette Winterson's ''Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit''*1988 Margaret Atwood's ''Cat's Eye''*1999 Tracy Chevalier's ''Girl with a Pearl Earring''*2003 Jennifer Donnelly's ''A Northern Light''*2006 Alison Bechdel's ''Fun Home''*2006 Stew's ''Passing Strange''*2010 Patti Smith's ''Just Kids''*2010 Eileen Myles's ''Inferno (A Poet's Novel)''*2010 Wena Poon's ''Alex y Robert''*2011 Ben Lerner's ''Leaving the Atocha Station''*2017 Ocean Vuong's ''On Earth We're Briefly Gorgeous''*2020 Andrew Unger's ''Once Removed''*2022 Gabrielle Zevin's ''Tomorrow, and Tomorrow, and Tomorrow''Notes*A semiautobiographical narrative takes up two of the four books of Gray's ''Lanark''.",
"*In John Dos Passos' U.S.A. trilogy, the ''Camera Eye'' sections add up to a modernist autobiographical ''Künstlerroman''.",
"*John Barth's ''Lost in the Funhouse'' is a collection of short stories that are often read as a postmodernist ''Künstlerroman''.===French===*1831, 1837 Honoré de Balzac's ''The Unknown Masterpiece''*1904–1905 Romain Rolland's ''Jean-Christophe''*1913–1927 Marcel Proust's ''In Search of Lost Time''===Italian===*Gabriele D'Annunzio's ''Il Piacere'', ''Le Vergini Delle Rocce'' and ''Il Fuoco''*1975 Gavino Ledda's ''My Father, My Master'' (''Padre Padrone'')*2012–2015 Elena Ferrante's ''Neapolitan Novels''===Icelandic===*Halldór Laxness's ''World Light''*Halldór Laxness's ''The Fish Can Sing''===Russian===*Vladimir Nabokov's ''The Gift''*Leo Tolstoy's trilogy of novellas ''Childhood, Boyhood,'' &''Youth''===Croatian===*1932 Miroslav Krleža's ''The Return of Filip Latinovicz''===Malayalam===*1993 Perumbadavam Sreedharan's ''Oru Sankeerthanam Pole''===Norwegian===*2009–2011 Karl Ove Knausgaard's ''My Struggle (Knausgård novels)''*1890 Knut Hamsun's ''Hunger'' (“Sult”)===Portuguese===*1883 Maria Benedita Bormann's ''Lésbia''*1976 Ferreira Gullar's ''Poema Sujo''===Turkish===*1896–1897 Halit Ziya Uşaklıgil's ''Blue and Black'' (''Mavi ve Siyah'')*1972 Oğuz Atay’s Tutunamayanlar*1959 Yusuf Atılgan’s Aylak adam===Bengali===1999 Malay Roy Choudhury's Chhotoloker Chhotobela"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kwanzaa"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kwanzaa''' () is an annual celebration of African-American culture from December 26 to January 1, culminating in a communal feast called ''Karamu'', usually on the sixth day.",
"It was created by activist Maulana Karenga, based on African harvest festival traditions from various parts of West and Southeast Africa.",
"Kwanzaa was first celebrated in 1966.Estimates of how many Americans celebrate Kwanzaa have varied in recent years, from as few as a half a million to as many as 12 million.",
"In a 2019 poll by the National Retail Federation, 2.6 percent of people who planned to celebrate a winter holiday said they would celebrate Kwanzaa."
],
[
"History and etymology",
"American black separatist Maulana Karenga created Kwanzaa in 1966 during the aftermath of the Watts riots as a non-Christian, specifically African-American, holiday.",
"Karenga said his goal was to \"give black people an alternative to the existing holiday of Christmas and give black people an opportunity to celebrate themselves and their history, rather than simply imitate the practice of the dominant society.\"",
"For Karenga, a figure in the Black Power movement of the 1960s and 1970s, the creation of such holidays also underscored the essential premise that \"you must have a cultural revolution before the violent revolution.",
"The cultural revolution gives identity, purpose, and direction.",
"\"According to Karenga, the name Kwanzaa derives from the Swahili phrase ''matunda ya kwanza'', meaning \"first fruits\".",
"First fruits festivals exist in Southern Africa and are celebrated in December/January with the southern solstice.",
"Karenga was partly inspired by an account he read of the Zulu festival Umkhosi Wokweshwama.",
"It was decided to spell the holiday's name with an additional \"a\" so that it would have a symbolic seven letters.During the early years of Kwanzaa, Karenga said it was meant to be an alternative to Christmas.",
"He believed Jesus was psychotic and Christianity was a \"White\" religion that Black people should shun.",
"As Kwanzaa gained mainstream adherents, Karenga altered his position so practicing Christians would not be alienated, stating in the 1997 book ''Kwanzaa: A Celebration of Family, Community, and Culture'' that \"Kwanzaa was not created to give people an alternative to their own religion or religious holiday.\"",
"Many African Americans who celebrate Kwanzaa do so in addition to observing Christmas.After its creation in California, Kwanzaa spread outside the United States.",
"In December 2022, Reverend Al Sharpton, Mayor Eric Adams, businessman Robert F. Smith, Reverend Conrad Tillard, Rabbi Shmuley Boteach, and Elisha Wiesel joined to celebrate Kwanzaa and Hanukkah together at Carnegie Hall."
],
[
"Nguzo Saba (The Seven Principles)",
"A display of Kwanzaa symbols with fruit and vegetablesKwanzaa celebrates what its founder called the seven principles of Kwanzaa, or '''''Nguzo Saba''''' (originally '''''Nguzu Saba''''' – the seven principles of African Heritage).",
"They were developed in 1965, a year before Kwanzaa itself.",
"These seven principles are all Swahili words, and together comprise the ''Kawaida'' or \"common\" philosophy, a synthesis of nationalist, pan-Africanist, and socialist values.",
"Each of the seven days of Kwanzaa is dedicated to one of the principles, as follows:# '''''Umoja''''' (Unity): To strive for and to maintain unity in the family, community, nation, and race.# '''''Kujichagulia''''' (Self-determination): To define and name ourselves, as well as to create and speak for ourselves.# '''''Ujima''''' (Collective work and responsibility): To build and maintain our community together and make our brothers' and sisters' problems our problems and to solve them together.# '''''Ujamaa''''' (Cooperative economics): To build and maintain our own stores, shops, and other businesses and to profit from them together.# '''''Nia''''' (Purpose): To make our collective vocation the building and developing of our community in order to restore our people to their traditional greatness.# '''''Kuumba''''' (Creativity): To do always as much as we can, in the way we can, in order to leave our community more beautiful and beneficial than we inherited it.# '''''Imani''''' (Faith): To believe with all our hearts in our people, our parents, our teachers, our leaders, and the righteousness and victory of our struggle."
],
[
"Symbols",
"2019 public kinara in New York CityKwanzaa celebratory symbols include a mat (''Mkeka'') on which other symbols are placed: * a ''Kinara'' (candle holder for seven candlesticks)* ''Mishumaa Saba'' (seven candles)* ''mazao'' (crops)* ''Mahindi'' (corn), to represent the children celebrating (and corn may be part of the holiday meal).",
"* a ''Kikombe cha Umoja'' (unity cup) for commemorating and giving ''shukrani'' (thanks) to African Ancestors* ''Zawadi'' (gifts).",
"Supplemental representations include a Nguzo Saba poster, the black, red, and green ''bendera'' (flag), and African books and artworks—all to represent values and concepts reflective of African culture and contribution to community building and reinforcement."
],
[
"Observances",
"A woman lighting candles for Kwanzaa.The Black candle in the middle represents unity, the three green candles on the right represent earth and the three red candles on the left represent the struggle of African Americans, or the shedding of blood.Families celebrating Kwanzaa decorate their households with objects of art, colorful African cloth such as kente, especially the wearing of kaftans by women, and fresh fruits that represent African idealism.",
"It is customary to include children in Kwanzaa ceremonies and to give respect and gratitude to ancestors.",
"Libations are shared, generally with a common chalice, ''Kikombe cha Umoja'', passed around to all celebrants.",
"Non-African Americans also celebrate Kwanzaa.",
"\"Joyous Kwanzaa\" may be used as a greeting during the holiday.A Kwanzaa ceremony may include drumming and musical selections, libations, a reading of the African Pledge and the Principles of Blackness, reflection on the Pan-African colors, a discussion of the African principle of the day or a chapter in African history, a candle-lighting ritual, artistic performance, and, finally, a feast of faith (Karamu Ya Imani).",
"The greeting for each day of Kwanzaa is ''Habari Gani?",
"'', which is Swahili for \"How are you?",
"\"At first, observers of Kwanzaa avoided the mixing of the holiday or its symbols, values, and practice with other holidays, as doing so would violate the principle of ''kujichagulia'' (self-determination) and thus violate the integrity of the holiday, which is partially intended as a reclamation of important African values.",
"Today, some African American families celebrate Kwanzaa along with Christmas and New Year.Cultural exhibitions include the Spirit of Kwanzaa, an annual celebration held at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts featuring interpretive dance, African dance, song and poetry.=== Karamu ===A Karamu Ya Imani (''Feast of Faith'') is a feast that typically takes place on December 31, the sixth day of the Kwanzaa period.",
"The Karamu feast was developed in Chicago during a 1971 citywide movement of Pan-African organizations.",
"It was proposed by Hannibal Afrik of Shule ya Watoto as a communitywide promotional and educational campaign.",
"The initial Karamu Ya Imani occurred on January 1, 1973, at a 200-person gathering at the Ridgeland club.In 1992, the National Black United Front of Chicago held one of the largest Karamu Ya Imani celebrations in the country.",
"It included dancing, a youth ensemble and a keynote speech by NBUF and prominent black nationalist leader Conrad Worrill.The celebration includes the following practices:* Kukaribisha (Welcoming)* Kuumba (Remembering)* Kuchunguza Tena Na Kutoa Ahadi Tena (Reassessment and Recommitment)* Kushangilia (Rejoicing)* Tamshi la Tambiko (Libation Statement)* Tamshi la Tutaonana (The Farewell Statement)"
],
[
"Adherence",
"The popularity of celebration of Kwanzaa has declined with the waning of the popularity of the black separatist movement.",
"Kwanzaa observation has declined in both community and commercial contexts.",
"University of Minnesota Professor Keith Mayes did not report exact figures, noting that it is also difficult to determine these for the three other main African-American holidays, which he names as Martin Luther King Jr. Day, Malcolm X Day, and Juneteenth.",
"Mayes added that white institutions now also celebrate it.A 2003 Kwanzaa celebration with Kwanzaa founder Maulana Karenga at the center, and othersIn a 2019 National Retail Federation poll, 2.6 percent of people who planned to celebrate a winter holiday said they would celebrate Kwanzaa.Starting in the 1990s, the holiday became increasingly commercialized, with the first Hallmark card being sold in 1992.Some have expressed concern about this potentially damaging the holiday's values."
],
[
"Recognition",
"The first Kwanzaa stamp, designed by Synthia Saint James, was issued by the United States Post Office in 1997, and in the same year Bill Clinton gave the first presidential declaration marking the holiday.",
"Subsequent presidents George W. Bush, Barack Obama, Donald Trump, and Joe Biden also issued greetings to celebrate Kwanzaa.Maya Angelou narrated a 2008 documentary film about Kwanzaa, ''The Black Candle'', written and directed by M. K. Asante and featuring Chuck D."
],
[
"Practice outside the United States",
"Other countries that celebrate Kwanzaa include the Jamaica, France, Canada, and Brazil.In Canada it is celebrated in provinces including Saskatchewan and Ontario.",
"Kwanzaa week was first declared in Toronto in 2018.There are local chapters that emerged in the 2010s in provinces like British Columbia, where there are much smaller groups of the diaspora, founding members may be immigrants from countries like Uganda."
],
[
"See also",
"* American holidays* Public holidays in the United States"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
" * * * Why Kwanzaa was created by Karenga * The History Channel: Kwanzaa* Interview: Karenga discusses the evolution of the holiday and its meaning."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kingdom of Judah"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Kingdom of Judah''' (, ''Yəhūdā''; ''Ya'údi'' ''ia-ú-di''; ''Bēyt Dāwīḏ'', \"House of David\") was an Israelite kingdom of the Southern Levant during the Iron Age.",
"Centered in the highlands of Judea, the landlocked kingdom's capital was Jerusalem.",
"Jews are named after Judah and are primarily descended from it.The Hebrew Bible depicts the Kingdom of Judah as a successor to the United Kingdom of Israel, a term denoting the united monarchy under biblical kings Saul, David, and Solomon and covering the territory of Judah and Israel.",
"However, during the 1980s, some biblical scholars began to argue that the archaeological evidence for an extensive kingdom before the late-8th century BCE is too weak, and that the methodology used to obtain the evidence is flawed.",
"In the 10th and early 9th centuries BCE, the territory of Judah appears to have been sparsely populated, limited to small rural settlements, most of them unfortified.",
"The Tel Dan Stele, discovered in 1993, shows that the kingdom, at least in some form, existed by the middle of the 9th century BCE, but it does not indicate the extent of its power.",
"Recent excavations at Khirbet Qeiyafa, however, support the existence of a centrally organized and urbanized kingdom by the 10th century BCE, according to the excavators.In the 7th century BCE, the kingdom's population increased greatly, prospering under Assyrian vassalage, despite Hezekiah's revolt against the Assyrian king Sennacherib.",
"Josiah took advantage of the political vacuum that resulted from Assyria's decline and the emergence of Egyptian rule over the area to enact his religious reforms.",
"The Deuteronomistic history, which recounts the history of the nation from Joshua to Josiah and expresses a worldview based on the legal principles found in Deuteronomy, is assumed to have been written during this same time period and emphasizes the significance of upholding them.",
"With the final fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 605 BCE, competition emerged between Egypt and the Neo-Babylonian Empire over control of the Levant, ultimately resulting in Judah's rapid decline.",
"The early 6th century BCE saw a wave of Egyptian-backed Judahite rebellions against Babylonian rule being crushed.",
"In 587 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar II besieged and destroyed Jerusalem, bringing an end to the kingdom.",
"A large number of Judeans were exiled to Babylon, and the fallen kingdom was then annexed as a Babylonian province.After Babylon's fall to the Persian Achaemenid Empire, king Cyrus the Great allowed the Jews who had been deported after the conquest of Judah to return.",
"They were allowed to self-rule under Persian governance.",
"It was not until 400 years later, following the Maccabean Revolt, that the Jews fully regained independence."
],
[
"Archaeological record",
"The formation of the Kingdom of Judah is a subject of heavy debate among scholars, with a dispute emerging between biblical minimalists and biblical maximalists on this particular topic.While it is generally agreed that the stories of David and Solomon in the 10th century BCE tell little about the origins of Judah, currently, there is no consensus as to whether Judah developed as a split from the United Kingdom of Israel (as the Bible tells) or independently.",
"Some scholars suggested that Jerusalem, the kingdom's capital, did not emerge as a significant administrative center until the end of the 8th century BCE.",
"Before then, the archaeological evidence suggests its population was too small to sustain a viable kingdom.",
"Much of the debate revolves around whether the archaeological discoveries conventionally dated to the 10th century should instead be dated to the 9th century, as proposed by Israel Finkelstein.",
"Recent archaeological discoveries by Eilat Mazar in Jerusalem and Yosef Garfinkel in Khirbet Qeiyafa have been interpreted as supporting the existence of the United Monarchy, but the datings and identifications are not universally accepted.Tel Dan Stele, with the word(s) \"House of David\" highlighted (9th century BCE)The Tel Dan Stele shows a historical \"House of David\" ruled a kingdom south of the lands of Samaria in the 9th century BCE, and attestations of several Judean kings from the 8th century BCE have been discovered, but they do little to indicate how developed the state actually was.",
"The Nimrud Tablet K.3751, dated c. 733 BCE, is the earliest known record of the name \"Judah\" (written in Assyrian cuneiform as Ya'uda or KUR.ia-ú-da-a-a), while an earlier reference to a Judahite envoy seems to appear in a wine list from Nimrud dated to the 780s BCE.",
"=== Jerusalem ===Stepped Stone Structure seen from the Large Stone StructureThe status of Jerusalem in the 10th century BCE is a major subject of debate.",
"The oldest part of Jerusalem and its original urban core are the City of David, which does show evidence of significant Israelite residential activity around the 10th century.",
"Some unique administrative structures such as the Stepped Stone Structure and the Large Stone Structure, which originally formed one structure, contain material culture dated to Iron I.",
"On account of the alleged lack of settlement activity in the 10th century BCE, Israel Finkelstein argues that Jerusalem was then a small country village in the Judean hills, not a national capital, and Ussishkin argues that the city was entirely uninhabited.",
"Amihai Mazar contends that if the Iron I/Iron IIa dating of administrative structures in the City of David are correct, which he believes to be the case, \"Jerusalem was a rather small town with a mighty citadel, which could have been a center of a substantial regional polity.\"",
"William G. Dever argues that Jerusalem was a small and fortified city, probably inhabited only by the royal court, priests and clerks.=== Literacy ===A collection of military orders found in the ruins of a military fortress in the Negev dating to the period of the Kingdom of Judah indicates widespread literacy, based on the inscriptions, the ability to read and write extended throughout the chain of command from commanders to petty officers.",
"According to Professor Eliezer Piasetsky, who participated in analyzing the texts, \"Literacy existed at all levels of the administrative, military and priestly systems of Judah.",
"Reading and writing were not limited to a tiny elite.\"",
"That indicates the presence of a substantial educational infrastructure in Judah at the time.=== LMLK seals ===Storage jars handles marked with LMLK seals, Hecht MuseumLMLK seals are ancient Hebrew seals stamped on the handles of large storage jars dating from reign of King Hezekiah (circa 700 BCE) discovered mostly in and around Jerusalem.",
"Several complete jars were found ''in situ'' buried under a destruction layer caused by Sennacherib at Lachish.",
"None of the original seals has been found, but some 2,000 impressions made by at least 21 seal types have been published.LMLK stands for the Hebrew letters ''lamedh mem lamedh kaph'' (vocalized, ''lamelekh''; Phoenician ''lāmed mēm lāmed kāp'' – 𐤋𐤌𐤋𐤊), which can be translated as:* \"belonging to the king\" of Judah* \"belonging to King\" (name of a person or deity)* \"belonging to the government\" of Judah* \"to be sent to the King\"=== Everyday life ===According to a 2022 study, traces of vanilla found in wine jars in Jerusalem might indicate that the local elite enjoyed wine flavored with vanilla during the 7–6th centuries BCE.",
"Until very recently, vanilla was not at all known to be available to the Old World.",
"Archeologists suggested that this discovery might be related to an international trade route that crossed the Negev during that period, probably under Assyrian and later, Egyptian rule.=== Cities ===According to Yosef Garfinkel, the fortified cities of the Kingdom of Judah during the 10th century BCE included Khirbet Qeiyafa, Tell en-Nasbeh, Khirbet ed-Dawwara, Beth Shemesh and Lachish.Tel Be'er Sheva, believed to be the site of the ancient biblical town of Beer-sheba, was the main Judahite center in the Negev during the 9th and 8th centuries BCE.=== Forts ===The Judaean Mountains and Shephelah have seen the discovery of several Judahite fortresses and towers.",
"The fortifications had a large central courtyard surrounded by casemate walls with chambers on the outside wall, and they were square or rectangular in shape.",
"Khirbet Abu et-Twein, which is situated on the Judaean Mountains between modern day Bat Ayin and Jab'a, is one of the most noteworthy fortresses from the period.",
"Great views of the Shepehla, including the Judahite towns of Azekah, Socho, Goded, Lachish, and Maresha, could be seen from this fort.In the northern Negev, Tel Arad served as a key administrative and military stronghold.",
"It protected the route from the Judaean Mountains to the Arabah and on to Moab and Edom.",
"It underwent numerous renovations and extensions.",
"There are several other Judahite forts in the Negev, including Hurvat Uza, Tel Ira, Aroer, Tel Masos, and Tel Malhata.",
"The main Judahite fortification in the Judaean Desert was found at Vered Yeriho; it protected the road from Jericho to the Dead Sea.",
"A few freestanding, elevated, isolated guard towers of the period were found around Jerusalem; towers of this type were discovered in the French Hill and south to Giloh.It is clear from the position of Judaean strongholds that one of their primary purposes was to facilitate communications via fire signals across the Kingdom, a method well-documented in the Book of Jeremiah and the Lachish letters."
],
[
"Biblical narrative",
"===Jeroboam's revolt and the partition of the United Monarchy===According to the biblical account, the United Kingdom of Israel was founded by Saul during the late-11th century BCE, and reached its peak during the rule of David and Solomon.",
"After the death of Solomon circa 930 BCE, the Israelites gathered in Shechem for the coronation of Solomon's son and successor, Rehoboam.",
"Before the coronation took place, the northern tribes, led by Jeroboam, asked the new king to reduce the heavy taxes and labor requirements that his father Solomon had imposed.",
"Rehoboam rejected their petition: “I will add to your yoke: my father hath chastised you with whips, I will chastise you with scorpions\" ().",
"As a result, ten of the tribes rebelled against Rehoboam and proclaimed Jeroboam their king, forming the northern Kingdom of Israel.",
"At first, only the tribe of Judah remained loyal to the House of David, but the tribe of Benjamin soon joined Judah.",
"Both kingdoms, Judah in the south and Israel in the north, co-existed uneasily after the split until the destruction of the Kingdom of Israel by Assyria in 722/721.=== Relations with the Kingdom of Israel ===For the first 60 years, the kings of Judah tried to re-establish their authority over Israel, and there was perpetual war between them.",
"Israel and Judah were in a state of war throughout Rehoboam's 17-year reign.",
"Rehoboam built elaborate defenses and strongholds, along with fortified cities.",
"In the fifth year of Rehoboam's reign, Shishak, pharaoh of Egypt, brought a huge army and took many cities.",
"In the sack of Jerusalem (10th century BCE), Rehoboam gave them all of the treasures out of the temple as a tribute and Judah became a vassal state of Egypt.Rehoboam's son and successor, Abijah of Judah, continued his father's efforts to bring Israel under his control.",
"He fought the Battle of Mount Zemaraim against Jeroboam of Israel and was victorious with a heavy loss of life on the Israel side.",
"According to the Books of Chronicles, Abijah and his people defeated them with a great slaughter, so that 500,000 chosen men of Israel fell slain, and Jeroboam posed little threat to Judah for the rest of his reign, and the border of the tribe of Benjamin was restored to the original tribal border.Abijah's son and successor, Asa of Judah, maintained peace for the first 35 years of his reign, and he revamped and reinforced the fortresses originally built by his grandfather, Rehoboam.",
"2 Chronicles states that at the Battle of Zephath, the Egyptian-backed chieftain Zerah the Ethiopian and his million men and 300 chariots were defeated by Asa's 580,000 men in the Valley of Zephath near Maresha.",
"The Bible does not state whether Zerah was a pharaoh or a general of the army.",
"The Ethiopians were pursued all the way to Gerar, in the coastal plain, where they stopped out of sheer exhaustion.",
"The resulting peace kept Judah free from Egyptian incursions until the time of Josiah, some centuries later.Palestine from 720 BC to the exile of Judah.In his 36th year, Asa was confronted by Baasha of Israel, who built a fortress at Ramah on the border, less than ten miles from Jerusalem.",
"The capital became under pressure, and the military situation was precarious.",
"Asa took gold and silver from the Temple and sent them to Ben-Hadad I, the king of Aram-Damascus, in exchange for the Damascene king cancelling his peace treaty with Baasha.",
"Ben-Hadad attacked Ijon, Dan and many important cities of the tribe of Naphtali, and Baasha was forced to withdraw from Ramah.",
"Asa tore down the unfinished fortress and used its raw materials to fortify Geba and Mizpah in Benjamin on his side of the border.Asa's successor, Jehoshaphat, changed the policy towards Israel and instead pursued alliances and co-operation with the northern kingdom.",
"The alliance with Ahab was based on marriage.",
"The alliance led to disaster for the kingdom with the Battle of Ramoth-Gilead.",
"He then entered into an alliance with Ahaziah of Israel for the purpose of carrying on maritime commerce with Ophir.",
"However, the fleet that was then equipped at Ezion-Geber was immediately wrecked.",
"A new fleet was fitted out without the co-operation of the king of Israel.",
"Although it was successful, the trade was not prosecuted.",
"He joined Jehoram of Israel in a war against the Moabites, who were under tribute to Israel.",
"This war was successful, and the Moabites were subdued.",
"However, on seeing Mesha's act of offering his own son in a human sacrifice on the walls of Kir-haresheth filled Jehoshaphat with horror, and he withdrew and returned to his own land.Jehoshaphat's successor, Jehoram of Judah, formed an alliance with Israel by marrying Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab.",
"Despite the alliance with the stronger northern kingdom, Jehoram's rule of Judah was shaky.",
"Edom revolted, and he was forced to acknowledge its independence.",
"A raid by Philistines, Arabs and Ethiopians looted the king's house and carried off all of his family except for his youngest son, Ahaziah of Judah.=== Clash of empires ===\"To Hezekiah, son of Ahaz, king of Judah\" – royal seal found at the Ophel excavations in JerusalemAfter Hezekiah became the sole ruler in c. 715 BCE, he formed alliances with Ashkelon and Egypt and made a stand against Assyria by refusing to pay tribute.",
"In response, Sennacherib of Assyria attacked the fortified cities of Judah.",
"Hezekiah paid three hundred talents of silver and thirty talents of gold to Assyria, which required him to empty the temple and royal treasury of silver and strip the gold from the doorposts of Solomon's Temple.",
"However, Sennacherib besieged Jerusalem in 701 BCE though the city was never taken.Broad Wall, built during the reign of king Hezekiah (late-8th century BCE)During the long reign of Manasseh (c. 687/686 – 643/642 BCE), Judah was a vassal of Assyrian rulers: Sennacherib and his successors, Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal after 669 BCE.",
"Manasseh is listed as being required to provide materials for Esarhaddon's building projects and as one of a number of vassals who assisted Ashurbanipal's campaign against Egypt.Siloam inscription found in the Siloam tunnel, JerusalemThe Assyrian Lachish reliefs, depicting the capture of Lachish (c. 701 BCE).",
"Assyrian soldiers carry off booty from the city, and Judean prisoners are taken into exile with their goods and animals.",
"When Josiah became king of Judah in c. 641/640 BCE, the international situation was in flux.",
"To the east, the Neo-Assyrian Empire was beginning to disintegrate, the Neo-Babylonian Empire had not yet risen to replace it and Egypt to the west was still recovering from Assyrian rule.",
"In the power vacuum, Judah could govern itself for the time being without foreign intervention.",
"However, in the spring of 609 BCE, Pharaoh Necho II personally led a sizable army up to the Euphrates to aid the Assyrians.",
"Taking the coastal route into Syria at the head of a large army, Necho passed the low tracts of Philistia and Sharon.",
"However, the passage over the ridge of hills, which shuts in on the south the great Jezreel Valley, was blocked by the Judean army, led by Josiah, who may have considered that the Assyrians and the Egyptians were weakened by the death of Pharaoh Psamtik I only a year earlier (610 BCE).",
"Presumably in an attempt to help the Babylonians, Josiah attempted to block the advance at Megiddo, where a fierce battle was fought and Josiah was killed.",
"Necho then joined forces with the Assyrian Ashur-uballit II, and they crossed the Euphrates and lay siege to Harran.",
"The combined forces failed to hold the city after capturing it temporarily, and Necho retreated back to northern Syria.",
"The event also marked the disintegration of the Assyrian Empire.On his return march to Egypt in 608 BCE, Necho found that Jehoahaz had been selected to succeed his father, Josiah.",
"Necho deposed Jehoahaz, who had been king for only three months, and replaced him with his older brother, Jehoiakim.",
"Necho imposed on Judah a levy of a hundred talents of silver (about 3 tons or about 3.4 metric tons) and a talent of gold (about ).",
"Necho then took Jehoahaz back to Egypt as his prisoner, never to return.Jehoiakim ruled originally as a vassal of the Egyptians by paying a heavy tribute.",
"However, when the Egyptians were defeated by the Babylonians at Carchemish in 605 BCE, Jehoiakim changed allegiances to pay tribute to Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon.",
"In 601 BCE, in the fourth year of his reign, Nebuchadnezzar attempted to invade Egypt but was repulsed with heavy losses.",
"The failure led to numerous rebellions among the states of the Levant that owed allegiance to Babylon.",
"Jehoiakim also stopped paying tribute to Nebuchadnezzar and took a pro-Egyptian position.",
"Nebuchadnezzar soon dealt with the rebellions.",
"According to the Babylonian Chronicles, after invading \"the land of Hatti (Syria/Palestine)\" in 599 BCE, he laid siege to Jerusalem.",
"Jehoiakim died in 598 BCE during the siege and was succeeded by his son Jeconiah at an age of either eight or eighteen.",
"The city fell about three months later, on 2 Adar (March 16) 597 BCE.",
"Nebuchadnezzar pillaged both Jerusalem and the Temple and carted all of his spoils to Babylon.",
"Jeconiah and his court and other prominent citizens and craftsmen, along with a sizable portion of the Jewish population of Judah, numbering about 10,000 were deported from the land and dispersed throughout the Babylonian Empire.",
"Among them was Ezekiel.",
"Nebuchadnezzar appointed Zedekiah, Jehoiakim's brother, the king of the reduced kingdom, who was made a tributary of Babylon.=== Destruction and dispersion ===''The Flight of the Prisoners'' (1896) by James Tissot; the exile of the Jews from Jerusalem to BabylonDespite the strong remonstrances of Jeremiah and others, Zedekiah revolted against Nebuchadnezzar by ceasing to pay tribute to him and entered an alliance with Pharaoh Hophra.",
"In 589 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar II returned to Judah and again besieged Jerusalem.",
"Many Jews fled to surrounding Moab, Ammon, Edom and other countries to seek refuge.",
"The city fell after a siege, which lasted either eighteen or thirty months, and Nebuchadnezzar again pillaged both Jerusalem and the Temple and then destroyed both.",
"After killing all of Zedekiah's sons, Nebuchadnezzar took Zedekiah to Babylon and so put an end to the independent Kingdom of Judah.",
"According to the Book of Jeremiah, in addition to those killed during the siege, some 4,600 people were deported after the fall of Judah.",
"By 586 BCE, much of Judah had been devastated, and the former kingdom had suffered a steep decline of both its economy and its population."
],
[
"Aftermath",
"===Babylonian Yehud===Jerusalem apparently remained uninhabited for much of the 6th century, and the centre of gravity shifted to Benjamin, the relatively unscathed northern section of the kingdom, where the town of Mizpah became the capital of the new Babylonian province of Yehud for the remnant of the Jewish population in a part of the former kingdom.",
"That was standard Babylonian practice.",
"When the Philistine city of Ashkelon was conquered in 604 BCE, the political, religious and economic elite (but not the bulk of the population) was banished and the administrative centre shifted to a new location.Gedaliah was appointed governor of the Yehud province, supported by a Babylonian guard.",
"The administrative centre of the province was Mizpah in Benjamin, not Jerusalem.",
"On hearing of the appointment, many of the Judeans who had taken refuge in surrounding countries were persuaded to return to Judah.",
"However, Gedaliah was soon assassinated by a member of the royal house, and the Chaldean soldiers killed.",
"The population that was left in the land and those who had returned fled to Egypt for fear a Babylonian reprisal, under the leadership of Yohanan ben Kareah.",
"They ignored the urging of the prophet Jeremiah against the move.",
"In Egypt, the refugees settled in Migdol, Tahpanhes, Noph and Pathros, and Jeremiah went with them as a moral guardian.===Exile of elites to Babylon===The numbers that were deported to Babylon and that made their way to Egypt and the remnant that remained in the land and in surrounding countries are subject to academic debate.",
"The Book of Jeremiah reports that 4,600 were exiled to Babylonia.",
"The Books of Kings suggest that it was 10,000 and later 8,000.===Yehud under Persian rule===In 539 BCE, the Achaemenid Empire conquered Babylonia and allowed the exiles to return to Yehud Medinata and to rebuild the Temple, which was completed in the sixth year of Darius (515 BCE) under Zerubbabel, the grandson of the second to last king of Judah, Jeconiah.",
"Yehud Medinata was a peaceful part of the Achaemenid Empire until its fall in c. 333 BCE to Alexander the Great."
],
[
"Religion",
"The major theme of the Hebrew Bible's narrative is the loyalty of Judah, especially its kings, to Yahweh, which it states is the God of Israel.",
"Accordingly, all of the kings of Israel (except to some extent Jehu) and many of the kings of Judah were \"bad\" in terms of the biblical narrative by failing to enforce monotheism.",
"Of the \"good\" kings, Hezekiah (727–698 BCE) is noted for his efforts at stamping out idolatry (in his case, the worship of Baal and Asherah, among other traditional Near Eastern divinities), but his successors, Manasseh of Judah (698–642 BCE) and Amon (642–640 BCE), revived idolatry, which drew down on the kingdom the anger of Yahweh.",
"King Josiah (640–609 BCE) returned to the worship of Yahweh alone, but his efforts were too late, and Israel's unfaithfulness caused God to permit the kingdom's destruction by the Neo-Babylonian Empire in the Siege of Jerusalem (587/586 BCE).It is now widely agreed among academic scholars that the Books of Kings are not an accurate portrayal of religious attitudes in Judah or Israel of the time.Evidence of cannabis residues has been found on two altars in Tel Arad dating to the 8th century BC.",
"Researchers believe that cannabis may have been used for ritualistic psychoactive purposes in Judah."
],
[
"See also",
"* Kings of Judah* List of artifacts in biblical archaeology* List of Jewish states and dynasties* United Kingdom of Israel, the kingdom before the split* Kingdom of Israel, the Northern Kingdom* Israel, the modern country"
],
[
"References",
"===Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Kingdom of Israel''' (), or the '''Kingdom of Samaria''', was an Israelite kingdom in the Southern Levant during the Iron Age, whose beginnings can be dated back to the first half of the 10th century BCE.",
"The kingdom controlled the areas of Samaria, Galilee and parts of Transjordan.",
"The regions of Samaria and Galilee underwent a period with large number of settlements during the 10th century BCE, with the capital in Shechem, and then in Tirzah.",
"The kingdom was ruled by the Omride dynasty in the 9th century BCE, whose political center was the city of Samaria.",
"The Hebrew Bible depicts the Kingdom of Israel, also known as the Kingdom of Samaria, as one of two successor states to the United Kingdom of Israel ruled by King David and his son Solomon, the other being the Kingdom of Judah to the south.",
"Many historians and archaeologists, however, do not believe in the existence of a United Kingdom as depicted in the Bible.",
"The Kingdom of Israel was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire around 720 BCE.",
"The records of Sargon II of Assyria indicate that he deported 27,290 Israelites – around one fifth of the population of the Kingdom of Israel – to Mesopotamia; this deportation became the basis for the Jewish idea of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel.",
"Some Israelites migrated to the southern kingdom of Judah, while those Israelites that remained in Samaria, concentrated mainly around Mount Gerizim, came to be known as Samaritans.",
"Foreign groups were also settled by the Assyrians in the territories of the conquered kingdom."
],
[
"History",
"Ruins of the Omride palace in Samaria, capital of the Kingdom of IsraelAccording to Israel Finkelstein, Shoshenq I's campaign in the second half of the 10th century BCE collapsed the early polity of Gibeon in central highlands, and made possible the beginning of the Northern Kingdom, with its capital at Shechem, around 931 BCE.",
"Israel consolidated as a kingdom in the first half of 9th century BCE, with its capital at Tirzah first, and next at the city of Samaria since 880 BCE.",
"The existence of this Israelite state in the north is documented in 9th century inscriptions.",
"The earliest mention is from the Kurkh stela of c.853 BCE, when Shalmaneser III mentions \"Ahab the Israelite\", plus the denominative for \"land\", and his ten thousand troops.",
"This kingdom would have included parts of the lowlands (the Shephelah), the Jezreel plain, lower Galilee and parts of the Transjordan.Ahab's forces were part of an anti-Assyrian coalition, implying that the kingdom was ruled by an urban elite, possessed a royal and state cult with large urban temples, and had scribes, mercenaries, and an administrative apparatus.",
"In all this, it was similar to other recently-founded kingdoms of the time, such as Ammon and Moab.",
"Samaria is one of the most universally accepted archaeological sites from the biblical period.",
"In around 840 BCE, the Mesha Stele records the victory, which happened years before, of the Kingdom of Moab (in today's Jordan), under King Mesha, over the Kingdom of Israel, under king Omri and his son Ahab.Archaeological finds, ancient Near Eastern texts, and the biblical record testify that in the time of the Omride dynasty, the Kingdom of Israel ruled in the mountainous Galilee, at Hazor in the upper Jordan Valley, in large parts of Transjordan between the Arnon and the Yarmouk Rivers, and in the coastal plain of the Sharon.In Assyrian inscriptions, the Kingdom of Israel is referred to as the \"House of Omri\".",
"Shalmanesser III's \"Black Obelisk\" mentions Jehu, son of Omri.",
"King of Assyria Adad-Nirari III did an expedition into the Levant around 803 BCE mentioned in the Nimrud slab, which comments he went to \"the Hatti and Amurru lands, Tyre, Sidon, the ''mat'' of Hu-um-ri (land of Omri), Edom, Philistia and Aram (not Judah).\"",
"Rimah Stele, from the same king introduces a third way of talking about the kingdom, as Samaria, in the phrase \"Joash of Samaria\".",
"The use of Omri's name to refer to the kingdom still survived, and was used by Sargon II in the phrase \"the whole house of Omri\" in describing his conquest of the city of Samaria in 722 BCE.",
"It is significant that the Assyrians never mention the Kingdom of Judah until the end of the 8th century, when it was an Assyrian vassal: possibly they never had contact with it, or possibly they regarded it as a vassal of Israel/Samaria or Aram, or possibly the southern kingdom did not exist during this period."
],
[
"In the Bible",
"The Northern Kingdom at its greatest extent, under Jeroboam II, per 2 Kings 14.One traditional source for the history of the Kingdom of Israel has been the Jewish Bible, written by authors in Jerusalem, the capital of the Kingdom of Judah; being written by a rival kingdom, it is inspired by ideological and theological viewpoints that influence the narrative.",
"Anachronisms, legends and literary forms also affect the story.",
"Some of the events are believed to have been recorded long after the destruction of the kingdom of Israel.",
"Biblical archaeology has both confirmed and challenged parts of the biblical account.",
"According to the Jewish Bible, there existed a United Kingdom of Israel (the United Monarchy), ruled from Jerusalem by David and his son Solomon, after whose death Israel and Judah separated into two kingdoms.",
"The first mention of the name ''Israel'' is from an Egyptian inscription, the Merneptah Stele, dating from the Late Bronze Age (c. 1208 BCE); this gives little solid information, but indicates that the name of the later kingdom was borrowed rather than originating with the kingdom itself.",
"===Relations between the kingdoms of Israel and Judah===According to the Hebrew Bible, for the first sixty years after the split, the kings of Judah tried to re-establish their authority over the northern kingdom, and there was perpetual war between them.",
"For the following eighty years, there was no open war between them, as, for the most part, Judah had engaged in a military alliance with Aram-Damascus, opening a northern front against Israel.",
"The conflict between Israel and Judah was temporarily settled when Jehoshaphat, King of Judah, allied himself with the reigning house of Israel, Ahab, through marriage.",
"Later, Jehosophat's son and successor, Jehoram of Judah, married Ahab's daughter Athaliah, cementing the alliance.",
"However, the sons of Ahab were slaughtered by Jehu following his coup d'état around 840 BCE.===From Hazael to Jeroboam II===After being defeated by Hazael, Israel began a period of progressive recovery following the campaigns against Aram-Damascus of Adad-nirari III.",
"This ultimately led to a period of major territorial expansion under Jeroboam II, who extended the kingdom's possessions throughout the Northern Transjordan.",
"Following Jeroboam II's death, the Kingdom experienced a period of decline as a result of sectional rivalries and struggles for the throne.=== Destruction of the Kingdom, 732–720 BCE ===Jehu's delegation to Shalmaneser III, Black Obelisk, 841–840 BCE.In c. 732 BCE, king Pekah of Israel, while allied with Rezin, king of Aram, threatened Jerusalem.",
"Ahaz, king of Judah, appealed to Tiglath-Pileser III, the king of Assyria, for help.",
"After Ahaz paid tribute to Tiglath-Pileser, Tiglath-Pileser sacked Damascus and Israel, annexing Aram and territory of the tribes of Reuben, Gad and Manasseh in Gilead including the desert outposts of Jetur, Naphish and Nodab.",
"People from these tribes, including the Reubenite leader, were taken captive and resettled in the region of the Khabur River system, in Halah, Habor, Hara and Gozan ().",
"Tiglath-Pilesar also captured the territory of Naphtali and the city of Janoah in Ephraim, and an Assyrian governor was placed over the region of Naphtali.",
"According to and , the population of Aram and the annexed part of Israel was deported to Assyria.The tribute of Northern Kingdom King \"Jehu of the people of the land of Omri\" () as depicted on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, 841–840 BCE.",
"This is \"the only portrayal we have in ancient Near Eastern art of an Israelite or Judaean monarch\".The remainder of the northern kingdom of Israel continued to exist within the reduced territory as an independent kingdom until around 720 BCE, when it was again invaded by Assyria and the rest of the population deported.",
"During the three-year siege of Samaria in the territory of Ephraim by the Assyrians, Shalmaneser V died and was succeeded by Sargon II, who himself records the capture of that city thus: \"Samaria I looked at, I captured; 27,280 men who dwelt in it I carried away\" into Assyria.",
"Thus, around 720 BCE, after two centuries, the kingdom of the ten tribes came to an end.",
"Some of the Israelite captives were resettled in the Khabur region, and the rest in the land of the Medes, thus establishing Hebrew communities in Ecbatana and Rages.",
"The Book of Tobit additionally records that Sargon had taken other captives from the northern kingdom to the Assyrian capital of Nineveh, in particular Tobit from the town of Thisbe in Naphtali.The Jewish Bible relates that the population of the Kingdom of Israel was exiled, becoming known as the Ten Lost Tribes.",
"To the south, the Tribe of Judah, the Tribe of Simeon (that was \"absorbed\" into Judah), the Tribe of Benjamin and the people of the Tribe of Levi, who lived among them of the original Israelite nation, remained in the southern Kingdom of Judah.",
"The Kingdom of Judah continued to exist as an independent state until 586 BCE, when it was conquered by the Neo-Babylonian Empire.====Samaritan version====Samaritan tradition states that much of the population of the Northern Kingdom of Israel remained in place after the Exile, including the Tribes of Naphtali, Menasseh, Benjamin and Levi – being the progenitors of the modern Samaritans.",
"In their book ''The Bible Unearthed'', Israeli authors Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman estimate that only a fifth (about 40,000) of the population of the northern Kingdom of Israel were actually resettled out of the area during the two deportation periods under Tiglath-Pileser III and Sargon II.",
"Many of the Northern Tribes also fled south to the Kingdom of Judah; Jerusalem seems to have expanded in size five-fold during this period, requiring a new wall to be built, and a new source of water Siloam to be provided by King Hezekiah.====Recorded history====Part of the gift-bearing Israelite delegation of King Jehu, Black Obelisk, 841–840 BCE.In their book ''The Bible Unearthed'', Israeli authors Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman estimate that only a fifth (about 40,000) of the population of the northern Kingdom of Israel were actually resettled out of the area during the two deportation periods under Tiglath-Pileser III and Sargon II.",
"No known non-Biblical record exists of the Assyrians having exiled people from four of the tribes of Israel: Dan, Asher, Issachar, Zebulun.",
"Descriptions of the deportation of people from Reuben, Gad, Manasseh, Ephraim and Naphtali indicate that only a portion of these tribes were deported, and the places to which they were deported are known locations given in the accounts.",
"The deported communities are mentioned as still existing at the time of the composition of the Books of Kings and Chronicles and did not disappear by assimilation.",
"2 Chronicles 30:1–18 explicitly mentions northern Israelites who had been spared by the Assyrians, in particular people of Ephraim, Manasseh, Asher, Issachar and Zebulun, and how members of the latter three returned to worship at the Temple in Jerusalem during the reign of Hezekiah.Deportation of the Northern Kingdom by the Assyrian Empire===Religion===The religious climate of the Kingdom of Israel appears to have followed two major trends.",
"The first was the worship of Yahweh; the religion of ancient Israel is sometimes referred to by modern scholars as Yahwism.",
"The Hebrew Bible, however, states that some of the northern Israelites also adored Baal (see and the Baal cycle discovered at Ugarit).",
"The reference in Hosea 10 to Israel's \"divided heart\" may refer to these two cultic observances, although alternatively it may refer to hesitation between looking to Assyria and Egypt for support.The Jewish Bible also states that Ahab allowed the cult worship of Baal to become acceptable of the kingdom.",
"His wife Jezebel was the daughter of the Phoenician king of Tyre and a devotee to Baal worship ().===Royal houses===According to the Bible, the Northern Kingdom had 19 kings across 9 different dynasties throughout its 208 years of existence.The genealogy of the kings of the United Kingdom of Israel and Judea, the Kingdom of Israel and the kings of the Kingdom of Judah.",
"Most historians follow either of the older chronologies established by William F. Albright or Edwin R. Thiele, or the newer chronologies of Gershon Galil and Kenneth Kitchen, all of which are shown below.",
"All dates are BC/BCE."
],
[
"List of proposed Assyrian references to Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)",
"The table below lists all the historical references to the Kingdom of Israel (Samaria) in Assyrian records.",
"King Omri's name takes the Assyrian shape of \"Humri\", his kingdom or dynasty that of Bit Humri or alike—the \"House of Humri/Omri\".",
"Assyrian King Inscription Year Transliteration Translation Shalmaneser III Kurkh Monoliths 853 BCE KUR sir-'i-la-a-a \"Israel\" Shalmaneser III Black Obelisk, Calah Fragment, Kurba'il Stone, Ashur Stone 841 BCE mar Hu-um-ri-i \"of Omri\" Adad-nirari III Tell al-Rimah Stela 803 BCE KUR Sa-me-ri-na-a-a \"land of Samaria\" Adad-nirari III Nimrud Slab 803 BCE KUR -Hu-um-ri-i \"the 'land of the House of Omri\" Tiglath-Pileser III Layard 45b+ III R 9,1 740 BCE KUR sa-me-ri-i-na-a-a \"land of Samaria\" Tiglath-Pileser III Iran Stela 739–738 BCE KUR sa-me-ri-i-na-a-a \"land of Samaria\" Tiglath-Pileser III Layard 50a + 50b + 67a 738–737 BCE URU sa-me-ri-na-a-a \"city of Samaria\" Tiglath-Pileser III Layard 66 732–731 BCE URU Sa-me-ri-na \"city of Samaria\" Tiglath-Pileser III III R 10,2 731 BCE KUR E Hu-um-ri-a \"land of the House of Omri\" Tiglath-Pileser III ND 4301 + 4305 730 BCE KUR E Hu-um-ri-a \"land of the House of Omri\" Shalmaneser V Babylonian Chronicle ABC1 725 BCE URU Sa-ma/ba-ra-'-in \"city of Samaria\" Sargon II Nimrud Prism, Great Summary Inscription 720 BCE URU Sa-me-ri-na \"city of Samaria\" Sargon II Palace Door, Small Summary Inscription, Cylinder Inscription, Bull Inscription 720 BCE KUR Bit-Hu-um-ri-a \"land of Omri\""
],
[
"References",
"=== Notes ====== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* About Israel - The Information Center About Israel* The Jewish History Resource Center Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem* Complete Bible Genealogy A synchronized chart of the kings of Israel and Judah"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Elah"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Elah''' may refer to:* Elah (Edom), the name of an Edomite clan* Elah, a name of God in Judaism* Elah, the father of Hoshea, the last king of the Israelite Kingdom of Israel * King Elah, the fourth king of Israel* Valley of Elah, where the biblical David fought Goliath* Elah, Hebrew word for \"terebinth\"* Elah Terrell, an American architect"
],
[
"See also",
"* Allah, the Arabic word for God * El (disambiguation)* Elahi (disambiguation)* Illah (disambiguation)*''In the Valley of Elah'', a 2007 film"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Calligra Words"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Calligra Words''' is a word processor, which is part of Calligra Suite and developed by KDE as free software."
],
[
"History",
"When the Calligra Suite was formed, unlike the other Calligra applications Words was not a continuation of the corresponding KOffice application – KWord.",
"The Words was largely written from scratch – in May 2011 a completely new layout engine was announced.",
"The first release was made available on , using the version number 2.4 to match the rest of Calligra Suite."
],
[
"Reception",
"Initial reception of Calligra Words shortly after the 2.4 release was mixed.",
"While Linux Pro Magazine Online's Bruce Byfield wrote “Calligra needed an impressive first release.",
"Perhaps surprisingly, and to the development team’s credit, it has managed one in 2.4.”, he also noted that “Words in particular is still lacking features”.",
"He concluded that Calligra is “worth keeping an eye on”.On the other hand, Calligra Words became the default word processor in Kubuntu 12.04 – replacing LibreOffice Writer."
],
[
"Formula editor",
"Formulas in Calligra Words are provided by the '''Formula''' plugin.",
"It is a formula editor with a WYSIWYG interface."
],
[
"See also",
"* List of word processors* Comparison of word processors"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kenneth Lee Pike"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kenneth Lee Pike''' (June 9, 1912 – December 31, 2000) was an American linguist and anthropologist.",
"He was the originator of the theory of tagmemics, the coiner of the terms \"emic\" and \"etic\" and the developer of the constructed language Kalaba-X for use in teaching the theory and practice of translation.In addition, he was the First President of the Bible-translating organization Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL), with which he was associated from 1935 until his death."
],
[
"Life",
"Pike was born in Woodstock, Connecticut, and studied theology at Gordon College, graduating with a B.A.",
"in 1933.He initially wanted to do missionary work in China.",
"When this was denied him, he studied linguistics with the Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL).",
"He went to Mexico with SIL, learning Mixtec from native speakers there in 1935.In 1937 Pike went to the University of Michigan, where he worked for his doctorate in linguistics under Charles C. Fries.",
"His research involved living among the Mixtecs and developing a written system for the Mixtec language with his wife, Evelyn.",
"After receiving his Ph.D. in 1942, Pike became the First President of the Summer Institute in Linguistics.",
"Its main function was to produce translations of the Bible in unwritten languages, and in 1951 Pike published the ''Mixtec New Testament''.",
"He was the President of SIL International from 1942 to 1979.As well as and in parallel with his role at SIL, Pike spent thirty years at the University of Michigan, during which time he served as chairman of its linguistics department, professor of linguistics, and director of its English Language Institute (he did pioneering work in the field of English language learning and teaching)and was later Professor Emeritus of the university."
],
[
"Work",
"Pike is best known for his distinction between the ''emic'' and the ''etic''.",
"\"Emic\" (as in \"phonemics\") refers to the role of cultural and linguistic categories as understood from within the cultural or linguistic system that they are a part of, while \"etic\" (as in \"phonetics\") refers to the analytical study of those sounds grounded outside of the system itself.",
"Pike argued that only native speakers are competent judges of emic descriptions, and are thus crucial in providing data for linguistic research, while investigators from outside the linguistic group apply scientific methods in the analysis of language, producing etic descriptions which are verifiable and reproducible.",
"Pike himself carried out studies of indigenous languages in Australia, Bolivia, Ecuador, Ghana, Java, Mexico, Nepal, New Guinea, Nigeria, the Philippines, and Peru.Pike developed his theory of ''tagmemics'' to help with the analysis of languages from Central and South America, by identifying (using both semantic and syntactic elements) strings of linguistic elements capable of playing a number of different roles.Pike's approach to the study of language put him outside the circle of the \"generative\" movement begun by Noam Chomsky, a dominant linguist in the 20th century, since Pike believed that the structure of language should be studied in context, not just as single sentences, as seen in the title of his magnum opus, ''Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Behavior'' (1967).He became well known for his \"monolingual demonstrations.\"",
"He would stand before an audience, with a large number of chalkboards.",
"A speaker of a language unknown to him would be brought in to work with Pike.",
"Using gestures and objects, not asking questions in a language that the person might know, Pike would begin to analyze the language before the audience."
],
[
"Honors",
"Pike was a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the Linguistic Society of America (LSA), the Linguistic Association of Canada and the United States (LACUS), and the American Anthropological Association.",
"He served as president of LSA and LACUS and later was nominated for the Templeton Prize three years in a row.When he was named to the Charles Carpenter Fries Professorship of Linguistics at the University of Michigan in 1974, the Dean's citation noted that \"his lifelong originality and energetic activity verge on the legendary.\"",
"Pike was awarded honorary degrees by a number of institutions, including Huntington College, University of Chicago, Georgetown University, L'Université Réné Descartes (Sorbonne), and Albert-Ludwig Universität.",
"Though the Nobel Prize committee did not publicize nominations, in 1983 US Senator Alan J. Dixon and US Congressman Paul Simon announced that they had nominated Pike for the Nobel Peace Prize.",
"Academic sponsors for his nomination included Charles F. Hockett, Sydney Lamb (Rice University), Gordon J. van Wylen (Hope College), Frank H. T. Rhodes (Cornell University), André Martinet (Sorbonne), David C.C.",
"Li (National Taiwan Normal University), and Ming Liu (Chinese University of Hong Kong)."
],
[
"Bibliography",
"*See Complete list of Pike's publications (over 250)*1943: ''Phonetics, a Critical Analysis of Phonetic Theory and a Technique for the Practical Description of Sounds'' (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press)*1967: *1970: ''Rhetoric: Discovery and Change'', with Richard E. Young and Alton L. Becker (New York: Harcourt, Brace, & World)"
],
[
"See also",
"**Wycliffe Global Alliance"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*Brend, Ruth M.",
"1987.",
"''Kenneth Lee Pike Bibliography''.",
"Bloomington, IN: Eurasian Linguistics Association.",
"*Emily A. Denning, \"Kenneth L. Pike\", in ''Encyclopedia of Anthropology'' ed.",
"H. James Birx (2006, SAGE Publications; )*Headland, Thomas N.",
"2001.",
"\"Kenneth Lee Pike (1912-2000).\"",
"American Anthropologist 103(2): 505–509.",
"*Hildebrandt, Martha.",
"2003.",
"\"A Portrait of Kenneth L. Pike,\" in ''Language and Life: Essays in Memory of Kenneth L. Pike''.",
"(eds.)",
"Mary Ruth Wise, Thomas N. Headland, and Ruth M. Brend.",
"Arlington: University of Texas at Arlington, pp. 3–10.",
"*Pike, Eunice V.",
"1981.",
"''Ken Pike: Scholar and Christian''.",
"Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics.",
"*Makkai, Adam.",
"''Languages for Peace: Tribute to Kenneth L. Pike''.",
"1985.Lake Bluff, IL: Jupiter Press.",
"*Wise, Mary Ruth, Thomas N. Headland, and Ruth M. Brend, (eds.)",
"2003.",
"''Language and Life: Essays in Memory of Kenneth L. Pike''.",
"Arlington: University of Texas at Arlington."
],
[
"External links",
"* www.sil.org/klp/ Biographical profile at SIL, with autobiographical essays by Pike* Detailed chronology of Pike's life at SIL * Langmaker profile of Kalaba-X* Thomas N. Headland, \"Kenneth Lee Pike\", Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences (2004)*Language By Gesture, a televised 1966 example of one of Pike's \"monolingual demonstrations\" * The Nature of Field Work in a Monolingual Setting, article that describes his method* Pike's ''Phonetics'' at Archive.org*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Key"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Key''', '''Keys''', '''The Key''' ot '''The Keys''' may refer to:"
],
[
"Common uses",
"* Key (cryptography), a piece of information needed to encode or decode a message* Key (instrument), a component of a musical instrument* Key (lock), a device used to operate a lock * Key (map), a guide to a map's symbology* Key (music), the scale of a piece of music* Key on a typewriter or computer keyboard"
],
[
"Arts, entertainment and media",
"===Films===* ''The Key'' (1934 film), an American pre-Code film * ''The Key'' (1958 film), starring William Holden and Sophia Loren* ''The Key'', also known as ''Odd Obsession'', a 1959 Japanese comedy drama* ''The Key'' (1961 film), a Soviet animated feature* ''The Key'' (1965 film), a Croatian omnibus film* ''The Key'' (1971 film), a Czechoslovakian drama* ''The Key'' (1983 film), an Italian erotic film * ''The Key'' (1987 film), an Iranian film * ''The Key'' (2007 film), a French thriller film* ''Key'' (film), a 2011 Telugu-language psychological thriller* ''The Key'' (2014 film), an American erotic drama film===Literature===* ''The Key'' (Curley novel), by Marianne Curley, 2005* ''The Key'' (Elfgren and Strandberg novel), by Mats Strandberg and Sara Bergmark Elfgren, 2013* ''The Key'' (Tanizaki novel), by Jun'ichirō Tanizaki, 1956* \"The Key\" (short story), by Isaac Asimov, 1966* ''The Key: A Startling Enquiry into the Riddle of Man's Past'', a 1969 book by John Philip Cohane* ''The Key'', a magazine published by Kappa Kappa Gamma* \"The Key\", a short story by Satyajit Ray* ''The Keys'' (journal), of the League of Coloured Peoples founded in 1933===Music=======Bands====* The Keys (English band), 1979–1983* The Keys, a Welsh band successor to Murry the Hump====Albums====* ''Key'' (Meredith Monk album), 1971* ''Key'' (Son, Ambulance album), 2004* ''The Key'' (Joan Armatrading album), 1983* ''The Key'' (Vince Gill album), 1998* ''The Key'' (Nocturnus album), 1990* ''The Key'' (Operation: Mindcrime album), 2015* ''Keys'' (album), by Alicia Keys, 2021* ''The Keys'' (EP), by GWSN, 2020====Songs====* \"The Key\" (Speech Debelle song), 2009* \"The Key\" (Matt Goss song), 1995* \"The Key\", a song by Ou Est Le Swimming Pool from the 2010 album ''The Golden Year''* \"Key\", a song by Band-Maid from the 2014 album ''Maid in Japan''* \"The Key\", a 2010 song by Edita Abdieski* \"Key\", a song by C418 from the 2011 album ''Minecraft – Volume Alpha'' * \"Key\", a song by Porter Robinson from the 2017 EP ''Virtual Self'' ===Television===* \"The Key\", a ''Code Lyoko'' episode, 2005* \"The Key\" (''Fear the Walking Dead''), 2020* \"The Key\", an episode of ''Prison Break'' (season 1), 2006* \"The Key\" (''The Walking Dead''), 2018* \"The Key\", an episode of ''Yes, Prime Minister'', 1986* \"The Keys\" (''Seinfeld''), a 1992 TV episode===Other uses in arts, entertainment and media===* Key (character), a supervillain in the DC Comics universe* Key, the title character of ''Key the Metal Idol'', a Japanese original video animation series* ''The Key'', a painting by Jackson Pollock"
],
[
"People",
"* Key (surname), including a list of people with the surname* Keys (surname), including a list of people with the surname* Key (entertainer) (born 1991), South Korean entertainer"
],
[
"Places",
"* Cay, or key, a small island on the surface of a coral reef**Key Cay, British Virgin Islands=== United States ===* Key, Alabama* Key, Ohio* Key, West Virginia* Keys, Oklahoma* Florida Keys===Elsewhere===* The Keys, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada* Rural Municipality of Keys No.",
"303, Saskatchewan, Canada* Key, Iran, a village in Isfahan Province, Iran* Key Island, Tasmania, Australia* The Key, New Zealand, a locality of Mararoa, New Zealand"
],
[
"Science and technology",
"* Candidate key, or simply a key, in relational database management systems** Unique key* Key (engineering), a machine element used to connect a rotating machine element to a shaft* KeY, a tool is used in formal verification of Java programs* The Key (smartcard), a British smartcard for public transport ticketing* .key, file extension used by Keynote presentation software* Identification key, used to identify biological entities* Telegraph key, or Morse key, a specialized electrical switch"
],
[
"Sports",
"* Key (basketball), a marked area on a basketball court* Frederick Keys, an American baseball team"
],
[
"Other uses",
"* Key (company), a Japanese visual novel studio* Key Airlines, an American former airline* Key School, in Annapolis, Maryland, U.S.* Keys, a truce term used in western Scotland* Amazon Key, a service by Amazon Prime* House of Keys, the lower branch of the parliament of the Isle of Man* Samara (fruit), or key, a type of fruit* Yeoman Warders Club in the Tower of London, or \"The Keys\""
],
[
"See also",
"* * * Keay, a surname* Keays, a surname* Keyes (disambiguation)* Keying (disambiguation)* Qi (disambiguation)* Quay (disambiguation)* Keyboard instrument"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"K-Meleon"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''K-Meleon''' is a free and open-source, lightweight web browser for Microsoft Windows.",
"It uses the native Windows API to create its user interface.",
"Early versions of K-Meleon rendered web pages with Gecko, Mozilla's browser layout engine, which Mozilla's browser Firefox and its email client Thunderbird also use.",
"K-Meleon became a popular Windows browser and was available as an optional default browser in Europe via BrowserChoice.eu.",
"K-Meleon continued to use Gecko for several years after Mozilla deprecated embedding it.",
"Current versions of K-Meleon use the Goanna layout engine, a fork of Gecko created for the browser Pale Moon.K-Meleon began with the goal of being faster and lighter than Mozilla's original internet suite.",
"Until 2011, K-Meleon embedded Gecko in a stripped-down interface.",
"Throughout its lifespan, K-Meleon has required small amounts of random-access memory (RAM).",
"K-Meleon 76 supports discontinued versions of Windows such as Windows XP and Windows Vista.",
"Mozilla no longer supports these platforms after their Firefox Quantum rewrite.Customization is another primary design goal.",
"Users can change the toolbars, menus, and keyboard shortcuts from text-based configuration files.",
"K-Meleon supports macros, which are small browser extensions that users can examine, write, or edit in a text editor.",
"K-Meleon's custom configuration files can trigger macros.",
"Reviews describe the customization features as versatile but intimidating to the average user.",
"Due to its adaptability, K-Meleon was recommended for internet cafes and libraries in the early 2000s."
],
[
"History",
"Christophe Thibault started the K-Meleon project in the 2000s, when many new browsers were launched.",
"To open-source their once-dominant Netscape Communicator internet suite, Netscape founded the Mozilla project.",
"K-Meleon was one of several browsers to use Mozilla's browser engine Gecko in a stripped-down interface.",
"Thibault designed K-Meleon to combine Gecko with native Windows interface elements, an approach that was less resource-intensive and allowed the browser to blend into its environment.=== Embedding Gecko ===K-Meleon 0.2Christophe Thibault released K-Meleon 0.1 on August 21, 2000.While working at Nullsoft, Thibault said he created the first simple release to attract attention, during a day off.",
"For the 0.2 release, he implemented expected features like context menus and moved development to SourceForge to welcome contributions from open-source developers.Thibault handed the project over to new developers, including Brian Harris, Sebastian Spaeth, Jeff Doozan, and Ulf Erikson, who began implementing browser functions through modular Kplugins.",
"The K-Meleon team released new versions with features like pop-up blocking and cookie management.",
"These releases introduced text-based configuration files called configs that allowed users to customize the browser or hide interface elements, and a macro language to allow users to extend the browser.",
"Early reviews described K-Meleon as small, fast, limited, and visually similar to Internet Explorer.K-Meleon was built with open-source code from Mozilla but its narrower focus offered advantages over the Mozilla Application Suite, which bundled the browser with applications for email, news, chat, and webpage editing.",
"To create a stand-alone browser, the Galeon project embedded Mozilla's rendering engine.",
"Galeon was released for Linux using GNOME's widget toolkit GTK.",
"K-Meleon brought a similar approach to Windows using the operating system's native application programming interface (API) to create a lightweight user interface (UI).",
"The K-Meleon developers released a stand-alone web browser for Windows two years before the Firefox alpha release.",
"Mozilla created user interfaces via their cross-platform XML User Interface Language (XUL) layer.",
"This technology used Gecko to lay out application interfaces.",
"XUL allowed Mozilla to build one application for multiple operating systems but generated graphical controls that did not match the rest of the system.",
"K-Meleon was smaller and more closely integrated into the Windows desktop than Mozilla's browser, and could use the native bookmarking system to access Internet Explorer's favorites.",
"\"Hello World\" macro, the optional Tango theme, and several NPAPI plugins installedK-Meleon 0.7 was released with the Mozilla 1.0 engine in October 2002.Despite AOL disbanding upstream parent company Netscape in 2003, the development of K-Meleon continued.",
"Mozilla continued work on Gecko, and K-Meleon was updated with service packs and the version 0.8 release.",
"In 2005, Ulf Erikson announced version 0.9 would be the final version of K-Meleon he would build.",
"He was the project's developer but stated he was no longer using K-Meleon as his primary browser after moving to Linux.",
"In January 2006, Dorian Boissonnade became the lead developer and began working towards a 1.0 release.K-Meleon 1.0 was released in July 2006 and made the browser fully translatable.",
"It stored localizations in separate library-and-config files within existing K-Meleon installations.",
"Parts of the browser could be translated in a text editor.",
"K-Meleon 1.0 maintained support for its existing system of text-based configuration files and introduced a new graphical interface to change preferences from within the browser.Version 1.1 expanded the macro system.",
"Earlier versions placed all of the macros into a single config file.",
"Initial releases came with fewer than 50 lines of macro code and instructions for end users to create their own macros.",
"Later versions came with over 1,000 lines of macro code, and the macros users wrote and shared online.",
"In response, K-Meleon developers separated macros into modules.",
"Version 1.5 introduced a true tabbed interface.",
"In Europe, version 1.5 was an optional default Windows browser through Microsoft's browser ballot.",
"Due to accusations of abusing its market position to promote Internet Explorer, Microsoft introduced a browser ballot in the European Economic Area (EEA).",
"By 2010, it offered Windows users a choice of the 12 most popular web browsers, including K-Meleon.=== 7x releases ===In 2011, Mozilla ended support for embedding the Gecko layout engine; because K-Meleon had previously relied on this API, the browser's future became uncertain.",
"In 2013, after years without an official, stable release, the K-Meleon group began developing version 74.While Mozilla had ended support for embedding of Gecko, it maintained a technology called XULRunner.",
"XULRunner was a stand-alone implementation of the Gecko engine designed to launch applications.",
"K-Meleon 74 used XULRunner instead of Mozilla's deprecated embedding software.",
"Outside the new engine, version 74 brought small improvements, including better CPU use and minor bug fixes.K-Meleon 75 included a spelling checker, form auto-completion, and a new skin system.",
"Boissonnade began work on version 76 but suffered a hard disk drive failure during beta testing.=== Goanna branch ===Two screenshots of K-Meleon 76 with the same K-Meleon theme but different system themesActive development on K-Meleon takes place using Goanna, a fork of Gecko created for the browser Pale Moon.",
"With Firefox Quantum, Mozilla rewrote large parts of its browser engine.",
"In 2017, Roy Tam forked K-Meleon 76 to run on Goanna.",
"The project's former lead developer Boissonnade wrote; \"Thanks for taking care of that little lizard after I left it\".",
"K-Meleon on Goanna remains compatible with deprecated versions of Windows and can run with smaller amounts of RAM than those required by mainstream web browsers.",
"K-Meleon has lower memory requirements than other low-resource browsers.K-Meleon is updated on a rolling release schedule.",
"By default, the browser is a multi-lingual portable application that can directly run from the host computer or removable media.",
"It is also included in the PortableApps.com repository."
],
[
"Customization",
"Customization of K-Meleon's interface is possible using text-format configuration files called configs.",
"The menus, keyboard shortcuts, and more can all be customized via K-Meleon's configuration files.",
"These configs can call upon macros, a type of extension that can be opened in a text editor.A simple \"Hello, World!\"",
"program could be written in K-Meleon's macro language that would pop up a small window with the message \"Hello world!",
"\".HelloWorld{ alert(\"Hello world!",
"\");}To trigger the macro, a keyboard accelerator could be created by adding the code below to the accelerator config, causing the macro to launch if the Ctrl, Alt, and H keys are pressed at the same time.CTRL ALT H = macros(HelloWorld)Custom toolbars offer more options, but the syntax is similar.",
"The example below would create a new toolbar with a button to trigger a macro.NewToolbar{ NewButton{\t macros(HelloWorld) }}This combination of configs and macro modules provides control over much of the browser.",
"It also creates a learning curve for customization that is not present in most browsers.",
"A CNET review criticized K-Meleon because it \"requires some knowledge of computer code to get the most out of it\".",
"Popular browsers use systems like WebExtensions, where there is a separation between users and extension developers.Because of its flexibility, K-Meleon was useful for environments in which the browser needed to be customized for public use, such as libraries and internet cafés.",
"It allowed administrators to hide some features from patrons.",
"For example, a library could hide interface elements like the address bar or limit the computer's access to an online resource like the library catalog."
],
[
"Legacy Windows versions",
"K-Meleon supports a range of legacy software and hardware.",
"Version 76 supports Windows XP (2001) and Windows Vista (2006).",
"Windows XP and its Windows Embedded POSReady 2009 variant have been unsupported since 2019.The latest major browser releases to support these operating systems are Microsoft's Internet Explorer 8 (2014), Google Chrome 50 (2016), and Mozilla Firefox 52 (2018).Web browsers cannot access secure websites if they do not support Transport Layer Security (TLS) encryption.",
"As of 2018, most major web sites use TLS encryption via HTTPS.",
"Early versions of K-Meleon for Windows 2000 and Windows 9X receive occasional updates for TLS certificates.",
"K-Meleon 74 can access secure websites on Windows 2000 using an old version of the Goanna engine combined with up-to-date ciphers.",
"K-Meleon 1.5 can run on Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows Me.",
"Occasional TLS updates allow version 1.5 to access secure websites."
],
[
"Release history",
"K-Meleon, which was first released in 2000, has been under development for over 20 years and is still maintained.",
"The most-recent version K-Meleon 76 is updated on a rolling release schedule.",
"All versions of K-Meleon are written for Microsoft Windows operating systems.",
"Complete K-Meleon release history VersionInitial ReleaseLatest Update Gecko VersionNotes 0.1 Aug 21, 2000 Aug 21, 2000 M17 0.2 Nov 26, 2000 Jan 29, 2001 M18 0.3 Feb 13, 2001 Feb 13, 2001 0.8 0.4 May 11, 2001 May 11, 2001 0.9 0.5 Sep 27, 2001 Sep 27, 2001 0.9.4 0.6 Oct 30, 2001 Oct 30, 2001 0.9.5 0.7 Oct 31, 2002 Feb 12, 2003 1.2b 0.8 Nov 10, 2003 Dec 23, 2003 1.5 0.9 Jan 18, 2005 Apr 25, 2006 1.7.13 1.0 Jul 15, 2006 Sep 22, 2006 1.8.0.7 1.1 May 22, 2007 Jul 18, 2008 1.8.1.17 1.5 Aug 8, 2008 Dec 9, 2022 1.8.1.24 1.6 Nov 14, 2010 Dec 12, 2010 1.9.1.20 74.0 Sep 8, 2014 Aug 14, 2021 24.7 75.0 Nov 25, 2014 Jun 24, 2015 31.5 75.1 Sep 19, 2015 Dec 14, 2022 31.8 76.0 May 2, 2016 Dec 20, 2016 38.8 76.G Nov 28, 2017 Dec 15, 2018 Goanna 76.2.G Jan 10, 2019 Aug 22, 2020 Goanna 76.3.G Aug 29, 2020 Feb 5, 2021 Goanna 76.4.G Feb 12, 2021 Apr 7, 2023 Goanna '''Notes'''General references for this table include K-Meleon file releases, release notes, changelogs, and the Announcements forum."
],
[
"See also",
"* Comparison of feed aggregators* Comparison of lightweight web browsers* Comparison of web browsers* List of feed aggregators* List of web browsers"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Unified XUL Platform MDN Backup – Archive of pre-Quantum Mozilla documentation applicable to the Goanna engine and UXP applications* Roy Tam's repositories on GitHub – Refer to developer Roy Tam's repositories for the latest version of the browser shell and browser engine source code*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Klaus Maria Brandauer"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Klaus Maria Brandauer''' (; born '''Klaus Georg Steng'''; 22 June 1943) is an Austrian actor and director.",
"He is also a professor at the Max Reinhardt Seminar.Brandauer is known internationally for his roles in ''The Russia House'' (1990), ''Mephisto'' (1981), ''Never Say Never Again'' (1983), ''Out of Africa'' (1985), ''Hanussen'' (1988), ''Burning Secret'' (1988), and ''White Fang'' (1991).",
"For his supporting role as Bror von Blixen-Finecke in the drama film ''Out of Africa'' (1985), Brandauer was nominated for an Academy Award and won a Golden Globe Award.Brandauer has a working knowledge of at least five languages: German, Italian, Hungarian, English and French and has acted in each."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Brandauer was born as Klaus Georg Steng in Bad Aussee, Austria.",
"He is the son of Maria Brandauer and Georg Steng (or Stenj), a civil servant.",
"He subsequently took his mother's first name as part of his professional name, Klaus Maria Brandauer.His first wife was Karin Katharina Müller (14 October 1945 – 13 November 1992), an Austrian film and television director and screenwriter, from 1963 until her death in 1992, aged 47, from cancer.",
"Both were teenagers when they married, in 1963.They had one son, Christian.",
"Brandauer married Natalie Krenn in 2007."
],
[
"Career",
"Brandauer began acting on stage in 1962.After working in national theatre and television, he made his film debut in English in 1972, in ''The Salzburg Connection''.",
"In 1975 he played in ''Derrick'' – in Season 2, Episode 8 called \"Pfandhaus\".",
"His starring and award-winning role in István Szabó's ''Mephisto'' (1981) playing a self-absorbed actor, launched his international career.",
"(He would later act in Szabó's 1985 ''Oberst Redl''.",
")Following his role in ''Mephisto'', Brandauer appeared as Maximillian Largo in ''Never Say Never Again'' (1983), a remake of the 1965 James Bond film ''Thunderball''.",
"Roger Ebert said of his performance: \"For one thing, there's more of a human element in the movie, and it comes from Klaus Maria Brandauer, as Largo.",
"Brandauer is a wonderful actor, and he chooses not to play the villain as a cliché.",
"Instead, he brings a certain poignancy and charm to Largo, and since Connery always has been a particularly human James Bond, the emotional stakes are more convincing this time.\"",
"He starred in ''Out of Africa'' (1985), opposite Meryl Streep and Robert Redford.",
"Brandauer was nominated for an Oscar and won a Golden Globe for the performance.Brandauer in 1982In 1987, he was the Head of the Jury at the 37th Berlin International Film Festival.",
"In 1988 he appeared in ''Hanussen'' opposite Erland Josephson and Ildikó Bánsági.",
"Brandauer was originally cast as Marko Ramius in ''The Hunt for Red October''.",
"That role eventually went to Sean Connery, who played James Bond to Brandauer's Largo in ''Never Say Never Again''.",
"He co-starred with Connery again in ''The Russia House'' (1990).",
"His other film roles have been in ''The Lightship'' (1986), ''Streets of Gold'' (1986), ''Burning Secret'' (1988), ''White Fang'' (1991), ''Becoming Colette'' (1991), ''Introducing Dorothy Dandridge'' (1999, as director Otto Preminger), and ''Everyman's Feast'' (2002).",
"In 1989 he participated in TF1's two-part historical film ''La Révolution française'', playing the role of Georges Danton.",
"He has also appeared as King Nebuchadnezzar II in 1998, in Time Life's Jeremiah, from The Bible Collection: The Old Testament.Brandauer has directed two films: '''' (1989), in which he starred as attempted Hitler assassin Georg Elser; and ''Mario and the Magician'' (1994), based on the 1929 novella by Thomas Mann, in which he starred as Cipolla, a magician with hypnotic powers.In August 2006, Brandauer's much-awaited production of ''The Threepenny Opera'' gained a mixed reception.",
"Brandauer had resisted questions about how his production of Bertolt Brecht and Kurt Weill's classic musical comedy about the criminal MacHeath would differ from earlier versions, and his production featured Mack the Knife in a three-piece suit and white gloves, stuck to Brecht's text, and avoided any references to contemporary politics or issues."
],
[
"Filmography",
" Year Title Role Notes 1970 ''Friede den Hütten!",
"Krieg den Palästen!''",
"Georg Büchner TV film 1972 ''The Salzburg Connection'' Johann Kronsteiner 1975 '' Derrick'' Erich Forster TV seriesEpisode: \"Pfandhaus\" 1979 ''A Sunday in October'' Hoffmann 1981 ''Mephisto'' Hendrik Höfgen 1983 ''Never Say Never Again'' Maximilian Largo 1985 ''Colonel Redl'' Alfred Redl ''Quo Vadis?''",
"Nero TV miniseries ''The Lightship'' Captain Miller ''Out of Africa'' Baron Bror Blixen Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion PictureNominated—Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor 1986 ''Streets of Gold'' Alek Neuman 1988 ''Hanussen'' Erik Jan Hanussen ''Burning Secret'' Baron Alexander von Hauenstein 1989 ''Spider's Web'' Benjamin Lenz '''' Georg Elser Also director ''La Révolution française'' Georges Danton TV miniseries 1990 ''The Russia House'' Dante 1991 ''White Fang'' Alex Larson ''Becoming Colette'' Henry Gauthier-Villars 1994 ''Felidae'' Pascal/Claudandus Voice only ''Mario and the Magician'' Cipolla Also director 1998 ''Jeremiah'' King Nebuchadnezzar TV film1999 ''Rembrandt'' Rembrandt ''Introducing Dorothy Dandridge'' Otto Preminger TV film 2000 '''' Orlov 2001 ''Druids'' Julius Caesar 2002 ''Everyman's Feast'' Jan Jedermann ''Between Strangers'' Alexander Bauer 2003''Entrusted''Gregor Lämmle TV film 2006''Kronprinz Rudolfs letzte Liebe'' Emperor Franz Joseph TV film 2009 ''Tetro'' Carlo Tetrocini 2011 ''Manipulation'' Urs Rappold 2013 ''The Strange Case of Wilhelm Reich'' Wilhelm Reich 2013 '''' Ernst Lemden TV film 2020 '''' S doktor 2021 '''' Konrad Biegler TV film"
],
[
"Awards",
"* 1982: BAFTA Award for Most Promising Newcomer to Leading Film Roles – ''Mephisto'' (nominated)* 1985: Kansas City Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actor – ''Out of Africa'' '''(won)'''* 1985: National Board of Review Award for Best Supporting Actor – ''Out of Africa'' '''(won)'''* 1985: NYFCC Award for Best Supporting Actor – ''Out of Africa'' '''(won)'''* 1986: Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture – ''Out of Africa'' '''(won)'''* 1986: Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor – ''Out of Africa'' (nominated)* 1987: BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role – ''Out of Africa'' (nominated)* 1988: European Film Award for Best Actor – ''Hanussen'' (nominated)* 1988: Golden Ciak for Best Actor – ''Hanussen'' '''(won)'''* 1989: Bavarian Film Awards for Best Actor – ''Burning Secret'' '''(won)'''* 1995: Andrei Tarkovsky Award for ''Mario and the Magician'' '''(won)'''* 1995: Golden St. George for ''Mario and the Magician'' (nominated)* 2000: Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film – ''Introducing Dorothy Dandridge'' (nominated)* 2000: Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited Series or Movie – ''Introducing Dorothy Dandridge'' (nominated)"
],
[
"See also",
"* List of German-speaking Academy Award winners and nominees"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker''' is an American military aerial refueling tanker aircraft that was developed from the Boeing 367-80 prototype, alongside the Boeing 707 airliner.",
"It has a narrower fuselage and is shorter than the 707.Boeing gave the aircraft the internal designation of Model 717.The KC-135 was the United States Air Force (USAF)'s first jet-powered refueling tanker and replaced the KC-97 Stratofreighter.",
"The KC-135 was initially tasked with refueling strategic bombers, but it was used extensively in the Vietnam War and later conflicts such as Operation Desert Storm to extend the range and endurance of US tactical fighters and bombers.The KC-135 entered service with the USAF in 1957; it is one of nine military fixed-wing aircraft with over 60 years of continuous service with its original operator.",
"The KC-135 is supplemented by the larger McDonnell Douglas KC-10 Extender.",
"Studies have concluded that many of the aircraft could be flown until 2030, although maintenance costs have greatly increased.",
"The KC-135 is to be partially replaced by the Boeing KC-46 Pegasus."
],
[
"Development",
"===Background===Starting in 1950 the USAF operated the world's first production aerial tanker, the Boeing KC-97 Stratofreighter, a gasoline fueled piston-engined Boeing Stratocruiser (USAF designation C-97 Stratofreighter) with a Boeing-developed flying boom and extra kerosene (jet fuel) tanks feeding the boom.",
"The Stratocruiser airliner itself was developed from the Boeing B-29 Superfortress bomber after World War II.",
"In the KC-97, the mixed gasoline/kerosene fuel system was clearly not desirable and it was obvious that a jet-powered tanker aircraft would be the next development, having a single type of fuel for both its own engines and for passing to receiver aircraft.",
"The 230 mph (370 km/h) cruise speed of the slower, piston-engined KC-97 was also a serious issue, as using it as an aerial tanker forced the newer jet-powered military aircraft to slow down to mate with the tanker's boom.Like its sibling, the commercial Boeing 707 jet airliner, the KC-135 was derived from the Boeing 367-80 jet transport \"proof of concept\" demonstrator, which was commonly called the \"Dash-80\".",
"The KC-135 is similar in appearance to the 707, but has a narrower fuselage and is shorter than the 707.The KC-135 predates the 707, and is structurally quite different from the civilian airliner.",
"Boeing gave the future KC-135 tanker the initial designation Model 717.A KC-135A refueling a B-52D during the Cold War.",
"Both aircraft types were operated by the Strategic Air Command.In 1954 USAF's Strategic Air Command (SAC) held a competition for a jet-powered aerial refueling tanker.",
"Lockheed Corporation's tanker version of the proposed Lockheed L-193 airliner with rear fuselage-mounted engines was declared the winner in 1955.Since Boeing's proposal was already flying, the KC-135 could be delivered two years earlier and Air Force Secretary Harold E. Talbott ordered 250 KC-135 tankers until Lockheed's design could be manufactured.",
"In the end, orders for the Lockheed tanker were dropped rather than supporting two tanker designs.",
"Lockheed never produced its jet airliner, while Boeing would eventually dominate the market with a family of airliners based on the 707.In 1954, the USAF placed an initial order for 29 KC-135As, the first of an eventual 820 of all variants of the basic C-135 family.",
"The first aircraft flew in August 1956 and the initial production Stratotanker was delivered to Castle Air Force Base, California, in June 1957.The last KC-135 was delivered to the USAF in 1965.Air Force Vice Chief of Staff General Curtis LeMay tested the first KC-135 on a long-haul flight from Westover Air Force Base, Massachusetts to Buenos Aires, Argentina.Developed in the early 1950s, the basic airframe is characterized by 35-degree aft swept wings and tail, four underwing-mounted engine pods, a horizontal stabilizer mounted on the fuselage near the bottom of the vertical stabilizer with positive dihedral on the two horizontal planes and a hi-frequency radio antenna which protrudes forward from the top of the vertical fin or stabilizer.",
"These basic features make it strongly resemble the commercial Boeing 707 and 720 aircraft, although it is a different aircraft.Reconnaissance and command post variants of the aircraft, including the RC-135 Rivet Joint and EC-135 Looking Glass aircraft were operated by SAC from 1963 through 1992, when they were reassigned to the Air Combat Command (ACC).",
"The USAF EC-135 Looking Glass was subsequently replaced in its role by the U.S. Navy E-6 Mercury aircraft, a new build airframe based on the Boeing 707-320B.=== Engine retrofits ===All KC-135s were originally equipped with Pratt & Whitney J57-P-59W turbojet engines, which produced of thrust dry, and approximately of thrust wet.",
"Wet thrust is achieved through the use of water injection on takeoff, as opposed to \"wet thrust\" when used to describe an afterburning engine.",
"of water are injected into the engines over the course of three minutes.",
"The water is injected into the inlet and the diffuser case in front of the combustion case.",
"The water cools the air in the engine to increase its density; it also reduces the turbine gas temperature, which is a primary limitation on many jet engines.",
"This allows the use of more fuel for proper combustion and creates more thrust for short periods of time, similar in concept to \"War Emergency Power\" in a piston-engined aircraft.taxiing prior to takeoff.",
"The new engines are CFM56-2 high-bypass turbofans.|alt=The front of several gray aircraft are centered in the image.In the 1980s, the first modification program retrofitted 157 Air Force Reserve (AFRES) and Air National Guard (ANG) tankers with the Pratt & Whitney TF33-PW-102 turbofan engines from 707 airliners retired in the late 1970s and early 1980s.",
"The modified tanker, designated the KC-135E, was 14% more fuel-efficient than the KC-135A and could offload 20% more fuel on long-duration flights.",
"Only the KC-135E aircraft were equipped with thrust reversers for aborted takeoffs and shorter landing roll-outs.",
"The KC-135E fleet has since either been retrofitted as the R-model configuration or placed into long-term storage (\"XJ\"), as Congress has prevented the USAF from formally retiring them.",
"The final KC-135E, tail number ''56-3630'', was delivered by the 101st Air Refueling Wing to the 309th Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group (AMARG) at Davis–Monthan Air Force Base in September 2009.Flight deck of KC-135R; instrument panel has been modified under the Pacer-CRAG programThe second modification program retrofitted 500 aircraft with new CFM International CFM56 (military designation: F108) high-bypass turbofan engines produced by General Electric and Safran.",
"The CFM56 engine produces approximately of thrust, nearly a 100% increase compared to the original J57 engine.",
"The modified tanker, designated KC-135R (modified KC-135A or E) or KC-135T (modified KC-135Q), can offload up to 50% more fuel (on a long-duration sortie), is 25% more fuel-efficient, and costs 25% less to operate than with the previous engines.",
"It is also significantly quieter than the KC-135A, with noise levels at takeoff reduced from 126 to 99 decibels.",
"This 27 dB noise reduction results in a sound pressure level of about 5% of the original level.The KC-135R's operational range is 60% greater than the KC-135E for comparable fuel offloads, providing a wider range of basing options.Upgrading the remaining KC-135Es into KC-135Rs is no longer in consideration; this would have cost approximately US$3 billion, $24 million per aircraft.",
"According to USAF data, the KC-135 fleet had a total operation and support cost in fiscal year 2001 of about $2.2 billion (~$ in ).",
"The older E model aircraft averaged total costs of about $4.6 million per aircraft, while the R models averaged about $3.7 million per aircraft.",
"Those costs include personnel, fuel, maintenance, modifications, and spare parts.===Avionics upgrades===Block 45 glass cockpitIn order to expand the KC-135's capabilities and improve its reliability, the aircraft has undergone a number of avionics upgrades.",
"Among these was the Pacer-CRAG program (compass, radar and GPS) which ran from 1999 to 2002 and modified all the aircraft in the inventory to eliminate the Navigator position from the flight crew.",
"The fuel management system was also replaced.",
"The program development was done by Rockwell Collins in Iowa and installation was performed by BAE Systems at the Mojave Airport in California.",
"Block 40.6 allows the KC-135 to comply with global air-traffic management.",
"The latest block upgrade to the KC-135, the Block 45 program, is online with the first 45 upgraded aircraft delivered by January 2017.Block 45 adds a new glass cockpit digital display, radio altimeter, digital autopilot, digital flight director and computer updates.",
"The original, no longer procurable, analog instruments, including all engine gauges, were replaced.",
"Rockwell Collins again supplied the major avionic modules, with modification done at Tinker AFB.===Further upgrades and derivatives===The KC-135Q variant was modified to carry JP-7 fuel necessary for the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird by separating the JP-7 from the KC-135's own fuel supply (the body tanks carrying JP-7, and the wing tanks carrying JP-4 or JP-8).",
"The tanker also had special fuel systems for moving the different fuels between different tanks.",
"When the KC-135Q model received the CFM56 engines, it was redesignated the KC-135T model, which was capable of separating the main body tanks from the wing tanks where the KC-135 draws its engine fuel.",
"The only external difference between a KC-135R and a KC-135T is the presence of a clear window on the underside of the empennage of the KC-135T where a remote controlled searchlight is mounted.",
"It also has two ground refueling ports, located in each rear wheel well so ground crews can fuel both the body tanks and wing tanks separately.Cutaway of the Flight Refueling Limited Mk.32B Refueling PodEight KC-135R aircraft are receiver-capable tankers, commonly referred to as KC-135R(RT).",
"All eight aircraft were with the 22d Air Refueling Wing at McConnell AFB, Kansas, in 1994.They are primarily used for force extension and Special Operations missions, and are crewed by highly qualified receiver capable crews.",
"If not used for the receiver mission, these aircraft can be flown just like any other KC-135R.The Multi-point Refueling Systems (MPRS) modification adds refueling pods to the KC-135's wings.",
"The pods allow refueling of U.S. Navy, U.S. Marine Corps and most NATO tactical jet aircraft while keeping the tail-mounted refueling boom.",
"The pods themselves are Flight Refueling Limited MK.32B model pods, and refuel via the probe and drogue method common to Navy/Marine Corps tactical jets, rather than the primary \"flying boom\" method used by Air Force fixed-wing aircraft.",
"This allows the tanker to refuel two receivers at the same time, which increases throughput compared to the boom drogue adapter.A number of KC-135A and KC-135B aircraft have been modified to EC-135, RC-135 and OC-135 configurations for use in several different roles (although these could also be considered variants of the C-135 Stratolifter family)."
],
[
"Design",
"boom operator view from boom podThe KC-135R has four turbofan engines, mounted under 35-degree swept wings, which power it to takeoffs at gross weights up to .",
"Nearly all internal fuel can be pumped through the tanker's flying boom, the KC-135's primary fuel transfer method.",
"A boom operator stationed in the rear of the aircraft controls the boom while lying prone, viewing through a window at the bottom of the tail.",
"Both the flying boom and operator's station are similar to those of the previous KC-97.A special shuttlecock-shaped drogue, attached to and trailing behind the flying boom, may be used to refuel aircraft fitted with probes.",
"This apparatus is significantly more unforgiving of pilot error in the receiving aircraft than conventional trailing hose arrangements; an aircraft so fitted is also incapable of refueling by the normal flying boom method until the attachment is removed.",
"A cargo deck above the refueling system can hold a mixed load of passengers and cargo.",
"Depending on fuel storage configuration, the KC-135 can carry up to of cargo."
],
[
"Operational history",
"===Introduction into service===An F-15 backs out after refueling from a KC-135R.The KC-135 was initially purchased to support SAC bombers, but by the late 1960s, in the Southeast Asia theater, the KC-135 Stratotanker's ability as a force multiplier came to the fore.",
"Midair refueling of F-105 and F-4 fighter-bombers as well as B-52 bombers brought far-flung bombing targets within reach, and allowed fighter missions to spend hours at the front, rather than a few minutes, which was usual due to their limited fuel reserves and high fuel consumption.",
"KC-135 crews refueled both USAF and Navy/ Marine Corps aircraft; though they would have to change to probe and drogue adapters depending upon the mission, the Navy and Marine Corps not having fitted their aircraft with flying boom receptacles since the USAF boom system was impractical for aircraft carrier operations.",
"Crews also helped to bring in damaged aircraft which could sometimes fly while being fed by fuel to a landing site or to ditch over the water (specifically those with punctured fuel tanks).",
"KC-135s continued their tactical support role in later conflicts such as Operation Desert Storm and current aerial strategy.SAC had the KC-135 Stratotanker in service with Regular Air Force SAC units from 1957 through 1992 and with SAC-gained ANG and AFRES units from 1975 through 1992.Following a major USAF reorganization that resulted in the inactivation of SAC in 1992, most KC-135s were reassigned to the newly created AMC.",
"While AMC gained the preponderance of the aerial refueling mission, a small number of KC-135s were also assigned directly to United States Air Forces in Europe (USAFE), Pacific Air Forces (PACAF) and the Air Education and Training Command (AETC).",
"All AFRC KC-135s and most of the ANG KC-135 fleet became operationally-gained by AMC, while Alaska Air National Guard and Hawaii Air National Guard KC-135s became operationally-gained by PACAF.AMC managed 396 Stratotankers, of which the AFRC and ANG flew 243 in support of AMC's mission as of May 2018.The KC-135 is one of a few military aircraft types with over 50 years of continuous service with its original operator as of 2009.Israel was offered KC-135s again in 2013, after turning down the aging aircraft twice due to expense of keeping them flying.",
"The IAF again rejected the offered KC-135Es, but said that it would consider up to a dozen of the newer KC-135Rs.===Research usage===KC-135 winglet flight tests at Armstrong Flight Research Center.Besides its primary role as an inflight aircraft refueler, the KC-135, designated NKC-135, has assisted in several research projects at the NASA Armstrong Flight Research Center at Edwards Air Force Base, California.",
"One such project occurred between 1979 and 1980 when special wingtip \"winglets\", developed by Richard Whitcomb of the Langley Research Center, were tested at Armstrong, using an NKC-135A tanker loaned to NASA by the Air Force.",
"Winglets are small, nearly vertical fins installed on an aircraft's wing tips.",
"The results of the research showed that drag was reduced and range could be increased by as much as 7 percent at cruise speeds.",
"Winglets are now being incorporated into most new commercial and military transport/passenger jets, as well as business aviation jets.NASA also has operated several KC-135 aircraft (without the tanker equipment installed) as their famed Vomit Comet zero-gravity simulator aircraft.",
"The longest-serving (1973 to 1995) version was KC-135A, AF Ser.",
"No.",
"''59-1481'', named ''Weightless Wonder IV'' and registered as N930NA.===Replacements===KC-135Rs at twilight on the flight lineBetween 1993 and 2003, the amount of KC-135 depot maintenance work doubled, and the overhaul cost per aircraft tripled.",
"In 1996, it cost $8,400 per flight hour for the KC-135, and in 2002 this had grown to $11,000.The Air Force's 15-year estimates project further significant cost growth through fiscal year 2017.KC-135 fleet operations and support costs were estimated to grow from about $2.2 billion in fiscal year 2003 to $5.1 billion (2003 dollars) in fiscal year 2017, an increase of over 130 percent, which represented an annual operating cost growth rate of about 6.2 percent.The USAF projected that E and R models have lifetime flying hour limits of 36,000 and 39,000 hours, respectively.",
"According to the Air Force, only a few KC-135s would reach these limits by 2040, when some aircraft would be about 80 years old.",
"A later 2005 Air Force study estimated that KC-135Es upgraded to the R standard could remain in use until 2030.In 2006, the KC-135E fleet was flying an annual average of 350 hours per aircraft and the KC-135R fleet was flying an annual average of 710 hours per aircraft.",
"The KC-135 fleet is currently flying double its planned yearly flying hour program to meet airborne refueling requirements, and has resulted in higher than forecast usage and sustainment costs.",
"In March 2009, the Air Force indicated that KC-135s would require additional skin replacement to allow their continued use beyond 2018.F-35 takes on fuel from a KC-135 of the 912d ARSThe USAF decided to replace the KC-135 fleet.",
"However, the fleet is large and will need to be replaced gradually.",
"Initially the first batch of replacement planes was to be an air tanker version of the Boeing 767, leased from Boeing.",
"In 2003, this was changed to contract where the Air Force would purchase 80 KC-767 aircraft and lease 20 more.",
"In December 2003, the Pentagon froze the contract and in January 2006, the KC-767 contract was canceled.",
"This move followed public revelations of corruption in how the contract was awarded, as well as controversy regarding the original leasing rather than outright purchase agreement.",
"The then Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld stated that that move would in no way impair the Air Force's ability to deliver the mission of the KC-767, which would be accomplished by implementing continuing upgrades to the KC-135 and KC-10 Extender fleet.In January 2007, the U.S. Air Force launched the KC-X program with a request for proposal (RFP).",
"KC-X was the first phase of three acquisition programs meant to replace the KC-135 fleet.",
"On 29 February 2008, the US Defense Department announced that it had selected the EADS/Northrop Grumman \"KC-30\" (to be designated the KC-45A) over the Boeing KC-767.Boeing protested the award on 11 March 2008, citing irregularities in the competition and bid evaluation.",
"On 18 June 2008, the US Government Accountability Office sustained Boeing's protest of the selection of the Northrop Grumman/EADS's tanker.",
"In February 2010, the US Air Force restarted the KC-X competition with the release of a revised request for proposal (RFP).",
"After evaluating bids, the USAF selected Boeing's 767-based tanker design, with the military designation KC-46, as a replacement in February 2011.The first KC-46A Pegasus was delivered to the U.S. Air Force on 10 January 2019.Two export users of the KC-135, the French Air and Space Force and the Republic of Singapore Air Force took deliveries of Airbus A330 MRTTs as replacements for their Stratotankers."
],
[
"Variants",
"aircraft liveries;KC-135A:Original production version powered by four Pratt & Whitney J57s, 732 built.",
"Given the Boeing model numbers 717-100A, 717-146 and 717-148.;NKC-135ATest-configured KC-135A.",
";KC-135B:Airborne command post version equipped with turbofan engines, 17 built.",
"Provided with in-flight refueling capability and redesignated EC-135C.",
"Given the model number 717-166.;KC-135D:All four RC-135As (''Pacer Swan'') were modified to partial KC-135A configuration in 1979.The four aircraft (serial numbers ''63-8058, 63-8059, 63-8060'' and ''63-8061'') were given a unique designation KC-135D as they differed from the KC-135A in that they were built with a flight engineer's position on the flight deck.",
"The flight engineer's position was removed when the aircraft were modified to KC-135 standards but they retained their electrically powered wing flap secondary (emergency) drive mechanism and second air conditioning pack which had been used to cool the RC-135As on-board photo-mapping systems.",
"Later re-engined with Pratt & Whitney TF33 engines and a cockpit update to KC-135E standards in 1990 and were retired to the 309th AMARG at Davis-Monthan AFB, AZ in 2007.;KC-135E:Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve KC-135As re-engined with Pratt & Whitney TF33-PW-102 engines from retired 707 airliners (161 modified).",
"All E model aircraft were retired to the 309th AMARG at Davis-Monthan AFB by September 2009 and replaced with R models.",
";NKC-135E:Test-configured KC-135E.",
"55-3132 NKC-135E \"Big Crow I\" & 63-8050 NKC-135B \"Big Crow II\" used as airborne targets for the Boeing YAL-1 Airborne Laser carrier.",
";KC-135Q:KC-135As modified to carry JP-7 fuel necessary for the SR-71 Blackbird, 56 modified, survivors to KC-135T.",
";KC-135R (1960s):4 JC/KC-135As converted to ''Rivet Stand'' (Later ''Rivet Quick'') configuration for reconnaissance and evaluation of above ground nuclear test (55-3121, 59–1465, 59–1514, 58–0126; 58-0126 replaced 59-1465 after it crashed in 1967).",
"These aircraft were powered by Pratt & Whitney J57 engines and were based at Offutt AFB, Nebraska.",
";KC-135R:KC-135As and some KC-135Es re-engined with CFM56 engines, more than 417 converted;KC-135R(RT):Receiver-capable KC-135R Stratotanker; eight modified with either a Boeing or LTV receiver system and a secure voice SATCOM radio.",
"Three of the aircraft (60-0356, -0357, and -0362) were converted to tankers from RC-135Ds, from which they retained their added equipment.Boeing KC-135R Stratotanker (code 62–3567) of the Turkish Air Force arrives at the 2016 Royal International Air Tattoo, England ;KC-135T:KC-135Q re-engined with CFM56 engines, 54 modified.",
";C-135F:A new-built variant for France as dual-role tanker/cargo and troop carrier aircraft.",
"12 were built for the French Air Force with the addition of a drogue adapter on the refueling boom.",
"Given Boeing model numbers 717-164 and 717-165.;C-135FR:11 surviving C-135Fs upgraded with CFM International F108 turbofans between 1985 and 1988.Later modified with MPRS wing pods.",
";EC-135Y:An airborne command post modified in 1984 to support CINCCENT.",
"Aircraft 55-3125 was the only EC-135Y.",
"Unlike its sister EC-135N, it was a true tanker that could also receive in-flight refueling.",
"Pratt & Whitney TF33-PW-102.Retired to 309th AMARG at Davis-Monthan AFB, AZ."
],
[
"Operators",
";* Chilean Air Force operates 3 KC-135Es.",
"It received its first KC-135E in February 2010.;* French Air and Space Force operates 11 C-135FRs and 3 KC-135Rs, which are being replaced by 15 Airbus A330 MRTTs, French military designation ''Phénix'', from 2018 to 2023.Turkish KC-135R Stratotanker nicknamed ''Asena''.",
";* Turkish Air Force operates 7 KC-135Rs.elephant walk formation.Cargo door of a USAF KC-135 of the 452d AMW at March Air Reserve BasePease ANGB in September 2013;* United States Air Force operates 398 KC-135s (156 Active duty, 70 Air Force Reserve, and 172 Air National Guard) .",
"** 57th Wing – Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada***509th Weapons Squadron – Fairchild Air Force Base, Washington** 97th Air Mobility Wing – Altus Air Force Base, Oklahoma***54th Air Refueling Squadron** 412th Test Wing – Edwards AFB, California***412th Flight Test Squadron***418th Flight Test Squadron ** 6th Air Refueling Wing – MacDill AFB, Florida***50th Air Refueling Squadron***91st Air Refueling Squadron***99th Air Refueling Squadron – Birmingham Air National Guard Base, Alabama (Associate with 117th ARW)** 22d Air Refueling Wing – McConnell AFB, Kansas***349th Air Refueling Squadron***350th Air Refueling Squadron** 92d Air Refueling Wing – Fairchild AFB, Washington***92d Air Refueling Squadron***93d Air Refueling Squadron***97th Air Refueling Squadron***384th Air Refueling Squadron***912th Air Refueling Squadron – March ARB, California (Associate with 452d ARW)** 375th Air Mobility Wing – Scott AFB, Illinois***906th Air Refueling Squadron (associate with 126th ARW)** 18th Wing – Kadena AB, Japan***909th Air Refueling Squadron** 100th Air Refueling Wing – RAF Mildenhall, England, UK***351st Air Refueling Squadron*Air Force Reserve** 434th Air Refueling Wing – Grissom ARB, Indiana***72d Air Refueling Squadron***74th Air Refueling Squadron** 452d Air Mobility Wing – March ARB, California***336th Air Refueling Squadron** 459th Air Refueling Wing – Andrews AFB, Maryland***756th Air Refueling Squadron** 507th Air Refueling Wing – Tinker AFB, Oklahoma***465th Air Refueling Squadron***730th Air Mobility Training Squadron (Altus AFB, Oklahoma)**914th Air Refueling Wing - Niagara Falls International Airport, New York***328th Air Refueling Squadron** 927th Air Refueling Wing – MacDill AFB, Florida (Associate with 6th AMW)***63d Air Refueling Squadron** 931st Air Refueling Group – McConnell AFB, Kansas (Associate with 22d ARW)***18th Air Refueling Squadron** 940th Air Refueling Wing – Beale AFB, California***314th Air Refueling Squadron*Air National Guard** 101st Air Refueling Wing – Bangor, Maine***132d Air Refueilng Squadron** 117th Air Refueling Wing – Birmingham, Alabama***106th Air Refueling Squadron** 121st Air Refueling Wing – Rickenbacker ANGB, Ohio***166th Air Refueling Squadron** 126th Air Refueling Wing – Scott AFB, Illinois***108th Air Refueling Squadron** 127th Wing – Selfridge ANGB, Michigan***171st Air Refueling Squadron** 128th Air Refueling Wing – Milwaukee, Wisconsin***126th Air Refueling Squadron** 134th Air Refueling Wing – Knoxville, Tennessee***151st Air Refueling Squadron** 141st Air Refueling Wing – Fairchild AFB, Washington (Associate with 92d ARW)***116th Air Refueling Squadron** 151st Air Refueling Wing – Salt Lake City, Utah***191st Air Refueling Squadron** 154th Wing – Hickam AFB, Hawaii***203d Air Refueling Squadron** 155th Air Refueling Wing – Lincoln, Nebraska***173rd Air Refueling Squadron** 161st Air Refueling Wing – Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport / Goldwater Air National Guard Base, Arizona***197th Air Refueling Squadron** 168th Air Refueling Wing – Eielson AFB, Alaska***168th Air Refueling Squadron** 171st Air Refueling Wing – Pittsburgh IAP Air Reserve Station, Pennsylvania***146th Air Refueling Squadron***147th Air Refueling Squadron** 185th Air Refueling Wing – Sioux City, Iowa***174th Air Refueling Squadron** 186th Air Refueling Wing – Meridian, Mississippi***153d Air Refueling Squadron** 190th Air Refueling Wing – Topeka, Kansas***117th Air Refueling Squadron* Meta Aerospace operates 4 KC-135Rs.",
"These aircraft were purchased from the Republic of Singapore Air Force when the latter retired them in 2019.They were delivered in late 2020.Note Italy has been reported in some sources as operating several KC-135s, however these are Boeing 707-300s converted to tanker configuration.===Former operators===;* Republic of Singapore Air Force operated 4 former USAF KC-135R tankers, first delivered September 10, 1999; they were occasionally used as VIP, aeromedical transports and military support.",
"The aircraft were retired in June 2019, having been replaced in service by 6 Airbus A330 MRTTs.",
"They were subsequently purchased by private US defence services company Meta Aerospace in October 2020.;* NASA (until 2004)* United States Air Force** 6th Air Refueling Wing – MacDill AFB, Florida***911th Air Refueling Squadron – Seymour-Johnson AFB, North Carolina (Associate with 916th ARW)** 22d Air Refueling Wing – McConnell AFB, Kansas***344th Air Refueling Squadron** 97th Air Mobility Wing – Altus Air Force Base, Oklahoma***55th Air Refueling Squadron (1994-2009)** 916th Air Refueling Wing – Seymour Johnson AFB, North Carolina***77th Air Refueling Squadron** 931st Air Refueling Group – McConnell AFB, Kansas (Associate with 22d ARW)***924th Air Refueling Squadron* Air National Guard** 107th Air Refueling Wing – Niagara Falls ARS, New York*** 136th Air Refueling Squadron (1994–2008)** 108th Air Refueling Wing - McGuire AFB, New Jersey*** 141st Air Refueling Squadron (2007-2023) ** 121st Air Refueling Wing – Rickenbacker ANGB, Ohio*** 145th Air Refueling Squadron (1975–2013)** 137th Air Refueling Wing – Tinker AFB, Oklahoma*** 185th Air Refueling Squadron (2008–2015)** 157th Air Refueling Wing – Pease ANGB, New Hampshire *** 133d Air Refueling Squadron (1975–2019)** 163rd Air Refueling Wing – March ARB, California*** 196th Air Refueling Squadron (1993–2006)** 184th Air Refueling Wing – McConnell AFB, Kansas*** 127th Air Refueling Squadron (2002–2008)** 189th Air Refueling Wing – Little Rock AFB, Arkansas*** 154th Air Refueling Squadron (1973–1986)"
],
[
"Accidents",
"As of 2020, 52 Stratotankers have been lost to accidents during the over sixty years of service, involving 385 fatalities.",
";27 June 1958: USAF KC-135A, serial number ''56-3599'', stalled and crashed at Westover Air Force Base after the crew failed to extend the flaps on takeoff, killing all 15 on board.",
"The aircraft was attempting a world speed record between New York and London.",
";31 March 1959: USAF KC-135A, ''58-0002'', entered a thunderstorm near Killeen, Texas.",
"Two engines separated and one of the engines struck the tail, causing loss of control.",
"The aircraft crashed on a hillside, killing all four crew on board.",
"The aircraft had been delivered just six weeks before the accident.",
";15 October 1959: USAF KC-135A, ''57-1513'', collided in mid-air with B-52F ''57-0036'' at over Leitchfield, Kentucky, killing all six on board both aircraft.",
";3 February 1960: USAF KC-135A, 56–3628, crashed on takeoff in extremely gusty crosswind conditions at Roswell-Walker AFB, New Mexico.",
"The airplane skidded into two other KC-135 tankers (57-1449 and 57–1457) and a hangar and burst into flames.",
"The aircraft was on a training flight, but the instructor pilot was occupying the jump seat instead of one of the pilot seats as directed by the local commander.",
"The destruction of three aircraft, along with the death of all six in the crew plus an additional two deaths on the ground made this a unique mishap.",
";18 November 1960: USAF KC-135A, ''56-3605'', crashed on landing at Loring Air Force Base due to an excessive sink rate, killing one of 17 on board.",
";9 May 1962: USAF KC-135A, ''56-3618'', crashed on takeoff from Loring Air Force Base due to engine failure, killing all six on board.",
";8 August 1962: USAF KC-135A, ''55-3144'', crashed on approach to Runway 11 at Hanscom Field in Bedford, Massachusetts, killing all three on board.",
"Stock footage of this same aircraft had been used during the opening credits of the film ''Dr.",
"Strangelove''.",
";10 September 1962: USAF KC-135A, ''60-0352'' on a flight from Ellsworth Air Force Base to Fairchild Air Force Base crashed into a mountain just 20 miles (32 km) northeast of Spokane, Washington.",
"The flight hit fog on approach to the air base and hit Mount Kit Carson, a mountain.",
"The crash killed all four crew and 40 passengers on board.",
";27 February 1963: USAF KC-135A, ''56-3597'', crashed on takeoff at Eielson Air Force Base due to engine separation, killing all seven on board; two on the ground died when debris from the crash struck a guard house and nearby waiting room.",
";21 June 1963: USAF KC-135A-BN Stratotanker, 57-1498 out of Westover AFB crashed on approach during a training flight in a wooded area near Belchertown, Massachusetts.",
"One of the four occupants was killed.",
";28 August 1963: USAF KC-135A, ''61-0322'', collided in mid-air with KC-135A ''61-0319'' west of Bermuda, killing all 11 on board both aircraft.",
";8 July 1964: USAF KC-135A, ''60-0340'', collided in mid-air with F-105 Thunderchief ''61-0091'' during in-flight refueling over Death Valley, California, killing all five on board both aircraft.",
";4 January 1965: USAF KC-135A, ''61-0265'', crashed on climbout from Loring Air Force Base after two engines separated, killing all four on board.",
";16 January 1965: USAF KC-135A ''57-1442'', crashed after its rudder control system suffered a malfunction shortly after takeoff from McConnell Air Force Base, Kansas.",
"The fuel-laden plane crashed in northeast Wichita at a street intersection and caused a considerable fire.",
"A total of 30 were killed, including 23 on the ground and the seven member crew.",
";26 February 1965: USAF KC-135A, ''63-8882'', collided in mid-air with B-47E ''52-0171'' over the Atlantic Ocean, killing all eight on board both aircraft.",
";3 June 1965: USAF KC-135A, ''63-0842'', lost electrical power on takeoff and crashed at Walker Air Force Base, killing all five on board.",
";17 January 1966: A fatal collision occurred between a B-52G, ''58-0256'', and a KC-135A, ''61-0273'', flying out of Moron AB, Spain while flying over Palomares, Spain.",
"The B-52G was on an Operation Chrome Dome mission, which required multiple air refuelings.",
"The mishap caused both aircraft to break up in mid-air and killed all four crew members on the KC-135A and three of the seven on the B-52G, while causing radiological contamination, as nuclear weapons had to be recovered from on land and at sea, nearby.",
";19 May 1966: USAF KC-135A, ''57-1444'', of 4252nd Strategic Wing, crashed on takeoff from Kadena Air Base, killing all 11 on board as well as a motorist on nearby Highway 16.The aircraft was bound for Yokota Air Base to repair a KC-135 when it lifted off too soon during a heavy-weight takeoff.",
";19 January 1967: USAF KC-135A, ''56-3613'', crashed into Shadow Mountain, foothill of Mount Spokane (elevation MSL) while descending towards Fairchild Air Force Base, killing all nine on board.",
";17 January 1968: USAF KC-135A, ''58-0026'', stalled and crashed at Minot Air Force Base after the pilot overrotated the aircraft during takeoff in a snowstorm, killing all 13 on board including the 15th Air Force Vice Commander MGen Charles Eisenhart.",
"This accident was instrumental in the decision to refit the KC-135 fleet with the Collins FD-109(V) integrated flight director system, in place of the earlier \"round dial\" cockpit layout.",
";30 July 1968: USAF KC-135A, ''56-3655'', crashed on Mount Lassen after the vertical stabilizer broke off after a sharp turn while practicing an emergency descent, killing all nine on board.",
";24 September 1968: USAF KC-135A, \"55-3133A\", crashed on landing at Wake Island, Micronesia.",
"Aircraft developed engine problems while en route from Andersen AFB, Guam to Hickam AFB, Hawaii and during landing at Wake Island the aircraft contacted the surface of the water and bounced onto the east end of the runway.",
"There were 11 fatalities out 56 persons on board.",
";1 October 1968: USAF KC-135A, ''55-3138'', struck concrete and steel light poles on takeoff and crashed at U-Tapao Airport, Thailand after a loss of power in an engine and resultant loss of control, killing all four on board.",
";22 October 1968: USAF KC-135A, ''61-0301'', flew into a mountain while descending to Ching Chuan Kang Air Base, Taiwan, killing all six on board.",
";19 December 1969: USAF KC-135A, ''56-3629'', crashed into the sea on climbout from Ching Chuan Kang Air Base due to low-level windshear, killing all four on board.",
";3 June 1971: USAF KC-135Q, ''58-0039'', exploded in mid-air and crashed at Centenera, Spain, killing all five on board.",
";13 March 1972: KC-135A, ''58-0048'', crashed while landing at Carswell AFB.",
"Its right wing struck the ground, which led to the airplane exploding and killing all 5 on board.",
";8 March 1973: USAF KC-135A, ''63-7989'', collided with KC-135 ''63-7980'' on the ramp at Lockbourne Air Force Base and caught fire, killing two of five on board.",
";7 December 1975: USAF KC-135A, ''60-0354'', from Plattsburgh AFB, New York, crashed after takeoff at Eielson AFB, Alaska, killing all four crewmembers.",
"Launch was delayed because of problems with the receiver aircraft.",
"The KC-135 was required to sit at the end of the runway in extremely cold weather, without heat, with engines shut down.",
"Repeated requests for a mobile heat source were denied by the command post.",
"Landing gear failed to retract after takeoff.",
"Crewmembers may have suffered from hypothermia.",
";6 February 1976: USAF KC-135A, ''60-0368'', flew into a mountain while descending to Torrejon Air Base, Spain, killing all seven on board.",
"The aircraft was assigned to the 410th BMW/46th AREFS at K.I.",
"Sawyer AFB, Michigan, but, as is often the case on Tanker Task Force deployed operations, the flight crew was from another SAC unit at Seymour-Johnson AFB, North Carolina.",
"Only two aircraft crew chiefs on board were from K I Sawyer AFB, Michigan.",
";26 September 1976: USAF KC-135A, ''61-0296'', crashed while on approach to Wurtsmith Air Force Base, Michigan, killing 15 passengers and flight crew on board.",
"The aircraft was flying a ''\"First Team\"'' mission taking 10 passengers to HQ-Strategic Air Command for briefings and orientation.",
"The crew became distracted by a cabin pressurization problem after an intermediate stop and descended into a wooded area about southwest of Alpena, Michigan.",
"There was one survivor, reportedly a crew chief who was in the boom operator aft station (boom pod) at the time of the crash.",
";29 April 1977: USAF KC-135A, ''58-0101'' from Castle AFB hit five or six cows while practicing night takeoffs and landings at Beale AFB.",
"Takeoff was aborted and the plane overran the runway and caught on fire.",
"Of the crew of 7, there were no fatalities.",
"During that time cattle strayed through a broken fence from a nearby field and onto the runway.",
";19 September 1979: USAF KC-135A, ''58-0127'', from Castle AFB crashed on the runway during a simulated engine failure on a training flight, killing 15 of 20 occupants on board.",
";13 March 1982: Arizona ANG KC-135A, ''57-1489'' collided in mid-air with a civilian Grumman-American AA-1 Yankee near Luke AFB, Arizona.",
"The collision, which occurred as the tanker was descending on an IFR flight plan through an undercast, was struck by the civilian aircraft operating VFR just below the cloud deck, causing the tail of the KC-135 to be severed by the force of the impact.",
"The two civilians on the AA-1 and all four crew on the KC-135 were killed.",
"Included among the dead was the squadron commander of the 197th AREFS, Lt Col James N.",
"Floor.",
";19 March 1982: USAF KC-135A, ''58-0031'', exploded in mid-air at and crashed at Greenwood, Illinois, due to a possible overheated fuel pump, killing all 27 on board.",
";19 March 1985: USAF 8th AF KC-135A ''61-0316'' caught fire during ground refueling at Cairo International Airport (CAI), Cairo, Egypt.",
"The interior of the airplane was burned out and the aircraft was written off as damaged beyond repair although the wing structure was used in repairing KC-135A ''58-0014'' (which was later converted to a KC-135E).",
"There were no injuries reported.",
";28 August 1985: USAF KC-135A ''59-1443'' was damaged beyond repair when a student pilot allowed an engine to contact the runway during a landing attempt at Beale Air Force Base near Marysville, California.",
"During the go-around the instructor lost control of the aircraft while performing checklist items for an in-flight fire.",
"All seven (three instructors and four students) aboard the aircraft died in the crash.",
";17 June 1986: USAF KC-135A,''63-7983'', crashed while en route to Howard AFB, Panama.",
"It struck a hill south of the nearby Rodman Naval Station, killing all four crew members on board.",
"The tanker and crew were based at Grissom Air Force Base, Indiana.",
";13 March 1987: USAF KC-135A, ''60-0361'', crashed at Fairchild Air Force Base after encountering wake turbulence from a B-52, while practicing a low-level refueling display.",
"The aircraft rolled 80 degrees to the left, which stalled both left side engines (#1 and #2).",
"The crew was able to recover to wings level, but were too low and impacted the ground in an open area of the base.",
"The accident killed all six on board and one person on the ground.",
";11 October 1988: USAF KC-135A, ''60-0317'', crashed at Wurtsmith Force Base after a hard landing following a steep approach during crosswinds.",
"The airplane went off the side of the runway and broke up.",
"A fire erupted and killed all six crewmembers on board, while 10 passengers were able to jump to safety.",
"Pilot error was determined as the cause of the accident.",
";20 November 1988: USAF KC-135 suffered a failure of a sighting window next to the sextant port in the cockpit during a trans-Atlantic flight.",
"A boom operator died when he was sucked partway through the 10-inch by 8-inch window opening as the cockpit depressurized.",
"None of the 17 others on board were injured.",
";31 January 1989: USAF KC-135A, ''63-7990'', crashed on takeoff from Dyess AFB, Texas after the water-injection system for the Pratt & Whitney J-57 engines failed and the remaining \"dry\" thrust was insufficient for flight at the takeoff gross weight.",
"The mission was scheduled as a non-stop flight to Hickam AFB/Honolulu Hawaii with an en route F-16 air refueling mission.",
"7 crew members and 12 passengers, including military spouses, retired military members and one child, were killed.",
"The aircraft and crew were based at K I Sawyer AFB, Michigan.",
";20 September 1989: USAF KC-135E, ''57-1481'', exploded on the ground at Eielson Air Force Base due to an overheated fuel pump, killing two of seven on board.",
"The crew was shutting down the engines when the explosion occurred.",
";4 October 1989: KC-135A, ''56-3592'', from en route from Loring Air Force Base crashed into a hill along the west side of Trans-Canada Highway 2 at Carlingford, New Brunswick due to an overheated fuel pump, killing all four crew members.",
"After five accidents involving fuel pump overheating, crews were to keep of fuel in the tank.",
";11 January 1990: KC-135E, ''59-1494'', caught fire on the tarmac at Pease Air National Guard Base during maintenance work; there were no injuries, however the aircraft was destroyed.",
";6 February 1991: KC-135E, call sign \"Whale 05\", ''58-0013'' , flown by Maj. Kevin Sweeney (pilot), Capt.",
"Jay Selanders (co-pilot), Capt.",
"Greg Mermis (navigator), and Senior Master Sgt.",
"Steve Stucky (boom operator), during the Gulf War, after entering severe wake turbulence from a passing KC-135, the plane lost both engines from under the left wing.",
"The crew landed it successfully and it was later returned in service.",
"The entire crew received the Distinguished Flying Cross for their actions.",
"This accident was covered in ''Air Disasters'' episode \"Mission Disaster\" in 2021.;10 December 1993: a Wisconsin Air National Guard KC-135R, ''57-1470'', exploded while undergoing routine ground maintenance at General Mitchell Air National Guard Base due to an overheated fuel pump.",
"Six NCO maintenance personnel were killed.",
";13 January 1999: Washington Air National Guard KC-135E, ''59-1452'', crashed on approach in Geilenkirchen, Germany due to the horizontal stabilizer being in a 7.5 nose-up trim condition, killing all 4 crew members.",
";7 April 1999: Air National Guard KC-135R, ''57-1418'', was damaged beyond repair while undergoing a cabin pressurization check while in depot maintenance at the Oklahoma City Air Logistics Center at Tinker AFB, Oklahoma.",
"During a previous maintenance event, the pressure relief valves were secured shut and not released afterwards.",
"This created a catastrophic explosion that nearly separated the empennage from the aircraft and destroyed the aft fuselage section.",
"No personnel were injured or killed during the mishap, but the aircraft was a total loss.",
";26 September 2006: USAF KC-135R, ''63-8886'', was damaged beyond economical repair when it was struck by a Tupolev Tu-154 of Altyn Air, ''EX-85718'', while stopped on a taxiway after landing at Manas Air Base.",
"As the Tu-154 took off, its right wing struck the fairing of the KC-135R's No.",
"1 engine.",
"The force of the impact nearly severed the No.",
"1 engine and destroyed a portion of the left wing.",
"The resulting fire caused extensive damage to the KC-135.The Tu-154 lost about of its right wingtip, but was able to get airborne and return to the airport for an emergency landing.",
"The tanker crew had been directed to use a taxiway which was not usable for night operations and the controller failed to note that they reported \"holding short\" of that taxiway, rather than \"clear of\" that point.",
"The crew of the KC-135 evacuated the aircraft without serious injuries.",
";3 May 2013: A McConnell AFB, Kansas (USAF) KC-135R, ''63-8877'', flown by a Fairchild AFB, Washington aircrew, broke up in flight about eight minutes after taking off from Manas Air base in Kyrgyzstan, killing all three crew members.",
"After investigation, it was determined that a rudder power control unit malfunction led to a Dutch roll oscillatory instability.",
"Not recognizing the Dutch roll, the crew used the rudder to stay on course, which exacerbated the instability, leading to an unrecoverable flight condition.",
"The over-stressed tail section detached and the aircraft broke apart soon after.",
"The aircraft was at cruise altitude about 200 km west of Bishkek before it crashed in a mountainous area near the village of Chorgolu, close to the border between Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan."
],
[
"Aircraft on display",
"* 55-3118 ''The City of Renton'' – KC-135A on static display at the entrance to McConnell Air Force Base, Kansas.",
"It was the first aircraft built and was used in a variety of test roles.",
"It was later converted to an EC-135K before reverting to a tanker configuration.",
"* 55-3130 ''Old Grandad'' – KC-135A on static display at the March Field Air Museum, March ARB, California.",
"* 55-3139 ''City of Atwater'' – KC-135A on static display at the Castle Air Museum at the former Castle AFB, California.",
"* 56-3595 – KC-135A on static display at the Barksdale Global Power Museum at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana.",
"* 56-3611 – KC-135E on static display Scott Field Heritage Air Park at Scott Air Force Base, Illinois.",
"* 56-3639 – KC-135A on static display at the Linear Air Park at Dyess Air Force Base, Texas.",
"* 56-3658 ''Iron Eagle'' – KC-135E on static display at the Kansas Aviation Museum.",
"* 57-1429 – KC-135E on static display at the Museum of the Kansas National Guard at Forbes Field Air National Guard Base in Topeka, Kansas.",
"* 57-1458 – KC-135E on static display at Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska.",
"* 57-1495 – KC-135E in storage at Lincoln Air National Guard Base, Nebraska.",
"* 57-1507 – KC-135E on static display at the Air Mobility Command Museum at Dover Air Force Base, Delaware.",
"* 57-1510 ''Never Forget'' – KC-135E on static display at the Hill Aerospace Museum at Hill Air Force Base, Utah.",
"* 59-1481 – KC-135A on static display at Ellington Field Joint Reserve Base, Texas.",
"It was operated by NASA as N930NA and one of two KC-135s used for zero-gravity and other research purposes.",
"* 59-1487 – KC-135E on static display at the 126th Air Refueling Wing / Illinois Air National Guard complex at Scott Air Force Base.",
"* 59-1497 – KC-135E on static display at Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst, New Jersey.",
"* 60-0329 – KC-135R at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio, on display in the Air Park.",
"* 63-7998 – KC-135A on static display at the Pima Air & Space Museum, adjacent to Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona.",
"It was operated by NASA as N931NA and is the second of their two research aircraft.",
"* 63-8005 – KC-135A on static display at Grand Forks AFB, North Dakota."
],
[
"Specifications (KC-135R)",
"3-view silhouette drawing of the Boeing KC-135A Stratotanker"
],
[
"See also"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* USAF KC-135 fact sheet and photo gallery at official USAF website* KC-135 history page and KC-135 image gallery on Boeing.com* KC-135 page on awacs-spotter.nl* Photo gallery of NASA's KC-135A tanker* KC-135 page at fas.org - (not updated since late 1999, but still perhaps useful)* C-135 page at aero-web.org - Includes specs for many variants* Smart Tankers (Defence Today)* * National Museum of the Air Force video tour of KC-135"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Katsuhiro Otomo"
],
[
"Introduction",
" is a Japanese manga artist, screenwriter, animator and film director.",
"He is best known as the creator of ''Akira'', in terms of both the original 1982 manga series and the 1988 animated film adaptation.",
"He was decorated a ''Chevalier'' of the French Ordre des Arts et des Lettres in 2005, promoted to ''Officier'' of the order in 2014, became the fourth manga artist ever inducted into the American Eisner Award Hall of Fame in 2012, and was awarded the Purple Medal of Honor from the Japanese government in 2013.Otomo later received the Winsor McCay Award at the 41st Annie Awards in 2014 and the 2015 Grand Prix de la ville d'Angoulême, the first manga artist to receive the award.",
"Otomo is married to Yoko Otomo.",
"Together they have one child, a son named Shohei Otomo, who is also an artist."
],
[
"Early life",
"Katsuhiro Otomo was born in Tome, Miyagi Prefecture and grew up in Tome District.",
"He said that living in the very rural Tōhoku region left him with nothing to do as a child, so he read a lot of manga.",
"As the only boy in a family with older and younger sisters, he enjoyed reading and drawing manga on his own and thought about becoming a manga artist.",
"Limited by his parents to buying one manga book a month, Otomo typically chose Kobunsha's ''Shōnen'' magazine, which included ''Astro Boy'' by Osamu Tezuka and ''Tetsujin 28-go'' by Mitsuteru Yokoyama, series which he would copy drawing in elementary school.",
"However, he said it was after reading Shotaro Ishinomori's ''How to Draw Manga'' that he understood how to draw manga properly and started doing so more seriously.In high school, Otomo developed an interest in movies, that led to his ambition to become an illustrator or film director.",
"At this time, one of his friends introduced him to an editor at Futabasha, who, after seeing Otomo's manga, told the high school student to contact him if he moved to Tokyo after graduating.",
"Otomo did exactly that, and began his career as a professional manga artist."
],
[
"Career",
"===Manga===On October 4, 1973, Otomo published his first work, a manga adaptation of Prosper Mérimée's short story ''Mateo Falcone'', titled ''A Gun Report''.In 1979, after writing multiple short-stories for the magazine ''Weekly Manga Action'', Otomo created his first science-fiction work, titled ''Fireball''.",
"Although the manga was never completed, it is regarded as a milestone in Otomo's career as it contained many of the same themes he would explore in his later, more successful manga such as ''Dōmu''.",
"''Dōmu'' began serialization in January 1980 and ran until July 1981.It was not published in book form until 1983, when it won the Nihon SF Taisho Award.",
"It also won the 1984 Seiun Award for Best Comic.In a collaboration with writer Toshihiko Yahagi, Otomo illustrated ''Kibun wa mō Sensō'' about a fictional war that erupts in the border between China and the Soviet Union.",
"It was published in ''Weekly Manga Action'' from 1980 to 1981 and collected into one volume in 1982.It won the 1982 Seiun Award for Best Comic.",
"38 years later, the two created the one-shot sequel ''Kibun wa mō Sensō 3 (Datta Kamo Shirenai)'' for the April 16, 2019 issue of the magazine.Also in 1981, Otomo drew ''A Farewell to Weapons'' for the November 16 issue of Kodansha's ''Young Magazine''.",
"It was later included in the 1990 short story collection ''Kanojo no Omoide...''Otomo posing on a replica of a futuristic motorcycle seen in his series ''Akira'' (2016)In 1982, Otomo began what would become his most acclaimed and famous work: ''Akira''.",
"Kodansha had been asking him to write a series for their new ''Young Magazine'' for some time, but he had been busy with other work.",
"From the first meeting with the publisher, ''Akira'' was to be only about ten chapters \"or something like that,\" so Otomo said he was really not expecting it to be a success.",
"It was serialized for eight years and 2000 pages of artwork.In 1990, Otomo did a brief interview with MTV for a general segment on the Japanese manga scene at the time.",
"Otomo created the one-shot ''Hi no Yōjin'' about people who put out fires in Japan's Edo period for the debut issue of ''Comic Cue'' in January 1995.Otomo wrote the 2002 picture book ''Hipira: The Little Vampire'', which was illustrated by Shinji Kimura.Otomo created the full-color work ''DJ Teck no Morning Attack'' for the April 2012 issue of ''Geijutsu Shincho''.Following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, Otomo, a native of the Tōhoku region, designed a relief that features a boy riding a robot goldfish in rough seas, while flanked by Fūjin and Raijin.",
"Intended to capture the region's will to overcome the natural disaster, it has been located on the first floor of the terminal building at Sendai Airport since March 2015.In 2019, Kodansha announced that they will be re-releasing Otomo's entire body of manga since 1971 as part of \"The Complete Works Project\".",
"It was noted that some of his manga were edited when initially compiled into book format, and this new project, personally overseen by Otomo, plans to restore them to how they appeared in their original serialization.Otomo was initially reported in 2012 to be working on his first long-form manga since ''Akira''.",
"Planning to draw the work that is set during Japan's Meiji period without assistants, he was initially targeting a younger audience, but said the story had developed more towards an older one.",
"Although planned to begin in fall 2012, Otomo revealed in November of that year that the series had been delayed.",
"In 2018, Otomo said he is working on a full-length work, but the contents are secret.===Film===At the age of 25, Otomo spent about 5 million yen to make a 16 mm live-action film about an hour long.",
"He said that making this private film showed him roughly how to make and direct movies.",
"In 1982, Otomo made his anime debut, working as character designer for the animated film ''Harmagedon: Genma Wars''.",
"It was while working on this film that Otomo began to think he could do it by himself.In 1987, Otomo directed an animated work for the first time: a segment, which he also wrote the screenplay and drew animation for, in the anthology feature ''Neo Tokyo''.",
"He followed this up with two segments in another anthology released that year, ''Robot Carnival''.",
"In 1988, he directed the animated film adaptation of his manga ''Akira''.Otomo was executive producer of 1995's ''Memories'', an anthology film based on three of his stories.",
"Additionally, he wrote the script for ''Stink Bomb'' and ''Cannon Fodder'', the latter of which he also directed.Otomo has worked extensively with the studio Sunrise.",
"In 1998, he directed the CG short ''Gundam: Mission to the Rise'' to celebrate the 20th anniversary of their ''Gundam'' franchise.",
"The studio has animated and produced his 2004 feature film ''Steamboy'', 2006's ''Freedom Project'', and 2007's ''SOS!",
"Tokyo Metro Explorers: The Next''.",
"The last, is based on Otomo's 1980 manga ''SOS!",
"Tokyo Metro Explorer'' and follows the son of its main characters.The 2001 animated film ''Metropolis'' features a script written by Otomo that adapts Tezuka's manga of the same name.Otomo directed the 2006 live-action film ''Mushishi'', based on Yuki Urushibara's manga of the same name.In 2013, Otomo took part in ''Short Peace'', an anthology consisting on 4 short films; he directed ''Combustible'', a tragic love story set in the Edo period based on his 1995 manga ''Hi no Yōjin'', while Hajime Katoki directed ''A Farewell to Weapons'', depicting a battle in a ruined Tokyo based on Otomo's 1981 manga of the same name.",
"''Combustible'' won the Grand Prize in the Animation category of the Japan Media Arts Festival in 2012, and was shortlisted for the 2013 Best Animated Short at the 85th Academy Awards, but failed to get nominated.Otomo directed the music video for Aya Nakano's 2016 song \"Juku-Hatachi\".",
"He is a fan of the singer and previously drew the cover to her 2014 album ''Warui Kuse''.Reports have suggested that Otomo will be the executive producer of the live-action film adaptation of ''Akira''.",
"In 2019, he announced that he is writing and directing an animated film adaptation of his 2001 manga ''Orbital Era'' with Sunrise."
],
[
"Style",
"Otomo said that when he started his professional career in the late 1970s, \"almost all manga was gekiga like ''Golgo 13''.",
"So it was all gekiga or sports manga, nothing to do with science fiction.\"",
"Remembering how much he loved science fiction as a child, Otomo wanted to recreate that kind of excitement; \"That was in part how something like ''Domu'' came about.",
"...",
"There was no hard science fiction manga ... so I wanted to change that and do something more realistic and believable.",
"\"Describing his characterization style, Otomo said he first tried to draw and imitate \"very traditional manga-like art,\" such as ''Astro Boy''.",
"But by the time he was in high school, illustration work by people like Tadanori Yokoo and Yoshitaro Isaka was popular, so he wanted to create manga characters with this illustrative art style.",
"When asked about how Japanese critics praise him as the first manga artist to draw realistic Japanese faces, Otomo said he always tries to balance fantasy and realism; \"Depicting things too realistically actually damages the social realism of the piece, and if you go too far into the realm of fantasy, that hurts its imaginative ability.\"",
"However, he said the realism of his early works probably came from having used friends as character models.",
"French cartoonist Moebius, who is known for realistic character designs, is often cited as one of Otomo's biggest influences.",
"Otomo is considered to be one of the artists of the New Wave in manga in the late 1970s and 1980s especially due to his visual innovation.Otomo includes homages to his favorite childhood manga in his work, and there were three manga authors that he really respected; Osamu Tezuka, Shotaro Ishinomori and Mitsuteru Yokoyama.",
"He named the main computer in ''Fireball'' ATOM after Tezuka's character of the same name, the character nicknamed Ecchan in ''Domu'' is a reference to Ishinomori's ''Sarutobi Ecchan'', and the title character of ''Akira'' is also known as No.",
"28 in homage to Yokoyama's ''Tetsujin 28-go'' in addition to the two series having the \"same overall plot.\"",
"Ever since depicting the apartment complex in ''Domu'', Otomo has had a large interest in architecture, proclaiming, \"I don't think there was anyone before me who put this much effort into their depictions of buildings.\"",
"He believes this habit of drawing detailed backgrounds was influenced by Shigeru Mizuki's manga, which showed him how important backdrops are to a story.",
"Otomo strongly praised the framing done by Tetsuya Chiba, whose work he studied a lot out of admiration, for making it easy to grasp how tangible the backgrounds and characters are.When asked about his influences in designing the mecha in ''Farewell to Weapons'', Otomo pointed out that Studio Nue's work was popular at the time, specifically mentioning the powered suit designs by Kazutaka Miyatake and Naoyuki Kato.",
"He also stated that he is a fan of mecha by Takashi Watabe and Makoto Kobayashi and is fond of those seen in ''Neon Genesis Evangelion'', but explained that all his influences are jumbled and mixed together; \"In short, I digest many different things and ideas tend to pop out from that.\""
],
[
"Legacy",
"France's 2016 Angoulême International Comics Festival hosted an exhibition of art created in tribute to Otomo.It was around the 1979 publication of his ''Short Peace'' short story collection that Otomo's work became influential in Japan.",
"Artists influenced by him and his work include Hisashi Eguchi, Naoki Urasawa, Naoki Yamamoto, Makoto Aida and Hiroya Oku.",
"When talking in 1997 about the future of manga, Urasawa opined that \"Osamu Tezuka created the form that exists today, then caricatures appeared next, and comics changed again when Katsuhiro Otomo came on the scene.",
"I don't think there's any room left for further changes.\"",
"Masashi Kishimoto cited Otomo as one of his two biggest influences, but liked Otomo's art style the best and imitated it while trying to develop his own.Otomo's manga work also notably influenced a number of Japanese video game designers by the mid-1980s, including Enix's Yuji Horii (''The Portopia Serial Murder Case'' and ''Dragon Quest''), Capcom's Noritaka Funamizu (''Gun.Smoke'' and ''Hyper Dyne Side Arms''), UPL's Tsutomu Fujisawa (''Ninja-Kid''), Thinking Rabbit's Hiroyuki Imabayashi (''Sokoban''), dB-SOFT's Naoto Shinada (''Volguard''), Hot-B's Jun Kuriyama (''Psychic City''), and Microcabin's Masashi Katou (''Eiyuu Densetsu Saga'').Director Satoshi Kon, who worked as an assistant to Otomo in both manga and film, cited ''Akira'' and especially ''Domu'' as influences.",
"American film director Rian Johnson is a big fan of Otomo and pointed out similarities between how telekinesis is depicted in ''Domu'' and its depiction in his film ''Looper''.In 2017, the book ''Otomo: A Global Tribute to the Mind Behind Akira'' was published in Japan, France and the United States, featuring writing and artwork from 80 artists such as Masakazu Katsura, Taiyo Matsumoto, Masamune Shirow, Asaf and Tomer Hanuka, and Stan Sakai.",
"From April 8 to May 8, 2021, comic art collector Phillipe Labaune's self-titled art gallery in New York City held \"Good For Health, Bad For Education: A Tribute to Otomo\" as its first exhibition.",
"Including pieces originally curated by Julien Brugeas for the 2016 Angoulême International Comics Festival, it featured a total of 29 Otomo-inspired works by international artists such as Sara Pichelli, Paul Pope, Boulet, François Boucq, Giannis Milonogiannis and Ian Bertram."
],
[
"Bibliography",
"===Manga=== Year(s) Title Notes 1973 Short story based on Prosper Mérimée, published in Manga Action (漫画アクション増刊) on 4th August 1973.1973 Short story based on Edogawa Ranpo, published in Manga Action (漫画アクション増刊) on 6th October 1973.1973 Short story based on Mark Twain, published in Manga Action (漫画アクション増刊) on 3th November 1973.1973 Short story published in Weekly Manga Action (週刊漫画アクション) on 29th November 1973.1973 Short story published in Weekly Manga Action (週刊漫画アクション) on 20th December 1973.1974 Short story published in Manga Action (漫画アクション増刊) on 26th January 1974.1974 Short story published in Weekly Manga Action (週刊漫画アクション) on 28th February 1974.1974 ''BOOGIE WOOGIE WALTZ'' Short story published in Weekly Manga Action (週刊漫画アクション) on 25th April 1974, later collected in BOOGIE WOOGIE WALTZ.",
"1974 ''BOOGIE WOOGIE WALTZ'' Short story published in Weekly Manga Action (週刊漫画アクション) on 23rd May 1974, later collected in GOOD WEATHER.",
"1974 ''ONE DOWN'' Short story published in Weekly Manga Action (週刊漫画アクション) on 4th July 1974.1974 Short story published in Weekly Manga Action (週刊漫画アクション) on 15th August 1974, later collected in BOOGIE WOOGIE WALTZ.",
"1974 Short story published in Weekly Manga Action (週刊漫画アクション) on 3rd October 1974, later collected in BOOGIE WOOGIE WALTZ.",
"1974 Short story published in Weekly Manga Action (週刊漫画アクション) on 31st October 1974, later collected in BOOGIE WOOGIE WALTZ.",
"1974 Short story published in Weekly Manga Action (週刊漫画アクション) on 5th December 1974, later collected in BOOGIE WOOGIE WALTZ.",
"1975 Short story published in Weekly Manga Action (週刊漫画アクション) on 6th February 1975, later collected in BOOGIE WOOGIE WALTZ.",
"1975 Short story published in Weekly Manga Action (週刊漫画アクション) on 6th March 1975, later collected in BOOGIE WOOGIE WALTZ.",
"1975 Short story published in Weekly Manga Action (週刊漫画アクション) on 5th June 1975, later collected in BOOGIE WOOGIE WALTZ.",
"1975 Short story published in Weekly Manga Action (週刊漫画アクション) on 7th August 1975, later collected in HIGHWAY STAR.",
"1975 Short story published in Manga Action (漫画アクション増刊) on 23rd August 1975, later collected in BOOGIE WOOGIE WALTZ.",
"1975 Short story published in Weekly Manga Action (週刊漫画アクション) on 27th November 1975, later collected in BOOGIE WOOGIE WALTZ.",
"1976 Short story published in Manga Action (漫画アクション増刊) on 3rd January 1976, later collected in BOOGIE WOOGIE WALTZ.",
"1976 Short story based on a work by Edogawa Ranpo, published in 別冊漫画アクション on 21st March 1976.1976 Published in two parts on 8th and 15th of April 1976 in Weekly Manga Action (週刊漫画アクション), later collected in GOOD WEATHER.",
"1976 Short story published in 別冊漫画アクション on 16th July 1976, later collected in HIGHWAY STAR.",
"1976 Short story published in Manga Action (漫画アクション増刊) on 9th August 1976, later collected in Short Peace.",
"1976 Short story published in Manga Action (漫画アクション増刊) on 1st September 1976, later collected in HIGHWAY STAR.",
"1976 ''CHUCK CHECK CHICKEN'' Short story published in Manga Action (漫画アクション増刊) on 3rd November 1976, later collected in GOOD WEATHER.",
"1976 ''School-boy on good time'' Short story published in Manga Action (漫画アクション増刊) on 3rd December 1976, later collected in Short Peace.",
"1977 Short story published in Manga Action (漫画アクション増刊) on 7th January 1977, later collected in Short Peace.",
"1977 Short story published in Manga Action (漫画アクション増刊) on 1st February 1977, later collected in Short Peace.",
"1977 ''‘ROUND ABOUT MIDNIGHT'' Short story published in Manga Action (漫画アクション増刊) on 5th April 1977, later collected in Short Peace.",
"1977 ''NOTHING WILL BE AS IT WAS'' Short story published in Manga Action (漫画アクション増刊) on 13th May 1977, later collected in Short Peace.",
"1977 ''WHISKY GO-GO'' Short story published in Manga Action (漫画アクション増刊) on 14th June 1977, later collected in Short Peace.",
"1977 Short story published in 別冊漫画アクション on 1st July 1977, later collected in HIGHWAY STAR.",
"1977 Short story published in Manga Action (漫画アクション増刊) on 12th July 1977, later collected in HIGHWAY STAR.",
"1977 Short story published in Manga Action (漫画アクション増刊) on 27th July 1977, later collected in HIGHWAY STAR.",
"1977 ''Miner Swing'' Short story published by Futabasha in the August 24th 1977 special issue of Manga Action, that was later reissued as a part of \"Kanojo no Omoide...\" - a Katsuhiro Otomo short story collection.",
"1977–1978 Published as five parts in 1977.08.04, 1977.09.08, 1977.10.20, 1978.01.05 and 1978.02.23 issues of Weekly Manga Action (週刊漫画アクション), later collected in Sayonara Nippon.",
"1977 ''GOOD WEATHER'' Published in two parts on 21st September and 2nd November of 1977 in Manga Action (漫画アクション増刊) on 27th July 1977, later collected in GOOD WEATHER.",
"1979 ''Fire-Ball'' 1979–1980 ''Ōtomo Katsuhiro no Eiyō Manten!''",
"1979 ''Seija ga Machi ni Yattekuru'' Short stories published in Weekly Manga Action (週刊漫画アクション) and later collected in Sayonara Nippon.",
"1979 ''G...'' Written by Nobuyuki Shirayama, published in four parts in 1979.08.01, 1979.08.08, 1979.08.15 and 1979.08.22 issues of Young Comic (ヤングコミック).",
"1979–1983 1980–1981 1980–1981 1980–1981 Written by Toshihiko Yahagi 1980–1981 ''APPLE PARADISE'' Unfinished; Episode 1 was published in four parts in summer and autumn of 1980 and winter and March of 1981 issues of Manga Kisōtengai (マンガ奇想天外), Episode 2 was published in three parts in March, June and November of 1981 issues of Manga Kisōtengai.",
"1982–1990 ''Akira'' 1984 ''Visitors'' Short story published on 1st June 1984, later collected in SOS dai Tôkyô tankentai (SOS 大東京探検隊).",
"1990 ''The Legend of Mother Sarah'' Illustrated by Takumi Nagayasu 1995 1996 ''Batman: Black & White'' #4 (The Third Mask) Writer, artist 2001 ''Orbital Era'' 2002 Illustrated by Shinji Kimura 2006 2012 ''DJ Teck no Morning Attack'' 2012 ''Kibun wa mō Sensō 3 (Datta Kamo Shirenai)'' Written by Toshihiko Yahagi===Short story collections=== Year(s) Title Notes 1979 Published by Kisō Tengaisha on 10th March 1979.Reissued by Futabasha in 1984 as the third installment in the ''Katsuhiro Otomo Masterpiece Collection'', with the addition of .",
"1979 First short story collection in the ''Katsuhiro Otomo Masterpiece Collection'' published on 13th October 1979.1981 ''GOOD WEATHER'' Published on 1st February 1981.1981 ''Sayonara Nippon'' Second short story collection in the ''Katsuhiro Otomo Masterpiece Collection'', released in 16th July 1981.1981 Published on 25th October 1981.1982 ''BOOGIE WOOGIE WALTZ'' Published on 5th May 1982.1990 Published on 23rd April 1990.1996 Published on 6th February 1996.===Artbooks=== Year Title Notes 1989 ''Kaba'' 1995 ''Akira Club'' 2003 ''Akira Animation Archives'' 2008 ''Viva il Ciclissimo!''",
"Collaboration with Katsuya Terada 2012 ''Kaba 2'' 2012 ''Genga''"
],
[
"Filmography",
"'''Anime features''' Year Title Director Writer 1988 ''Akira'' 1991 ''Roujin Z'' 2001 ''Metropolis'' 2004 ''Steamboy'' TBA''Orbital Era'' '''Anime shorts''' Year Title Director Writer ExecutiveProducer Notes 1987 ''Construction Cancellation Order'' Segment of ''Neo Tokyo'' \"Opening\" and \"Ending\" Segments of ''Robot Carnival'' 1995 ''Magnetic Rose'' Segments of ''Memories'' ''Stink Bomb'' ''Cannon Fodder'' 1998 ''Gundam: Mission to the Rise'' 2013 ''Combustible'' Segment of ''Short Peace'''''Live-action''' Year Title Director Writer Producer Notes 1979 ''High School Erotopia: Red Uniforms'' Pornographic film 1982 1991 ''World Apartment Horror'' 2006 ''Mushishi'' '''Additional work'''Besides his own animation, Otomo has contributed art designs to ''Harmagedon: Genma Wars'', the ''Crusher Joe'' film, the seven-part OVA series ''Freedom Project'', and ''Space Dandy'' episode 22.He also oversaw the composition of the ''Spriggan'' animated film and directed the music video for Aya Nakano."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Otomo: The Complete Works* * * Katsuhiro Otomo at ''The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction''"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kate Bush"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Catherine Bush''' (born 30 July 1958) is an English singer, songwriter, record producer and dancer.",
"In 1978, at the age of 19, she topped the UK Singles Chart for four weeks with her debut single \"Wuthering Heights\", becoming the first female artist to achieve a UK number one with a self-written song.",
"Bush has since released 25 UK Top 40 singles, including the Top 10 hits \"The Man with the Child in His Eyes\", \"Babooshka\", \"Running Up That Hill\", \"Don't Give Up\" (a duet with Peter Gabriel), and \"King of the Mountain\".",
"All nine of her studio albums reached the UK Top 10, with all but one reaching the top five, including the UK number one albums ''Never for Ever'' (1980), ''Hounds of Love'' (1985) and the greatest hits compilation ''The Whole Story'' (1986).",
"She was the first British solo female artist to top the UK album charts and the first female artist to enter the album chart at number one.Bush began writing songs at 11.She was signed to EMI Records after Pink Floyd guitarist David Gilmour helped produce a demo tape.",
"Her debut album, ''The Kick Inside'', was released in 1978.Bush slowly gained artistic independence in album production and has produced all her studio albums by herself since ''The Dreaming'' (1982).",
"She took a hiatus between her seventh and eighth albums, ''The Red Shoes'' (1993) and ''Aerial'' (2005).",
"Bush drew attention again in 2014 with her concert residency Before the Dawn, her first shows since 1979's The Tour of Life.",
"In 2022, \"Running Up That Hill\" received renewed attention after it appeared in the Netflix series ''Stranger Things'', becoming Bush's second UK number one and reaching the top of several other charts.",
"It also reached number 3 on the US ''Billboard'' Hot 100, and its parent album, ''Hounds of Love'', became Bush's first album to reach the top of a ''Billboard'' albums chart.Bush's eclectic musical style, unconventional lyrics, performances and literary themes have influenced a diverse range of artists.",
"She has received 13 Brit Awards nominations, winning for Best British Female Artist in 1987, and has been nominated for three Grammy Awards.",
"In 2002, Bush was recognised with an Ivor Novello Award for Outstanding Contribution to British Music.",
"She was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2013 New Year Honours for services to music.",
"She also became a Fellow of The Ivors Academy in the UK in 2020.That year, ''Rolling Stone'' ranked ''Hounds of Love'' at number 68 on their list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time.",
"In 2021, \"Running Up That Hill\" was also listed at number 60 in ''Rolling Stone'''s 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.",
"In 2023, she was ranked at number 60 on Rolling Stone's list of the ''200 Greatest Singers of All Time''.",
"Bush was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2023."
],
[
"Life and career",
"===1958–1974: Early life===Bush was born on 30 July 1958 at the maternity hospital in Bexleyheath, Kent, to an English doctor, general practitioner Robert Bush (1920–2008), and Hannah Patricia (née Daly) (1918–1992), an Irish staff nurse, daughter of a farmer in County Waterford.",
"She grew up with her elder brothers, John and Paddy, in a 350-year-old former farmhouse at East Wickham near Welling, which neighbours Bexleyheath.",
"Bush came from an artistic background: her mother was an amateur traditional Irish dancer, her father was an amateur pianist, Paddy worked as a musical instrument maker, and John was a poet and photographer.",
"Both brothers were involved in the local folk music scene.",
"She was raised as a Roman Catholic.Bush trained at Goldsmiths College karate club where her brother John was a karate instructor.",
"There she became known as \"Ee-ee\" because of her squeaky kiai.Her family's musical influence inspired Bush to teach herself the piano at the age of 11.She also played the organ in a barn behind her parents' house and studied the violin.",
"She soon began composing songs, eventually adding her own lyrics.===1975–1977: Career beginnings===Bush attended St Joseph's Convent Grammar School, a Catholic girls' school in nearby Abbey Wood.",
"During this time, her family produced a demo tape with over 50 of her compositions, which was turned down by record labels.",
"Pink Floyd guitarist David Gilmour received the demo from Ricky Hopper, a mutual friend of Gilmour and the Bush family.",
"Impressed, Gilmour helped the 16-year-old Bush record a more professional demo tape.",
"Bush recorded three tracks, paid for by Gilmour.",
"The tape was produced by Gilmour's friend Andrew Powell; Powell later produced Bush's first two albums, and sound engineer Geoff Emerick, who had worked with the Beatles.",
"The tape was sent to EMI executive Terry Slater who signed Bush.The British record industry was reaching a point of stagnation.",
"Progressive rock was very popular and visually oriented rock performers were growing in popularity, thus record labels looking for the next big thing were considering experimental acts.",
"Bush was put on retainer for two years by Bob Mercer, managing director of EMI's group-repertoire division.",
"According to Mercer, he felt Bush's material was good enough to release, but felt that if the album failed it would be demoralising and if it was successful Bush was too young to handle it.",
"However, in a 1987 interview, Gilmour disputed this version of events, blaming EMI for initially using the \"wrong\" producers.EMI gave Bush a large advance, which she used to enroll in interpretive dance classes taught by Lindsay Kemp, a former teacher of David Bowie, and mime training with Adam Darius.",
"For the first two years of her contract, Bush spent more time on schoolwork than recording.",
"She left school after doing her mock A-Levels and having gained ten GCE O-Level qualifications.Bush wrote and made demos of almost 200 songs, some of which circulated as bootlegs.",
"From March to August 1977, she fronted the KT Bush Band at public houses in London.",
"The band included Del Palmer (bass), Brian Bath (guitar), and Vic King (drums).",
"She began recording her first album in August 1977.===1978–1979: ''The Kick Inside'' and ''Lionheart''===Bush in 1978For her debut album, ''The Kick Inside'' (1978), Bush was persuaded to use established session musicians instead of the KT Bush Band.",
"She retained some of these even after she had brought her bandmates back on board.",
"Her brother Paddy played the harmonica and mandolin.",
"Stuart Elliott played some of the drums and became her main drummer on subsequent albums.",
"''The Kick Inside'' was released when Bush was 19, with some songs written when she was as young as 13.EMI originally wanted the more rock-oriented track \"James and the Cold Gun\" to be her debut single, but Bush, who already had a reputation for asserting herself in decisions about her work, insisted that it should be \"Wuthering Heights\".",
"Two music videos with similar choreography were created by Bush to accompany the song.",
"The studio version sees her perform in a dark room with mist while wearing a white dress, suggesting her character is a ghost (as is the case with Cathy in the novel that inspired the song).",
"The outside version sees Bush dancing in a grassy area in Salisbury Plain (inspired by the novel's moors) while wearing a red dress.In the United Kingdom alone, ''The Kick Inside'' sold over a million copies.",
"\"Wuthering Heights\" topped the UK and Australian charts and became an international hit.",
"Bush became the first British woman to reach number one on the UK charts with a self-written song.",
"\"The Man with the Child in His Eyes\" made it onto the US ''Billboard'' Hot 100 where it reached number 85 in early 1979, and went on to win her an Ivor Novello Award in 1979 for Outstanding British Lyric.",
"According to ''Guinness World Records'', Bush was the first female artist in pop history to have written every track on a million-selling debut album.Bob Mercer blamed Bush's lesser success in the United States on American radio formats, saying there were no outlets for Bush's visual presentation.",
"EMI capitalised on Bush's appearance by promoting the album with a poster of her in a tight pink top which emphasised her breasts.",
"In an interview with ''NME'' in 1982, Bush criticised the choice: \"People weren't even generally aware that I wrote my own songs or played the piano.",
"The media just promoted me as a female body.",
"It's like I've had to prove that I'm an artist in a female body.\"",
"In late 1978, EMI persuaded Bush to quickly record a follow-up album, ''Lionheart'', to take advantage of the success of ''The Kick Inside''.",
"The album was produced by Andrew Powell, assisted by Bush.",
"Although it gained a high number of sales and spawned the hit single \"Wow\", it did not reach the success of ''The Kick Inside'', reaching number six in the UK album charts.",
"She went on to express dissatisfaction with ''Lionheart'', feeling that it had needed more time.Bush set up her own publishing company, Kate Bush Music, and her own management company, Novercia, to maintain control of her work.",
"Members of her family, along with Bush herself, composed the board of directors.",
"Following the release of ''Lionheart'', she was required by EMI to undertake heavy promotional work and an exhausting tour.",
"The Tour of Life began in April 1979 and lasted six weeks.",
"It was described by ''The Guardian'' as \"an extraordinary, hydra-headed beast, combining music, dance, poetry, mime, burlesque, magic and theatre\".",
"The show was co-devised and performed on stage with magician Simon Drake.",
"Bush was involved in every aspect of the production, choreography, set design, costume design and hiring.",
"The shows were noted for her dancing, complex lighting and her 17 costume changes per show.",
"Because of her need to dance as she sang, sound engineers used a wire coat hanger and a radio microphone to fashion a headset microphone; it was the first use by a rock performer since the Spotnicks used a rudimentary version in the early 1960s.===1980–1984: ''Never for Ever'' and ''The Dreaming''===Released in September 1980, ''Never for Ever'' was Bush's second foray into production, co-producing with Jon Kelly.",
"Her first experience as a producer was on her ''Live on Stage'' EP, released after her tour the previous year.",
"The first two albums had resulted in a definitive sound evident in every track, with orchestral arrangements supporting the live band sound.",
"The range of styles on ''Never for Ever'' is much more diverse, veering from the straightforward rocker \"Violin\" to the wistful waltz of hit single \"Army Dreamers\".Bush in 1982''Never for Ever'' was her first album to feature synthesisers and drum machines, in particular the Fairlight CMI.",
"She was introduced to the technology while providing backing vocals on Peter Gabriel's eponymous third album in early 1980.It was her first record to reach the top position in the UK album charts, also making her the first female British artist to achieve that status, and the first female artist ever to enter the album chart at the top.",
"The top-selling single from the album was \"Babooshka\", which reached No.",
"5 in the UK Singles Chart.",
"In November 1980, she released the standalone Christmas single \"December Will Be Magic Again\", which reached No.",
"29 in the UK charts.September 1982 saw the release of ''The Dreaming'', the first album Bush produced by herself.",
"With her new-found freedom, she experimented with production techniques, creating an album that features a diverse blend of musical styles and is known for its near-exhaustive use of the Fairlight CMI.",
"''The Dreaming'' received a mixed reception in the UK, and critics were baffled by the dense soundscapes Bush had created to become \"less accessible\".",
"In a 1993 interview with ''Q'' magazine, Bush stated: \"That was my 'She's gone mad' album.\"",
"However, the album became her first to enter the US ''Billboard'' 200 chart, albeit only reaching No.",
"157.The album entered the UK album chart at No.",
"3, but is to date her lowest-selling album, garnering \"only\" a silver disc.",
"\"Sat in Your Lap\" was the first single from the album to be released.",
"It preceded the album by over a year and peaked at No.",
"11 in the UK.",
"The title track, featuring Rolf Harris and Percy Edwards, stalled at No.",
"48, while the third single, \"There Goes a Tenner\", stalled at No.",
"93, despite promotion from EMI and Bush.",
"The track \"Suspended in Gaffa\" was released as a single in Europe, but not in the UK.Continuing in her storytelling tradition, Bush looked far outside her own personal experience for sources of inspiration.",
"She drew on old crime films for \"There Goes a Tenner\", a documentary about the Vietnam War for \"Pull Out the Pin\", and the plight of Indigenous Australians for \"The Dreaming\".",
"\"Houdini\" is about the magician's death, and \"Get Out of My House\" was inspired by Stephen King's novel ''The Shining''.===1985–1988: ''Hounds of Love'' and ''The Whole Story''===Publicity shot of Bush in 1982''Hounds of Love'' was released in 1985.Because of the high cost of hiring studio space for her previous album, she built a private studio near her home, where she could work at her own pace.",
"''Hounds of Love'' topped the charts in the UK, knocking Madonna's ''Like a Virgin'' from the number-one position.The album takes advantage of the vinyl and cassette formats with two very different sides.",
"The first side, ''Hounds of Love'', contains five \"accessible\" pop songs, including the four singles \"Running Up That Hill\", \"Cloudbusting\", \"Hounds of Love\", and \"The Big Sky\".",
"\"Running Up That Hill\" reached No.",
"3 in the UK charts and re-introduced Bush to American listeners, climbing to No.",
"30 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 in November 1985.Bush has stated that she initially wanted to name the song \"A Deal With God\", but the record company was reluctant because some people might think it was \"a sensitive title\", but that \"... for me, this is still called A Deal With God\".",
"The second side of the album, ''The Ninth Wave'', takes its name from Tennyson's poem, \"Idylls of the King\", about the legendary King Arthur's reign, and is seven interconnecting songs joined in one continuous piece of music.The album earned Bush nominations for Best Female Solo Artist, Best Album, Best Single, and Best Producer at the 1986 Brit Awards.",
"In the same year, Bush and Peter Gabriel had a UK Top 10 hit with the duet \"Don't Give Up\" (Dolly Parton, Gabriel's original choice to sing the female vocal, turned his offer down), and EMI released her \"greatest hits\" album, ''The Whole Story''.",
"Bush provided a new lead vocal and refreshed backing track on \"Wuthering Heights\", and recorded a new single, \"Experiment IV\", for inclusion on the compilation.",
"Dawn French and Hugh Laurie were among those featured in the video for Experiment IV.",
"At the 1987 Brit Awards, Bush won the award for Best British Female Solo Artist.===1989–1993: ''The Sensual World'' and ''The Red Shoes''===Released in 1989, ''The Sensual World'' was described by Bush herself as \"her most honest, personal album\".",
"One of the tracks, \"Heads We're Dancing\", inspired by her own black humour, is about a woman who dances all night with a charming stranger only to discover in the morning that he is Adolf Hitler.",
"The title track drew its inspiration from James Joyce's novel ''Ulysses''.",
"''The Sensual World'' went on to become her biggest-selling album in the US, receiving an RIAA Gold certification four years after its release for 500,000 copies sold.",
"In the United Kingdom album charts, it reached the number-two position.",
"Another single from the album, \"This Woman's Work\", was featured in the John Hughes film ''She's Having a Baby'', and a slightly remixed version appeared on Bush's album ''The Sensual World''.",
"The song reached number-eight in 2005 on the UK download chart after featuring in a British television advertisement for the charity NSPCC.In 1990, the boxed set ''This Woman's Work'' was released; it included all of her albums with their original cover art, as well as two discs featuring the majority of her singles' B-sides recorded from 1978 to 1990.In 1991, Bush released a cover of Elton John's \"Rocket Man\", which reached number 12 in the UK singles chart, and reached number two in Australia.",
"In 2007, it was voted the greatest cover ever by readers of ''The Observer'' newspaper.",
"Another John cover, \"Candle in the Wind\", was the B-side.",
"In the same year, she starred in the black comedy film ''Les Dogs'', produced by ''The Comic Strip'' for BBC television.",
"Bush plays the bride Angela at a wedding set in a post-apocalyptic Britain.Bush's seventh studio album, ''The Red Shoes'', was released in November 1993.The album gave Bush her highest chart position in the US, reaching number 28, although the only song from the album to make the US singles chart was \"Rubberband Girl\", which peaked at number 88 in January 1994.In the UK, the album reached number-two, and the singles \"Rubberband Girl\", \"The Red Shoes\", \"Moments of Pleasure\", and \"And So Is Love\" (featuring Eric Clapton on guitar) all reached the top 30.Bush directed and starred in the short film ''The Line, the Cross and the Curve'', which featured music from her album ''The Red Shoes'', itself inspired by the 1948 film of that name.",
"It was released on VHS in the UK in 1994 and also received a small number of cinema screenings around the world.The initial plan had been to tour with ''The Red Shoes'' release, but did not reach fruition.",
"Thus, Bush deliberately produced her tracks live, with less studio production that had typified her last three albums and which would have been too difficult to re-create on stage.",
"The result polarised her fan base, who had enjoyed the intricacy of her earlier compositions, with other fans claiming they had found new complexities in the lyrics and the emotions they expressed.During this period of time, Bush suffered a series of bereavements, including the loss of guitarist Alan Murphy, who had started working with her on The Tour of Life in 1979, and her mother Hannah, to whom she was exceptionally close.",
"The people she lost were honoured in the ballad \"Moments of Pleasure.\"",
"However, Bush's mother was still alive when \"Moments of Pleasure\" was written and recorded.",
"Bush describes playing the song to her mother, who thought the line where she is quoted by Bush as saying, \"Every old sock meets an old shoe\", was hilarious and \"couldn't stop laughing.",
"\"===1994–2006: Motherhood, hiatus, and ''Aerial''===After the release of ''The Red Shoes'', Kate Bush dropped out of the public eye.",
"She had originally intended to take one year off, but despite working on material, twelve years passed before her next album release.",
"Her name occasionally cropped up in the media with rumours of a new album release.",
"The press often viewed her as an eccentric recluse, sometimes drawing a comparison with Miss Havisham from Charles Dickens's ''Great Expectations''.",
"In 1998, Bush gave birth to Albert, known as \"Bertie\", fathered by guitarist Dan McIntosh, whom she met in 1992.In 2001, Bush was awarded a Q Award as Classic Songwriter.",
"In 2002, she was awarded an Ivor Novello Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music, and performed \"Comfortably Numb\" at David Gilmour's concert at the Royal Festival Hall in London.Kate Bush's eighth studio album, ''Aerial'', was released on double CD and vinyl in November 2005.The album single \"King of the Mountain\", had its premiere on BBC Radio 2 two months prior.",
"The single entered the UK Downloads Chart at number six, and would become Bush's third-highest-charting single ever in the UK, peaking at number four on the full chart.",
"''Aerial'' entered the UK albums chart at number three, and the US chart at number 48.",
"''Aerial,'' like ''Hounds of Love'' (1985), is divided into two sections, each with its own theme and mood.",
"The first disc, subtitled ''A Sea of Honey'', features a set of unrelated themed songs, including \"King of the Mountain\"; \"Bertie\", a Renaissance-style ode to her son; and \"Joanni\", based on the story of Joan of Arc.",
"In the song \"\", Bush sings 117 digits of the number pi.",
"The second disc, subtitled ''A Sky of Honey'', features one continuous piece of music describing the experience of 24 hours passing by.",
"''Aerial'' earned Bush two nominations at the 2006 Brit Awards, for Best British Female Solo Artist and Best British Album.===2007–2013: Fish People, ''Director's Cut'' and ''50 Words for Snow''===In 2007, Bush was asked to write a song for ''The Golden Compass'' soundtrack which made reference to the lead character, Lyra Belacqua.",
"The song, \"Lyra\", was used in the closing credits of the film, reached number 187 in the UK Singles Chart and was nominated for the International Press Academy's Satellite Award for original song in a motion picture.",
"According to Del Palmer, Bush was asked to compose the song on short notice and the project was completed in 10 days.In May 2011, Bush released the remix album ''Director's Cut,'' comprising 11 reworked tracks from ''The Sensual World'' and ''The Red Shoes'', recorded using analogue rather than digital equipment.",
"All the tracks have new lead vocals, drums, and instrumentation.",
"Some were transposed to a lower key to accommodate her lowering voice.",
"Three of the songs, including \"This Woman's Work\", have been completely rerecorded, with lyrics often changed in places.",
"Bush described the album as a new project rather than a collection of remixes.",
"It was the first album on her new label, ''Fish People'', a division of EMI Records.",
"In addition to ''Director's Cut'' in its single CD form, the album was released with a box-set that contains the albums ''The Sensual World'' and the analogue re-mastered ''The Red Shoes''.",
"It debuted at number two on the United Kingdom chart.Bush's ninth studio album, ''50 Words for Snow'', was released on 21 November 2011.It features the high-profile cameo appearance of Elton John on the duet \"Snowed in at Wheeler Street\".",
"The album contains seven new songs \"set against a backdrop of falling snow\", with a total running time of 65 minutes.",
"The album's songs are built around Bush's quietly jazzy piano and Steve Gadd's drums, and use both sung and spoken word vocals in what ''Classic Rock'' critic Stephen Dalton calls \"a ... supple and experimental affair, with a contemporary chamber pop sound grounded in crisp piano, minimal percussion and light-touch electronics ... billowing jazz-rock soundscapes, interwoven with fragmentary narratives delivered in a range of voices from shrill to Laurie Anderson-style cooing\".",
"Bassist Danny Thompson appears on the album, while the sixth track on the album, \"50 Words for Snow\", features the voice of Stephen Fry reciting a list of surreal words to describe snow.",
"''50 Words for Snow'' received general acclaim from music critics.",
"At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 88, based on 26 reviews, which indicates \"universal acclaim\".",
"At the 2012 Brit Awards she was nominated in the Best Female Artist category, and the album won the 2012 Best Album at the South Bank Arts Awards, and was also nominated for Best Album at the Ivor Novello Awards.Bush turned down an invitation to perform at the 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony in London.",
"Instead, a new vocal remix of her 1985 single \"Running Up That Hill\" was played.",
"In 2013, Bush became the only female artist to have top five albums in the UK charts in five successive decades.===2014–2021: ''Before the Dawn'' and remastered catalogue===Bush performing Before the Dawn at Hammersmith Apollo in 2014In March 2014, Bush announced her first live concerts in decades: Before the Dawn, a 22-night residency in London running from 26 August to 1 October 2014 at the Hammersmith Apollo.",
"Tickets sold out in 15 minutes.",
"The concerts received universal acclaim.",
"An album of recordings from the concerts, ''Before the Dawn'', was released on 25 November 2016.Bolstered by publicity around ''Before the Dawn'', Bush became the first female performer to have eight albums in the UK Top 40 Albums Chart simultaneously, putting her at number three for simultaneous UK Top 40 albums.",
"The only artists ahead of Bush were Elvis Presley, who had 12 entries in the top 40 after his death in 1977 and the Beatles who had 11 in 2009.She had 11 albums in the top 50.On 6 December 2018, Bush published her first book, ''How to Be Invisible,'' a compilation of lyrics.",
"In November 2018, Bush released two box sets of remasters of her studio albums.",
"Vocals from Rolf Harris, who was convicted of multiple sexual assault charges in 2014, were replaced by versions by Bush's son Bertie.",
"A compilation of rare tracks, cover versions and remixes from the boxsets, ''The Other Sides'', was released on 8 March 2019.It includes the previously unreleased track \"Humming,\" recorded in 1975.In September 2019, Bush released \"\" / \"\" on vinyl, in France, as a limited-edition promotional single.In September 2020, Bush became a Fellow of The Ivors Academy, the UK's independent professional association for songwriters, composers and music authors.",
"Following Bush's award, another Fellow, Annie Lennox, commented, \"She is visionary and iconic and has made her own magical stamp upon the zeitgeist of the British cultural landscape.",
"\"=== 2022–present: \"Running Up That Hill\" resurgence===Bush's 1985 single \"Running Up That Hill\" gained newfound popularity in May 2022 after it was incorporated into the plot of the fourth season of the Netflix series ''Stranger Things.''",
"It became the most streamed song on Spotify in the United States, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and globally.",
"Winona Ryder, who plays the character Joyce Byers on ''Stranger Things,'' said she had pushed for the song to be on the show: \"I've been obsessed with her since I was a little girl.",
"I've also for the last seven years been dropping hints on set wearing my Kate Bush T-shirts.\"",
"According to ''The Guardian'', \"Running Up That Hill\" has become particularly popular with members of Generation Z, who were not born when the song was first released, and it has appeared in numerous videos on the social media platform TikTok.",
"Bush released a statement praising ''Stranger Things'' and saying the resurgence was \"really exciting\".On 10 June 2022, \"Running Up That Hill\" reached number two on the UK Singles Chart, surpassing its peak of number three from 1985.It was the most popular track of the week in the UK, ahead of \"As It Was\" by Harry Styles, but a pre-existing chart rule penalised older songs that are streamed.",
"The Chart Supervisory Committee responded by giving the record an exemption from the \"accelerated chart ratio\" rule due to its ongoing sales resurgence.",
"On 17 June, the song reached number one in the UK, making it Bush's second UK number one.",
"It broke three UK chart records in the process.",
"With 44 years since her last number one, \"Wuthering Heights\" in 1978, Bush surpassed Tom Jones's 42-year gap between number ones and replaced Cher as the oldest female solo chart-topping artist at 63 years and 11 months.",
"Bush also achieved the record for a single with the longest period taken to reach number one, beating the previous record, held by \"Last Christmas\" by Wham!, by a year.On the US ''Billboard'' Hot 100 issue dated 11 June 2022, \"Running Up That Hill\" re-entered the chart at number eight, surpassing its original peak of number 30 in November 1985 to become Bush's first US top-ten hit.",
"A week later, it climbed to number four in the US, before reaching number three on 25 July.",
"The parent album, ''Hounds of Love'', also reached a new peak in the US, charting at number 12.The song topped the Australian ARIA Charts to become her second number one single in the country.",
"In France, \"Running Up That Hill\" beat its original chart peak of 24, placing at number three.",
"''Hounds of Love'' also rose in popularity on various album charts, with it reaching number 1 on ''Billboard'''s Top Alternative Albums chart, making it Bush's first US chart-topping album in her career.",
"On 10 June, ''The Whole Story'' rose from number 76 to number 19 on the UK Albums Chart, peaking a week later at number 17.A limited edition CD single was released in September 2022, in this format for the first time ever, through Rhino.",
"The 2022 film ''A Man Called Otto'' featured the song \"This Woman's Work\" from Bush's album, ''The Sensual World.''",
"In May 2023, it was also featured in the Netflix film ''The Mother'', spiking a sales resurgence for the song.On 1 January 2023, Bush was included at number 60 in the list of ''200 Best Singers of All Time'' by ''Rolling Stone''.",
"On 22 February 2023, Bush announced that her label, Fish People, had moved to the new distribution partner, the State51 Conspiracy.",
"The new company took over distribution of her post-1980 releases (starting from ''The Dreaming'') worldwide, and the entire catalogue in the US only.",
"This move has also generated renewed \"indie\" reissues of her albums.",
"Bush was nominated for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2018, 2021 and 2022, and was inducted in 2023."
],
[
"Artistry",
"===Musical style and voice===Bush has used the Fairlight CMI sampler prominently.Bush's musical aesthetic is eclectic, and is known to employ varied influences and meld disparate styles, often within a single song or over the course of an album.",
"Her music has primarily been described as art pop, art rock, baroque pop, post-progressive, progressive pop, pop rock, avant-pop and experimental pop.",
"Even in her earliest works, with piano the primary instrument, she wove together diverse influences, drawing on classical music, glam rock, and a wide range of ethnic and folk sources.",
"This has continued throughout her career.",
"By the time of ''Never for Ever'', Bush had begun to make prominent use of the Fairlight CMI synthesiser, which allowed her to sample and manipulate sounds, expanding her sonic palette.",
"She has been compared with other \"'arty' 1970s and '80s British pop rock artists\" such as Roxy Music and Peter Gabriel.",
"Critic Simon Reynolds of ''The Guardian'' called Bush \"the queen of art-pop\".Bush has a soprano vocal range.",
"Her vocals contain elements of British, Anglo-Irish and most prominently (southern) English accents and, in its use of musical instruments from various periods and cultures, her music has differed from American pop norms.",
"Reviewers have used the term \"surreal\" to describe her music.",
"Her songs explore melodramatic emotional and musical surrealism that defies easy categorisation.",
"It has been observed that even her more joyous pieces are often tinged with traces of melancholy and vice versa.===Songwriting and influences===Elements of Bush's lyrics employ historical or literary references, as embodied in her first single \"Wuthering Heights\", which is based on Emily Brontë's novel of the same name.",
"She has described herself as a storyteller who embodies the character singing the song and has dismissed efforts by others to conceive of her work as autobiographical.",
"Bush's lyrics have been known to touch on obscure or esoteric subject matter, and ''New Musical Express'' noted that Bush was not afraid to tackle sensitive and taboo subjects in her work.",
"\"The Kick Inside\" is based on a traditional English folk song (''The Ballad of Lucy Wan'') about an incestuous pregnancy and a resulting suicide.",
"\"Kashka from Baghdad\" is a song about a gay couple; She has referenced G. I. Gurdjieff in the song \"Them Heavy People\", while \"Cloudbusting\" was inspired by Peter Reich's autobiography, ''A Book of Dreams'', about his relationship with his father, Wilhelm Reich.",
"\"Breathing\" explores the results of nuclear fallout from the perspective of a fœtus.Other non-musical sources of inspiration for Bush include horror films, which have influenced the gothic nature of her songs, such as \"Hounds of Love\", which samples the 1957 horror movie ''Night of the Demon''.",
"\"The Infant Kiss\" is a song about a haunted, unstable woman's infatuation with a young boy in her care (inspired by Jack Clayton's film ''The Innocents'' (1961), which had been based on Henry James's novella ''The Turn of the Screw'').",
"The title of the song \"Hammer Horror\" is from Hammer Film Productions' horror movies, and the song's story was inspired by the film ''Man of a Thousand Faces'' (1957).",
"Her songs have occasionally combined comedy and horror to form dark humour, such as murder by poisoning in \"Coffee Homeground\", an alcoholic mother in \"Ran Tan Waltz\" and the upbeat \"The Wedding List\", a song inspired by François Truffaut's 1967 film of Cornell Woolrich's ''The Bride Wore Black'' about the murder of a groom and the bride's subsequent revenge against the killer.",
"Bush has also cited comedy as a significant influence.",
"She has cited Woody Allen, Monty Python, ''Fawlty Towers'', and ''The Young Ones'' as particular favourites.===Technical innovations===Bush is regarded as the first artist to have had a headset with a wireless microphone built for use in music.",
"For her ''Tour of Life'' in 1979 she had a compact microphone combined with a self-made construction of wire clothes hangers, so that she did not have to use a hand microphone and had her hands free and could dance her rehearsed choreography of expressionist dance on the concert stage and sing with a microphone at the same time.",
"Later, her idea was adopted by other artists such as Janet Jackson, Madonna and Peter Gabriel."
],
[
"Influence and legacy",
"Musicians who have stated their admiration for Bush's work include Pat Benatar, Tiffany Darwish, Adele, Shania Twain, PJ Harvey, Sheryl Crow, Tori Amos, Annie Lennox, Björk, Ron Mael and Russell Mael of Sparks, Alanis Morissette, Elizabeth Fraser of Cocteau Twins, Sinéad O'Connor, Dido, Anohni of Antony and the Johnsons, Big Boi of OutKast, Nigel Godrich, Damon Albarn, Stevie Nicks of Fleetwood Mac, Suzanne Vega, Joanna Newsom, Fever Ray, Beth Orton, Fiona Apple, Regina Spektor, Imogen Heap, Sia, Lady Gaga, Sharon Van Etten, Katie Melua, KT Tunstall, Ellie Goulding, Sarah McLachlan, k.d.",
"lang, Erasure, Alison Goldfrapp of Goldfrapp, Tupac Shakur, St. Vincent, Darren Hayes, Florence Welch of Florence and the Machine, Lily Allen, Paula Cole, Charli XCX, Little Boots, Kate Nash, Bat for Lashes, Tegan and Sara, Steve Rothery of Marillion, Sky Ferreira, Rosalía, Beverley Craven, Tim Bowness of No-Man, Chris Braide, Anna Calvi, Kyros, Aisles, Neil Hannon of The Divine Comedy, Grimes, Solange Knowles, Julia Holter, Steven Wilson of Porcupine Tree, Robyn, Andre Matos, and Aurora.",
"Coldplay took inspiration from \"Running Up That Hill\" to compose their single \"Speed of Sound\".",
"In 2015, Adele stated that the release of her third studio album ''25'' was inspired by Bush's 2014 comeback to the stage.",
"Nerina Pallot was inspired to become a songwriter after seeing Bush play \"This Woman's Work\" on ''Wogan''.Elton John cited Bush's duet with Peter Gabriel, \"Don't Give Up\", for helping him to become sober, particularly Bush's lyric, \"Rest your head.",
"You worry too much.",
"It's going to be all right.",
"When times get rough you can fall back on us.",
"Don't give up.\"",
"He stated, \"she Bush played a big part in my rebirth.\"",
"After doing a duet with Bush in 2013, John praised her talents as a musician, stating \"I'm so proud to be on a Kate Bush record; she's always marched to the beat of her own drum.",
"She was groundbreaking – a bit like a female equivalent of Freddie Mercury.",
"She does come out socially sometimes and she came to my civil partnership occasion with her husband.",
"There were so many stars in the room, but all the musicians there were only interested in saying, 'You've got to introduce me to Kate Bush.'",
"I remember Boy George saying, 'Oh my God, is that Kate Bush?'",
"I said, 'Yeah!'.",
"\"Bush was one of the singers whom Prince thanked in the liner notes of 1991's ''Diamonds and Pearls''.",
"Kirk Hammett of Metallica listed Bush as one of the influences on ''Master of Puppets''.",
"The Weeknd named \"Running Up That Hill\" as one of the songs that inspired his debut studio album ''Kiss Land''.",
"According to an unauthorised biography, Courtney Love of Hole listened to Bush among other artists as a teenager.",
"Tricky of Massive Attack wrote an article about ''The Kick Inside'', saying: \"Her music has always sounded like dreamland to me....",
"I don't believe in God, but if I did, her music would be my bible\".",
"Suede front-man Brett Anderson stated about ''Hounds of Love'': \"I love the way it's a record of two halves, and the second half is a concept record about fear of drowning.",
"It's an amazing record to listen to really late at night, unsettling and really jarring\".",
"John Lydon, better known as Johnny Rotten of the Sex Pistols, declared her work to be \"beauty beyond belief\".",
"Rotten once wrote a song for her, titled \"Bird in Hand\" (about exploitation of parrots) that Bush rejected.",
"In December 1989, Robert Smith of the Cure chose \"The Sensual World\" as his favourite single of the year, ''The Sensual World'' as his favourite album of the year, and included \"all of Kate Bush\" in his list of \"the best things about the eighties\".",
"In 1999, VH1 named Bush the 46th-greatest woman in rock and roll.In November 2023, Bush was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame by Big Boi of OutKast, a long-time fan of her music.",
"In his induction speech, Big Boi said, \"What I love about Kate's music is that I never know what sound I’m gonna hear next.",
"She ignores anything that seems like a formula and instead just does whatever she wants to do, like me.",
"She challenges me as a listener and expands my ears and my mind.",
"No matter how many times I look to albums like ''The Dreaming'' or ''50 Words for Snow'', they sound fresh and surprise me every time.",
"They fill with my head with ideas and expand my ambitions for what music can achieve.",
"\"Marianne Faithfull mentioned Bush's four-octave range should be regarded as a \"national treasure\".",
"\"My favourite instrument in the whole world is the human female voice, and Kate Bush is one of the reasons why.",
"It is, by far, a Stradivarius,\" Faithfull says.",
"\"Which is why she rarely deals with the press or isn't in a rush to record.",
"She's one of the few who can be above all that.\"",
"Enya praised Bush in a similar manner: \"When you think of Kate Bush, you think of the music, not the headlines.\"",
"Kele Okereke of Bloc Party said about \"Hounds of Love\": \"The first time I heard it I was sitting in a reclining sofa.",
"As the beat started I was transported somewhere else.",
"Her voice, the imagery, the huge drum sound: it seemed to capture everything for me.",
"As a songwriter you're constantly chasing that feeling\".",
"Rufus Wainwright named Bush one of his top ten gay icons.",
"Outside music, Bush has been an inspiration to several fashion designers, including Hussein Chalayan.",
"In 2020, ''Harry Potter'' author J. K. Rowling chose Bush's 1985 song \"Cloudbusting\" as the first of ten songs on Ken Bruce's BBC Radio 2 show ''Tracks Of My Years'' as it reminded her of her student years.",
"In 1998 an asteroid was named after Bush.In 2019, Pone, ex Fonky Family member, released ''Kate and me'', an entire album created from samples of Kate Bush's work.",
"According to ''The Guardian'', it's the \"first album in history to be entirely produced through an eye-tracking device\".",
"Pone declares that Bush is the greatest artist of the past 40 years.",
"A few months later, after hearing about the album and listening to it, the English star wrote a message to the French producer, expressing her emotion, admiration and approval.",
"With this encouragement, Pone reiterates the experience in June 2021 by publishing ''Listen And Donate''.",
"An EP composed of four tracks including two originals by Pone, still based on samples of Kate Bush's work, and two remixes produced by SCH and Para One.",
"JR signs the visual part of the project.",
"The goal is to raise funds for the Trakadom association, created by Pone and two doctors in collaboration with the intensive care unit of the hospital of Nîmes.Bush fans at the Most Wuthering Heights Day Ever in Melbourne, Australia, 2016In 2020, ''Grazia'' magazine conducted an interview with UK Prime Minister Boris Johnson.",
"When asked about the five most influential women in his life, Johnson placed Kate Bush at the fifth spot after deliberating between nominating Queen Elizabeth II, Margaret Thatcher, and Bush.In addition to her music, her dancing has been critically acclaimed and proven influential, as well as enduring in the popular consciousness.",
"Critics have noted her \"pioneering synthesis of music and movement\" and called her work \"modern dance at its most powerful\".",
"Prix Benois de la Danse winner Sidi Larbi Cherkaoui credits her dancing as a formative influence.",
"For the recurring The Most Wuthering Heights Day Ever event, thousands of people gather worldwide to recreate her dance routine from the \"Wuthering Heights\" music video—the outside version where Bush is seen dancing \"out in the wily, windy moors\", adorned with flowers and a flowy red dress."
],
[
"Live performances",
"Bush's only tour, the Tour of Life, ran for six weeks in April and May 1979, covering Britain and mainland Europe.",
"The BBC suggested that she may have quit touring due to a fear of flying, or because of the death of a lighting engineer, Bill Duffield, who was killed in an accident after a warmup concert.",
"Mercer, who signed Bush to EMI, said touring was \"just too hard ...",
"I think Bush liked it but the equation didn't work ...",
"I could see at the end of the show that she was completely wiped out.\"",
"Bush described the tour as \"enormously enjoyable\" but \"absolutely exhausting\".Before the Dawn concerts at the Hammersmith Apollo sold out in 15 minutesDuring the same period as the Tour of Life, Bush performed on television programs including ''Top of the Pops'' in the UK, ''Bio's Bahnhof'' in Germany, and ''Saturday Night Live'' in the United States (performing \"The Man with the Child in His Eyes\" with Paul Shaffer on piano, and later in the programme, \"Them Heavy People\"), which remains her only live performance in the country.",
"On 28 December 1979, BBC TV aired the ''Kate Bush Christmas Special''.",
"Bush participated in the first benefit concert in aid of The Prince's Trust in July 1982, at which she sang \"The Wedding List\" with a backing band composed of Pete Townshend, Phil Collins, Midge Ure, Mick Karn, Gary Brooker, Dave Formula and Peter Hope Evans.",
"The performance was later released on VHS video, Laserdisc and CED disc.",
"She performed live for British charity event Comic Relief in 1986, singing \"Do Bears...",
"?",
"\", a humorous duet with Rowan Atkinson, and a rendition of \"Breathing\".",
"In March 1987, Bush sang \"Running Up That Hill\" at The Secret Policeman's Third Ball accompanied by David Gilmour.",
"She appeared with Gilmour again in 2002, singing the Pink Floyd song \"Comfortably Numb\" at the Royal Festival Hall in London.Bush returned to headline performance with a 22-night residency, Before the Dawn, which ran from 26 August to 1 October 2014 at the London Hammersmith Apollo.",
"The set list encompassed most of ''Hounds of Love'' featuring the entire Ninth Wave suite, most of ''Aerial'', two songs from ''The Red Shoes'', and one song from ''50 Words for Snow''."
],
[
"Collaborations",
"Bush provided vocals on two of Peter Gabriel's albums, including the hits \"Games Without Frontiers\" and \"Don't Give Up\", as well as \"No Self-Control\".",
"Gabriel appeared on Bush's 1979 television special, where they sang a duet of Roy Harper's \"Another Day\".",
"She has sung on two Roy Harper tracks, \"You\", on his 1979 album, \"The Unknown Soldier\"; and \"Once\", the title track of his 1990 album.",
"She has also sung on the title song of the 1986 Big Country album ''The Seer;'' the Midge Ure song \"Sister and Brother\" from his 1988 album ''Answers to Nothing''; Go West's 1987 single \"The King Is Dead\"; and two songs with Prince – \"Why Should I Love You?",
"\", from her 1993 album ''The Red Shoes'', and \"My Computer\" from Prince's 1996 album ''Emancipation''.",
"In 1987, she sang a verse on the Beatles cover charity single \"Let It Be\" by Ferry Aid.In 1990 Bush produced a song for another artist, Alan Stivell's \"Kimiad\" for his album ''Again''; this is the only time she has done this to date.",
"Stivell had appeared on ''The Sensual World''.",
"In 1991, Bush was invited to perform a cover of Elton John's 1972 song \"Rocket Man\" for the tribute album ''Two Rooms: Celebrating the Songs of Elton John & Bernie Taupin''.",
"In 2007 Bush's cover won ''The Observer'' readers' award for Greatest Cover of all time.",
"In 2011, Elton John collaborated with Bush once again in \"Snowed in at Wheeler Street\" for her most recent album ''50 Words for Snow''.",
"In 1994, Bush covered George Gershwin's \"The Man I Love\" for the tribute album ''The Glory of Gershwin''.",
"In 1996, Bush contributed a version of \"''Mná na hÉireann''\" (Irish for \"Women of Ireland\") for the Anglo-Irish folk-rock compilation project ''Common Ground: The Voices of Modern Irish Music''.",
"Bush had to sing the song in Irish, which she learned to do phonetically.Artists who have contributed to Bush's own albums include Elton John, Eric Clapton, Jeff Beck, David Gilmour, Nigel Kennedy, Gary Brooker, Danny Thompson, and Prince.",
"Bush provided backing vocals for a song that was recorded during the 1990s titled ''Wouldn't Change a Thing'' by Lionel Azulay, the drummer with the original band that was later to become the KT Bush Band.",
"The song, which was engineered and produced by Del Palmer, was released on Azulay's album ''Out of the Ashes''.",
"Bush declined a request by Erasure to produce one of their albums because, according to Vince Clarke, \"she didn't feel that that was her area\"."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Bush in 1978Bush is married to guitarist Danny McIntosh.",
"They have a son, Albert McIntosh, known as Bertie, born in 1998.From the late 1970s to the early 1990s, Bush was in a relationship with the bassist and sound engineer Del Palmer.Bush is a former resident of Eltham, southeast London.",
"In the 1990s she moved to a canalside residence in Sulhamstead, Berkshire, and bought a second home in Devon in 2004.Bush is a vegetarian.",
"Raised a Roman Catholic, she said in 1999:The length of time between albums has led to rumours concerning Bush's health or appearance.",
"In 2011, she told BBC Radio 4 that the amount of time between albums was stressful: \"It's very frustrating the albums take as long as they do ...",
"I wish there weren't such big gaps between them\".",
"In the same interview, she denied that she was a perfectionist, saying: \"I think it's important that things are flawed ... That's what makes a piece of art interesting sometimes – the bit that's wrong or the mistake you've made that's led onto an idea you wouldn't have had otherwise.\"",
"She reiterated her prioritisation of her family life.Bush's son Bertie featured in the 2014 concert Before the Dawn.",
"Her nephew Raven Bush was a violinist in the English indie band Syd Arthur.=== Political views ===Some of Bush's songs contain references to political and social themes, such as \"Breathing\" which addresses the fear of nuclear warfare and \"Army Dreamers\" which examines the grief felt by mothers who lose children serving in the military during war.",
"In a 1985 interview with ''The NewMusic,'' Bush stated \"I've never felt I've written from a political point of view, it's always been an emotional point of view that just happens to perhaps be a political situation.",
"\"During the 1979 United Kingdom general election campaign, Bush, who at the time was on a live concert tour of the UK, posed for a photograph alongside the Labour Prime Minister James Callaghan.",
"When asked about her political beliefs in a 1985 interview with ''Hot Press'', Bush replied that she preferred not to discuss how she voted and added \"I don't feel I am a political thinker at all.",
"I don't really understand politics.",
"\"In ''The Comic Strip Presents...'' episode ''GLC: The Carnage Continues...'', she produced and sang on the theme song \"Ken\".",
"The song was a satirical take on how Hollywood glamourises and fictionalises political figures, in this particular case Ken Livingstone, the former leader of the Greater London Council, and the lyrics parodied the theme from ''Shaft''.In 2016, the Canadian news magazine ''Maclean's'' published an interview in which Bush was asked about people being afraid of women holding political power.",
"Bush pointed out that the UK, unlike the US, did have a female premier, Theresa May, who a few months earlier had become the Conservative Prime Minister.",
"The interview quoted Bush as saying: \"I actually really like her and think she's wonderful.",
"I think it's the best thing that's happened to us in a long time ...",
"It is great to have a woman in charge of the country.",
"She's very sensible and I think that's a good thing at this point in time.\"",
"In 2019, Bush published a statement on her website saying that she was not a Conservative Party supporter, that she felt May was an improvement over the previous Prime Minister, and that she had intended only to defend women in power.In April 2021, Bush was one of 156 signatories of an open letter to Prime Minister Boris Johnson calling for a change in the wording of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to make royalty payments for streaming closer to the amounts paid for radio broadcast.In December 2022, in her annual Christmas message, Bush voiced her support for the people of Ukraine following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, and expressed solidarity with nurses undertaking strike action, stating that NHS nurses should be \"appreciated and cherished\"."
],
[
"Awards and nominations"
],
[
"Discography",
"'''Studio albums'''* ''The Kick Inside'' (1978)* ''Lionheart'' (1978)* ''Never for Ever'' (1980)* ''The Dreaming'' (1982)* ''Hounds of Love'' (1985)* ''The Sensual World'' (1989)* ''The Red Shoes'' (1993)* ''Aerial'' (2005)* ''Director's Cut'' (2011)* ''50 Words for Snow'' (2011)"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * * * Kate Bush interview, Ireland, 1978"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kittiwake"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Black-legged kittiwake colony on Big Koniuji, Shumagin IslandsThe '''kittiwakes''' (genus '''''Rissa''''') are two closely related seabird species in the gull family Laridae, the black-legged kittiwake (''Rissa tridactyla'') and the red-legged kittiwake (''Rissa brevirostris'').",
"The epithets \"black-legged\" and \"red-legged\" are used to distinguish the two species in North America, but in Europe, where ''Rissa brevirostris'' is not found, the black-legged kittiwake is often known simply as '''kittiwake''', or more colloquially in some areas as '''tickleass''' or '''tickleace'''.",
"The name is derived from its call, a shrill 'kittee-wa-aaake, kitte-wa-aaake'.",
"The genus name ''Rissa'' is from the Icelandic name ''Rita'' for the black-legged kittiwake."
],
[
"Description",
"The two species are physically very similar.",
"They have a white head and body, grey back, grey wings tipped solid black and a bright yellow bill.",
"Black-legged kittiwake adults are somewhat larger (roughly in length with a wingspan of ) than red-legged kittiwakes ( in length with a wingspan around ).",
"Other differences include a shorter bill, larger eyes, a larger, rounder head and darker grey wings in the red-legged kittiwake.",
"While most black-legged kittiwakes do, indeed, have dark-grey legs, some have pinkish-grey to reddish legs, making colouration a somewhat unreliable identifying marker.In contrast to the dappled chicks of other gull species, kittiwake chicks are downy and white since they are under relatively little threat of predation, as the nests are on extremely steep cliffs.",
"Unlike other gull chicks which wander around as soon as they can walk, kittiwake chicks instinctively sit still in the nest to avoid falling off.",
"Juveniles take three years to reach maturity.",
"When in winter plumage, both birds have a dark grey smudge behind the eye and a grey hind-neck collar.",
"The sexes are visually indistinguishable."
],
[
"Distribution and habitat",
"Kittiwakes are coastal breeding birds ranging in the North Pacific, North Atlantic, and Arctic oceans.",
"They form large, dense, noisy colonies during the summer reproductive period, often sharing habitat with murres.",
"They are the only gull species that are exclusively cliff-nesting.",
"A colony of kittiwakes living in Newcastle upon Tyne and Gateshead in the north east of England has made homes on both the Tyne Bridge and Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art.",
"This colony is notable because it is the furthest inland colony of kittiwakes in the world."
],
[
"Species",
" Adult Chick Name Common name Distribution120px 120px ''Rissa tridactyla'' Linnaeus, 1758 black-legged kittiwake It is one of the most numerous of seabirds.",
"Breeding colonies can be found in the Pacific from the Kuril Islands, around the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk throughout the Bering Sea and the Aleutian Islands to southeast Alaska, and in the Atlantic from the Gulf of St. Lawrence through Greenland and the coast of Ireland down to Portugal, as well as in the high Arctic islands.",
"In the winter, the range extends further south and out to sea.120px 120px ''Rissa brevirostris'' Bruch, 1853 red-legged kittiwake Very limited range in the Bering Sea, breeding only on the Pribilof, Bogoslof, and Buldir islands in the United States, and the Commander Islands in Russia.",
"On these islands, it shares some of the same cliff habitat as the black-legged kittiwake, though some localized segregation is seen between the species on given cliffs."
],
[
"Photo gallery",
"File:Kittiwake w.jpg|Kittiwake – winter IrelandFile:Kittiwake with young chick.jpg|Kittiwake with chicks, IcelandFile:Rissa tridactyla -Staple Island, Farne Islands, Northumberland, England -adult and chicks-8.jpg|Farne Islands, England"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kuwaiti oil fires"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' during STS-37.The '''Kuwaiti oil fires''' were caused by the Iraqi military setting fire to a reported 605 to 732 oil wells along with an unspecified number of oil filled low-lying areas, such as oil lakes and fire trenches, as part of a scorched earth policy while retreating from Kuwait in 1991 due to the advances of US-led coalition forces in the Gulf War.",
"The fires were started in January and February 1991, and the first oil well fires were extinguished in early April 1991, with the last well capped on November 6, 1991."
],
[
"Motives",
"Oil well fires, south of Kuwait City.",
"(Photo taken from inside a UH-60 Blackhawk; the door frame is the black bar on the right of the photo)The dispute between Iraq and Kuwait over alleged slant-drilling in the Rumaila oil field was one of the reasons for Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990.Kuwaiti oil well fire, south of Kuwait City, March, 1991In addition, Kuwait had been producing oil above treaty limits established by OPEC.",
"By the eve of the Iraqi invasion, Kuwait had set production quotas to almost , which coincided with a sharp drop in the price of oil.",
"By the summer of 1990, Kuwaiti overproduction had become a serious point of contention with Iraq.Some analysts have speculated that one of Saddam Hussein's main motivations in invading Kuwait was to punish the ruling al-Sabah family in Kuwait for not stopping its policy of overproduction, as well as his reasoning behind the destruction of said wells.It is also hypothesized that Iraq decided to destroy the oil fields to achieve a military advantage, believing the intense smoke plumes serving as smoke screens created by the burning oil wells would inhibit Coalition offensive air strikes, foil allied precision guided weapons and spy satellites, and could screen Iraq's military movements.",
"Furthermore, it is thought that Iraq's military leaders may have regarded the heat, smoke, and debris from hundreds of burning oil wells as presenting a formidable area denial obstacle to Coalition forces.",
"The onset of the oil well destruction supports this military dimension to the sabotage of the wells; for example, during the early stage of the Coalition air campaign, the number of oil wells afire was relatively small but the number increased dramatically in late February with the arrival of the ground war.The Iraqi military combat engineers also released oil into low-lying areas for defensive purposes against infantry and mechanized units along Kuwait's southern border, by constructing several \"fire trenches\" roughly 1 kilometer long, 3 meters wide, and 3 meters deep to impede the advance of Coalition ground forces.The military use of the land based fires should also be seen in context with the coinciding, deliberate, sea based Gulf War oil spill, the apparent strategic goal of which was to foil a potential amphibious landing by U.S. Marines."
],
[
"Extent",
" The Kuwaiti oil fires were not just limited to burning oil wells, one of which is seen here in the background, but burning \"oil lakes\", seen in the foreground, also contributed to the smoke plumes, particularly the sootiest/blackest of them (1991).",
"As an international coalition under United States command assembled in anticipation of an invasion of Iraqi-occupied Kuwait, the Iraqi regime decided to destroy as much of Kuwait's oil reserves and infrastructure as possible before withdrawing from that country.",
"As early as December 1990, Iraqi forces placed explosive charges on Kuwaiti oil wells.",
"The wells were systematically sabotaged beginning on January 16, 1991, when the allies commenced air strikes against Iraqi targets.",
"On February 8, satellite images detected the first smoke from burning oil wells.",
"The number of oil fires peaked between February 22 and 24, when the allied ground offensive began.According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's report to Congress, \"the retreating Iraqi army set fire to or damaged over 700 oil wells, storage tanks, refineries, and facilities in Kuwait.\"",
"Estimates placed the number of oil well fires from 605 to 732.A further thirty-four wells had been destroyed by heavy coalition bombing in January.",
"The Kuwait Petroleum Company's estimate as of September 1991 was that there had been 610 fires, out of a total of 749 facilities damaged or on fire along with an unspecified number of oil filled low-lying areas, such as \"oil lakes\" and \"fire trenches\".",
"These fires constituted approximately 50% of the total number of oil well fires in the history of the petroleum industry, and temporarily damaged or destroyed approximately 85% of the wells in every major Kuwaiti oil field.Concerted efforts to bring the fires and other damage under control began in April 1991.During the uncontrolled burning phase from February to April, various sources estimated that the ignited wellheads burnt through between four and six million barrels of crude oil, and between seventy and one hundred million cubic meters of natural gas per day.",
"Seven months later, 441 facilities had been brought under control, while 308 remained uncontrolled.",
"The last well was capped on November 6, 1991.The total amount of oil burned is generally estimated at one billion barrels or just below one percent of Kuwait's entire supply of 104 billion barrels.",
"Daily global oil consumption in 2022 is about 99.4 million barrels; the oil lost to combustion would last 10 days at modern usage rates.=== Financial losses ===In March 1991 the accumulated financial losses were estimated to be as much as 10% of 90 billion barrels of Kuwait oil reserves based on a statement made by an Kuwait Oil Company official.",
"At the world prices at the time it would amount $157.5 billion USD."
],
[
"Military effects",
"USAF aircraft fly over burning Kuwaiti oil wells (1991).The oil fires caused a dramatic decrease in air quality, causing respiratory problems for many soldiers on the ground without gas masks (1991).United States Marines approach burning oilfields during ground war of the Gulf War (1991).On March 21, 1991, a Royal Saudi Air Force C-130H crashed in heavy smoke due to the Kuwaiti oil fires on approach to Ras Mishab Airport, Saudi Arabia.",
"92 Senegalese soldiers and 6 Saudi crew members were killed, the largest accident among Coalition forces.The smoke screening was also used by Iraqi anti-armor forces to a successful extent in the Battle of Phase Line Bullet, having aided in achieving the element of surprise against advancing Bradley (IFV)s, along with increasing the general fog of war.The fires burned out of control because of the dangers of sending in firefighting crews during the war.",
"Land mines had been placed in areas around the oil wells and military demining was necessary before the fires could be put out.",
"Around of oil were lost each day.",
"Eventually, privately contracted crews extinguished the fires, at a total cost of US$1.5 billion to Kuwait.",
"By that time, however, the fires had burned for approximately ten months, causing widespread pollution.The fires have been linked with what was later deemed Gulf War syndrome, a chronic disorder afflicting military veterans and civilian workers that include fatigue, muscle pain, and cognitive problems; however, studies have indicated that the firemen who capped the wells did not report any of the symptoms that the soldiers experienced.",
"The causes of Gulf War syndrome have yet to be determined.From the perspective of ground forces, apart from the occasional \"oil rain\" experienced by troops very close to spewing wells, one of the more commonly experienced effects of the oil field fires were the ensuing smoke plumes which rose into the atmosphere and then precipitated or fell out of the air via dry deposition and by rain.",
"The pillar-like plumes frequently broadened and joined up with other smoke plumes at higher altitudes, producing a cloudy grey overcast effect, as only about 10% of all the fires corresponding with those that originated from \"oil lakes\" produced pure black soot filled plumes, 25% of the fires emitted white to grey plumes, while the remainder emitted plumes with colors between grey and black.",
"For example, one Gulf War veteran stated:A paper published in 2000 analyzed the degree of exposure by troops to particulate matter, including soot.",
"However, the paper focused more-so on silica sand, which can produce silicosis.",
"The paper included troop medical records, and in its conclusion: \"A literature review indicated negligible to nonexistent health risk from other inhaled particulate material (other than silica) during the Gulf War\"."
],
[
"Extinguishing efforts",
"The burning wells needed to be extinguished as, without active efforts, Kuwait would lose billions of dollars in oil revenues.",
"It was predicted by experts that the fires would burn for between two and five years before losing pressure and going out on their own.The companies responsible for extinguishing the fires initially were Bechtel, Red Adair Company (now sold to Global Industries of Louisiana), Boots and Coots, and Wild Well Control.",
"Safety Boss was the fourth company to arrive but ended up extinguishing and capping the most wells of any other company: 180 of the 600.Other companies including Cudd Well/Pressure Control, Neal Adams Firefighters, and Kuwait Wild Well Killers were also contracted.According to Larry H. Flak, a petroleum engineer for Boots and Coots International Well Control, 90% of all the 1991 fires in Kuwait were put out with nothing but sea water, sprayed from powerful hoses at the base of the fire.",
"The extinguishing water was supplied to the arid desert region by re-purposing the oil pipelines that prior to the arson attack had pumped oil from the wells to the Arabian Gulf.",
"The pipeline had been mildly damaged but, once repaired, its flow was reversed to pump Arabian gulf seawater to the burning oil wells.",
"The extinguishing rate was approximately 1 every 7–10 days at the start of efforts but then with experience gained and the removal of the mine fields that surrounded the burning wells, the rate increased to 2 or more per day.For stubborn oil well fires, the use of a gas turbine to blast a large volume of water at high velocity at the fire proved popular with firefighters in Kuwait and was brought to the region by Hungarians equipped with MiG-21 engines mounted originally on a T-34 tank (later replaced with T-55 tank, called \"Big wind\".",
"It extinguished 9 fires in 43 days.In fighting a fire at a directly vertical spewing wellhead, high explosives, such as dynamite were used to create a blast wave that pushes the burning fuel and local atmospheric oxygen away from the well.",
"(This is a similar principle to blowing out a candle.)",
"The flame is removed and the fuel can continue to spill out without igniting.",
"Generally, explosives were placed within 55 gallon drums, the explosives surrounded by fire retardant chemicals, and then the drums are wrapped with insulating material with a horizontal crane being used to bring the drum as close to the burning area as possible.The firefighting teams titled their occupation as \"Operation Desert Hell\" after Operation Desert Storm.===Fire documentaries===The fires were the subject of a 1992 IMAX documentary film, ''Fires of Kuwait'', which was nominated for an Academy Award.",
"The film includes footage of the Hungarian team using their jet turbine extinguisher.",
"''Lessons of Darkness'' is a 1992 film by director Werner Herzog that explores of the ravaged oil fields of post-Gulf War Kuwait.Bechtel Corporation produced a short documentary titled ''Kuwait: Bringing Back the Sun'' that summarizes and focuses upon the fire fighting efforts, which were dubbed the Al-Awda (Arabic for \"The Return\") project."
],
[
"Environmental impact",
"===Oil fire smoke===An oilfield on fire (1991)Immediately following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, predictions were made of an environmental disaster stemming from Iraqi threats to blow up captured Kuwaiti oil wells.",
"Speculation ranging from a nuclear winter type scenario, to heavy acid rain and even short term immediate global warming were presented at the World Climate Conference in Geneva that November.On January 10, 1991, a paper appearing in the journal ''Nature'' stated Paul Crutzen's calculations predicting that the oil well fires would produce a cloud of smoke covering half the Northern Hemisphere, resulting in widespread cooling similar to nuclear winter; temperatures beneath the cloud would be reduced by 5–10 degrees Celsius after 100 days.",
"This was followed by articles printed in the ''Wilmington Morning Star'' and the ''Baltimore Sun'' newspapers in mid to late January 1991, with the popular television scientist personality of the time, Carl Sagan, who was also the co-author of the first few nuclear winter papers along with Richard P. Turco, John W. Birks, Alan Robock and Paul Crutzen together collectively stated that they expected catastrophic nuclear winter-like effects with continental sized impacts of \"sub-freezing\" temperatures as a result if the Iraqis went through with their threats of igniting 300 to 500 pressurized oil wells and they burned for a few months.Later when Operation Desert Storm had begun, S. Fred Singer and Carl Sagan discussed the possible environmental impacts of the Kuwaiti petroleum fires on the ABC News program ''Nightline''.",
"Sagan again argued that some of the effects of the smoke could be similar to the effects of a nuclear winter, with smoke lofting into the stratosphere, a region of the atmosphere beginning around above sea level at Kuwait, resulting in global effects and that he believed the net effects would be very similar to the explosion of the Indonesian volcano Tambora in 1815, which resulted in the year 1816 being known as the ''Year Without a Summer''.",
"He reported on initial modeling estimates that forecast impacts extending to south Asia, and perhaps to the northern hemisphere as well.Singer, on the other hand, said that calculations showed that the smoke would go to an altitude of about and then be rained out after about three to five days and thus the lifetime of the smoke would be limited.",
"Both height estimates made by Singer and Sagan turned out to be wrong, albeit with Singer's narrative being closer to what transpired, with the comparatively minimal atmospheric effects remaining limited to the Arabian Gulf region, with smoke plumes, in general, lofting to about and a few times as high as .Along with Singer's televised critique, Richard D. Small criticized the initial ''Nature'' paper in a reply on March 7, 1991, arguing along similar lines as Singer.Sagan later conceded in his book ''The Demon-Haunted World'' that his prediction did not turn out to be correct: \"it ''was'' pitch black at noon and temperatures dropped 4–6 °C over the Arabian Gulf, but not much smoke reached stratospheric altitudes and Asia was spared.",
"\"At the peak of the fires, the smoke absorbed 75 to 80% of the sun's radiation.",
"The particles rose to a maximum of , but were scavenged by cloud condensation nuclei from the atmosphere relatively quickly.Sagan and his colleagues expected that a \"self-lofting\" of the sooty smoke would occur when it absorbed the sun's heat radiation, with little to no scavenging occurring, whereby the black particles of soot would be heated by the sun and lifted/lofted higher and higher into the air, thereby injecting the soot into the stratosphere where it would take years for the sun blocking effect of this aerosol of soot to fall out of the air, and with that, catastrophic ground level cooling and agricultural impacts in Asia and possibly the Northern Hemisphere as a whole.In retrospect, it is now known that smoke from the Kuwait oil fires only affected the weather pattern throughout the Arabian Gulf and surrounding region during the periods that the fires were burning in 1991, with lower atmospheric winds blowing the smoke along the eastern half of the Arabian Peninsula, and cities such as Dhahran and Riyadh, and countries such as Bahrain experienced days with smoke filled skies and carbon soot rainout/fallout.Thus the immediate consequence of the arson sabotage was a dramatic regional decrease in air quality, causing respiratory problems for many Kuwaitis and those in neighboring countries.According to the 1992 study from Peter Hobbs and Lawrence Radke, daily emissions of sulfur dioxide (which can generate acid rain) from the Kuwaiti oil fires were 57% of that from electric utilities in the United States, the emissions of carbon dioxide were 2% of global emissions and emissions of soot reached 3400 metric tons per day.In a paper in the DTIC archive, published in 2000, it states that \"Calculations based on smoke from Kuwaiti oil fires in May and June 1991 indicate that combustion efficiency was about 96% in producing carbon dioxide.",
"While, with respect to the incomplete combustion fraction, Smoke particulate matter accounted for 2% of the fuel burned, of which 0.4% was soot.\"",
"(With the remaining 2% being oil that did not undergo any initial combustion).===Smoke documentary===Peter V. Hobbs also narrated a short amateur documentary titled ''Kuwait Oil Fires'' that followed the University of Washington/UW's \"Cloud and Aerosol Research Group\" as they flew through, around and above the smoke clouds and took samples, measurements, and video of the smoke clouds in their Convair C-131.Aerial laboratory."
],
[
"Damage to coastline",
"A 2008 picture of the mummified remains of a bird, encrusted within the top hard layer of a dry oil lake in the Kuwaiti desert.Although scenarios that predicted long-lasting environmental impacts on a global atmospheric level due to the burning oil sources did not transpire, long-lasting ground level oil spill impacts were detrimental to the environment regionally.Forty-six oil wells are estimated to have gushed, and before efforts to cap them began, they were releasing approximately 300,000–400,000 barrels of oil per day, with the last gusher being capped occurring in the latter days of October 1991.The Kuwaiti Oil Minister estimated between twenty-five and fifty million barrels of unburned oil from damaged facilities pooled to create approximately 300 oil lakes, that contaminated around 40 million tons of sand and earth.",
"The mixture of desert sand, unignited oil spilled and soot generated by the burning oil wells formed layers of hard \"tarcrete\", which covered nearly five percent of Kuwait's land mass.Cleaning efforts were led by the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research and the Arab Oil Co., who tested a number of technologies including the use of petroleum-degrading bacteria on the oil lakes.Vegetation in most of the contaminated areas adjoining the oil lakes began recovering by 1995, but the dry climate has also partially solidified some of the lakes.",
"Over time the oil has continued to sink into the sand, with potential consequences for Kuwait's small groundwater resources.The land based Kuwaiti oil spill surpassed the Lakeview Gusher, which spilled nine million barrels in 1910, as the largest oil spill in recorded history.Six to eight million barrels of oil were directly spilled into the Arabian Gulf, which became known as the Gulf War oil spill."
],
[
"Comparable incidents",
"During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, approximately 40 oil wells were set on fire in the Persian Gulf within Iraq by Iraqi forces, ostensibly to hinder the invasion.",
"The ''Kuwait Wild Well Killers'', who successfully extinguished 41 of the Kuwait oil well fires in 1991, used their experience to tackle blazes in the Iraqi Rumaila oilfields in 2003.File:US Navy 030328-M-0000X-005 Kuwaiti firefighters fight to secure a burning oil well in the Rumaila oilfields.jpg|Firefighters fight to secure a burning oil well in the Iraqi Rumaila oilfields in 2003.File:Baghdad etm 2003092 lrg.jpg|Landsat 7 CGI image of Baghdad, April 2, 2003.Fires set in an attempt to hinder attacking air forces."
],
[
"See also",
"* Devil's Cigarette Lighter – a gas well fire that consumed 16 million cubic meters of gas per day.",
"* Environmental impact of war* Gulf War oil spill* ''Lessons of Darkness'' – feature film about the aftermath of the fires"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* ''Against the Fires of Hell: The Environmental Disaster of the Gulf War''.",
"Hawley, T. M., Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York, 1992."
],
[
"External links",
"* Fighting the Oil Well Fires * Oil fire photographs taken by a Kuwaiti journalist in 1991 * \"The Kuwaiti Oil Fires (Environmental Disasters)\" Facts on File, Inc., April 2005, , Author: Kristine Hirschmann"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kimberly Beck"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kimberly Beck''' (born January 9, 1956) is a former American actress and model.",
"She is best known for her role as Trish Jarvis in Joseph Zito's ''Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter'' (1984).",
"Her other film roles include Alfred Hitchcock's ''Marnie'' (1964), Luc Besson's ''The Big Blue'' (1988), George T. Miller's ''Frozen Assets'' (1992), and Roland Emmerich's ''Independence Day'' (1996)."
],
[
"Life and career",
"Beck was born to the actress Cindy Robbins.She starred in such movies as ''Massacre at Central High'', ''Roller Boogie'', and ''Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter''.",
"Among her notable television credits are '' General Hospital'', ''Capitol'' (billed as Kimberly Beck-Hilton), ''Fantasy Island'', ''Buck Rogers in the 25th Century'' (as one side of a Jekyll-and-Hyde character, whose counterpart was played by Trisha Noble), ''Westwind'', ''The Brady Bunch'', ''Dynasty'', ''Lucas Tanner'' and ''Peyton Place'' (as the character Kim Schuster).",
"As a child, she appeared in Alfred Hitchcock's ''Marnie'' and television commercials for such products as Mattel Toymakers Barbie and Chatty dolls.",
"She had a very brief appearance on ''The Munsters'' as a transformed Eddie Munster after Eddie drank the rest of Grandpa's Texas Playgirl Potion in season 1, episode 33 entitled \"Lily Munster, Girl Model\".",
"She starred on the pilot episode of ''Eight Is Enough'' as Nancy Bradford, the role that, in the series, went to Dianne Kay.",
"She also had the role of Diane Porter in ''Rich Man, Poor Man Book II'' with Peter Strauss and appeared in a host of other well-received television miniseries productions.",
"In 1968, she and her stepfather Tommy Leonetti, then working in Australia, recorded the single \"Let's Take a Walk\", released under the name of \"Tommy Leonetti and his daughter Kim\".",
"It charted at #4 on the Melbourne charts.In 1988, Beck married producer Jason Clark and they had two sons."
],
[
"Filmography",
"===Film=== Year Title Role Notes 1958 ''Torpedo Run'' Dede Doyle Uncredited 1959 ''The FBI Story'' Jennie Hardesty (age 2) Uncredited 1963 ''The Courtship of Eddie's Father'' Child Party Guest Uncredited 1964 ''Marnie'' Jessie Cotton Uncredited 1968 ''Yours, Mine and Ours'' Janette North 1976 ''Massacre at Central High'' Teresa 1979 ''Roller Boogie'' Lana 1984 ''Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter'' Trish Jarvis 1987 ''Maid to Order'' Kim 1988 ''The Big Blue'' Sally 1988 ''Nightmare at Noon'' Cheri Griffiths Alternate title: ''Death Street USA'' 1988 ''Messenger of Death'' Piety Beecham 1988 ''Private War'' Kim 1989 ''Playroom'' Secretary 1990 ''False Identity'' Cindy Roger 1991 ''Adventures in Dinosaur City'' Chanteuse 1992 ''Frozen Assets'' Voice role 1994 ''Killing Zoe'' Woman Customer 1996 ''Independence Day'' Housewife 1999 ''The Secret Life of Girls'' Mrs. Buchinsky 2009 ''Heidi 4 Paws'' Clara Sesehound Voice role===Television=== Year Title Role Notes 1964 ''Kraft Suspense Theatre'' Child #2 1 episode 1965 ''The Munsters'' Eddie Munster 1 episode 1965–1966 ''Peyton Place'' Kim Schuster 34 episodes 1966 ''The Virginian'' Laura Tedler 1 episode 1966 ''I Dream of Jeannie'' Gina 1 episode 1969 ''Land of the Giants'' Giant Girl 1 episode 1969 ''My Three Sons'' Susan Crawford 1 episode 1970 ''Me and Benjie'' TV pilot 1971 ''Bonanza'' Girl 1 episode 1971–1973 ''The Brady Bunch'' Laura / Girl 2 episodes 1974–1975 ''Lucas Tanner'' Terry Klitsner 21 episodes 1975 ''Adam-12'' Jo Anne Thompson 1 episode 1975 ''General Hospital'' Samantha Livingston #1 1 episode 1975 ''Mobile One'' Marlene 1 episode 1975–1976 ''Westwind'' Robin Andrews 13 episodes 1976–1977 ''Rich Man, Poor Man Book II'' Diane Porter 15 episodes 1977 ''Eight Is Enough'' Nancy Bradford TV pilot 1977 ''The Hardy Boys/Nancy Drew Mysteries'' Sue 1 episode 1977 ''Murder in Peyton Place'' Bonnie Buehler Television film 1978 ''Husbands, Wives & Lovers'' Amanda 1 episode 1978 ''Zuma Beach'' Cathy Television film 1979 ''B.",
"J. and the Bear'' Cindy Smith 1 episode 1979 ''Fantasy Island'' Cindy 1 episode 1979 ''Starting Fresh'' Stephanie Harvey TV pilot 1979 ''Buck Rogers in the 25th Century'' Alison Michaels 1 episode 1980 ''The Misadventures of Sheriff Lobo'' Vicky Bowers 1 episode 1980 ''Scalpels'' Nurse Connie Primble TV pilot 1980 ''Freebie and the Bean'' 1 episode 1981 ''Mr.",
"Merlin'' Susan 1 episode 1983 ''Webster'' Molly 1 episode 1982–1983 ''Capitol'' Julie Clegg #1 260 episodes 1982 ''Matt Houston'' Laurie Wildcat 1 episode 1983 ''Webster'' Molly 1 episode 1984 ''T.",
"J. Hooker'' Linda Stevens 1 episode 1985 ''Hunter'' Marlene 1 episode 1985 ''Hollywood Beat'' 1 episode 1985 ''Deadly Intentions'' Sally Raynor Television film 1986 ''Crazy Like a Fox'' Stella Moran 1 episode 1986 ''The New Mike Hammer'' Lisa Burnett 1 episode 1986–1987 ''Dynasty'' Claire Prentice 4 episodes 1987 ''L.A.",
"Law'' Nancy Tritchler 1 episode 1987 ''The Law & Harry McGraw'' Phoebe Cabot 1 episode 1991 ''Sons and Daughters'' Blonde Girl 1 episode 1991 ''The 100 Lives of Black Jack Savage'' Connie 1 episode 1991 ''FBI: The Untold Stories'' Suzie Emory 1 episode 1991 ''The Commish'' Michelle Carver 1 episode 1992 ''In the Deep Woods'' Margot Television film 1993 ''Sex, Shock and Censorship in the '90s'' Marsha Miller 1 episode 1994 ''Ultraman: The Ultimate Hero'' 1 episode"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kirsten Dunst"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kirsten Caroline Dunst''' (; born April 30, 1982) is an American actress and former musician.",
"She made her acting debut in the anthology film ''New York Stories'' (1989).",
"She gained recognition for her role as child vampire Claudia in the horror film ''Interview with the Vampire'' (1994), which earned her a Golden Globe nomination for Best Supporting Actress.",
"She also had roles in her youth in ''Little Women'' (1994) and ''Jumanji'' (1995).Dunst transitioned to leading roles in teen films of 1999, the satires ''Dick'' and ''Drop Dead Gorgeous'' and the Sofia Coppola-directed drama ''The Virgin Suicides''.",
"After leading the cheerleading film ''Bring It On'' (2000), Dunst gained wider attention for her role as Mary Jane Watson in Sam Raimi's ''Spider-Man'' trilogy (2002–2007).",
"Her career progressed with a supporting role in ''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind'' (2004), followed by a lead role in Cameron Crowe's tragicomedy ''Elizabethtown'' (2005), and as the title character in Coppola's ''Marie Antoinette'' (2006).In 2011, Dunst starred as a depressed newlywed in Lars von Trier's drama ''Melancholia'', which earned her the Cannes Film Festival Award For Best Actress.",
"In 2015, she played Peggy Blumquist in the second season of the FX series ''Fargo'', which earned Dunst a Primetime Emmy Award nomination.",
"She had a supporting role in the film ''Hidden Figures'' (2016), and leading roles in Coppola's ''The Beguiled'' (2017) and in the dark comedy series ''On Becoming a God in Central Florida'' (2019), for which she received a third Golden Globe nomination.",
"She earned her fourth nomination for a Golden Globe and first nomination for an Academy Award for her performance in the psychological drama ''The Power of the Dog'' (2021)."
],
[
"Early life and family",
"Dunst was born on April 30, 1982, at Point Pleasant Hospital in Point Pleasant, New Jersey.",
"Dunst's father worked for Siemens as a medical services executive, and her mother worked for Lufthansa as a flight attendant.",
"She was also an artist and one-time gallery owner.",
"Dunst's father is German, originally from Hamburg, and her American mother is of German and Swedish descent.",
"Until age eleven, Dunst lived in Brick Township, New Jersey, and attended Ranney School in Tinton Falls.In 1993, she moved to Los Angeles with her mother and brother, after her parents separated.",
"She began acting while a student at Notre Dame High School, and continued doing so after graduating in 2000.In her teens, she found it difficult to cope with her rising fame, and for a period she blamed her mother for pushing her into acting as a child.",
"However, she later said that her mother \"always had the best intentions\".",
"When asked if she had any regrets about her childhood, Dunst said, \"Well, it's not a natural way to grow up, but it's the way I grew up and I wouldn't change it.",
"I have my stuff to work out...",
"I don't think anybody can sit around and say, 'My life is more screwed up than yours.'",
"Everybody has their issues\"."
],
[
"Acting career",
"=== 1988–1993: Early work ===Dunst began her career at age three as a child fashion model in television commercials.",
"She was signed with Ford Models and Elite Model Management.",
"In 1988, she appeared in ''Saturday Night Live'' as the granddaughter of George H. W. Bush.",
"Later that year, she made her feature film debut with a minor role in Woody Allen's short film ''Oedipus Wrecks''; it was released as one-third of the anthology film ''New York Stories'' (1989).",
"Soon after, Dunst performed in the comedy-drama ''The Bonfire of the Vanities'' (1990), based on Tom Wolfe's novel of the same name, in which she played the daughter of Tom Hanks' character.",
"In 1993, Dunst made a guest appearance in an episode of the science fiction drama ''Star Trek: The Next Generation''.=== 1994–2001: Career breakthrough ===Dunst's breakthrough role came in 1994, in the horror drama ''Interview with the Vampire'' opposite Tom Cruise and Brad Pitt, based on Anne Rice's novel of the same name.",
"She played Claudia, the child vampire who is a surrogate daughter to Cruise's and Pitt's characters.",
"The film included a scene in which Dunst shared her first onscreen kiss with Pitt, who is nearly two decades her senior.",
"She stated that kissing him had made her feel uncomfortable: \"I thought it was gross, that Brad had cooties.",
"I mean, I was 10,\" she recalled.",
"While the film overall received mixed reviews, many critics singled out Dunst's performance for acclaim.",
"Roger Ebert considered her portrayal of Claudia to be one of the \"creepier\" aspects of the film, and took note of how well she had conveyed the impression of great age inside apparent youth.",
"Todd McCarthy of ''Variety'' stated that Dunst was \"just right\" for the family.",
"For her performance, she won the MTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performance and the Saturn Award for Best Young Actress, in addition to receiving a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress.Later in 1994, Dunst co-starred in the drama film ''Little Women'' alongside Winona Ryder and Claire Danes.",
"The film was critically acclaimed.",
"Janet Maslin of ''The New York Times'' hailed it as the greatest adaptation of Louisa May Alcott's novel of the same name and wrote of Dunst's performance:In 1995, Dunst starred in the fantasy adventure film ''Jumanji'', a loose adaptation of Chris Van Allsburg's 1981 children's book of the same name.",
"The story is about a supernatural and ominous board game in which animals and other jungle hazards appear with each roll of the dice.",
"She was part of an ensemble cast that included Robin Williams, Bonnie Hunt and David Alan Grier.",
"The film was a financial success and grossed $262 million worldwide.",
"In that year, and again in 2002, Dunst was named one of ''People'' magazine's 50 Most Beautiful People.Dunst at the alt=Dunst signing autographs at the Toronto International Film Festival, 2005From 1996 to 1997, Dunst had a recurring role in season three of the NBC medical drama ''ER''.",
"She played Charlie Chemingo, a child prostitute who was being cared for by the ER pediatrician Dr. Doug Ross (George Clooney).",
"In 1997, she voiced Young Anastasia in the animated musical film ''Anastasia''.",
"Also in 1997, Dunst appeared in the black comedy film ''Wag the Dog'', opposite Robert De Niro and Dustin Hoffman.",
"The following year she voiced the title character, Kiki, a thirteen-year-old apprentice witch who leaves her home village to spend a year on her own, in the anime ''Kiki's Delivery Service''.",
"She also starred in Sarah Kernochan's period comedy ''All I Wanna Do'' (1998), playing a student at an all girls' boarding school in the 1960s, opposite Gaby Hoffmann, Rachael Leigh Cook, and Lynn Redgrave.",
"Writing for ''The New York Times'', A. O. Scott opined that \"the film is surprisingly pleasant, thanks to smart, unstereotyped performances – especially by Hoffmann and Dunst – and the filmmaker's evident respect and affection for her characters\".Dunst starred in ''Drop Dead Gorgeous'', a 1999 American satirical black comedy mockumentary film about a small town beauty pageant with Ellen Barkin and Allison Janney.",
"She turned down the role of Angela Hayes (played by Mena Suvari) in ''American Beauty'' (1999), because she did not want to appear in the film's sexual scenes or kiss the lead character, played by Kevin Spacey.",
"She later explained: \"When I read it, I was 15 and I don't think I was mature enough to understand the script's material.\"",
"Dunst co-starred in the comedy film ''Dick'', opposite Michelle Williams; it is a parody which retells the events of the Watergate scandal that led to the resignation of former United States president Richard Nixon.",
"Her next film was Sofia Coppola's drama ''The Virgin Suicides'' (1999), based on Jeffrey Eugenides' novel of the same name.",
"She played Lux Lisbon, one of the troubled teenage daughters of Ronald Lisbon (James Woods).",
"The film was screened as a special presentation at the 43rd San Francisco International Film Festival in 2000.According to Metacritic, the film received generally favorable reviews.",
"''San Francisco Chronicle'' critic Peter Stack noted in his review that Dunst \"beautifully balances innocence and wantonness\".",
"Dunst also appeared in Savage Garden's music video \"I Knew I Loved You\", the first single from their second and final album ''Affirmation'' (1999).In 2000, Dunst starred in the comedy ''Bring It On'' as Torrance Shipman, the captain of a cheerleading squad.",
"The film garnered mostly positive reviews, with many critics reserving praise for her performance.",
"In his review, A. O. Scott called her \"a terrific comic actress, largely because of her great expressive range, and the nimbleness with which she can shift from anxiety to aggression to genuine hurt\".",
"Charles Taylor of ''Salon'' noted that \"among contemporary teenage actresses, Dunst has become the sunniest imaginable parodist\", even though he thought the film had failed to provide her with as good a role as she had in either ''Dick'' or in ''The Virgin Suicides.''",
"Jessica Winter of ''The Village Voice'' praised Dunst, stating that her performance was \"as sprightly and knowingly daft as her turn in ''Dick''\" adding that \"Dunst provides the only major element of ''Bring It On'' that plays as tweaking parody rather than slick, strident, body-slam churlishness.\"",
"Peter Stack of the ''San Francisco Chronicle'', despite giving the film an unfavorable review, commended Dunst for her willingness \"to be as silly and cloyingly agreeable as it takes to get through a slapdash film\".The following year, Dunst starred in the comedy film ''Get Over It''.",
"She later explained that she took the role for the opportunity to showcase her singing.",
"Also in 2001, she starred in the historical drama ''The Cat's Meow'', directed by Peter Bogdanovich, as actress Marion Davies.",
"Derek Elley of ''Variety'' described the film as \"playful and sporty\", deeming this Dunst's best performance to date: \"Believable as both a spoiled ingenue and a lover to two very different men, Dunst endows a potentially lightweight character with considerable depth and sympathy\".",
"For her performance, she won the Best Actress Silver Ombú award at the 2002 Mar del Plata International Film Festival.=== 2002–2009: Stardom with ''Spider-Man'' ===In 2002, Dunst starred opposite Tobey Maguire in the superhero film ''Spider-Man'', the most financially successful film of her career up until this date.",
"She played Mary Jane Watson, the best friend and love interest of Peter Parker (Maguire).",
"The film was directed by Sam Raimi.",
"Owen Gleiberman of ''Entertainment Weekly'' noted Dunst's ability to \"lend even the smallest line a tickle of flirtatious music\".",
"Writing for the ''Los Angeles Times'', Kenneth Turan reviewed that Dunst and Maguire made a real connection onscreen, concluding that their relationship \"involved audiences to an extent rarely seen in films\".",
"''Spider-Man'' was a critical and commercial success.",
"The film grossed $114 million during its opening weekend in North America and earned $822 million worldwide.Dunst next co-starred with Billy Bob Thornton, Morgan Freeman and Holly Hunter in the drama ''Levity'' (2003), a story of a man who is released on parole and returns to his hometown seeking redemption.",
"That same year, she co-starred opposite Julia Roberts, Maggie Gyllenhaal and Julia Stiles in the drama ''Mona Lisa Smile'' (2003).",
"The film received mostly negative reviews, with Manohla Dargis of the ''Los Angeles Times'' describing it as \"smug and reductive\".",
"Dunst co-starred as Mary Svevo opposite Jim Carrey, Kate Winslet and Tom Wilkinson in Michel Gondry's science fiction romantic comedy-drama ''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind'' (2004).",
"The latter film was critically acclaimed, with ''Entertainment Weekly'' describing Dunst's subplot as \"nifty and clever\".",
"The film grossed $72 million worldwide.The success of the first ''Spider-Man'' led Dunst to reprise her role as Mary Jane Watson in 2004 in ''Spider-Man 2''.",
"The film was acclaimed by critics and a commercial success, setting a new opening weekend box office record for North America.",
"With box office revenues of $783 million worldwide, it was the second highest-grossing film in 2004.Also in 2004, Dunst co-starred opposite Paul Bettany in the romantic comedy ''Wimbledon'' in which she portrayed a rising tennis player in the Wimbledon Championships, while Bettany portrayed a fading former tennis star.",
"The film received mixed reviews, but many critics enjoyed Dunst's performance.",
"Claudia Puig of ''USA Today'' observed that the chemistry between Dunst and Bettany was potent, with Dunst doing a \"fine job as a sassy and self-assured player\".",
"Dunst at the 2006 Cannes Film FestivalIn Dunst's sole project of 2005, she co-starred opposite Orlando Bloom in Cameron Crowe's romantic tragicomedy ''Elizabethtown'' as flight attendant Claire Colburn.",
"The film premiered at the 2005 Toronto International Film Festival.",
"Dunst revealed that working with Crowe was enjoyable, but more demanding than she had expected.",
"The film garnered mixed reviews, with the ''Chicago Tribune'' rating it 1 out of 4 stars and describing Dunst's portrayal of a flight attendant as \"cloying\".",
"It was also a box office disappointment.",
"After ''Elizabethtown'', Dunst collaborated with Sofia Coppola again and starred as the title character in the historical drama ''Marie Antoinette'' (2006), based on Antonia Fraser's book ''Marie Antoinette: The Journey''.",
"The film was screened at a special presentation at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival, and was reviewed favorably.",
"The film grossed $60 million at the box office from a budget of $40 million.In 2007, Dunst reprised the role of Mary Jane Watson in ''Spider-Man 3''.",
"In contrast to its predecessors' rave reviews, ''Spider-Man 3'' received a mixed reaction from critics.",
"Ryan Gilbey of the ''New Statesman'' was critical of Dunst's character, remarking that \"the film-makers couldn't come up with much for Mary Jane to do other than scream a lot\".",
"Nevertheless, with a worldwide gross of $891 million, it stands as the most commercially successful film in the series and Dunst's highest-grossing film to the end of 2008.Having initially signed on for three ''Spider-Man'' films, she said she would consider doing a fourth, but only if Raimi and Maguire returned.",
"In January 2010, it was announced that the fourth film was canceled and that the ''Spider-Man'' film series would be restarted, therefore dropping the trio from the franchise.Dunst's next role was in 2008, in which she co-starred opposite Simon Pegg in the comedy ''How to Lose Friends & Alienate People'', based on former ''Vanity Fair'' contributing editor Toby Young's memoir of the same name.",
"Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the film an approval rating of 37%, with the film gaining mostly negative reviews.",
"Robert Wilonsky of ''The Village Voice'' was critical of Dunst's performance, writing she \"seems to be speaking in four different accents at once, none of them quite of the English variety\".",
"He added that the film \"plays like a made-for-CBS redo of ''The Devil Wears Prada''\"''.",
"''=== 2010–2016: Independent films ===Dunst made her screenwriting and directorial debut with the short film ''Bastard'', which premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival in 2010 and was later featured at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival.",
"She co-starred opposite Ryan Gosling in the mystery drama ''All Good Things'' (2010), based on the true story of New York real estate developer Robert Durst, whose wife disappeared in 1982.The film received fair reviews, but was a commercial failure, earning only $640,000 worldwide.",
"The critic Roger Ebert praised Dunst for her ability to capture \"a woman at a loss to understand who her husband really is, and what the true nature of his family involves\".",
"The ''San Francisco Chronicle'' complimented her performance as \"the only one worth watching\", despite the film's \"slow crawl\" and lack of suspense.",
"Also in 2010, Dunst co-starred with Brian Geraghty in Carlos Cuarón's short film ''The Second Bakery Attack'', based on Haruki Murakami's short story.Dunst at the alt=Dunst at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival.In 2011, Dunst co-starred opposite Charlotte Gainsbourg, Kiefer Sutherland and Charlotte Rampling in Lars von Trier's drama film ''Melancholia'' as a woman suffering depression as the world ends.",
"It premiered at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival and received positive reviews, in particular for Dunst's performance.",
"Steven Loeb of ''Southampton Patch'' wrote \"This film has brought the best out of von Trier, as well as his star.",
"Dunst is so good in this film, playing a character unlike any other she has ever attempted...",
"Even if the film itself were not the incredible work of art that it is, Dunst's performance alone would be incentive enough to recommend it\".",
"Sukhdev Sandhu of ''The Daily Telegraph'' wrote \"Dunst is exceptional, so utterly convincing in the lead role – trouble, serene, a fierce savant – that it feels like a career breakthrough.",
"Dunst won several awards for her performance, including the Best Actress Award at the Cannes Film Festival and the Best Actress Award from the U.S. National Society of Film Critics.Dunst made a cameo in Beastie Boys' 2011 music video ''Fight For Your Right Revisited'' which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival.",
"A year later, she starred in Juan Diego Solanas' science fiction romance ''Upside Down'' with Jim Sturgess.",
"Described as a ''Romeo and Juliet'' story, Peter Howell of the ''Toronto Star'' opined that there was no character development and Dunst \"brings competence but no passion to her underwritten roles\".",
"The film's consensus on Rotten Tomatoes was also negative, with a 28% approval rating.",
"Next, she had a role in Leslye Headland's romantic comedy ''Bachelorette'' (2012), starring Isla Fisher, Rebel Wilson and Lizzy Caplan; the film was produced by Will Ferrell and Adam McKay.",
"Dunst plays Regan Crawford, one of three women who reunite for the wedding of a friend who was ridiculed in high school.",
"Dunst's appeared in the drama ''On the Road'' (2012), an adaptation of Jack Kerouac's novel of the same name, in which she plays Camille Moriarty.",
"Dunst was first approached for the role by director Walter Salles several years prior.",
"The film premiered at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival, and was released in the United States on December 21, 2012.",
"''On the Road'' gained mixed reviews and under-performed at the box office.",
"Writing for ''Time'' magazine, Richard Corliss compared ''On the Road'' to \"a diorama in a Kerouac museum ... the film lacks the novel's exuberant syncopation\", but praises Dunst's performance.",
"''Chicago Tribune''s Michael Phillips was more positive, giving the film 3 out of 4 stars, praising the cinematic quality, and actors for their \"kind of fluid motion and freedom that periodically makes ''On the Road'' make sense and makes it feel alive\".Dunst at the Australian premiere of ''Anchorman 2'', 2013Hossein Amini's ''The Two Faces of January'' (2014) was Dunst's next major role, starring alongside Viggo Mortensen and Oscar Isaac.",
"Playing Colette MacFarland, the wife of a con artist, the thriller is based on Patricia Highsmith's 1964 novel of the same name.",
"Garnering mostly favorable reviews, the ''Los Angeles Times'' complimented the 1960s Greek setting and observed Dunst \"brings a potent complexity to Colette; every mood shift registers to the bone\".",
"Jake Wilson of ''The Sydney Morning Herald'' praised the script for \"condensing the book's plot while retaining its spirit\", although he thought there was some uneven editing.",
"Of Dunst's performance, he called her \"typically teasing yet sympathetic\".",
"Finally in 2014, Dunst voiced a character in the eighth episode of ''Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey'', and made a guest appearance in an episode of ''Portlandia''.",
"Throughout 2015, Dunst focused solely on television work.",
"She was cast as hairdresser Peggy Blumquist in the second season of the critically acclaimed FX crime dark comedy-drama ''Fargo'', which earned her a nomination for Golden Globe Award for Best Actress.In 2016, Dunst co-starred in Jeff Nichols' science fiction drama ''Midnight Special'' with Michael Shannon and Joel Edgerton.",
"The story is about a father and his eight-year-old son who go on the run upon discovering that the boy possesses mysterious powers.",
"The film opened to mostly positive reviews; Tim Grierson of ''The New Republic'' was impressed by ''Midnight Special''s special effects which imitated a late 20th century retro style.",
"However, he questioned the purpose of Dunst's character which \"simply has nothing to do\".",
"Dunst had a supporting role in the biographical drama ''Hidden Figures'' (2016), a loose adaptation of the book of the same name, about African-American mathematicians who worked at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) during the Space Race.",
"Dunst's portrayal of a white supervisor drew praise from ''Slant Magazine''s Elise Nakhnikian, while ''The Guardian'' thought the film was educational and entertaining despite its underdeveloped supporting cast.",
"The film was a commercial success, grossing $236 million worldwide and was nominated for three Academy Awards.",
"The cast also won the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture.",
"In addition to acting, Dunst served as a member of the main competition jury of the 2016 Cannes Film Festival.",
"In that year, Dunst planned to direct an adaptation of Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', starring Dakota Fanning, but stepped down from the project before production.===2017–present: Awards recognition ===Dunst had two film releases in 2017.She starred alongside Colin Farrell, Nicole Kidman and Elle Fanning in the drama ''The Beguiled'', which marked her third collaboration with Sofia Coppola, who wrote and directed the film.",
"It is a remake of Don Siegel's 1971 film of the same name about a wounded Union soldier who seeks shelter at an all-girls' school in the Confederate States of America.",
"Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a 79% approval rating which was \"enlivened by strong performances from the cast\".",
"Matthew Norman of the ''Evening Standard'' similarly took note of the \"impeccable\" acting performances and wrote, \"Dunst lends the ideal measure of coiled physical longing to her prim spinster\".Dunst then starred in the psychological thriller ''Woodshock,'' written and directed by her friends, Kate and Laura Mulleavy'','' founders of the Rodarte fashion label.",
"The film is about a woman who falls deeper into paranoia after taking a deadly drug.",
"The Mulleavys' personally approached Dunst for the lead role, which gave Dunst an \"emotional safety net\" during filming.",
"She prepared for the role over the course of a year, undertaking dream experiments in order to try to inhabit the character's state of mind.",
"Upon release, the film was unpopular with critics.",
"Katie Rife of ''The A.V.",
"Club'' acknowledged the \"sophisticated\" cinematography but thought \"Character development and motivation are practically nonexistent, and the already-thin plot pushes ambiguity to the point of incoherence\".",
"''Variety''s Guy Lodge shared a similar opinion with the character, writing \"Dunst has form in playing irretrievably inverted depression to riveting effect, but the Mulleavys' script hardly gives her as complex an emotional or intellectual palette to work with\".In 2019, Dunst starred in the Showtime dark comedy television series ''On Becoming a God in Central Florida'', which premiered in August that year.",
"For her role, she was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Actress and a Critics Choice Award for Best Actress in a Comedy Series.",
"In September 2019, Showtime renewed the series for a second season, but ultimately canceled it the following year due to the COVID-19 pandemic.Dunst co-starred with her partner Jesse Plemons in Jane Campion's film ''The Power of the Dog'' distributed by Netflix, and given a limited theatrical release in the USA on November 17, 2021.She received Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Supporting Actress."
],
[
"Music career",
"In 2001, Dunst made her singing debut in the comedy film ''Get Over It'', performing two songs written by Marc Shaiman.She recorded Henry Creamer and Turner Layton's jazz standard \"After You've Gone\" that was used in the end credits of ''The Cat's Meow''.",
"In ''Spider-Man 3'', she sang two songs as Mary Jane Watson, one during a Broadway performance, and one as a singing waitress in a jazz club.",
"Dunst recorded the songs earlier and lip-synced while filming.",
"She appeared in the music videos for Savage Garden's \"I Knew I Loved You\", Beastie Boys' \"Make Some Noise\" and R.E.M.",
"'s \"We All Go Back to Where We Belong\" and she sang two tracks which were \"This Old Machine\" and \"Summer Day\" on Jason Schwartzman's 2007 solo album ''Nighttiming''.",
"In 2007, Dunst said she had no intention to release albums, saying, \"It worked when Barbra Streisand was doing it, but now it's a little cheesy, I think.",
"It works better when singers are in movies\".Dunst starred as the magical princess Majokko in the Takashi Murakami and McG directed short ''Akihabara Majokko Princess'' singing a cover of The Vapors' 1980 song \"Turning Japanese\".",
"This was shown at the \"Pop Life\" exhibition in London's Tate Modern gallery from October 1, 2009, to January 17, 2010.It shows Dunst dancing around Akihabara, a shopping district in Tokyo, Japan."
],
[
"Personal life",
"In 2001, Dunst purchased a house in Toluca Lake, California, selling it in September 2019 for $4.5 million.",
"In 2010, she sold a property in Nichols Canyon, California, for $1.4 million.",
"Dunst owned a Lower Manhattan apartment which she listed for sale in 2017.In early 2008, Dunst was treated for depression at the Cirque Lodge treatment center in Utah.",
"In late March 2008, she left the treatment center and began filming ''All Good Things''.",
"Two months later, she went public with this information in order to dispel rumors of drug and alcohol abuse, stating, \"Now that I'm feeling stronger, I was prepared to say something.",
"... Depression is pretty serious and should not be gossiped about\".=== Relationships ===Dunst began dating actor Jake Gyllenhaal in 2002, after the two were introduced by Gyllenhaal's sister and Dunst's ''Mona Lisa Smile'' co-star, Maggie Gyllenhaal.",
"The two shared a Los Angeles home before breaking up in 2004, reportedly on friendly terms.",
"She was in a relationship with her ''On the Road'' co-star Garrett Hedlund from 2012 to 2016; they were briefly engaged before eventually breaking up.She began a relationship with her ''Fargo'' co-star Jesse Plemons in 2016 and they became engaged in 2017.Their first son was born in May 2018.In a cover shoot for ''W'' directed by long-time collaborator Sofia Coppola, she announced that she was pregnant with her second child, and later gave birth to their second son in May 2021.Dunst and Plemons were married in July 2022 at a resort in Ocho Rios, Jamaica."
],
[
"Other ventures",
"Dunst supports the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation, for which she helped design and promote a necklace whose sales proceeds went to the Foundation.",
"She worked in support of breast cancer awareness, participating in the Stand Up to Cancer telethon in September 2008 in order to raise funds for cancer research.",
"On December 5, 2009, she participated in the Teletón in Mexico, in order to raise awareness for cancer treatment and children's rehabilitation.Dunst endorsed John Kerry in the 2004 presidential election.",
"She supported Barack Obama during the 2008 presidential election, and directed and narrated a documentary, ''Why Tuesday'', about the tradition of voting on Tuesdays and low voter turnout in the United States, to \"influence people in a positive way\".",
"She endorsed Bernie Sanders in the 2020 presidential election.",
"In 2011, she acquired German citizenship, which enabled her to \"film in Europe without a problem\".",
"She now holds dual American and German citizenship."
],
[
"Acting credits and awards",
"Dunst's most acclaimed films according to the review aggregate site Rotten Tomatoes include ''Little Women'' (1994), ''Spider-Man'' (2002), ''Spider-Man 2'' (2004), ''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind'' (2004), ''Melancholia'' (2011), ''The Two Faces of January'' (2014), ''Hidden Figures'' (2017), and ''The Power Of The Dog'' (2021).Dunst has been nominated for four Golden Globe awards: Best Supporting Actress for ''Interview with the Vampire'' (1994) and ''The Power of the Dog'', Best Actress for Miniseries or Television Film for ''Fargo'' (2015), and Best Actress for Television Series Musical or Comedy for ''On Becoming a God in Central Florida'' (2019).",
"In August 2019, she received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.",
"Dunst was nominated for Best Actress in a Supporting Role for ''The Power of The Dog'' in the 2022 Academy Awards."
],
[
"Discography",
"+YearTitleAlbum1994\"For the Beauty of the Earth\" ft. Trini Alvarado and Claire Danes''Little Women (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)''1999\"Spit It Out\" ft. Allison Janney''Drop Dead Gorgeous: Motion Picture Soundtrack''2001\"Dream of Me\"''Get Over It: Music From The Miramax Motion Picture''\"The Girl Inside\"2002\"After You've Gone\"''The Cat's Meow Original Motion Picture Soundtrack''2007\"This Old Machine\"''Nighttiming'' by Coconut Records\"Summer Day\""
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kevin Warwick"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kevin Warwick''' (born 9 February 1954) is an English engineer and Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Research) at Coventry University.",
"He is known for his studies on direct interfaces between computer systems and the human nervous system, and has also done research concerning robotics."
],
[
"Biography",
"Kevin Warwick was born in 1954 in Keresley, Coventry, England, and was raised in the nearby village of Ryton-on-Dunsmore, Warwickshire.",
"His family attended a Methodist church but soon he began doubting the existence of God.",
"He attended Lawrence Sheriff School in Rugby, Warwickshire, where he was a contemporary of actor Arthur Bostrom.",
"He left school at the age of 16 to start an apprenticeship with British Telecom.",
"In 1976, he was granted his first degree at Aston University, followed by a PhD degree and a research job at Imperial College London.He took up positions at Somerville College in Oxford, Newcastle University, the University of Warwick, and the University of Reading, before relocating to Coventry University in 2014.Warwick is a Chartered Engineer (CEng), a Fellow of the Institution of Engineering and Technology (FIET) and a Fellow of the City and Guilds of London Institute (FCGI).",
"He is Visiting Professor at the Czech Technical University in Prague, the University of Strathclyde, Bournemouth University, and the University of Reading, and in 2004 he was Senior Beckman Fellow at the University of Illinois in the United States.",
"He is also on the Advisory Boards of the Instinctive Computing Laboratory at Carnegie Mellon University, and the Centre for Intermedia at the University of Exeter.By the age of 40, Warwick had been awarded a DSc degree by both Imperial College London and the Czech Academy of Sciences in Prague, for his research output in two entirely unrelated areas.",
"He has received the IET Achievement Medal, the IET Mountbatten Medal, and in 2011 the Ellison-Cliffe Medal from the Royal Society of Medicine.",
"In 2000, Warwick presented the Royal Institution Christmas Lectures, entitled ''The Rise of Robots''."
],
[
"Research",
"Warwick performs research in artificial intelligence, biomedical engineering, control systems and robotics.",
"Much of Warwick's early research was in the area of discrete time adaptive control.",
"He introduced the first state space based self-tuning controller and unified discrete time state space representations of ARMA models.",
"He has also contributed to mathematics, power engineering and manufacturing production machinery.===Artificial intelligence===Warwick directed a research project funded by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), which investigated the use of machine learning and artificial intelligence (AI) techniques to suitably stimulate and translate patterns of electrical activity from living cultured neural networks to use the networks for the control of mobile robots.",
"Hence the behaviour process for each robot was effectively provided by a biological brain.Previously, Warwick helped to develop a genetic algorithm named Gershwyn, which was able to exhibit creativity in producing popular songs, learning what makes a hit record by listening to examples of previous successful songs.",
"Gershwyn appeared on BBC's ''Tomorrow's World'', having been successfully used to mix music for Manus, a group consisting of the four younger brothers of Elvis Costello.Another of Warwick's projects involving AI was the robot head, Morgui.",
"The head, which contained five \"senses\" (vision, sound, infrared, ultrasound and radar), was used to investigate sensor data fusion.",
"It was X-rated by the University of Reading Research and Ethics Committee due to its image storage capabilities—anyone under the age of 18 who wished to interact with the robot had to obtain parental approval.Warwick has very outspoken opinions about the future, particularly with respect to AI and its effect on the human species.",
"He argues that humanity will need to use technology to enhance itself to avoid being overtaken by machines.",
"He states that many human limitations, such as sensorimotor abilities, can be outperformed by machines, and he has said on record that he wants to gain these abilities: \"There is no way I want to stay a mere human.",
"\"===Bioethics===Warwick directed the University of Reading team in a number of European Community projects such as: FIDIS (Future of Identity in the Information Society), researching the future of identity; and ETHICBOTS and RoboLaw, both of which considered the ethical aspects of robots and cyborgs.Warwick's topics of interest have many ethical implications, some due to his human enhancement experiments.",
"The ethical dilemmas of his research are used by the Institute of Physics as a case study for schoolchildren and science teachers as a part of their formal Advanced level and GCSE studies.",
"His work has also been discussed by the USA President's Council on Bioethics and the USA President's Panel on Forward Engagements.",
"He is a member of the Nuffield Council on Bioethics Working Party on ''Novel Neurotechnologies''.===Deep brain stimulation===Along with Tipu Aziz and his team at John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, and John Stein of the University of Oxford, Warwick is helping to design the next generation of deep brain stimulation for Parkinson's disease.",
"Instead of stimulating the brain all the time, the goal is for the device to predict when stimulation is needed and to apply the signals prior to any tremors occurring, thereby stopping tremors before they start.",
"Recent results have also shown that it is possible to identify different types of Parkinson's Disease.===Public awareness===Warwick has directed a number of projects intended to interest schoolchildren in the technology with which he is involved.",
"In 2000, he received the EPSRC Millennium Award for his Schools Robot League.",
"In 2007, 16 school teams were involved in a project to design a humanoid robot to dance and then complete an assault course, with the final competition staged at the Science Museum, London.",
"The project, entitled 'Androids Advance' was funded by EPSRC and was presented as a news item by Chinese television.Warwick contributes significantly to the public understanding of science by giving regular public lectures, participating with radio programmes, and through popular writing.",
"He has appeared in numerous television documentary programmes on AI, robotics and the role of science fiction in science, such as ''How William Shatner Changed the World'', ''Future Fantastic'' and ''Explorations''.",
"He also appeared in the Ray Kurzweil-inspired movie ''Transcendent Man'' along with William Shatner, Colin Powell, and Stevie Wonder.",
"He has guested on several television talk shows, including ''Late Night with Conan O'Brien'', ''Først & sist'', ''Sunday Brunch'' and ''Richard & Judy''.",
"He has appeared on the cover of a number of magazines, for example the February 2000 edition of ''Wired''.In 2005, Warwick was the subject of an early day motion tabled by members of the UK Parliament, in which he was congratulated for his work in attracting students to science and for teaching \"in a way that makes the subject interesting and relevant so that more students will want to develop a career in science.",
"\"In 2009, Warwick was interviewed about his work in cybernetics for two documentary features on the DVD release of the 1985 ''Doctor Who'' story ''Attack of the Cybermen''.",
"He was also an interview subject for the televised lecture ''The Science of Doctor Who'' in 2013.In 2013, Warwick appeared as a guest on BBC Radio 4's ''The Museum of Curiosity'' with Robert Llewellyn and Cleo Rocos.",
"In 2014, he appeared on BBC Radio 4's ''Midweek'' with Libby Purves, Roger Bannister and Rachael Stirling.===Robotics===Warwick's claims that robots can program themselves to avoid each other while operating in a group raise the issue of self-organisation.",
"In particular, the works of Francisco Varela and Humberto Maturana, once purely speculative have now become immediately relevant with respect to synthetic intelligence.Cyborg-type systems, if they are to survive, need to be not only homeostatic (meaning that they are able to preserve stable internal conditions in various environments) but also adaptive.",
"Testing the claims of Varela and Maturana using synthetic devices is the more serious concern in the discussion about Warwick and those involved in similar research.",
"\"Pulling the plug\" on independent devices cannot be as simple as it appears, because if the device displays sufficient intelligence, and assumes a diagnostic and prognostic stature, we may ultimately one day be forced to decide between what it could be telling us as counterintuitive (but correct) and our impulse to disconnect because of our limited and \"intuitive\" perceptions.Warwick's robots seemed to exhibit behaviour not anticipated by the research, one such robot \"committing suicide\" because it could not cope with its environment.",
"In a more complex setting, it may be asked whether a \"natural selection\" might be possible, neural networks being the major operative.The 1999 edition of the ''Guinness Book of Records'' recorded that Warwick performed the first robot learning experiment using the Internet.",
"One robot, with an artificial neural network brain at the University of Reading in the UK, learned how to move around without bumping into things.",
"It then taught, via the Internet, another robot at SUNY Buffalo in New York State to behave in the same way.",
"The robot in the US was therefore not taught or programmed by a human, but rather by another robot based on what it had itself learnt.Hissing Sid was a robot cat that Warwick took on a British Council lecture tour of Russia, where he presented it in lectures at such places as Moscow State University.",
"The robot was put together as a student project; its name came from the noise made by the pneumatic actuators used to drive its legs when walking.",
"Hissing Sid also appeared on BBC TV's ''Blue Peter'' but became more well known when it was refused a ticket by British Airways on the grounds that they did not allow animals in the cabin.Warwick was also responsible for a robotic \"magic chair\" (based on the SCARA-form UMI RTX arm) used on BBC TV's ''Jim'll Fix It''.",
"The chair provided the show's host Jimmy Savile with tea and stored Jim'll Fix It badges for him to hand out to guests.",
"Warwick appeared on the programme himself for a Fix-it involving robots.Warwick was also involved in the development of the \"Seven Dwarves\" robots, a version of which was sold in kit form as \"Cybot\" on the cover of ''Real Robots'' magazine in 2001.The magazine series guided its readers through the stages of building and programming Cybot, an artificially intelligent robot capable of making its own decisions and thinking for itself.===Project Cyborg===Probably the most famous research undertaken by Warwick—and the origin of the nickname \"Captain Cyborg\" given to him by ''The Register''—is the set of experiments known as Project Cyborg, in which an array was implanted into his arm, with the goal of him \"becoming a cyborg\".The first stage of Project Cyborg, which began on 24 August 1998, involved a simple RFID transmitter being implanted beneath Warwick's skin, which was used to control doors, lights, heaters, and other computer-controlled devices based on his proximity.",
"He explained that the main purpose of this experiment was to test the limits of what the body would accept, and how easy it would be to receive a meaningful signal from the microprocessor.The second stage of the research involved a more complex neural interface, designed and built especially for the experiment by Dr. Mark Gasson and his team at the University of Reading.",
"This device consisted of a BrainGate sensor, a silicon square about 3mm wide, connected to an external \"gauntlet\" that housed supporting electronics.",
"It was implanted under local anaesthetic on 14 March 2002 at the Radcliffe Infirmary in Oxford, where it was interfaced directly into Warwick's nervous system via the median nerve in his left wrist.",
"The microelectrode array that was inserted contained 100 electrodes, each the width of a human hair, of which 25 could be accessed at any one time, whereas the nerve that was being monitored carries many times that number of signals.",
"The experiment proved successful, and the output signals were detailed enough to enable a robot arm, developed by Warwick's colleague Dr. Peter Kyberd, to mimic the actions of Warwick's own arm.By means of the implant, Warwick's nervous system was connected to the Internet at Columbia University, New York.",
"From there he was able to control the robot arm at the University of Reading and obtain feedback from sensors in the finger tips.",
"He also successfully connected ultrasonic sensors on a baseball cap and experienced a form of extrasensory input.In a highly publicised extension to the experiment, a simpler array was implanted into the arm of Warwick's wife, with the ultimate aim of one day creating a form of telepathy or empathy using the Internet to communicate the signal over huge distances.",
"This experiment resulted in the first direct and purely electronic communication between the nervous systems of two humans.",
"Finally, the effect of the implant on Warwick's hand function was measured using the University of Southampton's Hand Assessment Procedure (SHAP).",
"There was a fear that directly interfacing with the nervous system might cause some form of damage or interference, but no measurable side effect (nor any sign of rejection) was encountered.====Implications====Warwick and his colleagues claim that the Project Cyborg research could result in new medical tools for treating patients with damage to the nervous system, as well as assisting the more ambitious enhancements Warwick advocates.",
"Some transhumanists even speculate that similar technologies could be used for technology-facilitated telepathy.===Tracking device===A controversy began in August 2002, shortly after the Soham murders, when Warwick reportedly offered to implant a tracking device into an 11-year-old girl as an anti-abduction measure.",
"The plan produced a mixed reaction, with endorsement from many worried parents but ethical concerns from children's societies.",
"As a result, the idea did not go ahead.Anti-theft RFID chips are common in jewellery or clothing in some Latin American countries due to a high abduction rate, and the company VeriChip announced plans in 2001 to expand its line of available medical information implants, to be GPS trackable when combined with a separate GPS device.===Turing test===Warwick in February 2008Warwick in June 2011Warwick participated as a ''Turing Interrogator'' on two occasions, judging machines in the 2001 and 2006 Loebner Prize competitions, platforms for an \"imitation game\" as devised by Alan Turing.",
"The 2001 Prize, held at the London Science Museum, featured Turing's \"jury service\" or one-to-one Turing tests and was won by A.L.I.C.E.",
"The 2006 contest staged \"parallel-paired\" Turing tests at University College London and the winner was Rollo Carpenter.",
"Warwick co-organised the 2008 Loebner Prize at the University of Reading, which also featured parallel-paired Turing tests.In 2012, he co-organised with Huma Shah a series of Turing tests held at Bletchley Park.",
"According to Warwick, the tests strictly adhered to the statements made by Alan Turing in his papers.",
"Warwick himself participated in the tests as a hidden human.",
"Results of the tests were discussed in a number of academic papers.",
"One paper, entitled \"Human Misidentification in Turing Tests\", became one of the top three most-downloaded papers in the ''Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence''.In June 2014, Warwick helped Shah stage a series of Turing tests to mark the 60th anniversary of Alan Turing's death.",
"The event was performed at the Royal Society, London.",
"Warwick regarded the winning chatbot, \"Eugene Goostman\", as having \"passed the Turing test for the first time\" by fooling a third of the event's judges into making an incorrect identification, and termed this a \"milestone\".",
"A paper containing all of the transcripts involving Eugene Goostman entitled \"Can Machines Think?",
"A Report on Turing Test Experiments at the Royal Society\", has also become one of the top three most-downloaded papers in the ''Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence''.Warwick was criticised in the context of the 2014 Royal Society event, where he claimed that software program Eugene Goostman had passed the Turing test on the basis of its performance.",
"The software successfully convinced over 30% of the judges who could not identify it as being a machine, on the basis of a five-minute text chat.",
"Critics stated that the software's claim of being a young non-native English speaker weakened the spirit of the test, as any grammatical and semantic inconsistencies could be excused as a consequence of limited proficiency in the English language.",
"Some critics also claimed that the software's performance had been exceeded by other programs in the past.",
"However, the 2014 tests were entirely unrestricted in terms of discussion topics, whereas the previous tests referenced by the critics had been limited to very specific subject areas.",
"Additionally, Warwick was criticised by editor and entrepreneur Mike Masnick for exaggerating the significance of the Eugene Goostman program to the press."
],
[
"Other work",
"Warwick was a member of the 2001 Higher Education Funding Council for England (unit 29) Research Assessment Exercise panel on Electrical and Electronic Engineering and was Deputy chairman for the same panel (unit 24) in 2008.In March 2009, he was cited as being the inspiration of National Young Scientist of the Year, Peter Hatfield.===Royal Institution Christmas Lectures===Warwick presented the Royal Institution Christmas Lectures in December 2000, entitled ''Rise of the Robots''.",
"Although the lectures were well received by some, British computer scientist Simon Colton complained about the choice of Warwick prior to his appearance.",
"He claimed that Warwick \"is not a spokesman for our subject\" (Artificial Intelligence) and \"allowing him influence through the Christmas lectures is a danger to the public perception of science\".",
"In response to Warwick's claims that computers could be creative, Colton, who is a Professor of Computational Creativity, also said: \"the AI community has done real science to reclaim words such as creativity and emotion which they claim computers will never have\".",
"Subsequent letters were generally positive; Ralph Rayner wrote: \"With my youngest son, I attended all of the lectures and found them balanced and thought-provoking.",
"They were not sensationalist.",
"I applaud Warwick for his lectures\"."
],
[
"Awards and recognition",
"Warwick received the Future Health Technology Award in 2000, and was presented with the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) Achievement Medal in 2004.In 2008, he was awarded the Mountbatten Medal.",
"In 2009 he received the Marcellin Champagnat award from Universidad Marista Guadalajara and the Golden Eurydice Award.",
"In 2011 he received the Ellison-Cliffe Medal from the Royal Society of Medicine.",
"In 2014, he was elected to the membership of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts.",
"In 2018 Warwick was inducted into the International Academy for Systems and Cybernetic Sciences and in 2020 he was awarded an Honorary Fellowship of the Cybernetics Society.He is the recipient of ten honorary doctorates, these being from Aston University, Coventry University, Robert Gordon University, Bradford University, University of Bedfordshire, Portsmouth University, Kingston University, Ss.",
"Cyril and Methodius University of Skopje, Edinburgh Napier University, and Galgotias University."
],
[
"Reception",
"Warwick has both his critics and endorsers, some of whom describe him as a \"maverick\".",
"Others see his work as \"not very scientific\" and more like \"entertainment\", whereas some regard him as \"an extraordinarily creative experimenter\", his presentations as \"awesome\" and his work as \"profound\"."
],
[
"Publications",
"Warwick has written several books, articles and papers.",
"A selection of his books:* * * * * Lectures (inaugural and keynote lectures):* 1998, Robert Boyle Lecture at the University of Oxford.",
"* 2000, Royal Institution Christmas Lectures.",
"These lectures were repeated in 2001 during a tour of Japan, China and Korea.",
"* 2001, Higginson Lecture at Durham University, Hamilton institute inaugural lecture.",
"* 2003, Royal Academy of Engineering/Royal Society of Edinburgh Joint lecture in Edinburgh,* 2003, IEEE (UK) Annual Lecture in London; Pittsburgh International Science and Technology Festival.",
"* 2004, Woolmer Lecture of the Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine at University of York; Robert Hooke Lecture (Westminster).",
"* 2005, Einstein Lecture in Potsdam, Germany* 2006, Bernard Price Memorial Lecture tour in South Africa; Institution of Mechanical Engineers Prestige Lecture in London.",
"* 2007, Techfest plenary lecture in Mumbai; Kshitij keynote in Kharagpur (India); Engineer Techfest plenary lecture in NITK Surathkal (India); Annual Science Faculty lecture at University of Leicester; Graduate School in Physical Sciences and Engineering Annual Lecture, Cardiff University.",
"* 2008, Leslie Oliver Oration at Queen's Hospital; Techkriti keynote in Kanpur.",
"* 2008, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, guest lecture \"Four weddings and a Funeral\" for the Microsoft Research Chair.",
"* 2009, Cardiff University, 125th Anniversary Lecture; Orwell Society, Eton College.",
"* 2010, Robert Gordon University launch of Research Institute for Innovation Design and Sustainability (IDEAS)* 2011, Ellison-Cliffe Lecture, Royal Society of Medicine; Inaugural research conference keynote, Anglia Ruskin University.",
"* 2012, IET Pinkerton Lecture, Bangalore.",
"; Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers UKRI 50 years Anniversary Lecture, Edinburgh.",
"* 2014, Sir Hugh Cairns Memorial Lecture, Society of British Neurological Surgeons, London.",
"; Invited Keynote, BCS-SGAI International Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Cambridge University.",
"* 2016, Launch of Wales Festival of Innovation, Cardiff.",
"* 2017, Paul B. Baltes Lecture, Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities.Warwick is a regular presenter at the annual Careers Scotland Space School, University of Strathclyde.He appeared at the 2009 World Science Festival with Mary McDonnell, Nick Bostrom, Faith Salie and Hod Lipson."
],
[
"See also",
"*Avatar Project*Brain–computer interface*Cyborg antenna*EyeTap*Grinder (biohacking)*Stelarc*''The Age of Intelligent Machines''*Tim Cannon"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* \"When man meets metal: rise of the transhumans\" – article in ''The Guardian'' (29 October 2017) featuring Professor Kevin Warwick* \"Cyborgs: A Personal Story\" – Kevin Warwick TEDx talk at Coventry University (2016)* \"Cyborgs: Ghosts of Christmas Future\" – Kevin Warwick lecture (5 December 2013) on IET website* \"I, Cyborg: An interview with Prof Kevin Warwick\" (14 August 2013) on BCS website* BBC Radio 4 interview with Michael Buerk (14 Jun 2011)* Kevin Warwick article in ''Scientific American'' magazine (10 March 2008)* Kevin Warwick interview on ''IT Wales'' website (13 December 2006)* \"Interview with the Cyborg\" in ''The Future Fire'' magazine (2005)*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kansas City, Missouri"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kansas City, Missouri''' ('''KC''' or '''KCMO''') is the largest city in the U.S. state of Missouri by population and area.",
"Most of the city lies within Jackson County, with portions spilling into Clay, Platte, and Cass counties.",
"It is the central city of the Kansas City metropolitan area, which straddles the Missouri–Kansas state line and has a population of 2,392,035.As of the 2020 census, the city had a population of 508,090, making it the 37th most-populous city in the United States, as well as the sixth-most populous city in the Midwest.",
"Kansas City was founded in the 1830s as a port on the Missouri River at its confluence with the Kansas River from the west.",
"On June 1, 1850, the town of Kansas was incorporated; shortly after came the establishment of the Kansas Territory.",
"Confusion between the two ensued, and the name Kansas City was assigned to distinguish them soon after.Sitting on Missouri's western boundary with Kansas, with Downtown near the confluence of the Kansas and Missouri Rivers, the city encompasses about , making it the 25th largest city by total area in the United States.",
"It serves as one of the two county seats of Jackson County, along with the major satellite city of Independence.",
"Other major suburbs include the Missouri cities of Blue Springs and Lee's Summit and the Kansas cities of Overland Park, Olathe, Lenexa, and Kansas City, Kansas.The city is composed of several neighborhoods, including the River Market District in the north, the 18th and Vine District in the east, and the Country Club Plaza in the south.",
"Celebrated cultural traditions include Kansas City jazz; theater, as a center of the Vaudevillian Orpheum circuit in the 1920s; the Chiefs and Royals sports franchises; and famous cuisine based on Kansas City–style barbecue, strip steak, and craft breweries."
],
[
"History",
"Kansas City, Missouri, was incorporated as a town on June 1, 1850, and as a city on March 28, 1853.The area, straddling the border between Missouri and Kansas at the confluence of the Kansas and Missouri rivers, was considered a good place to build settlements.The Antioch Christian Church, Dr. James Compton House, and Woodneath are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.===Exploration and settlement===The Kansas City Pioneer Square monument in Westport features Pony Express founder Alexander Majors, Westport/Kansas City founder John Calvin McCoy, and Mountain-man Jim Bridger who owned Chouteau's Store.In past centuries, the area's tribal inhabitants include the Hopewell tradition, Mississippian culture, Kansa, Osage, Otoe, and Missouri.",
"The first documented European visitor to the eventual site of Kansas City was Étienne de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont, who was also the first European to explore the lower Missouri River.",
"Criticized for his response to the Native American attack on Fort Détroit, he had deserted his post as fort commander and was avoiding French authorities.",
"Bourgmont lived with a Native American wife in a village about east near Brunswick, Missouri, where he illegally traded furs.To clear his name, he wrote ''Exact Description of Louisiana, of Its Harbors, Lands and Rivers, and Names of the Indian Tribes That Occupy It, and the Commerce and Advantages to Be Derived Therefrom for the Establishment of a Colony'' in 1713 and ''The Route to Be Taken to Ascend the Missouri River'' in 1714.In the documents, he describes the junction of the \"Grande Rivière des Cansez\" and Missouri River, as the first adoption of those names.",
"French cartographer Guillaume Delisle used the descriptions to make the area's first reasonably accurate map.The Spanish took over the region in the Treaty of Paris in 1763, but were not to play a major role other than taxing and licensing Missouri River ship traffic.",
"The French continued their fur trade under Spanish license.",
"The Chouteau family operated under Spanish license at St. Louis, in the lower Missouri Valley as early as 1765 and in 1821 the Chouteaus reached Kansas City, where François Chouteau established Chouteau's Landing.===After the Louisiana Purchase (1803)===In 1843, Kansas City was depicted in a history of Oregon.After the 1803 Louisiana Purchase, Lewis and Clark visited the confluence of the Kansas and Missouri rivers, noting it was a good place to build a fort.",
"In 1831, a group of Mormons from New York state led by Joseph Smith settled in what would become the city.",
"They built the first school within Kansas City's current boundaries, but were forced out by mob violence in 1833, and their settlement remained vacant.In 1831, Gabriel Prudhomme Sr., a Canadian trapper, purchased 257 acres of land fronting the Missouri River.",
"He established a home for his wife, Josephine, and six children.",
"He operated a ferry on the river.In 1833, John McCoy, son of Baptist missionary Isaac McCoy, established West Port along the Santa Fe Trail, away from the river.",
"In 1834 McCoy established Westport Landing on a bend in the Missouri to serve as a landing point for West Port.",
"He found it more convenient to have his goods offloaded at the Prudhomme landing than in Independence.",
"Several years after Gabriel Prudhomme's death, a group of fourteen investors purchased his land at auction on November 14, 1838.By 1839, the investors divided the property and the first lots were sold in 1846 after legal complications were settled.",
"The remaining lots were sold by February 1850.In 1850, the landing area was incorporated as the Town of Kansas.",
"By that time, the Town of Kansas, Westport, and nearby Independence, had become critical points in the westward expansion of the United States.",
"Three major trails – the Santa Fe, California, and Oregon – all passed through Jackson County.On February 22, 1853, the City of Kansas was created with a newly elected mayor.",
"It had an area of and a population of 2,500.The boundary lines at that time extended from the middle of the Missouri River south to what is now Ninth Street, and from Bluff Street on the west to a point between Holmes Road and Charlotte Street on the east.===American Civil War===During the Civil War, the city and its immediate surroundings were the focus of intense military activity.",
"Although the First Battle of Independence in August 1862 resulted in a Confederate States Army victory, the Confederates were unable to leverage their win in any significant fashion, as Kansas City was occupied by Union troops and proved too heavily fortified to assault.",
"The Second Battle of Independence, which occurred on October 21–22, 1864, as part of Sterling Price's Missouri expedition of 1864, also resulted in a Confederate triumph.",
"Once again their victory proved hollow, as Price was decisively defeated in the pivotal Battle of Westport the next day, effectively ending Confederate efforts to regain Missouri.General Thomas Ewing, in response to a successful raid on nearby Lawrence, Kansas, led by William Quantrill, issued General Order No.",
"11, forcing the eviction of residents in four western Missouri counties – including Jackson – except those living in the city and nearby communities and those whose allegiance to the Union was certified by Ewing.===After Civil War===The junction of Main and Delaware Streets in 1898After the Civil War, Kansas City grew rapidly.",
"The selection of the city over Leavenworth, Kansas, for the Hannibal and St. Joseph Railroad bridge over the Missouri River brought significant growth.",
"The population exploding after 1869, when Hannibal Bridge, designed by Octave Chanute, opened.",
"The boom prompted a name change to Kansas City in 1889, and the city limits to be extended south and east.",
"Westport became part of Kansas City on December 2, 1897.In 1900, Kansas City was the 22nd largest city in the country, with a population of 163,752 residents.Kansas City, guided by landscape architect George Kessler, became a leading example of the City Beautiful movement, offering a network of boulevards and parks.",
"New neighborhoods like Southmoreland and the Rockhill District were conceived to accommodate the city's largest residencies of palatial proportions.The relocation of Union Station to its current location in 1914 and the opening of the Liberty Memorial in 1923 provided two of the city's most identifiable landmarks.",
"Robert A.",
"Long, president of the Liberty Memorial Association, was a driving force in the funding for construction.",
"Long was a longtime resident and wealthy businessman.",
"He built the R.A. Long Building for the Long-Bell Lumber Company, his home, Corinthian Hall (now the Kansas City Museum) and Longview Farm.Further spurring Kansas City's growth was the opening of the innovative Country Club Plaza development by J.C. Nichols in 1925, as part of his Country Club District plan.====20th century streetcar system====The Kansas City streetcar system once had hundreds of miles of streetcars running through the city and was one of the largest systems in the country.",
"In 1903 the 8th Street Tunnel was built as an underground streetcar system through the city.",
"The last run of the streetcar was on June 23, 1957, but the tunnel still exists.===Pendergast era===At the start of the 20th century, political machines gained clout in the city, with the one led by Tom Pendergast dominating the city by 1925.Several important buildings and structures were built during this time, including the Kansas City City Hall and the Jackson County Courthouse.",
"During this time, he aided one of his nephew's friends, Harry S. Truman in a political career.",
"Truman eventually became a senator, then vice-president, then president.",
"The machine fell in 1939 when Pendergast, riddled with health problems, pleaded guilty to tax evasion after long federal investigations.",
"His biographers have summed up his uniqueness:====Troost redlining and white flight====Troost Avenue was once the eastern edge of Kansas City, Missouri and a residential corridor nicknamed Millionaire Row.",
"It is now widely seen as one of the city's most prominent racial and economic dividing lines due to urban decay, which was caused by white flight.",
"During the civil rights era the city blocked people of color from moving to homes west of Troost Avenue, causing the areas east of Troost to have one of the worst murder rates in the country.",
"This led to the dominating economic success of neighboring Johnson County.In 1950, African Americans represented 12.2% of Kansas City's population.",
"The city's most populous ethnic group, non-Hispanic whites, declined from 89.5% in 1930 to 54.9% in 2010.In 1940, the city had about 400,000 residents; by 2000, it had about 440,000.From 1940 to 1960, the city more than doubled its physical size, while increasing its population by only about 75,000.By 1970, the city covered approximately , more than five times its size in 1940.Aggressively annexing the surrounding suburbs and undeveloped land spared Kansas City from the severe population loss suffered by cities like St. Louis and Detroit, similar cities which both lost over 50% of their population in the postwar era.",
"In the most neglected neighborhoods, however, the same pattern of abandonment occurred and left behind massive numbers of vacant lots and abandoned homes, especially in the areas east of Troost.====Hyatt Regency walkway collapse====The Hyatt Regency walkway collapse was a major disaster that occurred on July 17, 1981, killing 114 people and injuring more than 200 others during a tea dance in the 45-story Hyatt Regency hotel in Crown Center.",
"It is the deadliest structural collapse in US history other than the September 11 attacks.",
"In 2015 a memorial called the Skywalk Memorial Plaza was built for the families of the victims of the disaster, across the street from the hotel which is now a Sheraton.===21st century=======Downtown Kansas City re-development====Downtown Kansas City looking over Union Station from the Liberty MemorialIn the 21st century, the Kansas City area has undergone extensive redevelopment, with more than $6 billion in improvements to the downtown area on the Missouri side.",
"One of the main goals is to attract convention and tourist dollars, office workers, and residents to downtown KCMO.",
"Among the projects include the redevelopment of the Power & Light District into a retail and entertainment district; and the Sprint Center, an 18,500-seat arena that opened in 2007, funded by a 2004 ballot initiative involving a tax on car rentals and hotels, designed to meet the stadium specifications for a possible future NBA or NHL franchise, and was renamed T-Mobile Center in 2020; Kemper Arena, which was functionally superseded by Sprint Center, fell into disrepair and was sold to private developers.",
"By 2018, the arena was being converted to a sports complex under the name Hy-Vee Arena.",
"The Kauffman Performing Arts Center opened in 2011 providing a new, modern home to the KC Orchestra and Ballet.",
"In 2015, an 800-room Hyatt Convention Center Hotel was announced for a site next to the Performance Arts Center & Bartle Hall.",
"Construction was scheduled to start in early 2018 with Loews as the operator.From 2007 to 2017, downtown residential population in Kansas City quadrupled and continues to grow.",
"The area has grown from almost 4,000 residents in the early 2000s to nearly 30,000 .",
"Kansas City's downtown ranks as the sixth-fastest-growing downtown in America with the population expected to grow by more than 40% by 2022.Conversions of office buildings such as the Power & Light Building and the Commerce Bank Tower into residential and hotel space has helped to fulfill the demand.",
"New apartment complexes like One, Two, and Three Lights, River Market West, and 503 Main have begun to reshape Kansas City's skyline.",
"Strong demand has led to occupancy rates in the upper 90%.The residential population of downtown has boomed, and the office population has dropped significantly from the early 2000s to the mid-2010s.",
"Top employers like AMC moved their operations to modern office buildings in the suburbs.",
"High office vacancy plagued downtown, leading to the neglect of many office buildings.",
"By the mid-2010s, many office buildings were converted to residential uses and the Class A vacancy rate plunged to 12% in 2017.Swiss Re, Virgin Mobile, AutoAlert, and others have begun to move operations to downtown Kansas City from the suburbs and expensive coastal cities.====Transportation developments====The area has seen additional development through various transportation projects, including improvements to the Grandview Triangle, which intersects Interstates 435 and 470, and U.S. Route 71.In July 2005, the Kansas City Area Transportation Authority (KCATA) launched Kansas City's first bus rapid transit line, the Metro Area Express (MAX), which links the River Market, Downtown, Union Station, Crown Center and the Country Club Plaza.",
"The KCATA continues to expand MAX with additional routes on Prospect Avenue, Troost Avenue, and Independence Avenue.In 2013, construction began on a two-mile streetcar line in downtown Kansas City (funded by a $102 million ballot initiative that was passed in 2012) that runs between the River Market and Union Station, it began operation in May 2016.In 2017, voters approved the formation of a TDD to expand the streetcar line south 3.5 miles from Union Station to UMKC's Volker Campus.",
"Additionally in 2017, the KC Port Authority began engineering studies for a Port Authority funded streetcar expansion north to Berkley Riverfront Park.",
"Citywide, voter support for rail projects continues to grow with numerous light rail projects in the works.In 2016, Jackson County, Missouri, acquired unused rail lines as part of a long-term commuter rail plan.",
"For the time being, the line is being converted to a trail while county officials negotiate with railroads for access to tracks in Downtown Kansas City.On November 7, 2017, Kansas City voters overwhelmingly approved a new single terminal at Kansas City International Airport by a 75% to 25% margin.",
"The new single terminal replaced the three existing \"Clover Leafs\" at KCI Airport on February 28, 2023."
],
[
"Geography",
"The Kansas City metropolitan area was photographed by the Sentinel-2 satellite in July 2022.The city has an area of , of which, is land and is water.",
"Bluffs overlook the rivers and river bottom areas.",
"Kansas City proper is bowl-shaped and is surrounded to the north and south by glacier-carved limestone and bedrock cliffs.",
"Kansas City is at the confluence between the Dakota and Minnesota ice lobes during the maximum late Independence glaciation of the Pleistocene epoch.",
"The Kansas and Missouri rivers cut wide valleys into the terrain when the glaciers melted and drained.",
"A partially filled spillway valley crosses the central city.",
"This valley is an eastward continuation of the Turkey Creek Valley.",
"It is the closest major city to the geographic center of the contiguous United States, or \"Lower 48\".===Cityscape===Kansas City comprises more than 240 neighborhoods, some with histories as independent cities or as the sites of major events.====Architecture====Community Christian Church was designed by Frank Lloyd Wright and is next to the Country Club Plaza.The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art opened its Euro-Style Bloch addition in 2007, and the Safdie-designed Kauffman Center for the Performing Arts opened in 2011.The Power and Light Building is influenced by the Art Deco style and sports a glowing sky beacon.",
"The new world headquarters of H&R Block is a 20-story all-glass oval bathed in a soft green light.",
"The four industrial artworks atop the support towers of the Kansas City Convention Center (Bartle Hall) were once the subject of ridicule, but now define the night skyline near the T-Mobile Center along with One Kansas City Place (Missouri's tallest office tower), the KCTV-Tower (Missouri's tallest freestanding structure) and the Liberty Memorial, a World War I memorial and museum that flaunts simulated flames and smoke billowing into the night skyline.",
"It was designated as the National World War I Museum and Memorial in 2004 by the United States Congress.",
"Kansas City is home to significant national and international architecture firms including ACI Boland, BNIM, 360 Architecture, HNTB, Populous.",
"Frank Lloyd Wright designed two private residences and Community Christian Church there.Kansas City hosts more than 200 working fountains, especially on the Country Club Plaza.",
"Designs range from French-inspired traditional to modern.",
"Highlights include the Black Marble H&R Block fountain in front of Union Station, which features synchronized water jets; the Nichols Bronze Horses at the corner of Main and J.C. Nichols Parkway at the entrance to the Plaza Shopping District; and the fountain at Hallmark Cards World Headquarters in Crown Center.====City Market====The Town of Kansas Bridge connects pedestrian traffic from the Riverfront Heritage Trail (starting at Berkley Riverfront Park) to River Market.Since its inception in 1857, City Market has been one of the largest and most enduring public farmers' markets in the American Midwest, linking growers and small businesses to the community.",
"More than 30 full-time merchants operate year-round and offer specialty foods, fresh meats and seafood, restaurants and cafes, floral, home accessories and more.",
"The City Market is also home to the Arabia Steamboat Museum, which houses artifacts from a steamboat that sank near Kansas City in 1856.====Downtown====Downtown Kansas City is an area of bounded by the Missouri River to the north, 31st Street to the south, Troost Avenue to the East, and State Line Road to the west.",
"Areas near Downtown Kansas City include the 39th Street District, which is known as Restaurant Row, and features one of Kansas City's largest selections of independently owned restaurants and boutique shops.",
"It is a center of literary and visual arts, and bohemian culture.",
"Crown Center is the headquarters of Hallmark Cards and a major downtown shopping and entertainment complex.",
"It is connected to Union Station by a series of covered walkways.",
"The Country Club Plaza, or simply \"the Plaza\", is an upscale, outdoor shopping and entertainment district.",
"It was the first suburban shopping district in the United States, designed to accommodate shoppers arriving by automobile, and is surrounded by apartments and condominiums, including a number of high rise buildings.",
"The associated Country Club District to the south includes the Sunset Hill and Brookside neighborhoods, and is traversed by Ward Parkway, a landscaped boulevard known for its statuary, fountains and large, historic homes.",
"Kansas City's Union Station is home to Science City, restaurants, shopping, theaters, and the city's Amtrak facility.downtown freeway loop (shaded in red).",
"Downtown Kansas City itself is established by city ordinance to stretch from the Missouri River south to 31st Street (beyond the bottom of this map), and from State Line Rd.",
"to Troost Ave.After years of neglect and seas of parking lots, Downtown Kansas City is undergoing a period of change with over $6 billion in development since 2000.Many residential properties recently have been or are under redevelopment in three surrounding warehouse loft districts and the Central Business District.",
"The Power & Light District, a new, nine-block entertainment district comprising numerous restaurants, bars, and retail shops, was developed by the Cordish Company of Baltimore, Maryland.",
"Its first tenant opened on November 9, 2007.It is anchored by the T-Mobile Center, a 19,000-seat sports and entertainment complex.===Climate===Kansas City lies in the Midwestern United States, near the geographic center of the country, at the confluence of the Missouri and Kansas rivers.",
"The city either lies in the humid continental zone when using the 0°C isotherm, or in the humid subtropical zone when using the -3°C isotherm.",
"Additionally, the city experiences roughly 104 air frosts on average per annum.",
"The city is part of USDA plant hardiness zones 5b and 6a.",
"In the center of North America, far removed from a significant body of water, there is significant potential for extreme hot and cold swings throughout the year.",
"The warmest month is July, with a 24-hour average temperature of .",
"The summer months are hot and humid, with moist air riding up from the Gulf of Mexico, and high temperatures surpass on 5.6 days of the year, and on 47 days.",
"The coldest month of the year is January, with an average temperature of .",
"Winters are cold, with 22 days where the high temperature is at or below and 2.5 nights with a low at or below .",
"The official record highest temperature is , set on August 14, 1936, at Downtown Airport, while the official record lowest is , set on December 22 and 23, 1989.Normal seasonal snowfall is at Downtown Airport and at Kansas City International Airport.",
"The average window for freezing temperatures is October 31 to April 4, while for measurable () snowfall, it is November 27 to March 16 as measured at Kansas City International Airport.",
"Precipitation, both in frequency and total accumulation, shows a marked uptick in late spring and summer.Kansas City is located in \"Tornado Alley\", a broad region where cold air from Canada collides with warm air from the Gulf of Mexico, leading to the formation of powerful storms, especially during the spring.",
"The Kansas City metropolitan area has experienced several significant outbreaks of tornadoes in the past, including the Ruskin Heights tornado in 1957 and the May 2003 tornado outbreak sequence.",
"The region can also experience ice storms during the winter months, such as the 2002 ice storm during which hundreds of thousands of residents lost power for days and (in some cases) weeks.",
"Kansas City and its outlying areas are also subject to flooding, including the Great Floods of 1951 and 1993."
],
[
"Demographics",
"Map of racial distribution in Kansas City, 2010 U.S. Census.",
"Each dot is 25 people: Kansas City has the second largest Somali and Sudanese populations in the United States.",
"The Latino/Hispanic population of Kansas City, which is heavily Mexican and Central American, is spread throughout the metropolitan area, with some concentration in the northeast part of the city and southwest of downtown.",
"The Asian population, mostly Southeast Asian, is partly concentrated within the northeast side to the Columbus Park neighborhood in the Greater Downtown area, a historically Italian American neighborhood, the UMKC area and in River Market, in northern Kansas City.The Historic Kansas City boundary is roughly and has a population density of about .",
"It runs from the Missouri River to the north, 79th Street to the south, the Blue River to the east, and State Line Road to the west.",
"During the 1960s and 1970s, Kansas City annexed large amounts of land, which are largely undeveloped.Between the 2000 and 2010 census counts, the urban core of Kansas City continued to drop significantly in population.",
"The areas of Greater Downtown in the center city, and sections near I-435 and I-470 in the south, and Highway 152 in the north are the only areas of Kansas City, Missouri, to have an increase in population, with the Northland population growing the most.",
"Even so, the population of Kansas City as a whole from 2000 to 2010 increased by 4.1%.",
"Racial composition 2020 2010 1990 1970 1940 White 59.7% 59.2% 66.8% 77.2% 89.5% Black or African American 26.5% 29.9% 29.6% 22.1% 10.4% Hispanic or Latino (of any race) 10.7% 10.0% 3.9% 2.7% N/A Two or more races 6.3% 3.2% N/A N/A N/A Asian 2.7% 2.5% N/A N/A N/A American Indian and Alaska Natives 0.4% 0.5% N/A N/A N/A Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander 0.3% 0.2% N/A N/A N/AIn February 2022, the city had an estimated 3,000 homeless people."
],
[
"Economy",
"The federal government is the largest employer in the Kansas City metro area, with more than 146 agencies.",
"Kansas City is one of ten regional office cities for the US government.",
"The Internal Revenue Service maintains a large service center in Kansas City that occupies nearly .",
"It is one of only two sites to process paper returns.",
"The IRS has approximately 2,700 full-time employees in Kansas City, growing to 4,000 during tax season.",
"The General Services Administration has more than 800 employees.",
"Most are at the Bannister Federal Complex in South Kansas City.",
"The Bannister Complex housed the Kansas City Plant, which is a National Nuclear Security Administration facility operated by Honeywell.",
"The Kansas City Plant has since been moved to a new location on Botts Road.",
"Honeywell employs nearly 2,700 at the Kansas City Plant, which produces and assembles 85% of the non-nuclear components of the United States nuclear bomb arsenal.",
"The Social Security Administration has more than 1,700 employees in the metro, with more than 1,200 at its downtown Mid-America Program Service Center (MAMPSC).One of the largest US drug manufacturing plants is the Sanofi-Aventis plant in south Kansas City on a campus developed by Ewing Kauffman's Marion Laboratories.",
"It has been developing academic and economic institutions related to animal health sciences, with Manhattan, Kansas at one end of the Kansas City Animal Health Corridor, and Kansas City hosting the National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility which researches animal diseases.",
"The Stowers Institute for Medical Research engages in medical basic science research, working with Open University and University of Kansas Medical Center in a joint Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Biomedical Science (IGPBS).Agriculture companies include Dairy Farmers of America, the largest dairy co-op in the United States.",
"The National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics and The National Association of Basketball Coaches are based in Kansas City.H&R Block's oblong headquarters is in downtown Kansas City.The Kansas City Federal Reserve Bank opened a new building in 2008 near Union Station.",
"Missouri is the only state to have two of the 12 Federal Reserve Bank headquarters, with the second in St. Louis.",
"Kansas City's effort to get the bank was helped by former mayor James A. Reed, who as senator, broke a tie to pass the Federal Reserve Act.The national headquarters for the Veterans of Foreign Wars is headquartered just south of Downtown.With a Gross Metropolitan Product of $41.68 billion in 2004, Kansas City's (Missouri side only) economy makes up 20.5% of Missouri's gross state product.",
"In 2014, Kansas City was ranked #6 for real estate investment.Three international law firms, Lathrop & Gage, Stinson Leonard Street, and Shook, Hardy & Bacon are based in the city.In 2022, the city had an estimated 3,000 homeless people, addressed by the Zero KC initiative.===Headquarters===The following companies are headquartered in Kansas City, Missouri:===Top employers===According to the city's Fiscal Year 2014–15 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top ten principal employers are as follows:RankEmployerEmployeesPercentage of total employment1.Public school system30,1722.92%2.Federal government30,0002.91%3.State/county/city government24,6162.39%4.Cerner Corporation10,1280.98%5.HCA Midwest Health System9,7530.94%6.Saint Luke's Health System7,5500.73%7.Children's Mercy Hospitals and Clinics6,3050.61%8.T-Mobile6,3000.61%9.The University of Kansas Hospital6,0300.58%10.Hallmark Cards, Inc.4,6000.45%"
],
[
"Culture",
"===Abbreviations and nicknames===Kansas City, Missouri is abbreviated as KCMO and the metropolitan area as KC.",
"Residents are Kansas Citians.",
"It is officially nicknamed the City of Fountains.",
"The fountains at Kauffman Stadium, commissioned by original Kansas City Royals owner Ewing Kauffman, are the largest privately funded fountains in the world.",
"In 2018, UNESCO designated Kansas City its first and only City of Music in the US, in \"recognition of Kansas City's investment and commitment to music, arts, and creativity as a driver of urban economic development\".",
"The city has more boulevards than any other city except Paris and has been called '''Paris of the Plains'''.",
"Soccer's popularity, and Children's Mercy Park's popularity as a home stadium for the U.S. Men's National Team, led to the appellation Soccer Capital of America.",
"The city is called the Heart of America, in proximity to the population center of the United States and the geographic center of the 48 contiguous states.===Performing arts===In 1886, Kansas City had only two theaters when David Austin Latchaw, originally from rural Pennsylvania, moved there.",
"Latchaw maintained friendly relations with several actors such as Otis Skinner, Richard Mansfield, Maude Adams, Margaret Anglin, John Drew, Minnie Maddern Fiske, Julia Marlowe, E. H. Sothern, and Robert Mantell.Theater troupes in the 1870s toured the state, performing in cities or small towns forming along the railroad lines.",
"Rail transport had enhanced the theater troupe tour market, by allowing full costumes, props, and sets.",
"As theater grew in popularity after the mid-1880s, that number increased and by 1912, ten new theaters had been built in Kansas City.",
"By the 1920s, Kansas City was the center of the vaudevillian Orpheum circuit.Kauffman Center for the Performing ArtsThe Kansas City Repertory Theatre is the metro's top professional theatre company.",
"The Starlight Theatre is an 8,105-seat outdoor theatre designed by Edward Delk.",
"The Kansas City Symphony was founded by R. Crosby Kemper Jr. in 1982 to replace the defunct Kansas City Philharmonic, which was founded in 1933.The symphony performs at the Kauffman Center for the Performing Arts.",
"Michael Stern is the symphony's music director and lead conductor.",
"Lyric Opera of Kansas City, founded in 1958, performs at the Kauffman Center, offers one American contemporary opera production during its season, consisting of either four or five productions.",
"The Civic Opera Theater of Kansas City performs at the downtown Folly Theater and at the UMKC Performing Arts Center.",
"Every summer from mid-June to early July, The Heart of America Shakespeare Festival performs at Southmoreland Park near the Nelson-Atkins Museum; the festival was founded by Marilyn Strauss in 1993.The Kansas City Ballet, founded in 1957 by Tatiana Dokoudovska, is a ballet troupe comprising 25 professional dancers and apprentices.",
"Between 1986 and 2000, it combined with Dance St. Louis to form the State Ballet of Missouri, although it remained in Kansas City.",
"From 1980 to 1995, the Ballet was run by dancer and choreographer Todd Bolender.",
"The Ballet offers an annual repertory split into three seasons, performing classical to contemporary ballets.",
"The Ballet also performs at the Kauffman Center.",
"The Kansas City Chorale is a professional 24-voice chorus with an annual concert series and a concert in Phoenix each year with sister choir the Phoenix Chorale.",
"The Chorale has made several recordings, including with the Phoenix Chorale.===Jazz===Entrance of the American Jazz MuseumKansas City jazz in the 1930s marked the transition from big bands to the bebop influence of the 1940s.",
"The 1979 documentary ''The Last of the Blue Devils'' portrays this era in interviews and performances by local jazz notables.",
"In the 1970s, Kansas City attempted to resurrect the glory of the jazz era in a family-friendly atmosphere.",
"In the 1970s, an effort to open jazz clubs in the River Quay area of City Market along the Missouri ended in a gang war.",
"Three of the new clubs were blown up in what ultimately ended Kansas City mob influence in Las Vegas casinos.",
"The annual Kansas City Blues and Jazz Festival attracts top jazz stars and large tourist audiences.",
"In 2007 it was rated Kansas City's \"best festival\" by ''The Pitch''.Live music venues are throughout the city, with the highest concentration in the Westport entertainment district centered on Broadway and Westport Road near Country Club Plaza, and the 18th and Vine neighborhood's flourish for jazz music.",
"A variety of music genres are performed or have originated there, including musicians Janelle Monáe, Puddle of Mudd, Isaac James, The Get Up Kids, Shiner, Flee The Seen, The Life and Times, Reggie and the Full Effect, Coalesce, The Casket Lottery, The Gadjits, The Rainmakers, Vedera, The Elders, Blackpool Lights, The Republic Tigers, Tech N9ne, Krizz Kaliko, Kutt Calhoun, Skatterman & Snug Brim, Mac Lethal, Ces Cru, and Solè.",
"Kansas City Jazz Orchestra is big band style.In 2018, UNESCO named Kansas City a City of Music, as the only one in the United States.",
"The designation is based on the city's rich musical heritage, and its budget for improving the 18th and Vine Jazz District in 2016.The Kansas City Convention Center===Irish culture===In 2021, the US Census Bureau estimated 253,040 people of Irish descent in the metro, with 123,934 in Jackson, Clay, and Platte Counties.",
"The Irish were the first large immigrant group to settle in Kansas City following the lead of Fr.",
"Bernard Donnelly () and founded its first newspaper.",
"The Irish community includes bands, dancers, Irish stores, newspapers, and the Kansas City Irish Center at Drexel Hall in Midtown.",
"The first book detailing Irish history in Kansas City is ''Missouri Irish: Irish Settlers on the American Frontier'', published in 1984.The Kansas City Irish Fest is held over Labor Day weekend in Crown Center and Washington Park.===Casinos===Missouri voters approved riverboat casino gaming on the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers by referendum with a 63% majority on November 3, 1992.The first casino facility in the state opened in September 1994 in North Kansas City by Harrah's Entertainment (now Caesar's Entertainment).",
"The combined revenues for four casinos exceeded $153 million per month in May 2008.The metropolitan area is home to six casinos: Ameristar Kansas City, Argosy Kansas City, Harrah's North Kansas City, Isle of Capri Kansas City, the 7th Street Casino (which opened in Kansas City, Kansas, in 2008) and Hollywood Casino (which opened in February 2012 in Kansas City, Kansas).===Cuisine===The American Hereford Association bull, Kemper Arena, and the Kansas City Live Stock Exchange Building are in the former Kansas City Stockyard of West Bottoms.Kansas City is famous for its steak and Kansas City-style barbecue.",
"During the heyday of the Kansas City Stockyards, the city was known for its Kansas City steaks or Kansas City strip steaks.",
"The most famous of its steakhouses is the Golden Ox in the Kansas City Live Stock Exchange in the West Bottoms stockyards.",
"These stockyards were second only to those of Chicago in size, but they never recovered from the Great Flood of 1951 and eventually closed.",
"Jess & Jim's Steakhouse was founded in 1938 in the Martin City neighborhood.The Kansas City Strip cut of steak is similar to the New York Strip cut, and is sometimes referred to just as a strip steak.",
"Along with Texas, Memphis, North, and South Carolina, Kansas City is lauded as a \"world capital of barbecue\".",
"More than 90 barbecue restaurants operate in the metropolitan area.",
"The American Royal each fall hosts what it claims is the world's biggest barbecue contest.President Obama visits Arthur Bryant's barbecue.Classic Kansas City-style barbecue was an inner-city phenomenon that evolved from the pit of Henry Perry, a migrant from Memphis who is generally credited with opening the city's first barbecue stand in 1921, and blossomed in the 18th and Vine neighborhood.",
"Arthur Bryant's took over the Perry restaurant and added sugar to his sauce to sweeten the recipe a bit.",
"In 1946 one of Perry's cooks, George W. Gates, opened Gates Bar-B-Q, later Gates and Sons Bar-B-Q when his son Ollie joined the family business.",
"Bryant's and Gates are the two definitive Kansas City barbecue restaurants; native Kansas Citian and essayist Calvin Trillin famously called Bryant's \"the single best restaurant in the world\" in an essay he wrote for ''Playboy'' magazine in the 1960s.",
"Fiorella's Jack Stack Barbecue is also well regarded.",
"In 1977, Rich Davis, a psychiatrist, test-marketed his own concoction called K.C.",
"Soul Style Barbecue Sauce.",
"He renamed it KC Masterpiece, and in 1986, he sold the recipe to the Kingsford division of Clorox.",
"Davis retained rights to operate restaurants using the name and sauce, whose recipe popularized the use of molasses as a sweetener in Kansas City-style barbecue sauces.Kansas City has several James Beard Award-winning/nominated chefs and restaurants.",
"Winning chefs include Michael Smith, Celina Tio, Colby Garrelts, Debbie Gold, Jonathan Justus and Martin Heuser.",
"A majority of the Beard Award-winning restaurants are in the Crossroads district, downtown and in Westport.===Points of interest===NameDescriptionPhotoCountry Club Plaza DistrictThis district was developed in 1922 featuring Spanish-styled architecture and upscale shops and restaurants.",
"Nearby are the University of Missouri–Kansas City, the Kansas City Art Institute, the Kemper Museum of Contemporary Art, and the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art.upright=0.6518th and VineHome of distinctive Kansas City jazz, the Negro Leagues Baseball Museum, the American Jazz Museum, and the future home of the MLB Urban Youth Academy.",
"Several jazz clubs and venues include the Gem Theater and the Blue Room.upright=0.65Crossroads Arts DistrictHome to several restaurants, art galleries, and hotels.",
"First Friday is a monthly event with pop-up galleries, food trucks, venue deals, and music events.",
"Union Station and the Kauffman Center are here.",
"Union Station has varying exhibits, including at Science City.upright=0.65Westport DistrictOriginally a separate town until annexed by Kansas City, it contains several restaurants, shops, and nightlife options.",
"Along with the Power and Light District, it is one of the city's main entertainment areas.",
"The University of Kansas Hospital is close to the district, just across State Line Road.upright=0.65Power and Light DistrictA new shopping and entertainment district within the Central Business District, it was developed by the Cordish Companies.",
"The T-Mobile Center is a major anchor and the Midland Theatre is a concert venue.upright=0.65River Market District/ Berkley Riverfront ParkKansas City's original neighborhood on the Missouri River contains one of the country's largest and longest lasting public farmers' markets in the nation, and the Steamboat Arabia Museum.",
"The new streetcar line's northernmost loop through the River Market with three stops around City Market.",
"Pedestrians can take the Town of Kansas Bridge connection to the Riverfront Heritage Trail to Berkley Riverfront Park, which is operated by Port KC.upright=0.65Crown CenterDeveloped by Hallmark, it is a short walk from the National World War I Museum and Memorial (Liberty Memorial).upright=0.65West BottomsThe West Bottoms originated primarily as stockyards and for industrial uses, but is slowly being revitalized with apartments and shops.",
"It has Kemper Arena.upright=0.65Kansas City, NorthSeveral attractions are north of the Missouri River.",
"Zona Rosa is a mixed-used development with shopping, dining, and events.",
"The Charles B. Wheeler Downtown Airport features the Aviation History Museum.",
"Worlds of Fun and Oceans of Fun are major amusement parks of the midwest.upright=0.65Swope ParkSwope Park has , a larger total space than Central Park, with several attractions including the Kansas City Zoo and Starlight Theatre is the second largest outdoor musical theatre venue in the U.S.",
"Sporting Kansas City practice at the soccer complex.upright=0.65===Religion===Kansas City Missouri Temple50.75% of Kansas City area residents have a known religious affiliation.",
"The most common religious denominations in the area are:* None/no affiliation 49.25%* Catholic 13.2%* Baptists 10.4%* Other Christian 10.3%* Methodist 6.0%* Pentecostal 2.7%* Latter-day Saint 2.5%* Lutheran 2.3%* Presbyterian 1.7%* Judaism 0.4%* Eastern religions 0.4%* Islam 0.4%===Walt Disney===In 1911, Elias Disney moved his family from Marceline to Kansas City.",
"They lived in a new home at 3028 Bellefontaine with a garage he built, in which Walt Disney made his first animation.",
"In 1919, Walt returned from France where he had served as a Red Cross ambulance driver in World War I.",
"He started the first animation company in Kansas City, Laugh-O-Gram Studio, in which he designed Mickey Mouse.",
"When the company went bankrupt, Walt Disney moved to Hollywood and started The Walt Disney Company on October 16, 1923."
],
[
"Sports",
"Professional sports teams in Kansas City include the Kansas City Chiefs in the National Football League (NFL), the Kansas City Royals in Major League Baseball (MLB) and Sporting Kansas City in Major League Soccer (MLS).The following table lists the professional teams in the Kansas City metropolitan area: Club Sport Founded League VenueKansas City ChiefsFootball1960 (as the Dallas Texans)1963 (as Kansas City Chiefs)National Football LeagueArrowhead StadiumKansas City RoyalsBaseball1969Major League BaseballKauffman StadiumSporting Kansas CitySoccer1996Major League SoccerChildren's Mercy Park (Kansas City, Kansas)Sporting Kansas City IISoccer2016MLS Next ProChildren's Mercy Park (Kansas City, Kansas)Kansas City CurrentSoccer2018 (as Utah Royals FC)2021 (as KC NWSL)National Women's Soccer LeagueChildren's Mercy Park (Kansas City, Kansas)Kansas City MavericksHockey2009ECHLCable Dahmer Arena (Independence)Kansas City CometsIndoor soccer2010Major Arena Soccer LeagueCable Dahmer Arena (Independence)Kansas City MonarchsBaseball1993 (as the Duluth-Superior Dukes)2003 (as the Kansas City T-Bones)American AssociationLegends FieldKansas City BluesRugby union1966USA Rugby Division 1Swope Park Training ComplexKansas City StormWomen's football2004WTFANorth Kansas City High SchoolKansas City GoatsArena football2023The Arena LeagueMunicipal Arena===Professional football===Arrowhead Stadium is home of the Kansas City Chiefs.The Chiefs, now a member of the NFL's American Football Conference, started play in 1960 as the Dallas Texans of the American Football League before moving to Kansas City in 1963.The Chiefs lost Super Bowl I to the Green Bay Packers by a score of 35–10.In 1969, the team became the last AFL champion and won Super Bowl IV.",
"In 2020, they won Super Bowl LIV, in 2023, they won Super Bowl LVII, and in 2024 they won Super Bowl LVIII.===Professional baseball===The Kansas City Royals became 1985 and 2015 World Series Champions.The Athletics baseball franchise played in the city from 1955, after moving from Philadelphia, to 1967, when the team relocated to Oakland, California.",
"The city's current Major League Baseball franchise, the Royals, started play in 1969, and are the only major league sports franchise in Kansas City that has not relocated or changed its name.",
"The Royals were the first American League expansion team to reach the playoffs (in 1976) to reach the World Series (in 1980) and to win the World Series (in 1985).",
"The Royals returned to the World Series in 2014 and won in 2015.The Kansas City Monarchs, formerly the Kansas City T-Bones, is an unaffiliated minor league team.",
"It played in the independent Northern League from 2003 until 2010 and has been part of the independent American Association since 2011.Its home is Legends Field in Kansas City, Kansas.===Professional soccer===Sporting Kansas City played the New England Revolution at Children's Mercy Park.The Kansas City Wiz became a charter member of Major League Soccer in 1996.It was renamed the Kansas City Wizards in 1997.In 2011, the team was renamed Sporting Kansas City and moved to its new stadium Children's Mercy Park in Kansas City, Kansas.",
"It won the MLS Cup twice, the Supporters' Shield once, and the US Open Cup four times.FC Kansas City played from 2013 to 2017 in the National Women's Soccer League; the team's home games were held at Swope Soccer Village.",
"They won the NWSL in 2014 and 2015.The team folded after the 2017 season and its assets were transferred to Utah Royals FC.",
"After the 2020 season, the Utah Royals folded and its assets were transferred to a new Kansas City team, now known as the Kansas City Current.",
"The Current moved to Children's Mercy Park after spending their first season at Legends Field, where they were known as KC NWSL.",
"On October 6, 2022, the team's ownership broke ground on an 11,500-seat soccer-specific stadium on the Berkley Riverfront Park, with a goal to open by March 2024.Kansas City was selected on June 16, 2022, as one of the eleven US host cities for the 2026 FIFA World Cup.===College athletics===In college athletics, Kansas City has been the home of the Big 12 College Basketball Tournaments.",
"The men's tournament has been played at T-Mobile Center since March 2008.The women's tournament is played at Municipal Auditorium.The city has one NCAA Division I program, the Kansas City Roos, representing the University of Missouri–Kansas City (UMKC).",
"The program, historically known as the UMKC Kangaroos, adopted its current branding after the 2018–19 school year.In addition to serving as the home stadium of the Chiefs, Arrowhead Stadium serves as the venue for various intercollegiate football games.",
"It has hosted the Big 12 Championship Game five times.",
"On the last weekend in October, the MIAA Fall Classic rivalry game between Northwest Missouri State University and Pittsburg State University took place at the stadium.===Rugby===Kansas City is represented on the rugby pitch by the Kansas City Blues RFC, a former member of the Rugby Super League and a Division 1 club.",
"The team works closely with Sporting Kansas City and splits home-games between Sporting's training pitch and Rockhurst University's stadium.===Former teams===Kansas City briefly had four short-term major league baseball teams between 1884 and 1915: the Kansas City Unions of the short-lived Union Association in 1884, the Kansas City Cowboys in the National League in 1886, a team of the same name in the then-major league American Association in 1888 and 1889, and the Kansas City Packers in the Federal League in 1914 and 1915.The Kansas City Monarchs of the now-defunct Negro National and Negro American Leagues represented Kansas City from 1920 through 1955.The city also had a number of minor league baseball teams between 1885 and 1955.After the Kansas City Cowboys began play in the 1885 Western League, from 1903 through 1954, the Kansas City Blues played in the high-level American Association minor league.",
"In 1955, Kansas City became a major league city when the Philadelphia Athletics baseball franchise relocated to the city in 1955.Following the 1967 season, the team relocated to Oakland, California.Kansas City was represented in the National Basketball Association by the Kansas City Kings (called the Kansas City-Omaha Kings from 1972 to 1975), when the former Cincinnati Royals moved to the Midwest.",
"The team left for Sacramento in 1985.In 1974, the National Hockey League placed an expansion team in Kansas City called the Kansas City Scouts.",
"The team moved to Denver in 1976, then to New Jersey in 1982 where they have remained ever since as the New Jersey Devils."
],
[
"Parks and boulevards",
"View of downtown from Penn Valley ParkThe rose garden in Loose Park is Kansas City's third-largest public park.''J.C.",
"Nichols Memorial Fountain'', by Henri-Léon Gréber, is in Mill Creek Park, adjacent to Country Club Plaza.Kansas City has of boulevards and parkways, 214 urban parks, 49 ornamental fountains, 152 baseball diamonds, 10 community centers, 105 tennis courts, 5 golf courses, 5 museums and attractions, 30 pools, and 47 park shelters.",
"These amenities are found across the city.",
"Much of the system, designed by George E. Kessler, was constructed from 1893 to 1915.Cliff Drive, in Kessler Park on the North Bluffs, is a designated State Scenic Byway.",
"It extends from The Paseo and Independence Avenue through Indian Mound on Gladstone Boulevard at Belmont Boulevard, with many historical points and architectural landmarks.Ward Parkway, on the west side of the city near State Line Road, is lined by many of the city's largest and most elaborate homes.The Paseo is a major north–south parkway that runs through the center of the city beginning at Cliff Drive.",
"It was modeled on the ''Paseo de la Reforma'', a fashionable Mexico City boulevard.",
"It has been recently renamed Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard and now the city has voted to change it back to the Paseo.Swope Park is one of the nation's largest city parks, comprising , more than twice the size of New York City's Central Park.",
"It features a zoo, a woodland nature and wildlife rescue center, 2 golf courses, 2 lakes, an amphitheatre, a day-camp, and numerous picnic grounds.",
"Hodge Park, in the Northland, covers (1.61 sq.",
"mi.).",
"This park includes the Shoal Creek Living History Museum, a village of more than 20 historical buildings dating from 1807 to 1885.Berkley Riverfront Park, on the banks of the Missouri River on the north edge of downtown, holds annual Independence Day celebrations and other festivals.A program went underway to replace many of the fast-growing sweetgum trees with hardwood varieties.===Civil Engineering Landmark===In 1974, the Kansas City Park and Boulevard System was recognized by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark.",
"The nomination noted that this park system was among \"...the first to integrate the aesthetics of landscape architecture with the practicality of city planning, stimulating other metropolitan areas to undertake similar projects.\"",
"The park's plan developed by landscape architect George Kessler included some of the \"...first specifications for pavements, gutters, curbs, and walks.",
"Other engineering advances included retaining walls, earth dams, subsurface drains, and an impoundment lake – all part of Kansas City's legacy that has influenced urban planning in cities throughout North America.\""
],
[
"Law and government",
"===City government===City Hall, Kansas City, MissouriKansas City is home to the largest municipal government in the state of Missouri.",
"The city has a council/manager form of government.",
"The role of city manager has diminished over the years.",
"The non-elective office of city manager was created following excesses during the Pendergast days.The mayor is the head of the Kansas City City Council, which has 12 members elected from six districts (one member elected by voters in the district and one at-large member elected by voters citywide).",
"The mayor is the presiding member.",
"By charter, Kansas City has a \"weak-mayor\" system, in which most of the power is formally vested in the city council.",
"However, in practice, the mayor is very influential in drafting and guiding public policy.Kansas City holds city elections in every fourth odd-numbered year.",
"The last citywide election was held in April 2023.The officials took office in August 2023 and will hold the position until 2027.Pendergast was the most prominent leader during the machine politics days.",
"The most nationally prominent Democrat associated with the machine was Harry S Truman, who became a Senator, Vice President and then President of the United States from 1945 to 1953.Kansas City is the seat of the United States District Court for the Western District of Missouri, one of two federal district courts in Missouri.",
"The United States District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri is in St. Louis.",
"It also is the seat of the Western District of the Missouri Court of Appeals, one of three districts of that court (the Eastern District is in St. Louis and the Southern District is in Springfield).The Mayor, City Council, and City Manager are listed below: Office Officeholder'''Mayor''' (presides over Council)Quinton Lucas'''Councilman, District 1 At-large'''Kevin O'Neill'''Councilman, District 1'''Nathan Willett'''Councilwoman, District 2 At-large'''Lindsey French'''Councilman, District 2'''Wes Rodgers'''Councilwoman, District 3 At-large'''Melissa Patterson Hazley'''Councilwoman, District 3'''Melissa Robinson'''Councilman, District 4 At-large'''Crispin Rea'''Councilman, District 4'''Eric Bunch'''Councilman, District 5 At-large'''Darrell Curls'''Councilwoman, District 5'''Ryana Parks-Shaw'''Councilwoman, District 6 At-large'''Andrea Bough'''Councilman, District 6'''Jonathan Duncan'''City Manager'''Brian Platt'''Mayor Pro-Tem'''Ryana Parks-Shaw===National political conventions===Kansas City hosted the 1900 Democratic National Convention, the 1928 Republican National Convention and the 1976 Republican National Convention.",
"The urban core of Kansas City consistently votes Democratic in presidential elections; however, on the state and local level Republicans often find success, especially in the Northland and other suburban areas of Kansas City.===Federal representation===Kansas City is represented by three members of the United States House of Representatives:*Missouri's 4th congressional district – the Cass County portion of Kansas City; represented by Mark Alford (Republican)*Missouri's 5th congressional district – all of Kansas City proper in Jackson County, Independence, and portions of Clay County; represented by Emanuel Cleaver (Democrat)*Missouri's 6th congressional district – Portions of Kansas City proper in Clay County and Platte County; represented by Sam Graves (Republican)===Crime===Crossroads area during the early hours of New Year's Day 2016.Some of the earliest organized violence in Kansas City erupted during the American Civil War.",
"Shortly after the city's incorporation in 1850, so-called Bleeding Kansas erupted, affecting border ruffians and Jayhawkers.",
"During the war, Union troops burned all occupied dwellings in Jackson County south of Brush Creek and east of Blue Creek to Independence in an attempt to halt raids into Kansas.",
"After the war, the ''Kansas City Times'' turned outlaw Jesse James into a folk hero via its coverage.",
"James was born in the Kansas City metro area at Kearney, Missouri, and notoriously robbed the Kansas City Fairgrounds at 12th Street and Campbell Avenue.In the early 20th century under Pendergast, Kansas City became the country's \"most wide open town\".",
"Though this gave rise to Kansas City Jazz, and also led to the rise of the Kansas City mob (initially under Johnny Lazia), and the arrival of organized crime.",
"In the 1970s, the Kansas City mob was involved in a gang war over control of the River Quay entertainment district, in which three buildings were bombed and several gangsters were killed.",
"Police investigations gained after boss Nick Civella was recorded discussing gambling bets on Super Bowl IV (where the Kansas City Chiefs defeated the Minnesota Vikings).",
"The war and investigation led to the end of mob control of the Stardust Casino, which was the basis for the film ''Casino'', though the production minimizes the Kansas City connections., Kansas City ranked 18th on the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)'s annual survey of crime rates for cities with populations over 100,000.Much of the city's violent crime occurs on the city's lower income East Side.",
"Revitalizing the downtown and midtown areas has been fairly successful and now these areas have below average violent crime compared to other major downtowns.",
"According to a 2007 analysis by ''The Kansas City Star'' and the University of Missouri-Kansas City, downtown experienced the largest drop in crime of any neighborhood in the city during the 2000s."
],
[
"Education",
"===Colleges and universities===Many universities, colleges, and seminaries are in the Kansas City metropolitan area, including:* University of Missouri–Kansas City − one of four schools in the University of Missouri System, serving more than 15,000 students* Rockhurst University − Jesuit university founded in 1910* Kansas City Art Institute − four-year college of fine arts and design founded in 1885* Kansas City University of Medicine and Biosciences − medical and graduate school founded in 1916* Avila University − Catholic university of the Sisters of St. Joseph of Carondelet* Park University − private institution established in 1875; Park University Graduate School is downtown* Baker University − multiple branches of the School of Professional and Graduate Studies* William Jewell College − private liberal arts institution founded in 1849* Metropolitan Community College − a two-year college with multiple campuses in the city and suburbs* Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary − Southern Baptist Convention* Nazarene Theological Seminary − Church of the Nazarene* Calvary University* Saint Paul School of Theology − Methodist===Primary and secondary schools===Headquarters of the Kansas City Public Schools, which serves the inner core of the city limitsThe city is not served by one unified school district, but 15 separate districts due to the historical unwillingness of suburban voters to merge their existing school districts with the Kansas City district as the city expanded its limits in the 1950s and 1960s.School outcomes vary between and even within districts, with a some high schools being nationally ranked, and others having some of the lowest graduation rates.",
"There are also numerous private schools; Catholic schools are governed by the Diocese of Kansas City.The following public school districts serve Kansas City:In the Jackson County portion of the city:* Kansas City Public Schools* Blue Springs R-4 School District* Center School District* Fort Osage R-1 School District* Grandview C-4 School District* Hickman Mills C-1 School District* Independence School District* Lees Summit R-7 School District* Raytown C-2 School DistrictIn the Cass County portion:* Belton School DistrictIn the Clay County portion:* Liberty School District* North Kansas City School District* Smithville School DistrictIn the Platte County portion:* Park Hill School District* Platte County R-3 School District===Libraries and archives===* Linda Hall Library − internationally recognized independent library of science, engineering and technology, housing over one million volumes* Mid-Continent Public Library − largest public library system in Missouri, and among the largest collections in America* Kansas City Public Library − oldest library system in Kansas City* University of Missouri-Kansas City Libraries − four collections: Leon E. Bloch Law Library and Miller Nichols Library, both on Volker Campus; and Health Sciences Library and Dental Library, both on Hospital Hill in Kansas City* Rockhurst University Greenlease Library* The Black Archives of Mid-America − research center of the African American experience in the central Midwest* National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Central Plains Region − one of 18 national records facilities, holding millions of archival records and microfilms for Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska in a new facility adjacent to Union Station, which was opened to the general public in 2008"
],
[
"Media",
"''The Kansas City Star''s former printing facility opened in 2006.===Print media===''The Kansas City Star'' is the area's primary newspaper.",
"William Rockhill Nelson and his partner, Samuel Morss, first published the evening paper on September 18, 1880.The ''Star'' competed with the morning ''Kansas City Times'' before acquiring that publication in 1901.The ''Times'' name was discontinued in March 1990, when the morning paper was renamed the ''Star''.Weekly newspapers include ''The Call'' (which is focused toward Kansas City's African-American community), the ''Kansas City Business Journal'', ''The Pitch'', ''Ink'', and the bilingual publications ''Dos Mundos'' and ''KC Hispanic News''.Publications include ''Ingram's Magazine'' and a local society journal, the ''Independent''.The city is served by two major faith-oriented newspapers: The ''Kansas City Metro Voice'', serving the Christian community, and the ''Kansas City Jewish Chronicle'', serving the Jewish community.",
"It is the headquarters of the ''National Catholic Reporter'', an independent Catholic newspaper.===Broadcast media===Landmark KCTV Tower on West 31st on Union HillThe Kansas City media market (ranked 32nd by Arbitron and 31st by Nielsen) includes 10 television stations, 30 FM and 21 AM radio stations.",
"Kansas City broadcasting jobs have been a stepping stone for national television and radio personalities, notably Walter Cronkite and Mancow Muller.WDAF radio (now at 106.5 FM; original 610 AM frequency now occupied by KCSP) signed on in 1927 as an affiliate of the NBC Red Network, under the ownership of ''The Star.''",
"In 1949, the ''Star'' signed on WDAF-TV as an affiliate of the NBC television network.",
"The ''Star'' sold off the WDAF stations in 1957, following an antitrust investigation by the United States government (reportedly launched at Truman's behest, following a long-standing feud with the ''Star'') over the newspaper's ownership of television and radio stations.",
"KCMO radio (originally at 810 AM, now at 710 AM) signed on KCMO-TV (now KCTV) in 1953.The respective owners of WHB (then at 710 AM, now at 810 AM) and KMBC radio (980 AM, now KMBZ), Cook Paint and Varnish Company and the Midland Broadcasting Company, signed on WHB-TV/KMBC-TV as a time-share arrangement on VHF channel 9 in 1953; KMBC-TV took over channel 9 full-time in June 1954, after Cook Paint and Varnish purchased Midland Broadcasting's stations.The major broadcast television networks have affiliates in the Kansas City market (covering 32 counties in northwestern Missouri, with the exception of counties in the far northwestern part of the state that are within the adjacent Saint Joseph market, and northeastern Kansas); including WDAF-TV 4 (Fox), KCTV 5 (CBS), KMBC-TV 9 (ABC), KCPT 19 (PBS), KCWE 29 (The CW), KSHB-TV 41 (NBC) and KSMO-TV 62 (MyNetworkTV).",
"Other television stations in the market include Saint Joseph-based KTAJ-TV 16 (TBN), Kansas City, Kansas-based TV25.tv (consisting of three locally owned stations throughout northeast Kansas, led by KCKS-LD 25, affiliated with several digital multicast networks), Lawrence, Kansas-based KMCI-TV 38 (independent), Spanish-language station KUKC-LD 20 (Univision), Spanish-language station KGKC-LD 39 (Telemundo), and KPXE-TV 50 (Ion Television).",
"The Kansas City television stations also serve as alternates for the nearby Saint Joseph television market.===Film community===Kansas City has been a locale for film and television productions.",
"Between 1931 and 1982 Kansas City was home to the Calvin Company, a large film production company that specialized in promotional shorts for corporations and in educational films for schools and the government.",
"Calvin was an important venue for Kansas City arts, training local filmmakers who went on to Hollywood careers and also employing local actors, most of whom earned their main income in fields such as radio and television announcing.",
"Kansas City native Robert Altman directed movies at the Calvin Company, which led him to shoot his first feature film, ''The Delinquents'', in Kansas City using many local players.The 1983 television movie ''The Day After'' was filmed in Kansas City and Lawrence, Kansas.",
"The 1995 film ''Truman'', starring Gary Sinise, was filmed in the city.",
"Other films shot in or around Kansas City include ''Article 99'', ''Mr.",
"& Mrs. Bridge'', ''Kansas City'', ''Paper Moon'', ''In Cold Blood'', ''Ninth Street'', and ''Sometimes They Come Back'' (in and around nearby Liberty, Missouri).",
"More recently, a scene in the controversial film ''Brüno'' was filmed in downtown Kansas City's historic Hotel Phillips.Today, Kansas City is home to an active independent film community.",
"The Independent Filmmaker's Coalition is an organization dedicated to expanding and improving independent filmmaking in Kansas City.",
"The city launched the KC Film Office in October 2014 with the goal of better marketing the city for prospective television shows and movies to be filmed there.",
"The City Council passed several film tax incentives in February 2016 to take effect in May 2016; the KC Film Office is coordinating its efforts with the State of Missouri to reinstate film incentives on a statewide level.",
"Kansas City was named as a top city to live and work in as a movie maker in 2020."
],
[
"Transportation",
"Originally, Kansas City was the launching point for travelers on the Santa Fe, Oregon, and California trails.",
"Later, with the construction of the Hannibal Bridge across the Missouri River, it became the junction of 11 trunk railroads.",
"More rail tonnage passes through the city than through any other U.S. city.",
"Trans World Airlines (TWA) located its headquarters in the city, and had ambitious plans to turn the city into an air hub.===Highways===Kansas City is a major meeting place for several of the nation's busiest highways.Missouri and Kansas were the first states to start building interstates with Interstate 70.Interstate 435, which encircles the entire city, is the second longest beltway in the Interstate Highway System.",
"(Interstate 275 around Cincinnati, Ohio is the longest.)",
"The Kansas City metro area has more limited-access highway lane-miles per capita than any other large US metro area, over 27% more than the second-place Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex, over 50% more than the average American metropolitan area.",
"From 2013 to 2017 the average commuting time was 21.8 minutes.",
"The Sierra Club blames the extensive freeway network for excessive sprawl and the decline of central Kansas City.",
"On the other hand, the relatively uncongested road network contributes significantly to Kansas City's position as one of America's largest logistics hubs.====Interstate highways====Kansas City has a confluence of major U.S. interstate highways: I-29, I-35, I-49, I-70, I-435, I-470, I-635, and I-670.====US highways====Kansas City includes these US highways: US 24, US 40, US 50, US 56, US 69, US 71, and US 169.====Missouri state highways====State routes are Route 1, Route 9, Route 12, Route 45, Route 78, Route 92, Route 150, Route 152, Route 210, Route 269, Route 283, Route 291, and Route 350.Missouri supplemental routes are Route AA, Route D, Route K, Route V, and Route W.====Other routes====Other routes include the Chicago–Kansas City Expressway and the Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail.===Airports===Kansas City International AirportKansas City International Airport (airport code MCI) was built to TWA's specifications to make a world hub.",
"Its original passenger-friendly design placed each of its gates from the street.",
"Following the September 11, 2001 attacks, it required a costly overhaul to conform to tighter security protocols from the Transportation Security Administration.",
"In March 2023, an new $1.5 billion terminal opened on the site of the old Terminal A.",
"Designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, it is a single, advanced technology terminal with 39 gates, eventually planned to entirely replace remaining Terminals B and C.Charles B. Wheeler Downtown Airport (airport code MKC) was TWA's original headquarters and houses the Airline History Museum.",
"It is still used for general aviation and airshows.===Public transportation===Like most American cities, Kansas City's mass transit system was originally rail-based.",
"From 1870 to 1957, Kansas City's streetcar system was among the top in the country, with over of track at its peak.",
"The rapid sprawl in the following years led this private system to be shut down.Amtrak currently operates two routes via Kansas City, the Southwest Chief to Chicago or Los Angeles, and the Missouri River Runner to St. Louis.====KCATA RideKC====On December 28, 1965, the Kansas City Area Transportation Authority (KCATA) was formed via a bi-state compact created by the Missouri and Kansas legislatures.",
"The compact gave the KCATA responsibility for planning, construction, owning and operating passenger transportation systems and facilities within the seven-county area.====RideKC Bus and MAX====A newly branded RideKC BusIn July 2005, the KCATA launched Kansas City's first bus rapid transit line, the Metro Area Express (MAX).",
"MAX links River Market, Downtown, Union Station, Crown Center, and Country Club Plaza.",
"MAX operates and is marketed more like a rail system than a local bus line.",
"A unique identity was created for MAX, including 13 modern diesel buses and easily identifiable \"stations\".",
"MAX features (real-time GPS tracking of buses, available at every station), and stoplights automatically change in their favor if buses are behind schedule.",
"In 2010, a second MAX line was added on Troost Avenue.",
"The city is planning another MAX line down Prospect Avenue.The Prospect MAX line launched in 2019 and Mayor Quinton Lucas announced the service would be fare-free indefinitely.====RideKC Streetcar====KC Streetcar departing the Library stop, heading north to the River MarketOn December 12, 2012, a ballot initiative to construct a $102 million, , modern KC Streetcar line in downtown Kansas City was approved by local voters.",
"The streetcar route runs along Main Street from River Market to Union Station; it debuted on May 6, 2016.A new non-profit corporation made up of private sector stakeholders and city appointees – the Kansas City Streetcar Authority – operates and maintains the system.",
"Unlike many similar systems around the U.S., no fare is to be charged initially.",
"Residents within the proposed Transportation Development District are determining the fate of the KC Streetcar's southern extension through Midtown and the Plaza to UMKC.",
"The Port Authority of Kansas City is also studying running an extension to Berkley Riverfront Park.====RideKC Bridj====In 2015, the KCATA, Unified Government Transit, Johnson County Transit, and IndeBus began merging from individual metro services into one coordinated transit service for the metropolitan area, called RideKC.",
"The buses and other transit options are branded as RideKC Bus, RideKC MAX, RideKC Streetcar, and RideKC Bridj.",
"RideKC Bridj is a micro transit service partnership between Ford Bridj and KCATA that began on March 7, 2016, much like a taxicab service and with a mobile app.",
"The merger and full coordination is expected to be complete by 2019.====Intercity transit====Intercity bus services to Kansas City are provided by Greyhound Lines and Jefferson Lines at the Kansas City Bus Station.",
"Amtrak also serves the city at Union Station via the Southwest Chief and Missouri River Runner.===Walkability===A 2015 study by Walk Score ranked Kansas City as the 42nd most walkable out of the 50 largest U.S. cities.",
"As a whole, the city has a score of 34 out of 100.However, several of the more densely populated neighborhoods have much higher scores: Westport has a score of 91, the Downtown Loop has a score of 85, the Crossroads scored 85, and the Plaza scored 83.Those ratings range from \"A Walker's Paradise\" to \"Very Walkable\".",
"In April 2017, voters approved an $800 million general obligation bond, part of which is designated for sidewalk repairs and creating complete-streets.===Modal characteristics===According to the American Community Survey, 81.6 percent of working Kansas City residents commuted to work by driving alone, 7.9 percent carpooled, 2.7 percent used public transportation, and 1.7 percent walked to work.",
"About 1.5 percent commuted by other means, including taxi, bicycle, or motorcycle.",
"About 4.6 percent of working Kansas City residents worked at home.In 2015, 11.4 percent of Kansas City households were without a car, which was virtually unchanged in 2016 (11.3 percent).",
"The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016.Kansas City averaged 1.58 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8 per household."
],
[
"Sister cities",
"Kansas City has 15 sister cities: City Subdivision Country Date Seville 1967 Kurashiki 1972 Morelia 1973 Freetown Western Area 1974 Tainan Taiwan 1978 Xi'an Shaanxi 1989 Guadalajara 1991 Hannover 1993 Port Harcourt Rivers State 1993 Arusha Arusha Region 1995 San Nicolás de los Garza 1997 Ramla 1998 Metz 2004 Yan'an Shaanxi 2017 Kabul Kabul Province 2018"
],
[
"Notable people",
"Current or former long-time residents include cartoonists Walt Disney, Friz Freleng, and Ub Iwerks; musicians Count Basie and Tech N9ne; actors Don Cheadle and Chris Cooper; politicians Emanuel Cleaver and Tom Pendergast; and reporter Walter Cronkite."
],
[
"See also",
"*2024 Kansas City parade shooting*Kansas City Police Officers Association*List of people from Kansas City, Missouri*Sites of interest of Kansas City*USS ''Kansas City'', 3 ships"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"** Official Travel and Tourism Site* Kansas City Chamber of Commerce* Historic maps of Kansas City in the Sanborn Maps of Missouri Collection at the University of Missouri* The Black Archives of Mid-America on Google Cultural Institute"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kocher–Debre–Semelaigne syndrome"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kocher–Debré–Semelaigne syndrome''' '''(KDSS)''' is hypothyroidism in infancy or childhood characterised by lower extremity or generalized muscular hypertrophy (Herculean appearance), myxoedema, short stature, and cognitive impairment.The syndrome is named after Emil Theodor Kocher, Robert Debré and Georges Semelaigne.",
"Also known as Debré–Semelaigne syndrome or cretinism-muscular hypertrophy, hypothyroid myopathy, hypothyroidism-large muscle syndrome, hypothyreotic muscular hypertrophy in children, infantile myxoedema-muscular hypertrophy, myopathy-myxoedema syndrome, myxoedema-muscular hypertrophy syndrome, myxoedema-myotonic dystrophy syndrome.The adult-onset form of this syndrome is Hoffmann syndrome.",
"Some sources claim that two of the differentiating symptoms between KDSS and Hoffmann syndrome is that Hoffmann syndrome lacks painful spasms and pseudomyotonia; however, this claim is in conflict with other sources that list these symptoms as also being present in Hoffmann syndrome."
],
[
"Presentation",
"The age at which a child presents with KDSS may vary from new born to as late as 11 years of age.",
"This disease is very rare as only less than 10% of children with hypothyroid myopathy develops this condition.",
"Along with features of hypothyroidism (such as lethargy, slow heart rate, cold intolerance, dry skin, and hoarse voice) the main additional feature is muscle hypertrophy.",
"It can happen in any muscle of the limbs, but commonly affects the calf muscles, giving the typical Herculean appearance.Other features are pseudomyotonia, myokymia, slow tendon reflex, slowed muscle contractions and relaxations, muscle stiffness, proximal muscle weakness and myopathy.",
"The severity of these symptoms are determined by the period of hypothyroidism and the degree of deficiency of thyroid hormones.",
"It may also include macroglossia.EMG is either normal or may show myopathic low amplitude and short duration motor unit action potentials (MUAPS).",
"The enzymes creatine kinase is elevated usually."
],
[
"Pathophysiology",
"The assumed cause of muscle hypertrophy in KDSS is an abnormal metabolism of carbohydrates leading to increased glycogen accumulation and increased mucopolysaccharide deposits in the muscles.",
"Yet another speculation is an excess intra cellular calcium due to ineffective reuptake into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, which causes a sustained contraction and thereby hypertrophy.In hypothyroidism the fast twitch muscle fiber is converted to slow twitch fiber, causing the slower reflex or hung up reflex.",
"This may occur as a result of reduction in muscle mitochondrial oxidative capacity and beta-adrenergic receptors, as well as the induction of an insulin-resistant state, due to decrease in thyroid hormones.The causes for muscle weakness is said to be decrease in muscle carnitine, decreased muscle oxidation, expression of a slower ATPase in myosin chain and decreased transport across the cell membrane.The rigidity associated with congenital hypothyroidism may be due to abnormal development of basal ganglia."
],
[
"Diagnosis"
],
[
"Differential diagnoses",
"Diseases known to have a pseudoathletic appearance of the calves (hypertrophy or pseudohypertrophy), including exercise intolerance and/or muscle weakness:* Hoffmann syndrome (adult-onset hypothyroid myopathy),* Glycogen storage disease (GSD-V, & late-onset GSD-II),* Non-dystrophic myotonias and pseudomyotonias (such as Myotonia congenita and Brody disease),* Limb-girdle muscular dystrophy,* Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophy* Focal myositis,* Sarcoid granulomas, and* Amyloid deposits in musclesThyroid metabolism can be disrupted secondary to a primary disease.",
"A common comorbidity of the metabolic myopathy McArdle disease (Glycogen storage disease type V) is hypothyroidism.",
"It is also a comorbidity of late-onset Pompe disease (Glycogen storage disease type II).",
"As both hyper- and hypothyroidism disrupts muscle glycogen metabolism, it is important to keep in mind differential diagnoses and their comorbidities when trying to determine whether signs and symptoms are either primary or secondary disease."
],
[
"Treatment",
"The muscle hypertrophy and other symptoms are reversible on treatment with levothyroxine."
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Koi"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Several koi swim around in a pond in Japan.",
"(video) or more specifically are colored varieties of the common carp (''Cyprinus carpio'') that are kept for decorative purposes in outdoor koi ponds or water gardens.",
"Koi is an informal name for the colored variants of ''\tC. carpio'' kept for ornamental purposes.",
"There are many varieties of ornamental koi, originating from breeding that began in Niigata, Japan in the early 19th century.",
"Several varieties are recognized by the Japanese, distinguished by coloration, patterning, and scalation.",
"Some of the major colors are white, black, red, orange, yellow, blue, brown and cream, besides metallic shades like gold and silver-white ('platinum') scales.",
"The most popular category of koi is the ''Gosanke'', which is made up of the ''Kōhaku'', ''Taishō Sanshoku'' and ''Shōwa Sanshoku'' varieties."
],
[
"History",
"Carp are a large group of fish originally found in Central Europe and Asia.",
"Various carp species were originally domesticated in China, where they were used as food fish.",
"Carp are coldwater fish, and their ability to survive and adapt to many climates and water conditions allowed the domesticated species to be propagated to many new locations, including Japan.=== Prehistory ===In Japan, Miocene fossils of the carp family (''Cyprinidae'') have been excavated from Iki Island in Nagasaki Prefecture.",
"In addition, numerous carp pharyngeal teeth have been excavated from Jomon and Yayoi period sites.",
"For example, pharyngeal teeth of the extinct species ''Jōmon Koi'' (''Cyprinus sp.'')",
"as well as the present species of carp (''Cyprinus carpio'' or ''Cyprinus rubrofuscus'') have been excavated from the Akanoi Bay lakebed site () in Lake Biwa at the end of the Early Jomon Period (11,500 - 7,000 years ago).",
"In addition, pharyngeal teeth of all six subfamilies of the carp family living in Japan today, including carp, have been found at the Awazu lakebed site () dating from the Middle Jomon Period (5500 – 4400 years ago).There are differences in the length distribution of carp excavated from Jomon and Yayoi sites, as estimated from the size of their pharyngeal teeth.",
"Specifically, not only adult carp but also juvenile carp (less than 150 mm in length) have been found at the Yayoi site.",
"This difference is thought to be due to the fact that the Jomon only collected carp from lakes and rivers, while the Yayoi cultivated primitive carp along with the spread of rice paddies.It was previously thought that all Japanese carp were introduced from China in prehistoric times.",
"However, recent analysis of mitochondrial DNA has revealed that there are two types of wild carp in Japan: native carp and Amur carp from Eurasia, but it is unclear when the Amur carp was introduced to Japan.",
"This is because the oldest record of the introduction of non-native fish in Japan is that of goldfish from China (1502 or 1602), and there is no record of carp (including colored carp) until the introduction of the mirror carp, called ''Doitsugoi'' (German carp), in 1904.=== Middle ages ===In the Japanese history book ''Nihon Shoki'' (Chronicles of Japan, 720), it is written that Emperor Keikō released carp in a pond for viewing when he visited Mino Province (present Gifu Prefecture) in the fourth year of his reign (74 AD).",
"In Cui Bao's ''Gǔjīnzhù'' (, Annotations on the Ancient and Modern Period) from the Western Jin Dynasty (4th century A.D.) in China, carp of the following colors are described: red horse (), blue horse (), black horse (), white horse (), and yellow pheasant ().",
"In China in those days, carp were called horses because they were believed to be the vehicles of hermits and to run in the sky.Japan's oldest drug dictionary, Fukane Sukehito's ''Honzō Wamyō'' (, 918) mentions red carp (), blue carp (), black carp (), white carp (), and yellow carp () as Japanese names corresponding to the above Chinese names, suggesting that carp of these colors existed in China and Japan in those days.",
"In addition, Hitomi Hitsudai's drug dictionary ''Honchō Shokkan'' (, Japanese Medicine Encyclopedia, 1697) states that red, yellow, and white carp of the three colors were in Japan at that time.However, it is believed that these single-colored carp were not a variety created by artificial selection, as is the case with today's koi, but rather a mutation-induced color change.",
"In ancient times, carp was farmed primarily for food.",
"Mutational color variation in carp is relatively common in nature, but is not suitable for development alongside farming for food in poor rural communities; color inheritance is unstable and selection to maintain color variation is costly.",
"For example, in current-day farming of koi as ornamental fish, the percentage of superior colored fish to the number of spawn is less than 1%.The Amur carp (''Cyprinus rubrofuscus'') is a member of the cyprinid family species complex native to East Asia.",
"Amur carp were previously identified as a subspecies of the common carp (as ''C.",
"c. haematopterus''), but recent authorities treat it as a separate species under the name ''C.",
"rubrofuscus''.",
"Amur carp have been aquacultured as a food fish at least as long ago as the fifth century BC in China.=== Modern period ===Terraced rice paddies in Yamakoshi, Niigata PrefectureThe systematic breeding of ornamental Amur carp began in the 1820s in an area known as \"Nijūmuragō\" (, ) which spans Ojiya and Yamakoshi in Niigata Prefecture (located on the northeastern coast of Honshu) in Japan.",
"In Niigata Prefecture, Amur carp were farmed for food in Musubu Shinden, Kanbara County (present Akiba Ward, Niigata City) from the end of the Genna era (1615 - 1624).",
"In the Nijūmuragō area, carp were also farmed in terraced ponds near terraced rice paddies by 1781 at the latest, but the ponds ran dry due to a severe drought that occurred around that time, and the carp escaped the disaster by taking refuge in ponds on the grounds of Senryu Shrine in Higashiyama Village and Juni Shrine in Higashitakezawa Village.During the Bunka and Bunsei eras (1804 - 1830), people in the Nijūmuragō area bred red and white koi in addition to black koi, and crossed them to produce red and white colored koi.",
"After that, they further crossed them and perfected them.Around 1875, colored koi became popular and the number of breeders increased, and some expensive koi were produced, but Niigata Prefecture banned the aquaculture of ornamental koi because it was considered a speculative business, and the business suffered a major blow for a time.",
"However, the ban was lifted soon after, thanks to the petition of the villagers.",
"At that time, colored koi included ''Kōhaku'', ''Asagi'', ''Ki Utsuri'', etc.",
"From this original handful of koi varieties, all other Nishikigoi varieties were bred, with the exception of the Ogon variety (single-colored, metallic koi), which was developed relatively recently.Koi breeding flourished in the Nijūmuragō area for two reasons: 1) the custom of raising koi in fallow fields for emergency food during the winter, and 2) the existence of many ''inden'' (), or hidden rice fields in the mountains, unknown to the lord, which allowed the farmers to avoid taxes and become relatively wealthy.",
"Breeding of koi was promoted as a hobby of farmers who could afford it, and high-quality individuals came to be bought and sold.The name ''Nishikigoi'' (brocaded carp) did not exist until the 1910s.",
"Before that time, ''Nishikigoi'' were called ''Madaragoi'' (, ), ''Kawarigoi'' (, ), ''Irogoi'' (, ), ''Moyōgoi'' (, ), and so on.A geographical book on Suruga Province (present-day Shizuoka Prefecture), Abe Masanobu's ''Sunkoku Zasshi'' (1843), mentions that in addition to Asagi, purple, red, and white carp, there are \"spotted carp (also known as Bekko carp).\"",
"This probably refers to two- or three-colored carp caused by mutation, and is a valuable record of ''Nishikigoi'' of the Edo period (1603 - 1868).Illustration of a three-colored carp in Ritsurin Garden, 1900.This is the oldest illustration of koi.",
"It has the kanji characters for ''asagi'' on its back and red on its belly.In 1900, there was a three-colored carp in Ritsurin Garden in Takamatsu, Kagawa Prefecture, and the price was over 1,000 yen per fish, which was a high price for that time.",
"The three-colored carp had a red belly and ''asagi'' (light blue) back with black spots, and is thought to have been a mutation similar to today's ''Asagi'' koi.Odd-eyed cat and Spotted carp, from the magazine \"Shonen.",
"\", 1910.The magazine \"Shonen\" (1910) introduced ''Nishikigoi'' under the name of ''Madaragoi'' (spotted carp) or ''Kawarigoi'' (variant carp), and said that even skilled fish breeders did not know how they could produce ''Nishikigoi'', but only waited for them to be produced by chance.",
"The price of ''Nishikigoi'' at a fish show in Fukagawa, Tokyo, was 100 to 150 yen per fish, which was \"extremely expensive\" at the time.",
"Therefore, even at that time, mutant ''Nishikigoi'' were known to some fish breeders and hobbyists in Tokyo, but artificial breeds such as Nijūmuragō's ''Nishikigoi'' were still unknown to the general public.In 1914, when the Tokyo Taishō Exposition was held, the \"Koi Exhibit Association\" was formed mainly by koi breeders in Higashiyama and Takezawa villages, and koi were exhibited.",
"At the time, they were still called \"colored carp\" or \"patterned carp,\" and they were described as \"the first of their kind ever seen in the Tokyo area.\"",
"And the koi received much attention, winning a silver medal.",
"After the exposition closed, they presented eight koi to the Crown Prince (Emperor Showa).",
"This exhibition triggered an expansion of sales channels, and the market value of koi soared.In 1917, the ''Taishō Sanshoku'' (by Eizaburo Hoshino) was fixed as a breed.",
"The name ''Nishikigoi'' is said to have been given by Kei Abe, who was the chief fisheries officer of the Niigata Prefectural Government in the Taisho era (1912 - 1926), after he admired the ''Taishō Sanshoku'' when he first saw it.",
"In 1917, the fixation of ''Kōhaku'' (by Kunizo Hiroi), which had first been produced in the 1880s, was also assured.Apart from the koi of Niigata Prefecture's Nijūmuragō area, there is a variety called ''Shūsui'' (), which was created by Tokyo-based goldfish breeder Kichigoro Akiyama in 1906 by crossing a female leather carp imported from Germany with a male Japanese ''Asagi'' or spotted carp.",
"The leather carp is a low scaled variety bred in 1782 in Austria, and was sent to Japan from Munich, Germany in 1904, along with the mirror carp, which also has few scales.",
"In Japan, these two varieties are called ''Doitsugoi'' (German carp), and ''Shūsui'' and its lineage are also called ''Doitsu'' or ''Doitsugoi'' in koi.In 1927, ''Shōwa Sanshoku'' (by Shigekichi Hoshino) was fixed as a breed, and in 1939, koi were exhibited at the Japanese pavilion at the Golden Gate International Exposition held in San Francisco.=== Today ===The hobby of keeping koi eventually spread worldwide.",
"They are sold in many pet aquarium shops, with higher-quality fish available from specialist dealers.",
"Collecting koi has become a social hobby.",
"Passionate hobbyists join clubs, share their knowledge and help each other with their koi.",
"In particular, since the 21st century, some wealthy Chinese have imported large quantities of koi from Niigata in Japan, and the price of high-quality carp has soared.",
"In 2018, one carp was bought by a Chinese collector for about $2 million, the highest price ever.",
"There are also cases in which purchased carp are bred in China and sold to foreign countries, and many breeds are spreading all over the world."
],
[
"Etymology",
"Koi in an artificial pond at a hotel in HiloThe words \"koi\" and \"nishikigoi\" come from the Japanese words 鯉 (carp), and 錦鯉 (brocaded carp), respectively.",
"In Japanese, \"koi\" is a homophone for 恋, another word that means \"affection\" or \"love\", so koi are symbols of love and friendship in Japan.Colored ornamental carp were originally called ''Irokoi'' (色鯉) meaning colored carp, ''Hanakoi'' (花鯉) meaning floral carp, and ''Moyōkoi'' (模様鯉) meaning patterned carp.",
"There are various theories as to how these words came to be disused, in favor of ''Nishikigoi'' (錦鯉), which is used today.",
"One theory holds that, during World War II, the words ''Irokoi'' and ''Hanakoi'' (which can have sexual meanings) were changed to ''Nishikigoi'' because they were not suitable for the social situation of war.",
"Another theory is that'' Nishikigoi'', which was the original name for the popular Taishō Sanshoku variety, gradually became the term used for all ornamental koi."
],
[
"Taxonomy",
"''Cyprinus haematopterus''''Cyprinus melanotus'' and ''Cyprinus conirostris''The koi are a group of breeds produced by artificial selection primarily from black carp called ''nogoi'' (, ) or ''magoi'' (, ), which inhabit lakes, ponds, and rivers in Japan.",
"The black carp refers to the Eurasian carp (''Cyprinus carpio''), which was previously thought to have been introduced to Japan from Eurasia in prehistoric times.Philipp Franz von Siebold of the Netherlands, who stayed in Japan during the Edo period, reported in ''Fauna Japonica'' (1833 - 1850) that there were three species of carp in Japan: ''Cyprinus haematopterus'', ''Cyprinus melanotus'', and ''Cyprinus conirostris''.",
"This classification has not received much attention until recently, and it was thought that only one species of carp existed in Japan.",
"However, recent analysis of mitochondrial DNA has revealed that there are at least two species of carp in Japan: native carp and carp from Eurasia.",
"Currently, the Japanese native carp is assumed to be ''Cyprinus melanotus'', and a new scientific name for it is being considered.",
"''Cyprinus haematopterus'' is thought to refer to the Amur carp of Eurasian origin, traditionally called ''Yamatogoi'' (, ) in Japan.",
"''Yamatogoi'' have been famous since the Edo period as farmed carp in Yamato Province (now Nara Prefecture).",
"Other carp of the same type as ''Yamatogoi'' are known as ''Yodogoi'' (, Yodo River carp) from Osaka and ''Shinshūgoi'' (, introduced ''Yodogoi'') from Nagano Prefecture.",
"These carp were famous for their delicious taste.",
"Since the Meiji period, ''Yamatogoi'' have been released into lakes and rivers throughout Japan, causing genetic contamination with native carp and making research on the origin of the Japanese carp difficult.",
"Koi is thought to be primarily of this ''Yamatogoi'' (Amur carp) lineage, but it also carries some genes of the native Japanese carp.In the past, koi were commonly believed to have been bred from the common carp (''Cyprinus carpio'').",
"Extensive hybridization between different populations, coupled with widespread translocations, has muddled the historical zoogeography of the common carp and its relatives.",
"Traditionally, Amur carp (''C.",
"rubrofuscus'') were considered a subspecies of the common carp, often under the scientific name ''C.",
"carpio haematopterus''.",
"However, they differ in meristics from the common carp of Europe and Western Asia, leading recent authorities to recognize them as a separate species, ''C.",
"rubrofuscus'' (''C.",
"c. haematopterus'' being a junior synonym).",
"Although one study of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was unable to find a clear genetic structure matching the geographic populations (possibly because of translocation of carp from separate regions), others based on mtDNA, microsatellite DNA and genomic DNA found a clear separation between the European/West Asian population and the East Asian population, with koi belonging in the latter.",
"Consequently, recent authorities have suggested that the ancestral species of the koi is ''C.",
"rubrofuscus'' (syn.",
"''C.",
"c. haematopterus'') or at least an East Asian carp species instead of ''C.",
"carpio''.",
"Regardless, a taxonomic review of ''Cyprinus'' carp from eastern and southeastern Asia may be necessary, as the genetic variations do not fully match the currently recognized species pattern, with one study of mtDNA suggesting that koi are close to the Southeast Asian carp, but not necessarily the Chinese."
],
[
"Varieties",
"Ojiya no Sato Museum in Niigata Prefecture, Japan, is the only museum in the world that exhibits both varieties of living koi and data that show the history of their breeding.According to ''Zen Nippon Airinkai'', a group that leads the breeding and dissemination of koi in Japan, there are more than 100 varieties of koi created through breeding, and each variety is classified into 16 groups.",
"Koi varieties are distinguished by coloration, patterning, and scalation.",
"Some of the major colors are white, black, red, yellow, blue, and cream.",
"Metallic shades of gold and platinum in the scales have also been developed through selective breeding.",
"Although the possible colors are virtually limitless, breeders have identified and named a number of specific categories.",
"The most notable category is , which is made up of the ''Kōhaku'', ''Taishō Sanshoku'', and ''Shōwa Sanshoku'' varieties.New koi varieties are still being actively developed.",
"Ghost koi developed in the 1980s have become very popular in the United Kingdom; they are a hybrid of wild carp and Ogon koi and are distinguished by their metallic scales.",
"Butterfly koi (also known as longfin koi, or dragon carp), also developed in the 1980s, are notable for their long and flowing fins.",
"They are hybrids of koi with Asian carp.",
"Butterfly koi and ghost koi are considered by some to be not true ''nishikigoi''.The major named varieties include:* is a white-skinned koi, with large red markings on the top.",
"The name means \"red and white\"; ''kōhaku'' was one of the first ornamental varieties to be established in Japan (late 19th century).",
"* is very similar to the ''kōhaku'', except for the addition of small black markings called .",
"This variety was first exhibited in 1914 by the koi breeder Gonzo Hiroi, during the reign of the Taishō Emperor.",
"In the United States, the name is often abbreviated to just \"Sanke\".",
"The ''kanji'', 三色, may be read as either ''sanshoku'' or as ''sanke'' (from its earlier name 三毛).",
"* is a black koi with red (''hi'' 緋) and white (''shiroji'' 白地) markings.",
"The first ''Shōwa Sanke'' was exhibited in 1927, during the reign of the Shōwa Emperor.",
"In America, the name is often abbreviated to just \"Shōwa\".",
"The amount of ''shiroji'' on ''Shōwa Sanke'' has increased in modern times (''Kindai Shōwa'' 近代昭和), to the point that it can be difficult to distinguish from ''Taishō Sanke''.",
"The ''kanji'', 三色, may be read as either ''sanshoku'' or as ''sanke.",
"''* is a white-, red-, or yellow-skinned koi with black markings .",
"The Japanese name means \"tortoise shell\", and is commonly written as 鼈甲.",
"The white, red, and yellow varieties are called , and , respectively.",
"It may be confused with the ''Utsuri''.",
"* is a black koi with white, red, or yellow markings, in a zebra color pattern.",
"The oldest attested form is the yellow form, called in the 19th century, but renamed by Elizaburo Hoshino, an early 20th-century koi breeder.",
"The red and white versions are called and (piebald color morph), respectively.",
"The word ''utsuri'' means to print (the black markings are reminiscent of ink stains).",
"Genetically, it is the same as ''Shōwa'', but lacking either red pigment (''Shiro Utsuri'') or white pigment (''Hi Utsuri''/''Ki Utsuri'').",
"* koi is light blue above and usually red below, but also occasionally pale yellow or cream, generally below the lateral line and on the cheeks.",
"The Japanese name means pale greenish-blue, spring onion color, or indigo.",
"* ' means \"autumn green\"; the ''Shūsui'' was created in 1910 by Yoshigoro Akiyama（秋山 吉五郎, by crossing Japanese ''Asagi'' with German mirror carp.",
"The fish has no scales, except for a single line of large mirror scales dorsally, extending from head to tail.",
"The most common type of ''Shūsui'' has a pale, sky-blue/gray color above the lateral line and red or orange (and very, very rarely bright yellow) below the lateral line and on the cheeks.",
"* is a white fish with a ''Kōhaku''-style pattern with blue or black-edged scales only over the ''hi'' pattern.",
"This variety first arose in the 1950s as a cross between a ''Kōhaku'' and an ''Asagi''.",
"The most commonly encountered ''Koromo'' is an , which is colored like a ''Kōhaku'', except each of the scales within the red patches has a blue or black edge to it.",
"Less common is the , which has a darker (burgundy) ''hi'' overlay that gives it the appearance of bunches of grapes.",
"Very rarely seen is the , which is similar to ''Budō-Goromo'', but the ''hi'' pattern is such a dark burgundy that it appears nearly black.",
"* is a \"catch-all\" term for koi that cannot be put into one of the other categories.",
"This is a competition category, and many new varieties of koi compete in this one category.",
"It is also known as .",
"* is a dark koi with red (''Kōhaku'' style) ''hi'' pattern.",
"The Japanese name means \"five colors\".",
"It appears similar to an ''Asagi'', with little or no ''hi'' below the lateral line and a ''Kōhaku Hi'' pattern over reticulated (fishnet pattern) scales.",
"The base color can range from nearly black to very pale, sky blue.",
"* is a variety of which the whole body is one color and the body is shiny, and it is called differently depending on the color.",
"* is a koi with colored markings over a metallic base or in two metallic colors.",
"* is a cross between ''utsurimono'' series and ''Ōgon''.",
"* is a koi with metallic (glittering, metal-flake-appearing) scales.",
"The name translates into English as \"gold and silver scales\"; it is often abbreviated to ''Ginrin''.",
"''Ginrin'' versions of almost all other varieties of koi occur, and they are fashionable.",
"Their sparkling, glittering scales contrast to the smooth, even, metallic skin and scales seen in the ''Ogon'' varieties.",
"Recently, these characteristics have been combined to create the new ''ginrin Ogon'' varieties.",
"* is any koi with a solitary red patch on its head.",
"The fish may be a ''Tanchō Shōwa'', ''Tanchō Sanke'', or even ''Tanchō Goshiki''.",
"It is named for the Japanese red-crowned crane (''Grus japonensis''), which also has a red spot on its head.",
"* , \"tea-colored\", this koi can range in color from pale olive-drab green or brown to copper or bronze and more recently, darker, subdued orange shades.",
"Famous for its docile, friendly personality and large size, it is considered a sign of good luck among koi keepers.",
"* is a metallic koi of one color only (''hikarimono'' 光者).",
"The most commonly encountered colors are gold, platinum, and orange.",
"Cream specimens are very rare.",
"''Ogon'' compete in the ''Kawarimono'' category and the Japanese name means \"gold\".",
"The variety was created by Sawata Aoki in 1946 from wild carp he caught in 1921.",
"* ' （literally \"nine tattooed dragons\" is a black ''doitsu''-scaled fish with curling white markings.",
"The patterns are thought to be reminiscent of Japanese ink paintings of dragons.",
"They famously change color with the seasons.",
"''Kumonryu ''compete in the ''Kawarimono'' category.",
"* is a light blue/gray koi with copper, bronze, or yellow (''Kohaku''-style) pattern, reminiscent of autumn leaves on water.",
"The Japanese name means \"fallen leaves\".",
"* ''Kikokuryū'' (輝黒竜, literally \"sparkle\" or \"glitter black dragon\") is a metallic-skinned version of the ''Kumonryu''.",
"* ''Kin-Kikokuryū'' (金輝黒竜, literally \"gold sparkle black dragon\" or \"gold glitter black dragon\") is a metallic-skinned version of the ''Kumonryu'' with a ''Kōhaku''-style ''hi'' pattern developed by Mr. Seiki Igarashi of Ojiya City.",
"At least six different genetic subvarieties of this general variety are seen.",
"* Ghost koi (人面魚、じんめんぎょ), a hybrid of ''Ogon'' and wild carp with metallic scales, is considered by some to be not ''nishikigoi''.",
"* Butterfly koi (鰭長錦鯉、ひれながにしきごい) is a hybrid of koi and Asian carp with long flowing fins.",
"Various colorations depend on the koi stock used to cross.",
"It also is considered by some to not be ''nishikigoi''.",
"* originated by crossbreeding numerous different established varieties with \"scaleless\" German carp (generally, fish with only a single line of scales along each side of the dorsal fin).",
"Also written as 独逸鯉, four main types of ''Doitsu'' scale patterns exist.",
"The most common type (referred to above) has a row of scales beginning at the front of the dorsal fin and ending at the end of the dorsal fin (along both sides of the fin).",
"The second type has a row of scales beginning where the head meets the shoulder and running the entire length of the fish (along both sides).",
"The third type is the same as the second, with the addition of a line of (often quite large) scales running along the lateral line (along the side) of the fish, also referred to as \"mirror koi\".",
"The fourth (and rarest) type is referred to as \"armor koi\" and is completely (or nearly) covered with very large scales that resemble plates of armor.",
"It also is called ''Kagami-goi'' (鏡鯉、カガミゴイ), or mirror carp (ミラーカープ).File:Kohaku.jpg|KōhakuFile:Tanchosanke.JPG|Tanchō SankeFile:Showa4.JPG|Shōwa SankeFile:Koi asagi.jpg|AsagiFile:AZBG_Koi.jpg|Bekkō File:Gin Rin Showa.jpg|Gin Rin Shōwa"
],
[
"Differences from goldfish",
"Koi have prominent barbels on the lip that are not visible in goldfish.Goldfish (''Carassius auratus'') were developed in China more than a thousand years ago by selectively breeding colored varieties; by the Song dynasty (960–1279), yellow, orange, white, and red-and-white colorations had been developed.",
"Goldfish were introduced to Japan in the 16th century and to Europe in the 17th century.",
"On the other hand, most ornamental koi breeds currently distributed worldwide originate from Amur carp (''Cyprinus rubrofuscus'') bred in Japan in the first half of the 19th century.",
"Koi are domesticated Amur carp that are selected or culled for color; they are not a different species, and will revert to the original coloration within a few generations if allowed to breed freely.Some goldfish varieties, such as the common goldfish, comet goldfish, and shubunkin, have body shapes and coloration that are similar to koi, and can be difficult to tell apart from koi when immature.",
"Goldfish and koi can interbreed; however, as they were developed from different species of carp, their offspring are sterile."
],
[
"Health, maintenance, and longevity",
"Koi in Yu Garden, ShanghaiThe Amur carp is a hardy fish, and koi retain that durability.",
"Koi are coldwater fish, but benefit from being kept in the range, and do not react well to long, cold, winter temperatures; their immune systems are very weak below .",
"Koi ponds usually have a metre or more of depth in areas of the world that become warm during the summer, whereas in areas that have harsher winters, ponds generally have a minimum of .",
"Specific pond construction has been evolved by koi keepers intent on raising show-quality koi.The bright colors of koi put them at a severe disadvantage against predators; a white-skinned ''Kōhaku'' is highly noticeable against the dark green of a pond.",
"Herons, kingfishers, otters, raccoons, skunk, mink, cats, foxes, and badgers are all capable of spotting out koi and eating them.",
"A well-designed outdoor pond has areas too deep for herons to stand, overhangs high enough above the water that mammals cannot reach in, and shade trees overhead to block the view of aerial passers-by.",
"It may prove necessary to string nets or wires above the surface.",
"A pond usually includes a pump and a filtration system to keep the water clear.Koi are an omnivorous fish.",
"They eat a wide variety of foods, including peas, lettuce, and watermelon.",
"Koi food is designed not only to be nutritionally balanced, but also to float so as to encourage them to come to the surface.",
"When they are eating, koi can be checked for parasites and ulcers.",
"Naturally, koi are bottom feeders with a mouth configuration adapted for that.",
"Some koi have a tendency to eat mostly from the bottom, so food producers create a mixed sinking and floating combination food.",
"Koi recognize the persons feeding them and gather around them at feeding times.",
"They can be trained to take food from one's hand.",
"In the winter, their digestive systems slow nearly to a halt, and they eat very little, perhaps no more than nibbles of algae from the bottom.",
"Feeding is not recommended when the water temperature drops below .",
"Care should be taken by hobbyists that proper oxygenation, pH stabilization, and off-gassing occur over the winter in small ponds.",
"Their appetites do not come back until the water becomes warm in the spring.Koi have been reported to achieve ages of 100–200 years.",
"One famous scarlet koi named \"Hanako\" was owned by several individuals, the last of whom was Komei Koshihara.",
"In July 1974, a study of the growth rings of one of the koi's scales reported that Hanako was 226 years old.",
"Some sources give an accepted age for the species at little more than 50 years.=== Disease ===Koi are very hardy.",
"With proper care, they resist many of the parasites that affect more sensitive tropical fish species, such as ''Trichodina, Epistylis'', and ''Ichthyophthirius multifiliis'' infections.",
"Water changes help reduce the risk of diseases and keep koi from being stressed.",
"Two of the biggest health concerns among koi breeders are the koi herpes virus (KHV) and rhabdovirus carpio, which causes spring viraemia of carp (SVC).",
"No treatment is known for either disease.",
"Some koi farms in Israel use the KV3 vaccine, developed by M. Kotler from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and produced by Kovax, to immunise fish against KHV.",
"Israel is currently the only country in the world to vaccinate koi against the KHV.",
"The vaccine is injected into the fish when they are under one year old, and is accentuated by using an ultraviolet light.",
"The vaccine has a 90% success rate and when immunized, the fish cannot succumb to a KHV outbreak and neither can the immunised koi pass KHV onto other fish in a pond.",
"Only biosecurity measures such as prompt detection, isolation, and disinfection of tanks and equipment can prevent the spread of the disease and limit the loss of fish stock.",
"In 2002, spring viraemia struck an ornamental koi farm in Kernersville, North Carolina, and required complete depopulation of the ponds and a lengthy quarantine period.",
"For a while after this, some koi farmers in neighboring states stopped importing fish for fear of infecting their own stocks."
],
[
"Breeding",
"Feeding the koiWhen koi naturally breed on their own they tend to spawn in the spring and summer seasons.",
"The male will start following the female, swimming right behind her and nudging her.",
"After the female koi releases her eggs they sink to the bottom of the pond and stay there.",
"A sticky outer shell around the egg helps keep it in place so it does not float around.",
"Although the female can produce many spawns, many of the fry do not survive due to being eaten by others.Like most fish, koi reproduce through spawning in which a female lays a vast number of eggs and one or more males fertilize them.",
"Nurturing the resulting offspring (referred to as \"fry\") is a tricky and tedious job, usually done only by professionals.",
"Although a koi breeder may carefully select the parents they wish based on their desired characteristics, the resulting fry nonetheless exhibit a wide range of color and quality.Koi produce thousands of offspring from a single spawning.",
"However, unlike cattle, purebred dogs, or more relevantly, goldfish, the large majority of these offspring, even from the best champion-grade koi, are not acceptable as ''nishikigoi'' (they have no interesting colors) or may even be genetically defective.",
"These unacceptable offspring are culled at various stages of development based on the breeder's expert eye and closely guarded trade techniques.",
"Culled fry are usually destroyed or used as feeder fish (mostly used for feeding arowana due to the belief that it will enhance its color), while older culls, within their first year between 3 and 6 inches long (also called ''tosai''), are often sold as lower-grade, pond-quality koi.The semi-randomized result of the koi's reproductive process has both advantages and disadvantages for the breeder.",
"While it requires diligent oversight to narrow down the favorable result that the breeder wants, it also makes possible the development of new varieties of koi within relatively few generations."
],
[
"In the wild",
"Various colors of koi feeding in a pond in Qingxiu Mountain, Nanning, ChinaKoi have been accidentally or deliberately released into the wild in every continent except Antarctica.",
"They quickly revert to the natural coloration of an Amur carp within a few generations.",
"In many areas, they are considered an invasive species and a pest.",
"In the states of Queensland and New South Wales in Australia, they are considered noxious fish.Koi greatly increase the turbidity of the water because they are constantly stirring up the substrate.",
"This makes waterways unattractive, reduces the abundance of aquatic plants, and can render the water unsuitable for swimming or drinking, even by livestock.",
"In some countries, koi have caused so much damage to waterways that vast amounts of money and effort have been spent trying to eradicate them, largely unsuccessfully.In many areas of North America, koi are introduced into the artificial \"water hazards\" and ponds on golf courses to keep water-borne insect larvae under control through predation."
],
[
"In common culture",
"Yamakoshi Branch Office, Nagaoka, Niigata Prefecture, JapanIn Japan, the koi is a symbol of luck, prosperity, and good fortune, and also of perseverance in the face of adversity.",
"Ornamental koi are symbolic of Japanese culture and are closely associated with the country's national identity.",
"The custom of ''koinobori'' (carp streamers), which began in the Edo period (1603-1867), is still practiced today and displayed in gardens on Children's Day, May 5.In Chinese culture, the koi represents fame, family harmony, and wealth.",
"It is a feng shui favorite, symbolizing abundance as well as perseverance and strength, and has a mythical potential to transform into a dragon.",
"Since the late 20th century, the keeping of koi in outdoor water gardens has become popular among the more affluent Chinese.",
"Koi ponds are found in Chinese communities around the world, and the number of people who keep koi imported from Niigata, has been increasing.",
"In addition, there are increasing numbers of Japanese koi bred in China that are sold domestically and exported to foreign countries.Koi are also popular in many countries in the equatorial region, where outdoor water gardens are popular.",
"In Sri Lanka, interior courtyards most often have one or several fish ponds dedicated to koi."
],
[
"See also",
"* Culture of Japan* Japanese aesthetics* Japanese white crucian carp"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Feature article on treating sick fish, especially koi, \"Surgery to Scale,\" ''Cosmos Magazine''* Koi in the NIWA Atlas"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Knut Hamsun"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Knut Hamsun''' (4 August 1859 – 19 February 1952) was a Norwegian writer who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1920.Hamsun's work spans more than 70 years and shows variation with regard to consciousness, subject, perspective and environment.",
"He published more than 23 novels, a collection of poetry, some short stories and plays, a travelogue, works of non-fiction and some essays.Hamsun is considered to be \"one of the most influential and innovative literary stylists of the past hundred years\" (''ca.''",
"1890–1990).",
"He pioneered psychological literature with techniques of stream of consciousness and interior monologue, and influenced authors such as Thomas Mann, Franz Kafka, Maxim Gorky, Stefan Zweig, Henry Miller, Hermann Hesse, John Fante, James Kelman, Charles Bukowski and Ernest Hemingway.",
"Isaac Bashevis Singer called Hamsun \"the father of the modern school of literature in his every aspect—his subjectiveness, his fragmentariness, his use of flashbacks, his lyricism.",
"The whole modern school of fiction in the twentieth century stems from Hamsun\".",
"Since 1916, several of Hamsun's works have been adapted into motion pictures.",
"On 4 August 2009, the Knut Hamsun Centre was opened in Hamarøy.The young Hamsun objected to realism and naturalism.",
"He argued that the main object of modernist literature should be the intricacies of the human mind, that writers should describe the \"whisper of blood, and the pleading of bone marrow\".",
"Hamsun is considered the \"leader of the Neo-Romantic revolt at the turn of the 20th century\", with works such as ''Hunger'' (1890), ''Mysteries'' (1892), ''Pan'' (1894), and ''Victoria'' (1898).",
"His later works—in particular his \"Nordland novels\"—were influenced by the Norwegian new realism, portraying everyday life in rural Norway and often employing local dialect, irony, and humour.",
"Hamsun only published one poetry collection, ''The Wild Choir'', which has been set to music by several composers.Hamsun had strong anti-English views, and openly supported Adolf Hitler and Nazi ideology.",
"Due to his professed support for the German occupation of Norway, he was charged with treason after the war.",
"He was not convicted, due to what was deemed psychological problems and issues with old age."
],
[
"Biography",
"Hunger''===Early life===Knut Hamsun was born as Knud Pedersen in Lom in the Gudbrandsdal valley of Norway.",
"He was the fourth son (of seven children) of Tora Olsdatter and Peder Pedersen.",
"When he was three, the family moved to Hamsund, Hamarøy in Nordland.",
"They were poor and an uncle had invited them to farm his land for him.At nine Knut was separated from his family and lived with his uncle Hans Olsen, who needed help with the post office he ran.",
"Olsen used to beat and starve his nephew, and Hamsun later stated that his chronic nervous difficulties were due to the way his uncle treated him.In 1874 he finally escaped back to Lom.",
"For the next five years he did any job for money; he was a store clerk, peddler, shoemaker's apprentice, sheriff's assistant, and an elementary-school teacher.At 17 he became a ropemaker's apprentice; at about the same time he started to write.",
"He asked businessman Erasmus Zahl to give him significant monetary support, and Zahl agreed.",
"Hamsun later used Zahl as a model for the character ''Mack'' appearing in his novels ''Pan'' (1894), ''Dreamers'' (1904), ''Benoni'' (1908) and ''Rosa'' (1908).He spent several years in America, traveling and working at various jobs, and published his impressions under the title ''Fra det moderne Amerikas Aandsliv'' (1889).===Early literary career===After Edvard Munch, ''Knut Hamsun'', 1896, photogravure, National Gallery of Art, Washington, Rosenwald Collection, 1951.10.360Working all those odd jobs paid off, and he published his first book: ''Den Gaadefulde: En Kjærlighedshistorie fra Nordland'' (''The Enigmatic Man: A Love Story from Northern Norway'', 1877).",
"It was inspired from the experiences and struggles he endured from his jobs.In his second novel ''Bjørger'' (1878), he attempted to imitate Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson's writing style of the Icelandic saga narrative.",
"The melodramatic story follows a poet, Bjørger, and his love for Laura.",
"This book was published under the pseudonym Knud Pedersen Hamsund.",
"This book later served as the basis for ''Victoria: En Kærligheds Historie'' (1898; translated as ''Victoria: A Love Story'', 1923).As of 1898 Hamsun was among the contributors of ''Ringeren'', a political and cultural magazine established by Sigurd Ibsen.===Major works===Hamsun first received wide acclaim with his 1890 novel ''Hunger'' (''Sult'').",
"The semiautobiographical work described a young writer's descent into near madness as a result of hunger and poverty in the Norwegian capital of Kristiania (modern name Oslo).",
"To many, the novel presages the writings of Franz Kafka and other twentieth-century novelists with its internal monologue and bizarre logic.A theme to which Hamsun often returned is that of the perpetual wanderer, an itinerant stranger (often the narrator) who shows up and insinuates himself into the life of small rural communities.",
"This wanderer theme is central to the novels ''Mysteries'', ''Pan'', ''Under the Autumn Star'', ''The Last Joy'', ''Vagabonds'', ''Rosa'', and others.",
"Hamsun's prose often contains rapturous depictions of the natural world, with intimate reflections on the Norwegian woodlands and coastline.",
"For this reason, he has been linked with the spiritual movement known as pantheism (\"No one knows God,\" he once wrote, \"man knowsonly gods.\").",
"Hamsun saw mankind and nature united in a strong, sometimes mystical bond.",
"This connection between the characters and their natural environment is exemplified in the novels ''Pan'', ''A Wanderer Plays on Muted Strings'', and the epic ''Growth of the Soil'', \"his monumental work\" credited with securing him the Nobel Prize in literature in 1920.===World War II, arrest and trial===During World War II, Hamsun put his support behind the German war effort.",
"He courted and met with high-ranking Nazi officers, including Adolf Hitler.",
"Nazi Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels wrote a long and enthusiastic diary entry concerning a private meeting with Hamsun; according to Goebbels Hamsun's \"faith in German victory is unshakable\".",
"In 1940 Hamsun wrote that \"the Germans are fighting for us\".",
"After Hitler's death, he published a short obituary in which he described him as \"a warrior for mankind\" and \"a preacher of the gospel of justice for all nations.",
"\"After the war, he was detained by police on 14 June 1945, for treason, then committed to a hospital in Grimstad (''Grimstad sykehus'') \"due to his advanced age\", according to Einar Kringlen (a professor and medical doctor).",
"In 1947 he was tried in Grimstad, and fined.",
"Norway's supreme court reduced the fine from 575,000 to 325,000 Norwegian kroner.After the war, Hamsun's views on the Germans during the war were a serious grief for the Norwegians, and they tried to separate their world-famous writer from his Nazi beliefs.",
"At the trial Hamsun had pleaded ignorance.",
"Deeper explanations involve his contradictory personality, his distaste for ''hoi polloi'', his inferiority complex, a profound distress at the spread of indiscipline, antipathy toward the interwar democracy, and especially his anglophobia.===Death===Knut Hamsun died on 19 February 1952, aged 92, in Grimstad.",
"His ashes are buried in the garden of his home at Nørholm."
],
[
"Legacy",
"Thomas Mann described him as a \"descendant of Fyodor Dostoyevsky and Friedrich Nietzsche.\"",
"Arthur Koestler was a fan of his love stories.",
"H. G. Wells praised ''Markens Grøde'' (1917) for which Hamsun was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.",
"Isaac Bashevis Singer was a fan of his modern subjectivism, use of flashbacks, his use of fragmentation, and his lyricism.",
"A character in Charles Bukowski's book ''Women'' referred to him as the greatest writer who has ever lived.A fifteen-volume edition of Hamsun's complete works was published in 1954.In 2009, to mark the 150-year anniversary of his birth, a new 27-volume edition of his complete works was published, including short stories, poetry, plays, and articles not included in the 1954 edition.",
"For this new edition, all of Hamsun's works underwent slight linguistic modifications in order to make them more accessible to contemporary Norwegian readers.",
"Fresh English translations of two of his major works, ''Growth of the Soil'' and ''Pan'', were published in 1998.Hamsun's works remain popular.",
"In 2009, a Norwegian biographer stated, \"We can’t help loving him, though we have hated him all these years ... That’s our Hamsun trauma.",
"He’s a ghost that won’t stay in the grave.",
"\"Three of Hamsun's homes (Hamsund gård in Hamarøy, Hamsunstugu in Garmo, and Nørholm in Grimstad) are open to the public as museums, in addition to the Knut Hamsun Centre in Hamarøy.The whereabouts of Hamsun's medal remain unknown."
],
[
"Writing techniques",
"Along with August Strindberg, Henrik Ibsen, and Sigrid Undset, Hamsun formed a quartet of Scandinavian authors who became internationally known for their works.",
"Hamsun pioneered psychological literature with techniques of stream of consciousness and interior monologue, as found in material by, for example, Joyce, Proust, Mansfield and Woolf.",
"His writing also had a major influence on Franz Kafka."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Family portrait on the stairs of \"Villa Havgløtt\"; left to right: Tore Hamsun, Marie Hamsun, Arild Hamsun, Knut Hamsun and Ellinor Hamsun.In 1898, Hamsun married Bergljot Göpfert (née Bech), who bore daughter Victoria, but the marriage ended in 1906.Hamsun then married Marie Andersen (1881-1969) in 1909 and she was his companion until the end of his life.",
"They had four children: sons Tore and Arild and daughters Ellinor and Cecilia.Marie wrote about her life with Hamsun in two memoirs.",
"She was a promising actress when she met Hamsun but ended her career and traveled with him to Hamarøy.",
"They bought a farm, the idea being \"to earn their living as farmers, with his writing providing some additional income\".After a few years they decided to move south, to Larvik.",
"In 1918 they bought Nørholm, an old, somewhat dilapidated manor house between Lillesand and Grimstad.",
"The main residence was restored and redecorated.",
"Here Hamsun could occupy himself with writing undisturbed, although he often travelled to write in other cities and places (preferably in spartan housing)."
],
[
"Racism and admiration for Hitler",
"From his youth onward, Hamsun espoused anti-egalitarian and racist beliefs.",
"In ''The Cultural Life of Modern America'' (1889), he expressed his firm opposition to miscegenation: \"The Negros are and will remain Negros, a nascent human form from the tropics, rudimentary organs on the body of white society.",
"Instead of founding an intellectual elite, America has established a mulatto studfarm.",
"\"Hamsun wrote several newspaper articles in the course of the Second World War, including his notorious 1940 assertion that \"the Germans are fighting for us, and now are crushing England's tyranny over us and all neutrals\".",
"In 1943, he sent Germany's minister of propaganda Joseph Goebbels his Nobel Prize medal as a gift.",
"His biographer Thorkild Hansen interpreted this as part of the strategy to get an audience with Hitler.",
"Hamsun was eventually invited to meet with Hitler; during the meeting, he complained about the German civilian administrator in Norway, Josef Terboven, and asked that imprisoned Norwegian citizens be released, enraging Hitler.",
"Otto Dietrich describes the meeting in his memoirs as the only time that another person was able to get a word in edgeways with Hitler.",
"He attributes the cause to Hamsun's deafness.",
"Regardless, Dietrich notes that it took Hitler three days to get over his anger.",
"Hamsun also on other occasions helped Norwegians who had been imprisoned for resistance activities and tried to influence German policies in Norway.Nevertheless, a week after Hitler's death, Hamsun wrote a eulogy for him, saying “He was a warrior, a warrior for mankind, and a prophet of the gospel of justice for all nations.” Following the end of the war, angry crowds burned his books in public in major Norwegian cities and Hamsun was confined for several months in a psychiatric hospital.Hamsun was forced to undergo a psychiatric examination, which concluded that he had \"permanently impaired mental faculties,\" and on that basis the charges of treason were dropped.",
"Instead, a civil liability case was raised against him, and in 1948 he had to pay a ruinous sum to the Norwegian government of 325,000 kroner ($65,000 or £16,250 at that time) for his alleged membership in Nasjonal Samling and for the moral support he gave to the Germans, but was cleared of any direct Nazi affiliation.",
"Whether he was a member of Nasjonal Samling or not and whether his mental abilities were impaired is a much debated issue even today.",
"Hamsun stated he was never a member of any political party.",
"He wrote his last book ''Paa giengrodde Stier'' (''On Overgrown Paths'') in 1949, a book many take as evidence of his functioning mental capabilities.",
"In it, he harshly criticizes the psychiatrists and the judges and, in his own words, proves that he is not mentally ill.The Danish author Thorkild Hansen investigated the trial and wrote the book ''The Hamsun Trial'' (1978), which created a storm in Norway.",
"Among other things Hansen stated: \"If you want to meet idiots, go to Norway,\" as he felt that such treatment of the old Nobel Prize-winning author was outrageous.",
"In 1996, Swedish filmmaker Jan Troell based the movie ''Hamsun'' on Hansen's book.",
"In ''Hamsun'', Swedish actor Max von Sydow plays Knut Hamsun; his wife Marie is played by Danish actress Ghita Nørby."
],
[
"Studies on Hamsun's writings",
"Hamsun's writings have been the subject of numerous books and journal articles.",
"Some of these writings explore the dialectic between Hamsun's literary works and his political and cultural leanings expressed in his non-fiction."
],
[
"Bibliography",
"===Non-fiction===*1889 Lars Oftedal.",
"Udkast (Draft) (11 articles, previously printed in Dagbladet)*1889 Fra det moderne Amerikas Aandsliv (The Cultural Life of Modern America) - lectures and criticism*1903 I Æventyrland.",
"Oplevet og drømt i Kaukasien (In Wonderland) - travelogue*1918 Sproget i Fare (The Language in Danger) - essays===Poetry===*1878 Et Gjensyn (A Reunion) - epic poem (Published as Knud Pedersen Hamsund)*1904 Det vilde Kor, poetry (The Wild Choir)===Plays===*1895 Ved Rigets Port (At the Gate of the Kingdom)*1896 Livets Spil (The Game of Life)*1898 Aftenrøde.",
"Slutningspil (Evening Red: Inference Games)*1902 Munken Vendt.",
"Brigantine's Saga I*1903 ''Dronning Tamara'' (Queen Tamara)*1910 Livet i Vold (In the Grip of Life)===Short story collections===*1897 Siesta - short story collection*1903 Kratskog - shory story collection===Stories===*1877 Den Gaadefulde.",
"En kjærlighedshistorie fra Nordland (The Gracious.",
"A love story from Nordland) (Published as Knud Pedersen)*1878 Bjørger (Published as Knud Pedersen Hamsund)===Series==='''The Wanderer Trilogy'''#1906 ''Under Høststjærnen.",
"En Vandrers Fortælling'' (''Under the Autumn Star'')#1909 ''En Vandrer spiller med Sordin'' (''A Wanderer Plays on Muted Strings'') #1912 ''Den sidste Glæde'' (''Look Back on Happiness'', AKA ''The Last Joy'')'''Benoni and Rosa'''#1908 ''Benoni''#1908 ''Rosa: Af Student Parelius' Papirer'' (''By Student Parelius' Papers'') (''Rosa'')'''Children of the Age and Segelfoss Town'''#1913 ''Børn av Tiden'' (''Children of the Age'')#1915 ''Segelfoss By'' 1 (2 Volumes) (''Segelfoss Town'')'''The August Trilogy'''#1927 ''Landstrykere'' (''Wayfarers'') (2 Volumes)#1930 ''August'' (2 Volumes)#1933 ''Men Livet lever'' (''The Road Leads On'') (2 Volumes)===Other Novels===*1890 ''Sult'' (''Hunger'')*1892 ''Mysterier'' (''Mysteries'')*1893 ''Redaktør Lynge'' (''Editor Lynge'')*1893 ''Ny Jord'' (''Shallow Soil'')*1894 ''Pan'' (''Pan'')*1898 ''Victoria.",
"En kjærlighedshistorie'' (''Victoria'')*1904 ''Sværmere'' (Mothwise, 1921), (''Dreamers'')*1905 ''Stridende Liv.",
"Skildringer fra Vesten og Østen'' (''Fighting Life.",
"Depictions from the West and the East'')*1917 ''Markens Grøde'' 2 Volumes (''Growth of the Soil'') *1920 ''Konerne ved'' 2 Volumes (''The Women at the Pump'')*1923 ''Siste Kapitel'' (2 Volumes) (''Chapter the Last'')*1936 ''Ringen sluttet'' (''The Ring is Closed'')*1949 ''Paa gjengrodde Stier'' (''On Overgrown Paths'')Nobel Prize-winning writer Isaac Bashevis Singer translated some of his works."
],
[
"Film and TV adaptations",
"Prime among all of Hamsun's works adapted to film is ''Hunger'', a 1966 film starring Per Oscarsson.",
"It is still considered one of the top film adaptations of any Hamsun works.",
"Hamsun's works have been the basis of 25 films and television mini-series adaptations, starting in 1916.The book ''Mysteries'' was the basis of a 1978 film of the same name (by the Dutch film company Sigma Pictures), directed by Paul de Lussanet, starring Sylvia Kristel, Rutger Hauer, Andrea Ferreol and Rita Tushingham.",
"''Landstrykere'' (''Wayfarers'') is a Norwegian film from 1990 directed by Ola Solum.",
"''The Telegraphist'' is a Norwegian movie from 1993 directed by Erik Gustavson.",
"It is based on the novel ''Dreamers'' (''Sværmere'', also published in English as ''Mothwise'').",
"''Pan'' has been the basis of four films between 1922 and 1995.The latest adaptation, the Danish film of the same name, was directed by Henning Carlsen, who also directed the Danish, Norwegian and Swedish coproduction of the 1966 film ''Sult'' from Hamsun's novel of the same name.Remodernist filmmaker Jesse Richards has announced he is in preparations to direct an adaptation of Hamsun's short story ''The Call of Life''."
],
[
"Cinematized biography",
"A biopic entitled ''Hamsun'' was released in 1996, directed by Jan Troell, starring Max von Sydow as Hamsun."
],
[
"Reviews",
"* Wark, Wesley K. (1980), review of ''Wayfarers'', in ''Cencrastus'' No.",
"4, Winter 1980-81, pp48 & 49,"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Ferguson, Robert.",
"1987.",
"''Enigma: The Life of Knut Hamsun''.",
"Farrar, Straus and Giroux.",
"* Hamsun, Knut.",
"1990.",
"''Selected Letters, Volume 1, 1879-98''.",
"Edited by Harald Næss and James McFarlane.",
"Norwich, England: Norvik Press.",
"* Hamsun, Knut.",
"1998.",
"''Selected Letters, Volume 2, 1898-1952''.",
"Edited by Harald Næss and James McFarlane.",
"Norwich, England: Norvik Press.",
"*Haugan, Jørgen.",
"2004.",
"''The Fall of the Sun God.",
"Knut Hamsun - a Literary Biography'' Oslo: Aschehoug.",
"* Humpal, Martin.",
"1999.",
"''The Roots of Modernist Narrative: Knut Hamsun's Novels Hunger, Mysteries and Pan''.",
"International Specialized Book Services.",
"* Kolloen, Ingar Sletten.",
"2009.",
"''Knut Hamsun: Dreamer and Dissident''.",
"Yale University Press.",
"* Larsen, Hanna Astrup.",
"1922.",
"''Knut Hamsun''.",
"Alfred A.",
"Knopf.",
"** Nergaard, Siri.",
"2004.",
"''La costruzione di una cultura: la letteratura norvegese in traduzione italiana''.",
"Guaraldi.",
"* Shaer, Matthew.",
"2009.Tackling Knut Hamsun.",
"Review of Kollen Sletten, ''Dreamer and dissenter'' and Žagar, ''The dark side of literary brilliance''.",
"In ''Los Angeles Times'', 25 October 2009.",
"* D'Urance, Michel.",
"2007.''Hamsun''.",
"Editions Pardès, Paris, 128 p.* Žagar, Monika.",
"2009.",
"''The dark side of literary brilliance''.",
"University of Washington Press.",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"=== Biographical ===* National Library of Norway Commemoration Page* Biography, from the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs* Hamsun bibliography 1879–2009 : literature on Knut Hamsun (National Library of Norway)* * Kristofer Janson and Knut Hamsun at the National Library of Norway* Knut Hamsun's America at the Norwegian-American Historical Association* Knut Hamsun's Early Years in the Northwest in ''Minnesota History Magazine''* * \"Knut Hamsun: Dreamer and Dissenter\", bio and review at ''The New Republic'', September 2010* Knut Hamsun Online, fan-supported website=== Works ===* * Hamsun bibliography 1879–2009 published by the National Library of Norway and the University library of Tromsø* * List of Works* * * ''Det Vilde Kor'' 1904 at the Internet Archive (Hamsun's only collection of verse)=== Other ===* Wood, James, ''Addicted to Unpredictability'', an essay.",
"Retrieved 8 October 2006.",
"* ''Chelsea on the Edge: The Adventures of an American Theater,'' Davi Napoleon.",
"Includes discussion of ''Ice Age'', a controversial production in which Hamson is the protagonist.",
"Iowa State University Press.",
", 1991.",
"* Norwegian Nobel Laureate, Once Shunned, Is Now Celebrated, ''New York Times''.",
"27 February 2009*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Karen Kain"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Karen Alexandria Kain''' (born March 28, 1951) is a Canadian former ballet dancer and was the Artistic Director of the National Ballet of Canada from 2005 to 2021."
],
[
"Early training and childhood",
"Kain's mother enrolled her daughter in ballet training because she believed it would improve her postural alignment, poise, and discipline.",
"The family moved from Ancaster to Erindale Woodlands, Toronto Township when Kain was in grade 6 (age 11, 1962) so she could begin training at the National Ballet School of Canada.",
"(The majority of Toronto Township, including Erindale Woodlands, is now Mississauga.)",
"Upon graduating in 1969, she was invited to join the National Ballet of Canada.",
"She also participated in Girl Guides of Canada programs as a member."
],
[
"Career",
"Kain became a principal dancer in 1971, performing central roles in a wide array of ballets, eventually becoming well known in Canada, with the help of legendary dancer Rudolf Nureyev.",
"She worked as a guest artist with Roland Petit's Ballet National de Marseilles, the Bolshoi Ballet, the London Festival Ballet, the Paris Opera Ballet, the Hamburg Ballet, the Vienna State Opera Ballet, and the Eliot Feld Ballet.",
"Kain is a subject of The Portraits of Andy Warhol, c. 1980.During her career, she performed in many ballets from classical and modern repertoire including among others ''Swan Lake'' (Erik Bruhn) ''Coppélia'', ''The Sleeping Beauty'' (Rudolph Nureyev), ''Giselle'', ''Romeo and Juliet'' (John Cranko), ''La fille mal gardée'', ''Onegin'' (John Cranko), ''The Taming of the Shrew'' (John Cranko), ''Pastorale'' (James Kudelka), ''Carmen'' (Roland Petit), ''Concerto Barocco'' (Balanchine), ''A Month in the Country'' (Frederick Ashton) and ''Nutcracker'' in which she was often paired with dancer Frank Augustyn.",
"The talent of Kain and Augustyn came to the attention of the public and peers as soon as 1973 when they won prizes at the 1973 Moscow International Ballet Competition.In 1977, Kain stopped dancing, but started again in 1981 with the National Ballet of Canada, where she performed for 15 more years.",
"In 1996, Kain reunited with Frank Augustyn to appear in her husband Ross Petty's panto production of ''Robin Hood'' at Toronto's Elgin Theatre.",
"Kain retired as a professional dancer in 1997.In 1998, she returned to the National Ballet of Canada as part of the senior management team, in the role of artistic associate.",
"She supported artistic director James Kudelka against principal dancer Kimberley Glasco in a wrongful-dismissal suit.",
"In 2005, she succeeded Kudelka as artistic director.",
"She stepped down from that role in 2021.Kain was the founding board president of Canada's Dancer Transition Resource Centre.",
"Kain's autobiography, ''Movement Never Lies'', was published in 1994 by McClelland and Stewart."
],
[
"Awards",
"In 1973, she won silver in the women's competition and the first prize for best pas de deux (with Frank Augustyn) at the second International Ballet Competition in Moscow dancing the Bluebird pas de deux from Sleeping Beauty.Karen Kain's star on Canada's Walk of Fame.In 1976, she became an Officer of the Order of Canada and was made a Companion of the Order of Canada in 1991.She was made a member of the Order of Ontario in 1990.She holds honorary degrees from the University of Toronto, York University, McMaster University, Trent University, and the University of British Columbia.",
"In May 1998, the French Government named her an Officer of the Order of Arts and Letters.",
"Among Kain's other honours are the National Arts Centre Award, a companion award of the Governor General's Performing Arts Awards (1997) and the Governor General's Performing Arts Award for Lifetime Artistic Achievement (2002).",
"In 1996, she became the first Canadian to receive the Cartier Lifetime Achievement Award.",
"The choreographer Marguerite Derricks cited Kain as one of her heroes.",
"in 1989 the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation made a documentary about her, ''Karen Kain, Prima Ballerina''.",
"Kain had an arts based public middle school in Etobicoke named after her (Karen Kain School of the Arts) in 2008.In 2012, Kain received the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal.",
"In 1998, she was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame.===Honorary postage stamp===In April 2021, Kain was recognized by Canada Post as a \"legend of ballet\" for her lifetime of artistic achievements with a permanent domestic stamp displaying a ballet leap."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Kain has been married since 1983 to Ross Petty, a stage and film actor, and producer of theatrical pantomime productions in Canada for over 20 years.",
"Kain's brother, Kevin Kain, is a noted tropical medicine expert based in Toronto, Ontario; she has three younger siblings and two nephews - Dylan and Taylor Kain."
],
[
"Other",
"In 1976, Kain appeared in a televised version of the ballet ''Giselle'' in the highly coveted title role, alongside Nadia Potts, Frank Augustyn, and Anne Ditchburn.",
"The production was first shown in 1986.In 1985, Kain starred in an episode of the popular Canadian TV series ''Seeing Things''.",
"Kain was also alluded to in the 2003 movie directed by Denys Arcand, ''The Barbarian Invasions'', when Rémy Girard reminisced about his past love affairs.",
"Kain did a TV commercial for The Art Shoppe, a furniture store in Toronto during the 1970sKain's direction of ''Swan Lake'' as her final project for the National Ballet of Canada before her retirement is profiled in Chelsea McMullan's 2023 documentary film ''Swan Song''."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Canadian Encyclopedia - Kain, Karen featuring a clip of Karen's performance in the National Ballet of Canada's 1976 production of ''Giselle''* Canada's Walk of Fame: Karen Kain* CBC Digital Archives: Karen Kain, Prima Ballerina* Karen Kain fonds (R4321) at Library and Archives Canada"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Keiretsu"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A is a set of companies with interlocking business relationships and shareholdings that have dominated the Japanese economy since the second half of the 20th century.",
"In the legal sense, it is a type of informal business group that is loosely in an organized alliance within the social world of Japan's business community.",
"It rose up to replace the ''zaibatsu'' system that was dissolved in the occupation of Japan following the Second World War.",
"Though their influence has shrunk since the late 20th century, they continue to be important forces in Japan's economy in the early 21st century.The members' companies own small portions of the shares in each other's companies, centered on a core bank; this system helps insulate each company from stock market fluctuations and takeover attempts, thus enabling long-term planning in projects.",
"It is a key element of the manufacturing industry in Japan."
],
[
"History",
"The prototypical ''keiretsu'' appeared during the Japanese economic miracle which followed World War II, amid the dissolution of family-controlled vertical monopolies called ''zaibatsu''.The ''zaibatsu'' had been at the heart of economic and industrial activity within the Empire of Japan since Japanese industrialization accelerated during the Meiji Era.",
"They held great influence over Japanese national and foreign policies which only increased following the Japanese victories in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905 and World War I.",
"During the inter-war period the ''zaibatsu'' aided Japanese militarism and benefited from their conquest of East Asia by receiving lucrative contracts.Seizure of the ''zaibatsu'' families' assets, 1946After the surrender of Japan the Allied occupation forces partially attempted to dissolve the ''zaibatsu'' which had worked closely with the militarists during the first half of the 20th century and during the war.",
"However, the United States government later rescinded those orders in an effort to reindustrialize Japan as a bulwark against communism in Asia, so the ''zaibatsu'' were never completely dissolved."
],
[
"Types",
"The two types of ''keiretsu'', '''horizontal''' and '''vertical''', can be further categorized as:* * * ===Horizontal ''keiretsu''===The primary aspect of a horizontal'' keiretsu'' (also known as financial ''keiretsu'') is that it is set up around a Japanese bank through cross-shareholding relationships with other companies.",
"The bank assists these companies with a range of financial services.",
"The leading horizontal Japanese ''keiretsu'', also referred to as the \"Big Six\", include: Fuyo, Sanwa, Sumitomo, Mitsubishi, Mitsui, and DKB Group.",
"Horizontal ''keiretsu'' may also have vertical relationships, called branches.Horizontal ''keiretsu'' peaked around 1988, when over half of the value in the Japanese stock market consisted of cross-shareholdings.",
"Since then, banks have gradually reduced their cross-shareholdings.",
"The Japanese corporate governance code, effective from June 2015, requires listed companies to disclose a rationale for their cross-shareholdings.",
"Partly as a result of this requirement, the three Japanese \"megabanks\" descended from the six major ''keiretsu'' banks (namely Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group, Sumitomo Mitsui Financial Group and Mizuho Financial Group) have indicated plans to further reduce their balance of cross-shareholding investments.===Vertical ''keiretsu''===Vertical ''keiretsu'' (also known as industrial or distribution'' keiretsu'') are used to link suppliers, manufacturers, and distributors of one industry.",
"Banks have less influence on vertical ''keiretsu''.",
"Examples of this type include Toyota, Toshiba, and Nissan.",
"One or more sub-companies, arranged in tiers of importance, are created to benefit the parent company.",
"Major suppliers form the second tier beneath the parent, and smaller manufacturing companies make up the third and fourth tiers.",
"Those at the highest levels are most profitable, and most insulated from fluctuations in the market.Some vertical ''keiretsu'' may belong to one or another horizontal ''keiretsu''.",
"Some vertical ''keiretsu'' are family businesses, such as the Hitotsubashi/Shogakukan, Kodansha and APA groups.",
"Studies have found these vertical ''keiretsus,'' particularly those that belong to the same horizontal ''keiretsu'', are more likely to form alliances than the other types or even those companies where one or two have ''keiretsu'' affiliations.",
"Vertical ''keiretsu'' is considered an effective and competitive organizational model in the car industry."
],
[
"In Japan",
"During the occupation of Japan, under the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, General Douglas MacArthur, a partially successful attempt was made to dissolve the ''zaibatsu'' in the late 1940s.",
"Sixteen ''zaibatsu'' were targeted for complete dissolution, and 26 more for reorganization after dissolution.",
"However, the companies formed from the dismantling of the ''zaibatsu'' were later reintegrated.",
"The dispersed corporations were reinterlinked through share purchases to form horizontally integrated alliances across many industries.",
"Where possible, ''keiretsu'' companies would also supply one another, making the alliances vertically integrated, as well.",
"In this period, official government policy promoted the creation of robust trade corporations that could withstand heavy pressures from intensified trade competition.The major ''keiretsu'' were each centered on one bank, which lent money to the ''keiretsu'' member companies and held equity positions in the companies.",
"Each bank had great control over the companies in the ''keiretsu'' and acted as a monitoring and emergency bail-out entity.",
"One effect of this structure was to minimize the presence of hostile takeovers in Japan, because no entities could challenge the power of the banks.Although the divisions between them have blurred in recent years, there have been eight major postwar ''keiretsu''.Toyota is considered the biggest of the vertically integrated ''keiretsu'' groups, although the company is rather considered as a \"emerged\" ''keiretsu'', along with Softbank, Seven & I Holdings Co.",
"The banks at the top are not as large as normally required, so it is actually considered to be more horizontally integrated than other ''keiretsu''.The Japanese recession in the 1990s had profound effects on the ''keiretsu''.",
"Many of the largest banks were hit hard by bad loan portfolios and forced to merge or go out of business.",
"This had the effect of blurring the lines between the individual ''keiretsu'': Sumitomo Bank and Mitsui Bank, for instance, became Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation in 2001, while Sanwa Bank (the banker for the Hankyu-Toho Group) became part of Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ.Generally, these causes gave rise to a strong notion in the Japanese business community that the old ''keiretsu'' system was not an effective business model, and led to an overall loosening of ''keiretsu'' alliances.",
"While they still exist, they are not as centralized or integrated as they were before the 2000s.",
"For instance, many troubled Japanese companies are faced with a new reality in which receiving financial support from their main banks are getting harder and unlikelier than ever before.",
"The companies include Sharp Corporation and Toshiba, both the iconic Japanese corporations that were forced to accept foreign investment in their aftermath of financial difficulties in 2010s.This changed environment, in turn, has led to a growing corporate acquisition industry in Japan, as companies are no longer able to be easily \"bailed out\" by their banks, as well as rising derivative litigation by more independent shareholders.===Outside Japan===The ''keiretsu'' model is fairly unique to Japan.",
"However, many diversified non-Japanese businesses groups have been described as ''keiretsu'', such as the Virgin Group (UK), Tata Group (India), the Colombian Grupo Empresarial Antioqueño and the Venezuelan Grupo Cisneros.The automotive and industries have created broad cross-ownership networks across nations, but the national companies are normally independently managed.",
"Banks cited as being central to ''keiretsu''-like systems include Deutsche Bank and some ''keiretsu''-like systems, generally referred to as trusts, were created by investment banks in the United States such as JP Morgan and Mellon Financial/Mellon family beginning in the late 19th century (roughly the same period they were created in Japan), but they were largely curtailed through anti-trust legislation championed by Theodore Roosevelt in the early part of the 20th century.",
"A form of ''keiretsu'' can also be found in the cross-shareholdings of the large media companies throughout most developed nations.",
"These are largely designed to link content producers to particular distribution channels, and larger content projects, such as expensive movies, are often incorporated with ownership spread across a number of larger companies."
],
[
"Contrarian view",
"Mitsubishi Harvard Law School professor J.",
"Mark Ramseyer and University of Tokyo professor Yoshiro Miwa have argued that the postwar ''keiretsu'' are a \"fable\" created by Marxist thinkers in the 1960s so as to argue that monopoly capital dominated the Japanese economy.",
"They point to the sparsity and tenuousness of cross-shareholding relationships within the ''keiretsu'', the inconsistency in members' relationships with the \"main banks\" of each ''keiretsu'', and the lack of power and reach of the ''zaibatsu'' alumni \"lunch clubs\" which are often argued to form a core of ''keiretsu'' governance.===United States–Japan bilateral relationship===By April 2015, U.S. Trade Representative Michael Froman and Japanese Economy Minister Akira Amari, representing the two largest economies of the 12-nation Trans-Pacific Partnership, were involved in bilateral talks regarding agriculture and auto parts, the \"two largest obstacles for Japan.\"",
"These bilateral accords would open each other's markets for products such as rice, pork and automobiles.During the two-day ministerial TPP negotiating session held in Singapore in May 2015, veteran US negotiator Wendy Cutler and Oe Hiroshi of the Japanese Gaimusho held bilateral trade talks regarding one of the most contentious trade issues, automobiles.",
"American negotiators wanted the Japanese to open their entire ''keiretsu'' structure, a cornerstone of the Japanese economy, to American automobiles.",
"They wanted Japanese dealer networks such as Toyota, Nissan, Honda, Mitsubishi, and Mazda to sell American cars.",
"The successful conclusion of these bilateral talks was necessary before the other ten TPP members could complete the trade deal."
],
[
"See also",
"*Economy of Japan*Four big families of Hong Kong*Horizontal integration*Oligopoly*Vertical integration*''Zaibatsu''"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Masahiko Aoki, ''Information, Incentives and Bargaining in the Japanese Economy'' (1988)* Masahiko Aoki and Hugh Patrick, ''The Japanese Main Bank System'' (1994)* Ronald Gilson and Mark J. Roe, 'Understanding the Japanese Keiretsu' (1993) 102 Yale Law Journal 871* Yoshiro Miwa and Mark Ramseyer, 'The Fable of the Keiretsu' (2002) 11 J. Econ.",
"& Mgmt.",
"Strategy 169* Kenichi Miyashita & David Russell, \"Keiretsu: inside the hidden Japanese conglomerates\" (McGraw-Hill 1995)* Bremner, Brian.",
"(15 March 1999).",
"Fall of a Keiretsu.",
"Business Week, issue 3620, 86–92.Retrieved 27 October 2007, from Academic Search Premier database* 'Whingeing: Japanese-American Trade'.",
"The Economist 18 May 1991* Jems Keiretsu Harvard University * David Fkath.",
"(September 2005).",
"Distribution Keiretsu, FDI and Import Penetration in Japan"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kurt Georg Kiesinger"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Kurt Georg Kiesinger''' (; 6 April 1904 – 9 March 1988) was a German politician who served as the chancellor of West Germany from 1 December 1966 to 21 October 1969.Before he became Chancellor he served as Minister President of Baden-Württemberg from 1958 to 1966 and as President of the Federal Council from 1962 to 1963.He was Chairman of the Christian Democratic Union from 1967 to 1971.Kiesinger gained his certificate as a lawyer in March 1933 and worked as a lawyer in Berlin's Kammergericht court from 1935 to 1940.He had joined the Nazi Party in 1933, but remained a largely inactive member.",
"To avoid conscription, he found work at the Foreign Office in 1940, and became deputy head of the Foreign Office's broadcasting department.",
"During his service at the Foreign Office, he was denounced by two colleagues for his anti-Nazi stance.",
"In 1946 he became a member of the Christian Democratic Union.",
"He was elected to the Bundestag in 1949, and was a member of the Bundestag until 1958 and again from 1969 to 1980.He left federal politics for eight years (from 1958 to 1966) to serve as Minister President of Baden-Württemberg, and subsequently became Chancellor by forming a grand coalition with Willy Brandt's Social Democratic Party.Kiesinger was considered an outstanding orator and mediator, and was dubbed \"Chief Silver Tongue\".",
"He was an author of poetry and various books, and founded the universities of Konstanz and Ulm as Minister President of Baden-Württemberg.",
"Kiesinger is also considered controversial, which is mainly due to his affiliation and work with the Nazis.",
"The student movement in particular, but also other sections of the population, saw Kiesinger as a politician who stood for the inadequacy of Germans' coming to terms with the past."
],
[
"Early life and Nazi activities",
"Kurt Georg Kiesinger was born in Ebingen, Kingdom of Württemberg (now Albstadt, Baden-Württemberg).",
"His father was a commercial clerk in companies engaged in the local textile industry.",
"Kiesinger was baptized Catholic because his mother was Catholic, though his father was Protestant.",
"His mother died six months after he was born.",
"His maternal grandmother exerted a strong influence on Kiesinger and encouraged him, while his father was indifferent to his advancement.",
"After a year, his father was remarried to a Karoline Victoria Pfaff.",
"They had seven children, of whom Kiesinger's half-sister Maria died a year after she was born.",
"Pfaff was also a Catholic.",
"Kiesinger was therefore shaped by both denominations and later referred to himself gladly as a \"Protestant Catholic\".",
"Politically, Kiesinger grew up in a liberal, democratically-minded milieu.Kiesinger studied law in Berlin and worked as a then as lawyer in Berlin from 1935 to 1940.As a student, he joined the (non-''couleur'' wearing) Roman Catholic corporations ''KStV Alamannia Tübingen'' and Askania-Burgundia Berlin.",
"He became a member of the Nazi Party in February 1933, but remained a largely inactive member.",
"In 1940, he was called to arms but avoided mobilization by finding a job in the Foreign Office's broadcasting department, rising quickly to become deputy head of the department from 1943 to 1945 and the department's liaison with the Propaganda Ministry.",
"He worked under Joachim von Ribbentrop, who would later be condemned to death at Nuremberg.",
"After the war, he was interned by the Americans for his connection to Ribbentrop and spent 18 months in the Ludwigsburg camp before being released as a case of mistaken identity.Franco-German journalist Beate Klarsfeld demonstrated Kiesinger's close connections to Ribbentrop and Joseph Goebbels, the head of Nazi Germany's Propaganda Ministry.",
"She also asserted that Kiesinger had been chiefly responsible for the contents of German international broadcasts which included anti-Semitic and war propaganda, and had collaborated closely with SS functionaries and Franz Alfred Six.",
"The latter was responsible for mass murders in Nazi-occupied Eastern Europe and was tried as a war criminal in the ''Einsatzgruppen Trial'' at Nuremberg.",
"Even after becoming aware of the extermination of the Jews, Kiesinger had continued to produce anti-Semitic propaganda.",
"These allegations were based in part on documents that Albert Norden published about the culprits of war and Nazi crimes."
],
[
"Early political career",
"Kiesinger joined the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) in 1946.From 1946 he gave private lessons to law students, and in 1948 he resumed his practice as a lawyer.",
"In 1947 he also became unpaid secretary-general of the CDU in Württemberg-Hohenzollern.1961 election poster for KiesingerIn the federal election in 1949 he was elected to the Bundestag, in which he went on to sit until 1958 and again from 1969 to 1980.In his first legislative term he represented the constituency of Ravensburg, in which he achieved record results of over 70 percent, from 1969 the constituency of Waldshut.",
"For the 1976 federal election, Kiesinger renounced his own constituency and entered parliament via the Baden-Württemberg state list of his party.",
"In the first two legislative periods (1949–1957) he was chairman of the mediation committee of the Bundestag and Bundesrat.",
"On 19 October 1950, Kiesinger received 55 votes against his party friend Hermann Ehlers (201 votes) in the election for President of the Bundestag, although he had not been proposed.",
"In 1951 he became a member of the CDU executive board.",
"From December 17, 1954 to January 29, 1959, he was chairman of the Bundestag Committee on Foreign Affairs, to which he had been a member since 1949.During that time, he became known for his rhetorical brilliance, as well as his in-depth knowledge of foreign affairs.",
"However, despite the recognition he enjoyed within the Christian Democrat parliamentary faction, he was passed over during various cabinet reshuffles.",
"Consequently, he decided to switch from federal to state politics."
],
[
"Minister President of Baden-Württemberg",
"Kiesinger became Minister President of the state of Baden-Württemberg on 17 December 1958, an office in which he served until 1 December 1966.At that time Kiesinger was also a member of the Landtag of Baden-Württemberg.",
"As Minister President he was President of the German Bundesrat from 1 November 1962 to 31 October 1963.During his time in office he founded two universities, the University of Konstanz and the University of Ulm.In the early days of the Federal Republic of Germany, oversized coalitions were not uncommon at the state level, and so Kiesinger led a coalition of the CDU, SPD, FDP/DVP and BHE until 1960, but then a coalition from 1960 to 1966.On 15 April 1961, the BHE disbanded."
],
[
"Chancellorship",
"Kiesinger, Lyndon Johnson, Dean Rusk and Willy Brandt in 1967 Chancellor Kurt Kiesinger and US President Richard Nixon waving to the crowd in West Berlin in 1969leftIn 1966, following the collapse of the existing CDU/CSU-FDP coalition, Kiesinger was elected to replace Ludwig Erhard as Chancellor, heading a new CDU/CSU-SPD alliance with the SPD leader Willy Brandt as Vice Chancellor and Foreign Minister.",
"The Kiesinger government remained in power for nearly three years.",
"Kiesinger reduced tensions with the Soviet bloc nations, establishing diplomatic relations with Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia, but he opposed any major conciliatory moves.",
"A number of progressive reforms were also realised during Kiesinger's time as Chancellor.",
"Pension coverage was extended in 1967 via the abolition of the income-ceiling for compulsory membership.",
"In education, student grants were introduced, together with a university building programme, while a constitutional reform of 1969 empowered the federal government to be involved with the Länder in educational planning through joint planning commission.",
"Vocational training legislation was also introduced, while a reorganisation of unemployment insurance promoted retraining schemes, counselling and advice services, and job creation places.",
"In addition, under the ''Lohnfortzahlunggesetz'' of 1969, employers had to pay all employees’ wages for the first six weeks of sickness.",
"In August 1969, the ''Landabgaberente'' (a higher special pension for farmers willing to cede farms that were unprofitable according to certain criteria) was introduced.The historian Tony Judt has observed that Kiesinger's chancellorship, like the presidency of Heinrich Lübke, showed the \"a glaring contradiction in the Bonn Republic's self-image\" in view of their previous Nazi allegiances.",
"One of his low points as Chancellor was in 1968 when Nazi-hunter Beate Klarsfeld, who campaigned with her husband Serge Klarsfeld against Nazi criminals, publicly slapped him in the face during the 1968 Christian Democrat convention, while calling him a Nazi.",
"She did so in French and – whilst being dragged out of the room by two ushers – repeated her words in German, saying \"''Kiesinger!",
"Nazi!",
"Abtreten!''\"",
"(\"Kiesinger!",
"Nazi!",
"Step down!\")",
"Kiesinger, holding his left cheek, did not respond.",
"Up to his death he refused to comment on the incident, and in other opportunities he denied explicitly that he had been opportunistic by joining the NSDAP in 1933 (although he admitted to joining the German Foreign Ministry to dodge his 1940 draft by the Wehrmacht).",
"Other prominent critics included the writers Heinrich Böll and Günter Grass.",
"(In 1966, Grass had written an open letter urging Kiesinger not to accept the chancellorship).",
"In 2006, 40 years later, Grass, in an interview with the ''Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung'', would confess to a Waffen-SS membership, which became a controversy on its own.",
"After the election of 1969, the SPD preferred to form a coalition with the FDP, ending the uninterrupted post-war reign of the CDU chancellors.",
"Kiesinger was succeeded as Chancellor by his former Vice-Chancellor Willy Brandt."
],
[
"Later years and death",
"Grave of Kurt Georg Kiesinger in Tübingen Kiesinger continued to head the CDU/CSU in opposition and remained a member of the Bundestag until 1980.In July 1971 Kiesinger was succeeded as Leader of the Christian Democratic Union by Rainer Barzel.",
"In 1972 he held the main speech for justification to the constructive vote of no confidence by the CDU/CSU parliamentary group against Willy Brandt in the Bundestag.",
"The election of then CDU leader Rainer Barzel as chancellor was unsuccessful because of the bribery of Julius Steiner and probably Leo Wagner by GDR's Stasi.In 1980 Kiesinger ended his career as politician and worked on his memoir.",
"Of his planned memoirs, only the first part (''Dark and Bright Years'') was completed, covering the years up to 1958.It was released after his death in 1989.Kiesinger died in Tübingen on 9 March 1988, four weeks before his 84th birthday.",
"After a requiem mass in Stuttgart's St. Eberhard Church, his funeral procession was followed by protesters (mainly students) who wanted his former membership in the Nazi Party remembered."
],
[
"Books",
"* ''Schwäbische Kindheit''.",
"(“Swabian childhood.”), Wunderlich Verlag, Tübingen 1964.",
"* ''Ideen vom Ganzen.",
"Reden und Betrachtungen''.",
"(“Ideas from the whole.",
"Speeches and reflections.”), Wunderlich Verlag, Tübingen 1964.",
"* ''Stationen 1949-1969''.",
"(“Stations 1949-1969.”), Wunderlich Verlag, Tübingen 1969.",
"* ''Die Stellung des Parlamentariers in unserer Zeit''.",
"(“The position of the parliamentarian in our time.”), Stuttgart 1981.",
"* ''Dunkle und helle Jahre: Erinnerungen 1904–1958''.",
"(“Dark and Bright Years: Memoirs 1904–1958.”), Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1989."
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Braunbuch, chapter \"Kiesinger - ein führender Nazi-Propagandist als Bonner Regierungschef\", 3rd Volume, Berlin, GDR 1968, https://web.archive.org/web/20101120003249/http://braunbuch.de/8-01.shtml* Philipp Gassert: ''Kurt Georg Kiesinger 1904–1988.Kanzler zwischen den Zeiten''.",
"DVA, München 2006, ( Rezension Daniela Münkler und Benjamin Obermüller, rezensionen.ch, 19.Juli 2006, S.",
"31).",
"* Michael F. Feldkamp: ''Katholischer Studentenverein Askania-Burgundia im Kartellverband Katholischer Deutscher Studentenvereine (KV) zu Berlin 1853–2003''.",
"(PDF) Eine Festschrift herausgegeben von der K.St.V.",
"Askania-Burgundia, Berlin 2006.",
"* Otto Rundel: ''Kurt Georg Kiesinger.",
"Sein Leben und sein politisches Wirken''.",
"Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart 2006, .",
"* Günter Buchstab, Philipp Gassert, Peter Thaddäus Lang (Hrsg.",
"): ''Kurt Georg Kiesinger 1904–1988.Von Ebingen ins Kanzleramt''.",
"Herder, Freiburg 2005, im Auftrag der Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, .",
"* Reinhard Schmoeckel, Bruno Kaiser: ''Die vergessene Regierung.",
"Die große Koalition 1966–1969 und ihre langfristigen Wirkungen.''",
"Bouvier Verlag, Bonn 2005, .",
"* Maria Keipert (Red.",
"): ''Biographisches Handbuch des deutschen Auswärtigen Dienstes 1871–1945.''",
"Herausgegeben vom Auswärtigen Amt, Historischer Dienst.",
"Band 2: Gerhard Keiper, Martin Kröger: ''G–K.''",
"Schöningh, Paderborn u. a.",
"2005, .",
"* Albrecht Ernst: ''Kurt Georg Kiesinger 1904–1988.Rechtslehrer, Ministerpräsident, Bundeskanzler.''",
"Begleitbuch zur Wanderausstellung des Hauptstaatsarchivs Stuttgart, Stuttgart 2004, .",
"* Joachim Samuel Eichhorn: Durch alle Klippen hindurch zum Erfolg: Die Regierungspraxis der ersten Großen Koalition (1966–1969) (Studien zur Zeitgeschichte, Band 79); München 2009."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lynx"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''lynx''' (; : '''lynx''' or '''lynxes''') is any of the four extant species (the Canada lynx, Iberian lynx, Eurasian lynx and the bobcat) within the medium-sized wild cat genus ''Lynx''.",
"The name originated in Middle English via Latin from the Greek word ''lynx'' (λύγξ), derived from the Indo-European root ''leuk-'' (\"light\", \"brightness\"), in reference to the luminescence of its reflective eyes."
],
[
"Appearance",
"Profile view of a lynxLynx have a short tail, characteristic tufts of black hair on the tips of their ears, large, padded paws for walking on snow and long whiskers on the face.",
"Under their neck, they have a ruff, which has black bars resembling a bow tie, although this is often not visible.Body colour varies from medium brown to goldish to beige-white, and is occasionally marked with dark brown spots, especially on the limbs.",
"All species of lynx have white fur on their chests, bellies and on the insides of their legs, fur which is an extension of the chest and belly fur.",
"The lynx's colouring, fur length and paw size vary according to the climate in their range.",
"In the Southwestern United States, they are short-haired, dark in colour and their paws are smaller and less padded.",
"As climates get colder and more northerly, lynx have progressively thicker fur, lighter colour, and their paws are larger and more padded to adapt to the snow.",
"The smallest species are the bobcat and the Canada lynx, while the largest is the Eurasian lynx, with considerable variations within species.+ Physical characteristics of ''Lynx'' species Species Sex Weight Length Height (standing at shoulders) Eurasian lynx100 px males females Canada lynx100 px Both Iberian lynx100 px malesfemales Bobcat100 px malesfemales"
],
[
"Species",
"The four living species of the genus ''Lynx'' are believed to have evolved from ''Lynx issiodorensis'', which lived in Europe and Africa during the late Pliocene to early Pleistocene.",
"The Pliocene felid ''Felis rexroadensis'' from North America has been proposed as an even earlier ancestor; however, this was larger than any living species, and is not currently classified as a true lynx.=== Eurasian lynx ===Eurasian lynxOf the four lynx species, the Eurasian lynx (''Lynx lynx'') is the largest in size.",
"It is native to European, Central Asian, and Siberian forests.",
"While its conservation status has been classified as \"least concern\", populations of Eurasian lynx have been reduced or extirpated from much of Europe, where it is now being reintroduced.During the summer, the Eurasian lynx has a relatively short, reddish or brown coat which is replaced by a much thicker silver-grey to greyish-brown coat during winter.",
"The lynx hunts by stalking and jumping on its prey, helped by the rugged, forested country in which it resides.",
"A favorite prey for the lynx in its woodland habitat is roe deer.",
"It will feed however on whatever animal appears easiest, as it is an opportunistic predator much like its cousins.=== Canada lynx ===Canada lynxThe Canada lynx (''Lynx canadensis''), or Canadian lynx, is a North American felid that ranges in forest and tundra regions across Canada and into Alaska, as well as some parts of the northern United States.",
"Historically, the Canadian lynx ranged from Alaska across Canada and into many of the northern U.S. states.",
"In the eastern states, it resided in the transition zone in which boreal coniferous forests yielded to deciduous forests.",
"By 2010, after an 11-year effort, it had been successfully reintroduced into Colorado, where it had become extirpated in the 1970s.• • In 2000, the U.S.",
"Fish and Wildlife Service designated the Canada lynx a threatened species in the lower 48 states.The Canada lynx is a good climber and swimmer; it constructs rough shelters under fallen trees or rock ledges.",
"It has a thick coat and broad paws, and is twice as effective as the bobcat at supporting its weight on the snow.",
"The Canada lynx feeds almost exclusively on snowshoe hares; its population is highly dependent on the population of this prey animal.",
"It will also hunt medium-sized mammals and birds if hare numbers fall.=== Iberian lynx ===Iberian lynxThe Iberian lynx (''Lynx pardinus'') is an endangered species native to the Iberian Peninsula in Southern Europe.",
"It was the most endangered cat species in the world, but conservation efforts have changed its status from critical to endangered.",
"According to the Portuguese conservation group SOS Lynx, if this species dies out, it will be the first feline extinction since the ''Smilodon'' 10,000 years ago.",
"The species used to be classified as a subspecies of the Eurasian lynx, but is now considered a separate species.",
"Both species occurred together in central Europe in the Pleistocene epoch, being separated by habitat choice.",
"The Iberian lynx is believed to have evolved from ''Lynx issiodorensis''.=== Bobcat ===BobcatThe bobcat (''Lynx rufus'') is a North American wild cat.",
"With 13 recognized subspecies, the bobcat is common throughout southern Canada, the continental United States, and northern Mexico.",
"Like the Eurasian lynx, its conservation status is \"least concern.\"",
"The bobcat is an adaptable predator that inhabits deciduous, coniferous, or mixed woodlands, but unlike other ''Lynx'', does not depend exclusively on the deep forest, and ranges from swamps and desert lands to mountainous and agricultural areas, its spotted coat serving as camouflage.",
"The population of the bobcat depends primarily on the population of its prey.",
"Nonetheless, the bobcat is often killed by larger predators such as coyotes.The bobcat resembles other species of the genus ''Lynx'', but is on average the smallest of the four.",
"Its coat is variable, though generally tan to grayish brown, with black streaks on the body and dark bars on the forelegs and tail.",
"The ears are black-tipped and pointed, with short, black tufts.",
"There is generally an off-white color on the lips, chin, and underparts.",
"Bobcats in the desert regions of the southwest have the lightest-colored coats, while those in the northern, forested regions have the darkest."
],
[
"Behavior and diet",
"The lynx is usually solitary, although a small group of lynx may travel and hunt together occasionally.",
"Mating takes place in the late winter and once a year the female gives birth to between one and four kittens.",
"The gestation time of the lynx is about 70 days.",
"The young stay with the mother for one more winter, a total of around nine months, before moving out to live on their own as young adults.",
"The lynx creates its den in crevices or under ledges.",
"It feeds on a wide range of animals from white-tailed deer, reindeer, roe deer, small red deer, and chamois, to smaller, more usual prey: snowshoe hares, fish, foxes, sheep, squirrels, mice, turkeys and other birds, and goats.",
"It also eats ptarmigans, voles, and grouse."
],
[
"Distribution and habitat",
"A lynx stalking preyThe lynx inhabits high altitude forests with dense cover of shrubs, reeds, and tall grass.",
"Although this cat hunts on the ground, it can climb trees and can swim swiftly, catching fish.=== Europe and Asia ===The Eurasian lynx ranges from central and northern Europe across Asia up to Northern Pakistan and India.",
"In Iran, they live in Mount Damavand area.",
"Since the beginning of the 20th century, the Eurasian lynx was considered extinct in the wild in Slovenia and Croatia.",
"A resettlement project, begun in 1973, has successfully reintroduced lynx to the Slovenian Alps and the Croatian regions of Gorski Kotar and Velebit, including Croatia's Plitvice Lakes National Park and Risnjak National Park.",
"In both countries, the lynx is listed as an endangered species and protected by law.",
"The lynx was distributed throughout Japan during Jōmon period; with no paleontological evidence thereafter suggesting extinction at that time.Several lynx resettlement projects begun in the 1970s have been successful in various regions of Switzerland.",
"Since the 1990s, there have been numerous efforts to resettle the Eurasian lynx in Germany, and since 2000, a small population can now be found in the Harz mountains near Bad Lauterberg.The lynx is found in the Białowieża Forest in northeastern Poland, in Estonia and in the northern and western parts of China, particularly the Tibetan Plateau.",
"In Romania, the numbers exceed 2,000, the largest population in Europe outside of Russia, although most experts consider the official population numbers to be overestimated.The lynx is more common in northern Europe, especially in Norway, Sweden, Estonia, Finland, and the northern parts of Russia.",
"The Swedish population is estimated to be 1200–1500 individuals, spread all over the country, but more common in middle Sweden and in the mountain range.",
"The lynx population in Finland was 1900–2100 individuals in 2008, and the numbers have been increasing every year since 1992.The lynx population in Finland is estimated currently to be larger than ever before.",
"Lynx in Britain were wiped out in the 17th century, but there have been calls to reintroduce them to curb the numbers of deer.The endangered Iberian lynx lives in southern Spain and formerly in eastern Portugal.",
"There is an Iberian lynx reproduction center outside Silves in the Algarve in southern Portugal.=== North America ===A mother and cub, Kenai National Wildlife Refuge, AlaskaThe two ''Lynx'' species in North America, Canada lynx and bobcats, are both found in the temperate zone.",
"While the bobcat is common throughout southern Canada, the continental United States and northern Mexico, the Canada lynx is present mainly in boreal forests of Canada and Alaska."
],
[
"See also",
"* Caracal, a small African cat with lynx-like ears and (relatively) short tail* Lynx (constellation)* Lynx (mythology)* Wildcat, a small predator native to Europe, the western part of Asia, and Africa"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"**"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Leisure"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Public parks were initially set aside for leisure, recreation and sport.A man relaxing on a couchLeisure time swimming at an oasis'''Leisure''' has often been defined as a quality of experience or as '''free time'''.",
"Free time is time spent away from business, work, job hunting, domestic chores, and education, as well as necessary activities such as eating and sleeping.",
"Leisure as an experience usually emphasizes dimensions of perceived freedom and choice.",
"It is done for \"its own sake\", for the quality of experience and involvement.",
"Other classic definitions include Thorstein Veblen's (1899) of \"nonproductive consumption of time.\"",
"Free time is not easy to define due to the multiplicity of approaches used to determine its essence.",
"Different disciplines have definitions reflecting their common issues: for example, sociology on social forces and contexts and psychology as mental and emotional states and conditions.",
"From a research perspective, these approaches have an advantage of being quantifiable and comparable over time and place.Leisure studies and sociology of leisure are the academic disciplines concerned with the study and analysis of leisure.",
"Recreation differs from leisure in that it is a purposeful activity that includes the experience of leisure in activity contexts.",
"Economists consider that leisure times are valuable to a person like wages that they could earn for the same time spend towards the activity.",
"If it were not, people would have worked instead of taking leisure.",
"However, the distinction between leisure and unavoidable activities is not a rigidly defined one, e.g.",
"people sometimes do work-oriented tasks for pleasure as well as for long-term utility.",
"A related concept is social leisure, which involves leisurely activities in social settings, such as extracurricular activities, e.g.",
"sports, clubs.",
"Another related concept is that of family leisure.",
"Relationships with others is usually a major factor in both satisfaction and choice.The concept of leisure as a human right was realised in article 24 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights."
],
[
"History",
"Leisure has historically been the privilege of the upper class.",
"Opportunities for leisure came with more money, or organization, and less working time, rising dramatically in the mid-to-late 19th century, starting in Great Britain and spreading to other rich nations in Europe.",
"It spread as well to the United States, although that country had a reputation in Europe for providing much less leisure despite its wealth.",
"Immigrants to the United States discovered they had to work harder than they did in Europe.",
"Economists continue to investigate why Americans work longer hours.",
"In a recent book, Laurent Turcot argues that leisure was not created in the 19th century but is imbricated in the occidental world since the beginning of history.=== Canada ===In Canada, leisure in the country is related to the decline in work hours and is shaped by moral values, and the ethnic-religious and gender communities.",
"In a cold country with winter's long nights, and summer's extended daylight, favorite leisure activities include horse racing, team sports such as hockey, singalongs, roller skating and board games.",
"The churches tried to steer leisure activities, by preaching against drinking and scheduling annual revivals and weekly club activities.",
"By 1930 radio played a major role in uniting Canadians behind their local or regional hockey teams.",
"Play-by-play sports coverage, especially of ice hockey, absorbed fans far more intensely than newspaper accounts the next day.",
"Rural areas were especially influenced by sports coverage.=== France ===Leisure by the mid-19th century was no longer an individualistic activity.",
"It was increasingly organized.",
"In the French industrial city of Lille, with a population of 80,000 in 1858, the cabarets or taverns for the working class numbered 1300, or one for every three houses.",
"Lille counted 63 drinking and singing clubs, 37 clubs for card players, 23 for bowling, 13 for skittles, and 18 for archery.",
"The churches likewise have their social organizations.",
"Each club had a long roster of officers, and a busy schedule of banquets, festivals and competitions.",
"At the turn of the century thousands of these clubs had been created.=== United Kingdom ===A caricature of upper class Victorian tourists, 1852As literacy, wealth, ease of travel, and a broadened sense of community grew in Britain from the mid-19th century onward, there was more time and interest in leisure activities of all sorts, on the part of all classes.Opportunities for leisure activities increased because real wages continued to grow and hours of work continued to decline.",
"In urban Britain, the nine-hour day was increasingly the norm; the 1874 Factory Act limited the workweek to 56.5 hours.",
"The movement toward an eight-hour day.",
"Furthermore, system of routine annual vacations came into play, starting with white-collar workers and moving into the working-class.",
"Some 200 seaside resorts emerged thanks to cheap hotels and inexpensive railway fares, widespread banking holidays and the fading of many religious prohibitions against secular activities on Sundays.By the late Victorian era, the leisure industry had emerged in all British cities, and the pattern was copied across Western Europe and North America.",
"It provided scheduled entertainment of suitable length and convenient locales at inexpensive prices.",
"These include sporting events, music halls, and popular theater.",
"By 1880 football was no longer the preserve of the social elite, as it attracted large working-class audiences.",
"Average gate was 5,000 in 1905, rising to 23,000 in 1913.That amounted to 6 million paying customers with a weekly turnover of £400,000.Sports by 1900 generated some three percent of the total gross national product in Britain.",
"Professionalization of sports was the norm, although some new activities reached an upscale amateur audience, such as lawn tennis and golf.",
"Women were now allowed in some sports, such as archery, tennis, badminton and gymnastics.Leisure was primarily a male activity, with middle-class women allowed in at the margins.",
"There were class differences with upper-class clubs, and working-class and middle-class pubs.",
"Heavy drinking declined; there was more betting on outcomes.",
"Participation in sports and all sorts of leisure activities increased for average English people, and their interest in spectator sports increased dramatically.By the 1920s the cinema and radio attracted all classes, ages, and genders in very large numbers.",
"Giant palaces were built for the huge audiences that wanted to see Hollywood films.",
"In Liverpool 40 percent of the population attended one of the 69 cinemas once a week; 25 percent went twice.",
"Traditionalists grumbled about the American cultural invasion, but the permanent impact was minor.The British showed a more profound interest in sports, and in greater variety, that any rival.",
"They gave pride of place to such moral issues as sportsmanship and fair play.",
"Cricket became symbolic of the Imperial spirit throughout the Empire.",
"Soccer proved highly attractive to the urban working classes, which introduced the rowdy spectator to the sports world.",
"In some sports, there was significant controversy in the fight for amateur purity especially in rugby and rowing.",
"New games became popular almost overnight, including golf, lawn tennis, cycling and hockey.",
"Women were much more likely to enter these sports than the old established ones.",
"The aristocracy and landed gentry, with their ironclad control over land rights, dominated hunting, shooting, fishing and horse racing.Cricket had become well-established among the English upper class in the 18th century, and was a major factor in sports competition among the public schools.",
"Army units around the Empire had time on their hands, and encouraged the locals to learn cricket so they could have some entertaining competition.",
"Most of the Empire embraced cricket, with the exception of Canada.",
"Cricket test matches (international) began by the 1870s; the most famous is that between Australia and Britain for \"The Ashes\"."
],
[
"Types",
"The range of leisure activities extends from the very informal and casual to highly organised and long-lasting activities.",
"A significant subset of leisure activities are hobbies which are undertaken for personal satisfaction, usually on a regular basis, and often result in satisfaction through skill development or recognised achievement, sometimes in the form of a product.",
"The list of hobbies is ever changing as society changes.Substantial and fulfilling hobbies and pursuits are described by Sociologist Robert Stebbins as ''serious leisure''.",
"The ''serious leisure perspective'' is a way of viewing the wide range of leisure pursuits in three main categories: casual leisure, serious leisure, and project-based leisure.=== Serious leisure ===\"''Serious leisure'' is the systematic pursuit of an amateur, hobbyist, or volunteer ... that is highly substantial, interesting, and fulfilling and where ... participants find a leisure career...\".",
"For example, collecting stamps or maintaining a public wetland area.People undertaking serious leisure can be categorised as amateurs, volunteers or hobbyists.",
"Their engagement is distinguished from casual leisure by a high level of perseverance, effort, knowledge and training required and durable benefits and the sense that one can create in effect a leisure career through such activity.The range of serious leisure activities is growing rapidly in modern times with developed societies having greater leisure time, longevity and prosperity.",
"The Internet is providing increased support for amateurs and hobbyists to communicate, display and share products.==== Reading ====As literacy and leisure time expanded after 1900, reading became a popular pastime.",
"New additions to adult fiction doubled during the 1920s, reaching 2800 new books a year by 1935.Libraries tripled their stocks, and saw heavy demand for new fiction.",
"A dramatic innovation was the inexpensive paperback, pioneered by Allen Lane (1902–70) at Penguin Books in 1935.The first titles included novels by Ernest Hemingway and Agatha Christie.",
"They were sold cheap (usually sixpence) in a wide variety of inexpensive stores such as Woolworth's.",
"Penguin aimed at an educated middle class \"middlebrow\" audience.",
"It avoided the downscale image of American paperbacks.",
"The line signaled cultural self-improvement and political education.",
"The more polemical Penguin Specials, typically with a leftist orientation for Labour readers, were widely distributed during World War II.",
"However the war years caused a shortage of staff for publishers and book stores, and a severe shortage of rationed paper, worsened by the air raid on Paternoster Square in 1940 that burned 5 million books in warehouses.Romantic fiction was especially popular, with Mills and Boon the leading publisher.",
"Romantic encounters were embodied in a principle of sexual purity that demonstrated not only social conservatism, but also how heroines could control their personal autonomy.",
"Adventure magazines became quite popular, especially those published by DC Thomson; the publisher sent observers around the country to talk to boys and learn what they wanted to read about.",
"The story line in magazines and cinema that most appealed to boys was the glamorous heroism of British soldiers fighting wars that were perceived as exciting and just.=== Casual leisure ===\"''Casual leisure'' is immediately, intrinsically rewarding; and it is a relatively short-lived, pleasurable activity requiring little or no special training to enjoy it.\"",
"For example, watching TV or going for a swim.=== Project-based leisure ===\"''Project-based leisure'' is a short-term, moderately complicated, either one-shot or occasional, though infrequent, creative undertaking carried out in free time.\"",
"For example, working on a single Wikipedia article or building a garden feature."
],
[
"Cultural differences",
"Vietnam Combat Artists Team IV (CAT IV 1967).",
"During the Vietnam War soldiers waiting to go on patrol would sometimes spend their leisure time playing cards.",
"Courtesy National Museum of the United States Army.Time available for leisure varies from one society to the next, although anthropologists have found that hunter-gatherers tend to have significantly more leisure time than people in more complex societies.",
"As a result, band societies such as the Shoshone of the Great Basin came across as extraordinarily lazy to European colonialists.Workaholics, less common than the social myths, are those who work compulsively at the expense of other activities.",
"They prefer to work rather than spend time socializing and engaging in other leisure activities.European and American men statistically have more leisure time than women, due to both household and parenting responsibilities and increasing participation in the paid employment.",
"In Europe and the United States, adult men usually have between one and nine hours more leisure time than women do each week."
],
[
"Family leisure",
"Family leisure is defined as time that parents, children and siblings spend together in free time or recreational activities, and it can be expanded to address intergenerational family leisure as time that grandparents, parents, and grandchildren spend together in free time or recreational activities.",
"Leisure can become a central place for the development of emotional closeness and strong family bonds.",
"Contexts such as urban/rural shape the perspectives, meanings, and experiences of family leisure.",
"For example, leisure moments are part of work in rural areas, and the rural idyll is enacted by urban families on weekends, but both urban and rural families somehow romanticize rural contexts as ideal spaces for family making (connection to nature, slower and more intimate space, notion of a caring social fabric, tranquillity, etc.).",
"Also, much \"family leisure\" requires tasks that are most often assigned to women.",
"Family leisure also includes playing together with family members on the weekend day."
],
[
"Aging",
"Leisure is important across the lifespan and can facilitate a sense of control and self-worth.",
"Older adults, specifically, can benefit from physical, social, emotional, cultural, and spiritual aspects of leisure.",
"Leisure engagement and relationships are commonly central to \"successful\" and satisfying aging.",
"For example, engaging in leisure with grandchildren can enhance feelings of generativity, whereby older adults can achieve well-being by leaving a legacy beyond themselves for future generations."
],
[
"See also",
"* Conspicuous consumption* Conspicuous leisure* Entertainment* Labour economics* Leisure industry* Leisure satisfaction* Leisure studies* Lifestyle (sociology)* Recreation* ''The Theory of the Leisure Class''* ''Travel + Leisure''* Waiting for the Weekend* Work-leisure dichotomy* Work-life balance"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Cross, Gary S. ''Encyclopedia of recreation and leisure in America.''",
"(2004).",
"* Harris, David.",
"''Key concepts in leisure studies''.",
"(Sage, 2005)* Hunnicutt, Benjamin Kline.",
"''Free Time: The Forgotten American Dream.''",
"(Temple University Press, 2013).",
"* Ibrahim, Hilmi.",
"''Leisure and society: a comparative approach'' (1991).",
"* Jenkins, John M., and J.J.J.",
"Pigram.",
"''Encyclopedia of leisure and outdoor recreation''.",
"(Routledge, 2003).",
".",
"* Kostas Kalimtzis.",
"''An Inquiry into the Philosophical Concept of Scholê: Leisure As a Political End''.",
"London; New York: Bloomsbury, 2017.",
"* Rojek, Chris, Susan M. Shaw, and A.J.",
"Veal, eds/ ''A Handbook of Leisure Studies''.",
"(2006).",
"* Rose, Julie L. (2024). \"",
"The Future of Work?",
"The Political Theory of Work and Leisure\".",
"''Annual Review of Political Science''.",
"'''27''' (1)=== History of leisure ===* Abrams, Lynn.",
"''Workers' culture in imperial Germany: leisure and recreation in the Rhineland and Westphalia'' (2002).",
"* Beck, Peter J.",
"\"Leisure and Sport in Britain.\"",
"in Chris Wrigley, ed., A Companion to Early Twentieth-Century Britain (2008): 453–469.",
"* Borsay, Peter.",
"''A History of Leisure: The British Experience since 1500'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2006).",
"* Burke, Peter.",
"\"The Invention of Leisure in Early Modern Europe\".",
"In: Past and Present 146 (1995), pp. 136–150.",
"* Cross, Gary.",
"''A social history of leisure since 1600'' (1990).",
"* De Grazia, Victoria.",
"''The culture of consent: mass organisation of leisure in fascist Italy'' (2002).",
"* Hatcher, John.",
"\"Labour, Leisure and Economic Thought before the Nineteenth Century\".",
"In: Past and Present 160 (1998), pp. 64–115.",
"* Koshar, Rudy.",
"''Histories of Leisure'' (2002).",
"* Levinson, David, and Karen Christensen.",
"''Encyclopedia of world sport: from ancient times to the present'' (Oxford UP, 1999).",
"* Marrus, Michael R. ''The Emergence of Leisure''.",
"New York 1974* Poser, Stefan: ''Leisure Time and Technology'', European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: 25 October 2011.",
"* Stearns, Peter N. ed.",
"''Encyclopedia of European social history from 1350 to 2000'' (2001) 5:3–261; 18 essays by experts* Struna, Nancy L. ''People of Prowess Sport Leisure and Labor in Early Anglo-America'' (1996) excerpt* Towner, John, and Geoffrey Wall.",
"\"History and tourism.\"",
"''Annals of Tourism Research'' 18.1 (1991): 71–84.online* Towner, John.",
"\"The Grand Tour: a key phase in the history of tourism.\"",
"''Annals of tourism research'' 12#3 (1985): 297–333.",
"* Turcot, Laurent ''Sports et Loisirs.",
"Une histoire des origines à nos jours'', Paris, Gallimard, 2016.",
"* Turcot, Laurent \"The origins of Leisure\", ''International Innovation'', April 2016 * Walton, John K. ''Leisure in Britain, 1780–1939'' (1983).",
"* Withey, Lynne.",
"''Grand Tours and Cook's Tours: A history of leisure travel, 1750 to 1915'' (1997).=== Historiography ===* Akyeampong, Emmanuel, and Charles Ambler.",
"\"Leisure in African history: An introduction.\"",
"''International journal of African historical studies'' 35#1 (2002): 1–16.",
"* Mommaas, Hans, et al.",
"''Leisure research in Europe: methods and traditions'' (Cab international, 1996), on France, Poland, Netherlands, Spain, Belgium, and the UK.",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Leisure* Peter Burke, The invention of leisure in early modern Europe, ''Past & Present'', February 1995* The Development of Leisure Amongst the Social Classes During the Industrial Revolution (archived 9 May 2008)* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Leslie Caron"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Leslie Claire Margaret Caron''' (; born 1 July 1931) is a French and American actress and dancer.",
"She is the recipient of a Golden Globe Award, two BAFTA Awards and a Primetime Emmy Award, in addition to nominations for two Academy Awards.",
"She is one of the last surviving stars from the Golden Age of Hollywood cinema.Caron began her career as a ballerina.",
"She made her film debut in the musical ''An American in Paris'' (1951), followed by roles in ''The Man with a Cloak'' (1951), ''Glory Alley'' (1952) and ''The Story of Three Loves'' (1953), before her role of an orphan in ''Lili'' (also 1953), which earned her the BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Actress and garnered nominations for an Academy Award and a Golden Globe Award.As a leading lady, Caron starred in films such as ''The Glass Slipper'' (1955), ''Daddy Long Legs'' (1955), ''Gigi'' (1958), ''Fanny'' (1961), both of which earned her Golden Globe nominations, ''Guns of Darkness'' (1962), ''The L-Shaped Room'' (1962), ''Father Goose'' (1964) and ''A Very Special Favor'' (1965).",
"For her role as a single pregnant woman in ''The L-Shaped Room'', Caron, in addition to receiving a second Academy Award nomination, won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama and a second BAFTA Award.Caron's other roles include ''Is Paris Burning?''",
"(1966), ''The Man Who Loved Women'' (1977), ''Valentino'' (1977), ''Damage'' (1992), ''Funny Bones'' (1995), ''Chocolat'' (2000) and ''Le Divorce'' (2003).",
"In 2007, she won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series for portraying a rape victim in ''Law & Order: Special Victims Unit''."
],
[
"Early life and family",
"Caron was born in Boulogne-sur-Seine, Seine (now Boulogne-Billancourt, Hauts-de-Seine), the daughter of Margaret (née Petit), a Franco-American dancer on Broadway, and Claude Caron, a French chemist, pharmacist, perfumer and boutique owner.",
"Claude Caron was the founder of the artisanal perfumier Guermantes.",
"While her older brother, Aimery Caron, became a chemist like their father, Leslie was prepared for a performing career from childhood by her mother.",
"The family lost its wealth during World War II and could not provide a dowry for Caron.",
"\"My mother said: 'There's only one profession that leads you to marrying money and becoming a princess or duchess, and that's ballet.'",
"... My grandfather whispered heavily: 'Margaret, you want your daughter to be a whore?'",
"I heard it.",
"This has always followed me\".Of the lost fortune, Caron recalled, \"My mother died of it\".",
"Her mother, who had grown up in poverty, could not cope with their reduced circumstances.",
"She became depressed and an alcoholic and, at age 67, killed herself."
],
[
"Career",
"Caron was initially a ballerina.",
"Gene Kelly discovered her in the Roland Petit company \"Ballet des Champs Elysées\" and cast her to appear opposite him in the musical ''An American in Paris'' (1951), a role for which a pregnant Cyd Charisse was originally cast.",
"The prosperity, sunshine and abundance of California was a cultural shock to Caron.",
"She had lived in Paris during the German occupation, which left her malnourished and anemic.",
"She later remarked how nice people were in comparison to wartime Paris, in which poverty and deprivation had caused people to be bitter and violent.",
"She had a friendly relationship with Kelly, who nicknamed her \"Lester the Pester\" and \"kid\".",
"Kelly helped the inexperienced Caron—who had never spoken on stage—adjust to filmmaking..Her role led to a seven-year MGM contract.",
"The films which followed included the musical ''The Glass Slipper'' (1955) and the drama ''The Man with a Cloak'' (1951), with Joseph Cotten and Barbara Stanwyck.",
"Still, Caron has said of herself: \"Unfortunately, Hollywood considers musical dancers as hoofers.",
"Regrettable expression.\"",
"She also starred in the musicals ''Lili'' (1953, receiving an Academy Award for Best Actress nomination), with Mel Ferrer; ''Daddy Long Legs'' (1955), with Fred Astaire; and ''Gigi'' (1958) with Louis Jourdan and Maurice Chevalier.Caron in 1953Dissatisfied with her career despite her success (\"I thought musicals were futile and silly\", she said in 2021; \"I appreciate them better now\"), Caron studied the Stanislavski method.",
"In the 1960s and thereafter, Caron worked in European films as well.",
"For her performance in the British drama ''The L-Shaped Room'' (1962), she won the BAFTA Award for Best British Actress and the Golden Globe, and was nominated for the Best Actress Oscar.",
"Her other film assignments in this period included ''Father Goose'' (1964) with Cary Grant; Ken Russell's ''Valentino'' (1977), in the role of silent-screen legend Alla Nazimova; and Louis Malle's ''Damage'' (1992).",
"Sometime in 1970, Caron was one of the many actresses considered for the lead role of Eglantine Price in Disney's ''Bedknobs and Broomsticks'', losing the role to British actress Angela Lansbury.In 1967, she was a member of the jury of the 5th Moscow International Film Festival (MIFF).",
"In 1989, she was a member of the jury at the 39th Berlin International Film Festival.Caron returned to France in the early 1970s, which she later said was a mistake.",
"\"They adore someone who's really British or really American\", Caron said, \"but somebody who's French and has made it in Hollywood – and I was the only one who had really made it in a big way – they can't forgive\".",
"During the 1980s, she appeared in several episodes of the soap opera ''Falcon Crest'' as Nicole Sauguet.",
"Caron is one of the few actresses from the classic era of MGM musicals who are still active in film — a group that includes Rita Moreno, Margaret O'Brien and June Lockhart.",
"Caron's later credits include ''Funny Bones'' (1995) with Jerry Lewis and Oliver Platt; ''The Last of the Blonde Bombshells'' (2000) with Judi Dench and Cleo Laine; ''Chocolat'' (2000) and ''Le Divorce'' (2003), directed by James Ivory, with Kate Hudson and Naomi Watts.On June 30, 2003, Caron travelled to San Francisco to appear as the special guest star in ''The Songs of Alan Jay Lerner: I Remember It Well'', a retrospective concert staged by San Francisco's 42nd Street Moon Company.",
"In 2007, her guest appearance on ''Law and Order: Special Victims Unit'' earned her a Primetime Emmy Award.",
"On April 27, 2009, Caron travelled to New York as an honoured guest at a tribute to Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe at the Paley Center for Media.For her contributions to the film industry, Caron was inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame on December 8, 2009, with a motion pictures star located at 6153 Hollywood Boulevard.",
"In February 2010, she played Madame Armfeldt in ''A Little Night Music'' at the Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris, which also featured Greta Scacchi and Lambert Wilson.In 2016, Caron appeared in the ITV television series ''The Durrells'' (produced by her son Christopher Hall) as the Countess Mavrodaki.Veteran documentarian Larry Weinstein's ''Leslie Caron: The Reluctant Star'' premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF) on June 28, 2016."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Christopher and Maurice Chevalier on the set of ''Gigi'' (1958)In September 1951, Caron married American George Hormel II, a grandson of George A. Hormel, the founder of the Hormel meat-packing company.",
"They divorced in 1954.During that period, while under contract to MGM, she lived in Laurel Canyon in a Normandie style 1927 mansion near the country store on Laurel Canyon Blvd.",
"One bedroom was all mirrored for her dancing rehearsals.Her second husband was British theatre director Peter Hall.",
"They married in 1956 and had two children: Christopher John Hall, a television drama producer, and Jennifer Caron Hall, a writer, painter and actress.",
"Her son-in-law, married to Jennifer, is Glenn Wilhide, a producer and screenwriter.Caron had an affair with Warren Beatty in 1961.When she and Hall divorced in 1965, Beatty was named as a co-respondent and was ordered by the London court to pay the costs of the case.",
"In 1969, Caron married Michael Laughlin, the producer of the film ''Two-Lane Blacktop;'' the couple divorced in 1980.Caron was also romantically linked to Dutch television actor Robert Wolders from 1994 to 1995.From 1981, she rented and lived for a few years in a mill (the \"Moulin Neuf\") in the French village of Chaumot, Yonne, which had belonged to Prince Francis Xavier of Saxony in the late 18th century and which depended on his princely castle.",
"From June 1993 until September 2009, Caron owned and operated the hotel and restaurant ''Auberge la Lucarne aux Chouettes'' (The Owls' Nest), in Villeneuve-sur-Yonne, about south of Paris.",
"Caron's mother had committed suicide in her 60s; suffering from a lifetime of depression, Caron also considered doing so in 1995.She was hospitalized for a month and began attending Alcoholics Anonymous.",
"Unhappy with the lack of acting opportunities in France, she returned to England in 2013.In her autobiography, ''Thank Heaven'', she states that she obtained American citizenship in time to vote for Barack Obama for president.In October 2021, she was chosen to receive the Oldie of the Year Award by The Oldie magazine.",
"It was initially offered to Queen Elizabeth II, who had declined it on the grounds that she did not meet the criteria, even though she was five years older than Caron."
],
[
"Filmography",
"Leslie Caron, ''A Little Night Music'' by Stephen Sondheim, théâtre du Châtelet, 2010+Film Year Title Role Notes 1951 '''' Lise Bouvier '''' Madeline Minot 1952 ''Glory Alley'' Angela Evans 1953 '''' Mademoiselle Segment: \"Mademoiselle\" ''Lili'' Lili Daurier BAFTA Award for Best Foreign ActressNominated–Academy Award for Best Actress 1955 '''' Ella ''Daddy Long Legs'' Julie Andre 1956 ''Gaby'' Gaby 1958 ''Gigi'' Gigi Laurel Award for Top Female Musical PerformanceNominated–Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical '''' Mrs. Dubedat 1959 '''' Ann Garantier 1960 ''Austerlitz'' Mlle de Vaudey''''Mardou Fox 1961 ''Fanny'' Fanny Laurel Award for Top Female Dramatic Performance (5th place)Nominated–Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama 1962 ''Guns of Darkness'' Claire Jordan '''' Jane Fosset BAFTA Award for Best British ActressGolden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama Laurel Award for Top Female Dramatic Performance (3rd place)New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress (2nd place)Nominated–Academy Award for Best Actress ''Three Fables of Love'' Annie Segment: \"Les deux pigeons\" 1964 ''Father Goose'' Catherine 1965 '''' Dr. Lauren Boullard ''Promise Her Anything'' Michele O'Brien 1966 ''Is Paris Burning?''",
"Françoise Labé 1967 ''The Head of the Family'' Paola, Marco's wife 1970 ''Madron'' Sister Mary 1971 ''Chandler'' Katherine Creighton 1976 ''Surreal Estate'' Céleste 1977 '''' Véra ''Valentino'' Alla Nazimova 1978 ''Crazed'' Nicole 1979 ''Goldengirl'' Dr. Sammy Lee 1980 ''All Stars'' Lucille Berger 1981 ''Chanel Solitaire'' uncredited 1982 ''Imperative'' Mother 1984 ''Dangerous Moves'' Henia Liebskind 1990 ''Courage Mountain'' Jane Hillary ''Guns'' Waitress 1992 ''Damage'' Elizabeth Prideaux 1995 ''Funny Bones'' Katie Parker ''Let It Be Me'' Marguerite 1999 '''' Regine De Chantelle 2000 ''Chocolat'' Madame Audel Nominated–Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture 2003 ''Le Divorce'' Suzanne de Persand 2017''The Perfect Age''Margueriteshort movie 2020 ''A Christmas Carol'' The Ghost of Christmas Past (voice)+Television Year Title Role Notes 1959 ''ITV Play of the Week'' Thérèse Tarde Episode: \"The Wild Bird\" 1968 ''Off to See the Wizard'' Ella Episode: \"Cinderella's Glass Slipper: Part 1\" 1973 ''Carola'' Carola Janssen TV film 1974''QB VII'' Angela Kelno Miniseries 1978 ''Docteur Erika Werner'' Erika Werner TV series 1980 '''' Penelope TV film 1981 ''Mon meilleur Noël'' La Nuit Episode: \"L'oiseau bleu\" 1982 ''Tales of the Unexpected'' Nathalie Vareille Episode: \"Run, Rabbit, Run\" 1982 '''' Klaudia TV film 1983 ''Cinéma 16'' Alice Episode: \"Le château faible\" 1984 ''Master of the Game'' Solange Dunas 1986 '''' Mrs. Duvall Episode: \"The Christmas Cruise\" 1987 ''Falcon Crest'' Nicole Sauget 3 episodes 1988 ''Lenin: The Train'' Nadia TV film 1988 ''The Man Who Lived at the Ritz'' Coco Chanel TV film 1994 ''Normandy: The Great Crusade'' Osmont, Mary-Louise (voice) 1996 '''' Madame de Saint Marne 1996 '''' Czarina Aleksandra Romanov (voice) 3 episodes 2000 '''' Madeleine TV film 2001 ''Murder on the Orient Express'' Sra.",
"Alvarado 2006 ''Law & Order: Special Victims Unit'' Lorraine Delmas Episode: \"Recall\"Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series 2013 ''Jo'' Josette Lenoir Episode: \"Le Marais\" 2016–2018 ''The Durrells'' Countess Mavrodaki 6 episodes2020''Written on the Water''PaulineTV film"
],
[
"Theatre",
"* 1955: '''''Orvet''''', by Jean Renoir, director Jean Renoir, Théâtre de la Renaissance, Paris* 1955: '''''Gigi''''', by Anita Loos, director Sir Peter Hall, New Theatre, London* 1961: '''''Ondine''''', by Jean Giraudoux, director Peter Hall, Aldwych Theatre, London.",
"The second act of this Royal Shakespeare Company production was broadcast on BBC Television on April 11, 1961.",
"* 1965: '''''Carola''''', by Jean Renoir, director Norman Lloyd, PBS, Los Angeles* 1975–1981: '''''13, rue de l'amour (Monsieur Chasse)''''', by Georges Feydeau, director Basil Langton, US and Australia* 1978: '''''Can-Can''''', musical by Cole Porter & Abe Burrows, director John Bishop, US and Canadian tour* 1983: '''''The rehearsal''''' by Jean Anouilh, director Gillian Lynne, English tour* 1984: '''''On your toes''''' by Rodgers and Hart, director George Abbott, US tour* 1985: '''''One for the Tango (Apprends-moi Céline)''''' by Maria Pacôme, director Pierre Epstein, US tour* 1985: '''''L'inaccessible''''', author and director Krzysztof Zanussi, Théâtre du Petit Odéon of Paris and Spoleto Festival, Italy* 1991: '''''Grand hotel''''', adaptation from the novel of Vicki Baum, director Tommy Tune, Berlin* 1991: '''''Le martyre de Saint Sebastien''''' by Claude Debussy and Gabriele d'Annunzio, narration, directed by Michael Tilson Thomas, London Symphony Orchestra* 1995: '''''George Sand et Chopin''''', author Bruno Villien, Greenwich Festival, Great Britain* 1997: '''''Nocturne for lovers''''', adaptation Gavin Lambert, director Kado Kostzer, Chichester Festival Theatre, Great Britain* 1997: '''''The story of Babar''''', by Jean de Brunhoff, narration, music from Francis Poulenc, Chichester Festival, Great Britain* 1998: '''''Apprends-moi Céline''''', by Maria Pacôme, director Raymond Acquaviva, French tour* 1999: '''''Readings from Colette''''', director Roger Hodgeman, Melbourne Festival, Australia* 1999: '''''Nocturne for lovers''''', director Roger Hodgeman, Melbourne Festival, Australia* 2006: '''''I Remember It Well''''' Special Guest Artist in a retrospective tribute to Lyricist Alan Jay Lerner (and his music), 42nd Street Moon Theatre Company, Herbst Theatre, San Francisco* 2009: '''''Thank Heaven''''' – 'platform' at the Théâtre National of London* 2009: '''''A Little Night Music''''' by Stephen Sondheim, director Lee Blakeley, Théâtre du Châtelet, Paris* 2014: '''''Six Dance Lessons in Six Weeks''''' by Richard Alfieri, director Michael Arabian, Laguna Playhouse, Laguna Beach, California"
],
[
"Recordings",
"* The Lover (l'Amant) by Marguerite Duras on cassettes* First World War for the radio* ''Le Martyre de Saint Sébastien'' by Claude Debussy and Gabriele d'Annunzio, with the London Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Michael Tilson Thomas* ''Gigi'' by Colette in English on cassettes recorded in public at Merkin Concert Hall at Abraham Goodman House in New York City, 1996* Narrated \"Carnival of the Animals\" music by Camille Saint-Saëns with the Nash Ensemble – Wigmore Hall, 1999* ''The Plutocrats'' play for the BBC dir.",
"Bill Bryden, written by Michael Hastings, from the novel by Booth Tarkington, January 1999"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* Caron, Leslie: ''Vengeance''.",
"Doubleday, 1982.",
"* Caron, Leslie: ''Thank Heaven: A Memoir''.",
"Viking Adult, 2009."
],
[
"Honors",
"* Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur by President François Mitterrand in June 1993* Ordre National du Mérite, by Catherine Trautmann, Minister of Culture, in February 1998* Officier de la Légion d'Honneur, given by Prime Minister Jean Pierre Raffarin in June 2004* Medaille D'Or De La Ville De Paris in 2012* Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur in March 2013* John F Kennedy Center Gold Medal in the Arts in 2015* The Oldie of the Year (TOOTY) in 2021* Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series in 2007"
],
[
"See also",
"* List of dancers"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Latvia"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Latvia''' ( , ; ), officially the '''Republic of Latvia''' (, , ), is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe.",
"It is one of the three Baltic states, along with Estonia to the north and Lithuania to the south.",
"It borders Russia to the east, Belarus to the southeast, and shares a maritime border with Sweden to the west.",
"Latvia covers an area of , with a population of 1.9 million.",
"The country has a temperate seasonal climate.",
"Its capital and largest city is Riga.",
"Latvians belong to the ethnolinguistic group of the Balts and speak Latvian, one of the only two surviving Baltic languages.",
"Russians are the most prominent minority in the country, at almost a quarter of the population.After centuries of Teutonic, Swedish, Polish-Lithuanian, and Russian rule, which was mainly implemented through the local Baltic German aristocracy, the independent Republic of Latvia was established on 18 November 1918 after breaking away from the German Empire in the aftermath of World War I.",
"The country became increasingly autocratic after the coup in 1934 established the dictatorship of Kārlis Ulmanis.",
"Latvia's ''de facto'' independence was interrupted at the outset of World War II, beginning with Latvia's forcible incorporation into the Soviet Union, followed by the invasion and occupation by Nazi Germany in 1941 and the re-occupation by the Soviets in 1944, which formed the Latvian SSR for the next 45 years.",
"As a result of extensive immigration during the Soviet occupation, ethnic Russians became the most prominent minority in the country.",
"The peaceful Singing Revolution started in 1987 among the Baltic Soviet republics and ended with the restoration of both ''de facto'' and officially independence on 21 August 1991.Latvia has since been a democratic unitary parliamentary republic.Latvia is a developed country with a high-income, advanced economy ranking 39th in the Human Development Index.",
"It is a member of the European Union, Eurozone, NATO, the Council of Europe, the United Nations, the Council of the Baltic Sea States, the International Monetary Fund, the Nordic-Baltic Eight, the Nordic Investment Bank, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, and the World Trade Organization."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The name ''Latvija'' is derived from the name of the ancient Latgalians, one of four Indo-European Baltic tribes (along with Curonians, Selonians and Semigallians), which formed the ethnic core of modern Latvians together with the Finnic Livonians.",
"Henry of Latvia coined the latinisations of the country's name, \"Lettigallia\" and \"Lethia\", both derived from the Latgalians.",
"The terms inspired the variations on the country's name in Romance languages from \"Letonia\" and in several Germanic languages from \"Lettland\"."
],
[
"History",
"Around 3000 BC, the proto-Baltic ancestors of the Latvian people settled on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea.",
"The Balts established trade routes to Rome and Byzantium, trading local amber for precious metals.",
"By 900 AD, four distinct Baltic tribes inhabited Latvia: Curonians, Latgalians, Selonians, Semigallians (in Latvian: ''kurši'', ''latgaļi'', ''sēļi'' and ''zemgaļi''), as well as the Finnic tribe of Livonians (''lībieši'') speaking a Finnic language.In the 12th century in the territory of Latvia, there were lands with their rulers: Vanema, Ventava, Bandava, Piemare, Duvzare, Sēlija, Koknese, Jersika, Tālava and Adzele.=== Medieval period ===Although the local people had contact with the outside world for centuries, they became more fully integrated into the European socio-political system in the 12th century.",
"The first missionaries, sent by the Pope, sailed up the Daugava River in the late 12th century, seeking converts.",
"The local people, however, did not convert to Christianity as readily as the Church had hoped.Turaida Castle near Sigulda, built in 1214 under Albert of RigaGerman crusaders were sent, or more likely decided to go of their own accord as they were known to do.",
"Saint Meinhard of Segeberg arrived in Ikšķile, in 1184, traveling with merchants to Livonia, on a Catholic mission to convert the population from their original pagan beliefs.",
"Pope Celestine III had called for a crusade against pagans in Northern Europe in 1193.When peaceful means of conversion failed to produce results, Meinhard plotted to convert Livonians by force of arms.At the beginning of the 13th century, Germans ruled large parts of what is currently Latvia.",
"The influx of German crusaders in the present-day Latvian territory especially increased in the second half of the 13th century following the decline and fall of the Crusader States in the Middle East.",
"Together with southern Estonia, these conquered areas formed the crusader state that became known as Terra Mariana (Medieval Latin for \"Land of Mary\") or Livonia.",
"In 1282, Riga, and later the cities of Cēsis, Limbaži, Koknese and Valmiera, became part of the Hanseatic League.",
"Riga became an important point of east–west trading and formed close cultural links with Western Europe.",
"The first German settlers were knights from northern Germany and citizens of northern German towns who brought their Low German language to the region, which shaped many loanwords in the Latvian language.=== Reformation period and Polish and Swedish rule ===The Polish-Lithuanian CommonwealthThe Swedish Empire (1560–1815).Riga became the capital of Swedish Livonia and the largest city in the Swedish Empire.After the Livonian War (1558–1583), Livonia (Northern Latvia & Southern Estonia) fell under Polish and Lithuanian rule.",
"The southern part of Estonia and the northern part of Latvia were ceded to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and formed into the Duchy of Livonia (''Ducatus Livoniae Ultradunensis'').",
"Gotthard Kettler, the last Master of the Order of Livonia, formed the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia.",
"Though the duchy was a vassal state to the Lithuanian Grand Duchy and later of the Polish and Lithuanian commonwealth, it retained a considerable degree of autonomy and experienced a golden age in the 16th century.",
"Latgalia, the easternmost region of Latvia, became a part of the Inflanty Voivodeship of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.In the 17th and early 18th centuries, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden, and Russia struggled for supremacy in the eastern Baltic.",
"After the Polish–Swedish War, northern Livonia (including Vidzeme) came under Swedish rule.",
"Riga became the capital of Swedish Livonia and the largest city in the entire Swedish Empire.",
"Fighting continued sporadically between Sweden and Poland until the Truce of Altmark in 1629.In Latvia, the Swedish period is generally remembered as positive; serfdom was eased, a network of schools was established for the peasantry, and the power of the regional barons was diminished.Several important cultural changes occurred during this time.",
"Under Swedish and largely German rule, western Latvia adopted Lutheranism as its main religion.",
"The ancient tribes of the Couronians, Semigallians, Selonians, Livs, and northern Latgallians assimilated to form the Latvian people, speaking one Latvian language.",
"Throughout all the centuries, however, an actual Latvian state had not been established, so the borders and definitions of who exactly fell within that group are largely subjective.",
"Meanwhile, largely isolated from the rest of Latvia, southern Latgallians adopted Catholicism under Polish/Jesuit influence.",
"The native dialect remained distinct, although it acquired many Polish and Russian loanwords.=== Livonia & Courland in the Russian Empire (1795–1917) ===During the Great Northern War (1700–1721), up to 40 percent of Latvians died from famine and plague.",
"Half the residents of Riga were killed by plague in 1710–1711.The capitulation of Estonia and Livonia in 1710 and the Treaty of Nystad, ending the Great Northern War in 1721, gave Vidzeme to Russia (it became part of the Riga Governorate).",
"The Latgale region remained part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as Inflanty Voivodeship until 1772, when it was incorporated into Russia.",
"The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, a vassal state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, was annexed by Russia in 1795 in the Third Partition of Poland, bringing all of what is now Latvia into the Russian Empire.",
"All three Baltic provinces preserved local laws, German as the local official language and their own parliament, the Landtag.The emancipation of the serfs took place in Courland in 1817 and in Vidzeme in 1819.In practice, however, the emancipation was actually advantageous to the landowners and nobility, as it dispossessed peasants of their land without compensation, forcing them to return to work at the estates \"of their own free will\".During these two centuries Latvia experienced economic and construction boom – ports were expanded (Riga became the largest port in the Russian Empire), railways built; new factories, banks, and a university were established; many residential, public (theatres and museums), and school buildings were erected; new parks formed; and so on.",
"Riga's boulevards and some streets outside the Old Town date from this period.Numeracy was also higher in the Livonian and Courlandian parts of the Russian Empire, which may have been influenced by the Protestant religion of the inhabitants.====National awakening====Latvians national rally in Dundaga in 1905During the 19th century, the social structure changed dramatically.",
"A class of independent farmers established itself after reforms allowed the peasants to repurchase their land, but many landless peasants remained, quite a lot Latvians left for the cities and sought for education, industrial jobs.",
"There also developed a growing urban proletariat and an increasingly influential Latvian bourgeoisie.",
"The Young Latvian () movement laid the groundwork for nationalism from the middle of the century, many of its leaders looking to the Slavophiles for support against the prevailing German-dominated social order.",
"The rise in use of the Latvian language in literature and society became known as the First National Awakening.",
"Russification began in Latgale after the Polish led the January Uprising in 1863: this spread to the rest of what is now Latvia by the 1880s.",
"The Young Latvians were largely eclipsed by the New Current, a broad leftist social and political movement, in the 1890s.",
"Popular discontent exploded in the 1905 Russian Revolution, which took a nationalist character in the Baltic provinces.=== Declaration of independence and interwar period ===Jānis Čakste (1859–1927), the first president of LatviaWorld War I devastated the territory of what became the state of Latvia, and other western parts of the Russian Empire.",
"Demands for self-determination were initially confined to autonomy, until a power vacuum was created by the Russian Revolution in 1917, followed by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk between Russia and Germany in March 1918, then the Allied armistice with Germany on 11 November 1918.On 18 November 1918, in Riga, the People's Council of Latvia proclaimed the independence of the new country and Kārlis Ulmanis was entrusted to set up a government and he took the position of Prime Minister.The General representative of Germany August Winnig formally handed over political power to the Latvian Provisional Government on 26 November.",
"On 18 November, the Latvian People's Council entrusted him to set up the government.",
"He took the office of Minister of Agriculture from 18 November to 19 December.",
"He took a position of Prime Minister from 19 November 1918 to 13 July 1919.The war of independence that followed was part of a general chaotic period of civil and new border wars in Eastern Europe.",
"By the spring of 1919, there were actually three governments: the Provisional government headed by Kārlis Ulmanis, supported by the Tautas padome and the Inter-Allied Commission of Control; the Latvian Soviet government led by Pēteris Stučka, supported by the Red Army; and the Provisional government headed by Andrievs Niedra and supported by the Baltische Landeswehr and the German Freikorps unit ''Iron Division''.Estonian and Latvian forces defeated the Germans at the Battle of Wenden in June 1919, and a massive attack by a predominantly German force—the West Russian Volunteer Army—under Pavel Bermondt-Avalov was repelled in November.",
"Eastern Latvia was cleared of Red Army forces by Latvian and Polish troops in early 1920 (from the Polish perspective the Battle of Daugavpils was a part of the Polish–Soviet War).A freely elected Constituent assembly convened on 1 May 1920, and adopted a liberal constitution, the ''Satversme'', in February 1922.The constitution was partly suspended by Kārlis Ulmanis after his coup in 1934 but reaffirmed in 1990.Since then, it has been amended and is still in effect in Latvia today.",
"With most of Latvia's industrial base evacuated to the interior of Russia in 1915, radical land reform was the central political question for the young state.",
"In 1897, 61.2% of the rural population had been landless; by 1936, that percentage had been reduced to 18%.By 1923, the extent of cultivated land surpassed the pre-war level.",
"Innovation and rising productivity led to rapid growth of the economy, but it soon suffered from the effects of the Great Depression.",
"Latvia showed signs of economic recovery, and the electorate had steadily moved toward the centre during the parliamentary period.",
"On 15 May 1934, Ulmanis staged a bloodless coup, establishing a nationalist dictatorship that lasted until 1940.After 1934, Ulmanis established government corporations to buy up private firms with the aim of \"Latvianising\" the economy.=== Latvia in World War II ===Red Army troops enter Riga (1940).Early in the morning of 24 August 1939, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed a 10-year non-aggression pact, called the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.",
"The pact contained a secret protocol, revealed only after Germany's defeat in 1945, according to which the states of Northern and Eastern Europe were divided into German and Soviet \"spheres of influence\".",
"In the north, Latvia, Finland and Estonia were assigned to the Soviet sphere.",
"A week later, on 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland; on 17 September, the Soviet Union invaded Poland as well.After the conclusion of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, most of the Baltic Germans left Latvia by agreement between Ulmanis's government and Nazi Germany under the Heim ins Reich programme.",
"In total 50,000 Baltic Germans left by the deadline of December 1939, with 1,600 remaining to conclude business and 13,000 choosing to remain in Latvia.",
"Most of those who remained left for Germany in summer 1940, when a second resettlement scheme was agreed.",
"The racially approved being resettled mainly in Poland, being given land and businesses in exchange for the money they had received from the sale of their previous assets.On 5 October 1939, Latvia was forced to accept a \"mutual assistance\" pact with the Soviet Union, granting the Soviets the right to station between 25,000 and 30,000 troops on Latvian territory.State administrators were murdered and replaced by Soviet cadres.",
"Elections were held with single pro-Soviet candidates listed for many positions.",
"The resulting people's assembly immediately requested admission into the USSR, which the Soviet Union granted.",
"Latvia, then a puppet government, was headed by Augusts Kirhenšteins.",
"The Soviet Union incorporated Latvia on 5 August 1940, as the ''Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic.",
"''German soldiers enter Riga, July 1941.The Soviets dealt harshly with their opponents – prior to Operation Barbarossa, in less than a year, at least 34,250 Latvians were deported or killed.",
"Most were deported to Siberia where deaths were estimated at 40 percent.On 22 June 1941, German troops attacked Soviet forces in Operation Barbarossa.",
"There were some spontaneous uprisings by Latvians against the Red Army which helped the Germans.",
"By 29 June Riga was reached and with Soviet troops killed, captured or retreating, Latvia was left under the control of German forces by early July.",
"The occupation was followed immediately by SS Einsatzgruppen troops, who were to act in accordance with the Nazi Generalplan Ost that required the population of Latvia to be cut by 50 percent.Under German occupation, Latvia was administered as part of ''Reichskommissariat Ostland''.",
"Latvian paramilitary and Auxiliary Police units established by the occupation authority participated in the Holocaust and other atrocities.",
"30,000 Jews were shot in Latvia in the autumn of 1941.Another 30,000 Jews from the Riga ghetto were killed in the Rumbula Forest in November and December 1941, to reduce overpopulation in the ghetto and make room for more Jews being brought in from Germany and the West.",
"There was a pause in fighting, apart from partisan activity, until after the siege of Leningrad ended in January 1944, and the Soviet troops advanced, entering Latvia in July and eventually capturing Riga on 13 October 1944.More than 200,000 Latvian citizens died during World War II, including approximately 75,000 Latvian Jews murdered during the Nazi occupation.",
"Latvian soldiers fought on both sides of the conflict, mainly on the German side, with 140,000 men in the Latvian Legion of the Waffen-SS, The 308th Latvian Rifle Division was formed by the Red Army in 1944.On occasions, especially in 1944, opposing Latvian troops faced each other in battle.In the 23rd block of the Vorverker cemetery, a monument was erected after the Second World War for the people of Latvia who had died in Lübeck from 1945 to 1950.=== Soviet era (1940–1941, 1944–1991) ===Red Army soldiers in front of the Freedom Monument in Riga in 1944In 1944, when Soviet military advances reached Latvia, heavy fighting took place in Latvia between German and Soviet troops, which ended in another German defeat.",
"In the course of the war, both occupying forces conscripted Latvians into their armies, in this way increasing the loss of the nation's \"live resources\".",
"In 1944, part of the Latvian territory once more came under Soviet control.",
"The Soviets immediately began to reinstate the Soviet system.",
"After the German surrender, it became clear that Soviet forces were there to stay, and Latvian national partisans, soon joined by some who had collaborated with the Germans, began to fight against the new occupier.Anywhere from 120,000 to as many as 300,000 Latvians took refuge from the Soviet army by fleeing to Germany and Sweden.",
"Most sources count 200,000 to 250,000 refugees leaving Latvia, with perhaps as many as 80,000 to 100,000 of them recaptured by the Soviets or, during few months immediately after the end of war, returned by the West.The Soviets reoccupied the country in 1944–1945, and further deportations followed as the country was collectivisedand Sovietised.",
"On 25 March 1949, 43,000 rural residents (\"kulaks\") and Latvian nationalists were deported to Siberia in a sweeping Operation Priboi in all three Baltic states, which was carefully planned and approved in Moscow already on 29 January 1949.This operation had the desired effect of reducing the anti-Soviet partisan activity.",
"Between 136,000 and 190,000 Latvians, depending on the sources, were imprisoned or deported to Soviet concentration camps (the Gulag) in the post-war years from 1945 to 1952.Reconstruction of a Gulag shack in the Museum of the Occupation of Latvia, RigaIn the post-war period, Latvia was made to adopt Soviet farming methods.",
"Rural areas were forced into collectivization.",
"An extensive program to impose bilingualism was initiated in Latvia, limiting the use of Latvian language in official uses in favor of using Russian as the main language.",
"All of the minority schools (Jewish, Polish, Belarusian, Estonian, Lithuanian) were closed down leaving only two media of instructions in the schools: Latvian and Russian.",
"An influx of new colonists, including laborers, administrators, military personnel and their dependents from Russia and other Soviet republics started.",
"By 1959 about 400,000 Russian settlers arrived and the ethnic Latvian population had fallen to 62%.Since Latvia had maintained a well-developed infrastructure and educated specialists, Moscow decided to base some of the Soviet Union's most advanced manufacturing in Latvia.",
"New industry was created in Latvia, including a major machinery factory RAF in Jelgava, electrotechnical factories in Riga, chemical factories in Daugavpils, Valmiera and Olaine—and some food and oil processing plants.",
"Latvia manufactured trains, ships, minibuses, mopeds, telephones, radios and hi-fi systems, electrical and diesel engines, textiles, furniture, clothing, bags and luggage, shoes, musical instruments, home appliances, watches, tools and equipment, aviation and agricultural equipment and long list of other goods.",
"Latvia had its own film industry and musical records factory (LPs).",
"However, there were not enough people to operate the newly built factories.",
"To maintain and expand industrial production, skilled workers were migrating from all over the Soviet Union, decreasing the proportion of ethnic Latvians in the republic.",
"The population of Latvia reached its peak in 1990 at just under 2.7 million people.In late 2018 the National Archives of Latvia released a full alphabetical index of some 10,000 people recruited as agents or informants by the Soviet KGB.",
"'The publication, which followed two decades of public debate and the passage of a special law, revealed the names, code names, birthplaces and other data on active and former KGB agents as of 1991, the year Latvia regained its independence from the Soviet Union.",
"'=== Restoration of independence in 1991 ===Barricade in Riga to prevent the Soviet Army from reaching the Latvian Parliament in July 1991In the second half of the 1980s, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev started to introduce political and economic reforms in the Soviet Union that were called glasnost and perestroika.",
"In the summer of 1987, the first large demonstrations were held in Riga at the Freedom Monument—a symbol of independence.",
"In the summer of 1988, a national movement, coalescing in the Popular Front of Latvia, was opposed by the Interfront.",
"The Latvian SSR, along with the other Baltic Republics was allowed greater autonomy, and in 1988, the old pre-war Flag of Latvia flew again, replacing the Soviet Latvian flag as the official flag in 1990.In 1989, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a resolution on the ''Occupation of the Baltic states'', in which it declared the occupation \"not in accordance with law\", and not the \"will of the Soviet people\".",
"Pro-independence Popular Front of Latvia candidates gained a two-thirds majority in the Supreme Council in the March 1990 democratic elections.",
"On 4 May 1990, the Supreme Council adopted the Declaration on the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia, and the Latvian SSR was renamed Republic of Latvia.However, the central power in Moscow continued to regard Latvia as a Soviet republic in 1990 and 1991.In January 1991, Soviet political and military forces unsuccessfully tried to overthrow the Republic of Latvia authorities by occupying the central publishing house in Riga and establishing a Committee of National Salvation to usurp governmental functions.",
"During the transitional period, Moscow maintained many central Soviet state authorities in Latvia.The Popular Front of Latvia advocated that all permanent residents be eligible for Latvian citizenship, however, universal citizenship for all permanent residents was not adopted.",
"Instead, citizenship was granted to persons who had been citizens of Latvia on the day of loss of independence in 1940 as well as their descendants.",
"As a consequence, the majority of ethnic non-Latvians did not receive Latvian citizenship since neither they nor their parents had ever been citizens of Latvia, becoming non-citizens or citizens of other former Soviet republics.",
"By 2011, more than half of non-citizens had taken naturalization exams and received Latvian citizenship, but in 2015 there were still 290,660 non-citizens in Latvia, which represented 14.1% of the population.",
"They have no citizenship of any country, and cannot participate in the parliamentary elections.",
"Children born to non-nationals after the re-establishment of independence are automatically entitled to citizenship.Latvia became a member of the European Union in 2004 and signed the Lisbon Treaty in 2007.The Republic of Latvia declared the end of the transitional period and restored full independence on 21 August 1991, in the aftermath of the failed Soviet coup attempt.",
"Latvia resumed diplomatic relations with Western states, including Sweden.",
"The Saeima, Latvia's parliament, was again elected in 1993.Russia ended its military presence by completing its troop withdrawal in 1994 and shutting down the Skrunda-1 radar station in 1998.=== Since joining the EU in 2004 ===The major goals of Latvia in the 1990s, to join NATO and the European Union, were achieved in 2004.The NATO Summit 2006 was held in Riga.",
"Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga was President of Latvia from 1999 until 2007.She was the first female head of state in the former Soviet block state and was active in Latvia joining both NATO and the European Union in 2004.Latvia signed the Schengen agreement on 16 April 2003 and started its implementation on 21 December 2007.Approximately 72% of Latvian citizens are Latvian, while 20% are Russian.",
"The government denationalized private property confiscated by the Soviets, returning it or compensating the owners for it, and privatized most state-owned industries, reintroducing the prewar currency.",
"Albeit having experienced a difficult transition to a liberal economy and its re-orientation toward Western Europe, Latvia is one of the fastest growing economies in the European Union.",
"In November 2013, roof collapsed at a shopping center in Riga, causing Latvia’s worst post-independence disaster with the deaths of 54 rush hour shoppers and rescue personnel.",
"In 2014, Riga was the European Capital of Culture, Latvia joined the eurozone and adopted the EU single currency euro as the currency of the country and Latvian Valdis Dombrovskis was named vice-president of the European Commission.",
"In 2015 Latvia held the presidency of Council of the European Union.",
"Big European events have been celebrated in Riga such as the Eurovision Song Contest 2003 and the European Film Awards 2014.On 1 July 2016, Latvia became a member of the OECD.",
"In May 2023, the parliament elected Edgars Rinkēvičs as new President of Latvia, making him the European Union’s first openly gay head of state.",
"After years of debates, Latvia ratified the EU ''Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence'', otherwise known as the Istanbul Convention in November 2023."
],
[
"Geography",
"Latvia lies in Northern Europe, on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea.Latvia lies in Northern Europe, on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea and northwestern part of the East European Craton (EEC), between latitudes 55° and 58° N (a small area is north of 58°), and longitudes 21° and 29° E (a small area is west of 21°).",
"Latvia has a total area of of which land, agricultural land, forest land and inland water.The total length of Latvia's boundary is .",
"The total length of its land boundary is , of which is shared with Estonia to the north, with the Russian Federation to the east, with Belarus to the southeast and with Lithuania to the south.",
"The total length of its maritime boundary is , which is shared with Estonia, Sweden and Lithuania.",
"Extension from north to south is and from west to east .Most of Latvia's territory is less than above sea level.",
"Its largest lake, Lubāns, has an area of , its deepest lake, Drīdzis, is deep.",
"The longest river on Latvian territory is the Gauja, at in length.",
"The longest river flowing through Latvian territory is the Daugava, which has a total length of , of which is on Latvian territory.",
"Latvia's highest point is Gaiziņkalns, .",
"The length of Latvia's Baltic coastline is .",
"An inlet of the Baltic Sea, the shallow Gulf of Riga is situated in the northwest of the country.=== Climate ===Latvia has a temperate climate that has been described in various sources as either humid continental (Köppen ''Dfb'') or oceanic/maritime (Köppen ''Cfb'').Coastal regions, especially the western coast of the Courland Peninsula, possess a more maritime climate with cooler summers and milder winters, while eastern parts exhibit a more continental climate with warmer summers and harsher winters.",
"Nevertheless, the temperature variations are little as the territory of Latvia is relatively small.",
"Moreover, Latvia's terrain is particularly flat (no more than 350 meters high), thus the Latvian climate is not differentiated by altitude.Latvia has four pronounced seasons of near-equal length.",
"Winter starts in mid-December and lasts until mid-March.",
"Winters have average temperatures of and are characterized by stable snow cover, bright sunshine, and short days.",
"Severe spells of winter weather with cold winds, extreme temperatures of around and heavy snowfalls are common.",
"Summer starts in June and lasts until August.",
"Summers are usually warm and sunny, with cool evenings and nights.",
"Summers have average temperatures of around , with extremes of .",
"Spring and autumn bring fairly mild weather.+'''Weather records in Latvia''' Weather record Value Location Date Highest temperature Ventspils 4 August 2014 Lowest temperature Daugavpils 8 February 1956 Last spring frost – Large parts of territory 24 June 1982 First autumn frost – Cenas parish 15 August 1975 Highest yearly precipitation Priekuļi parish 1928 Lowest yearly precipitation Ainaži 1939 Highest daily precipitation Ventspils 9 July 1973 Highest monthly precipitation Nīca parish August 1972 Lowest monthly precipitation Large parts of territory May 1938 and May 1941 Thickest snow cover Gaiziņkalns March 1931 Month with the most days with blizzards 19 days Liepāja February 1956 The most days with fog in a year 143 days Gaiziņkalns area 1946 Longest-lasting fog 93 hours Alūksne 1958 Highest atmospheric pressure Liepāja January 1907 Lowest atmospheric pressure Vidzeme Upland 13 February 1962 The most days with thunderstorms in a year 52 days Vidzeme Upland 1954 Strongest wind 34 m/s, up to 48 m/s Not specified 2 November 19692019 was the warmest year in the history of weather observation in Latvia with an average temperature +8.1 °C higher.=== Environment ===Latvia has the fifth highest proportion of land covered by forests in the European Union.Most of the country is composed of fertile lowland plains and moderate hills.",
"In a typical Latvian landscape, a mosaic of vast forests alternates with fields, farmsteads, and pastures.",
"Arable land is spotted with birch groves and wooded clusters, which afford a habitat for numerous plants and animals.",
"Latvia has hundreds of kilometres of undeveloped seashore—lined by pine forests, dunes, and continuous white sand beaches.Latvia has the fifth highest proportion of land covered by forests in the European Union, after Sweden, Finland, Estonia and Slovenia.",
"Forests account for or 56% of the total land area.Latvia has over 12,500 rivers, which stretch for .",
"Major rivers include the Daugava River, Lielupe, Gauja, Venta, and Salaca, the largest spawning ground for salmon in the eastern Baltic states.",
"There are 2,256 lakes that are bigger than , with a collective area of .",
"Mires occupy 9.9% of Latvia's territory.",
"Of these, 42% are raised bogs; 49% are fens; and 9% are transitional mires.",
"70% percent of the mires are untouched by civilization, and they are a refuge for many rare species of plants and animals.Agricultural areas account for or 29% of the total land area.",
"With the dismantling of collective farms, the area devoted to farming decreased dramatically – now farms are predominantly small.",
"Approximately 200 farms, occupying , are engaged in ecologically pure farming (using no artificial fertilizers or pesticides).Latvia's national parks are Gauja National Park in Vidzeme (since 1973), Ķemeri National Park in Zemgale (1997), Slītere National Park in Kurzeme (1999), and Rāzna National Park in Latgale (2007).Latvia has a long tradition of conservation.",
"The first laws and regulations were promulgated in the 16th and 17th centuries.",
"There are 706 specially state-level protected natural areas in Latvia: four national parks, one biosphere reserve, 42 nature parks, nine areas of protected landscapes, 260 nature reserves, four strict nature reserves, 355 nature monuments, seven protected marine areas and 24 microreserves.",
"Nationally protected areas account for or around 20% of Latvia's total land area.",
"Latvia's Red Book (Endangered Species List of Latvia), which was established in 1977, contains 112 plant species and 119 animal species.",
"Latvia has ratified the international Washington, Bern, and Ramsare conventions.The 2012 Environmental Performance Index ranks Latvia second, after Switzerland, based on the environmental performance of the country's policies.Access to biocapacity in Latvia is much higher than world average.",
"In 2016, Latvia had 8.5 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much more than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.",
"In 2016 Latvia used 6.4 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their ecological footprint of consumption.",
"This means they use less biocapacity than Latvia contains.",
"As a result, Latvia is running a biocapacity reserve.=== Biodiversity ===The white wagtail is the national bird of Latvia.Approximately 30,000 species of flora and fauna have been registered in Latvia.",
"Common species of wildlife in Latvia include deer, wild boar, moose, lynx, bear, fox, beaver and wolves.",
"Non-marine molluscs of Latvia include 159 species.Species that are endangered in other European countries but common in Latvia include: black stork (''Ciconia nigra''), corncrake (''Crex crex''), lesser spotted eagle (''Aquila pomarina''), white-backed woodpecker (''Picoides leucotos''), Eurasian crane (''Grus grus''), Eurasian beaver (''Castor fiber''), Eurasian otter (''Lutra lutra''), European wolf (''Canis lupus'') and European lynx (''Felis lynx'').Phytogeographically, Latvia is shared between the Central European and Northern European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom.",
"According to the WWF, the territory of Latvia belongs to the ecoregion of Sarmatic mixed forests.",
"56 percent of Latvia's territory is covered by forests, mostly Scots pine, birch, and Norway spruce.",
"It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 2.09/10, ranking it 159th globally out of 172 countries.Several species of flora and fauna are considered national symbols.",
"Oak (''Quercus robur'', ), and linden (''Tilia cordata'', ) are Latvia's national trees and the daisy (''Leucanthemum vulgare'', ) its national flower.",
"The white wagtail (''Motacilla alba'', ) is Latvia's national bird.",
"Its national insect is the two-spot ladybird (''Adalia bipunctata'', ).",
"Amber, fossilized tree resin, is one of Latvia's most important cultural symbols.",
"In ancient times, amber found along the Baltic Sea coast was sought by Vikings as well as traders from Egypt, Greece and the Roman Empire.",
"This led to the development of the Amber Road.Several nature reserves protect unspoiled landscapes with a variety of large animals.",
"At Pape Nature Reserve, where European bison, wild horses, and recreated aurochs have been reintroduced, there is now an almost complete Holocene megafauna also including moose, deer, and wolf."
],
[
"Politics",
" 125px 125pxEdgars RinkēvičsPresidentEvika SiliņaPrime MinisterThe 100-seat unicameral Latvian parliament, the ''Saeima'', is elected by direct popular vote every four years.",
"The president is elected by the ''Saeima'' in a separate election, also held every four years.",
"The president appoints a prime minister who, together with his cabinet, forms the executive branch of the government, which has to receive a confidence vote by the ''Saeima''.",
"This system also existed before World War II.",
"The most senior civil servants are the thirteen Secretaries of State.building of the ''Saeima'', the parliament of Latvia, in Riga=== Administrative divisions ===Historical regions: Courland Semigallia Vidzeme Latgale SeloniaAdministrative divisions of LatviaLatvia is a unitary state, currently divided into 43 local government units consisting of 36 municipalities () and 7 state cities () with their own city council and administration: Daugavpils, Jelgava, Jūrmala, Liepāja, Rēzekne, Riga, and Ventspils.",
"There are four historical and cultural regions in Latvia – Courland, Latgale, Vidzeme, Zemgale, which are recognised in Constitution of Latvia.",
"Selonia, a part of Zemgale, is sometimes considered culturally distinct region, but it is not part of any formal division.",
"The borders of historical and cultural regions usually are not explicitly defined and in several sources may vary.",
"In formal divisions, Riga region, which includes the capital and parts of other regions that have a strong relationship with the capital, is also often included in regional divisions; e.g., there are five planning regions of Latvia (), which were created in 2009 to promote balanced development of all regions.",
"Under this division Riga region includes large parts of what traditionally is considered Vidzeme, Courland, and Zemgale.",
"Statistical regions of Latvia, established in accordance with the EU Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics, duplicate this division, but divides Riga region into two parts with the capital alone being a separate region.The largest city in Latvia is Riga, the second largest city is Daugavpils and the third largest city is Liepaja.=== Political culture ===In 2010 parliamentary election ruling centre-right coalition won 63 out of 100 parliamentary seats.",
"Left-wing opposition Harmony Centre supported by Latvia's Russian-speaking minority got 29 seats.",
"In November 2013, Latvian Prime Minister Valdis Dombrovskis, in office since 2009, resigned after at least 54 people were killed and dozens injured in the collapse at a supermarket in Riga.In 2014 parliamentary election was won again by the ruling centre-right coalition formed by the Unity Party, the National Alliance and the Union of Greens and Farmers.",
"They got 61 seats and Harmony got 24.In December 2015, country's first female Prime Minister, in office since January 2014, Laimdota Straujuma resigned.",
"In February 2016, a coalition of Union of Greens and Farmers, The Unity and National Alliance was formed by new Prime Minister Maris Kucinskis.In 2018 parliamentary election pro-Russian Harmony was again the biggest party securing 23 out of 100 seats, the second and third were the new populist parties KPV LV and New Conservative Party.",
"Ruling coalition, comprising the Union of Greens and Farmers, the National Alliance and the Unity party, lost.",
"In January 2019, Latvia got a government led by new Prime Minister Krisjanis Karins of the centre-right New Unity.",
"Karins' coalition was formed by five of the seven parties in parliament, excluding only the pro-Russia Harmony party and the Union of Greens and Farmers.",
"On 15 September 2023, Evika Siliņa became the new prime minister of Latvia, following resignation of former Prime Minister Krišjānis Kariņš previous month.",
"Siliņa’s government is a three-party coalition between her own New Unity (JV) party, the Greens and Farmers Union (ZZS), and the social-democratic Progressives (PRO) with total 52 of 100 seats in the parliament.=== Foreign relations ===The building of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in RigaLatvia is a member of the United Nations, European Union, Council of Europe, NATO, OECD, OSCE, IMF, and WTO.",
"It is also a member of the Council of the Baltic Sea States and Nordic Investment Bank.",
"It was a member of the League of Nations (1921–1946).",
"Latvia is part of the Schengen Area and joined the Eurozone on 1 January 2014.Latvia has established diplomatic relations with 158 countries.",
"It has 44 diplomatic and consular missions and maintains 34 embassies and 9 permanent representations abroad.",
"There are 37 foreign embassies and 11 international organisations in Latvia's capital Riga.",
"Latvia hosts one European Union institution, the Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications (BEREC).Latvia's foreign policy priorities include co-operation in the Baltic Sea region, European integration, active involvement in international organisations, contribution to European and transatlantic security and defence structures, participation in international civilian and military peacekeeping operations, and development co-operation, particularly the strengthening of stability and democracy in the EU's Eastern Partnership countries.Foreign ministers of the Nordic and Baltic countries in Helsinki, 2011Since the early 1990s, Latvia has been involved in active trilateral Baltic states co-operation with its neighbours Estonia and Lithuania, and Nordic-Baltic co-operation with the Nordic countries.",
"Latvia is a member of the interparliamentary Baltic Assembly, the intergovernmental Baltic Council of Ministers and the Council of the Baltic Sea States.",
"Nordic-Baltic Eight (NB-8) is the joint co-operation of the governments of Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, and Sweden.",
"Nordic-Baltic Six (NB-6), comprising Nordic-Baltic countries that are European Union member states, is a framework for meetings on EU-related issues.",
"Interparliamentary co-operation between the Baltic Assembly and Nordic Council was signed in 1992 and since 2006 annual meetings are held as well as regular meetings on other levels.",
"Joint Nordic-Baltic co-operation initiatives include the education programme NordPlus and mobility programmes for public administration, business and industry and culture.",
"The Nordic Council of Ministers has an office in Riga.Latvia participates in the Northern Dimension and Baltic Sea Region Programme, European Union initiatives to foster cross-border co-operation in the Baltic Sea region and Northern Europe.",
"The secretariat of the Northern Dimension Partnership on Culture (NDPC) will be located in Riga.",
"In 2013 Riga hosted the annual Northern Future Forum, a two-day informal meeting of the prime ministers of the Nordic-Baltic countries and the UK.",
"The Enhanced Partnership in Northern Europe or ''e-Pine'' is the U.S. Department of State diplomatic framework for co-operation with the Nordic-Baltic countries.Latvia hosted the 2006 NATO Summit and since then the annual Riga Conference has become a leading foreign and security policy forum in Northern Europe.",
"Latvia held the Presidency of the Council of the European Union in the first half of 2015.Since February 2022 Latvia's relations with Russia have deteriorated to the extent that Latvia withdrew its ambassador from Russia and expelled Russia's ambassador to Latvia in January 2023 and banned Russians from entering Latvia.=== Military ===Naval Forces minehunter ''Imanta''CVR(T) Scimitar in Latvian serviceThe National Armed Forces (Latvian: ''Nacionālie bruņotie spēki (NAF)'') of Latvia consists of the Land Forces, Naval Forces, Air Force, National Guard, Special Tasks Unit, Military Police, NAF staff Battalion, Training and Doctrine Command, and Logistics Command.",
"Latvia's defence concept is based upon the Swedish-Finnish model of a rapid response force composed of a mobilisation base and a small group of career professionals.",
"From 1 January 2007, Latvia switched to a professional fully contract-based army.Latvia participates in international peacekeeping and security operations.",
"Latvian armed forces have contributed to NATO and EU military operations in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1996–2009), Albania (1999), Kosovo (2000–2009), Macedonia (2003), Iraq (2005–2006), Afghanistan (since 2003), Somalia (since 2011) and Mali (since 2013).",
"Latvia also took part in the US-led Multi-National Force operation in Iraq (2003–2008) and OSCE missions in Georgia, Kosovo and Macedonia.",
"Latvian armed forces contributed to a UK-led Battlegroup in 2013 and the Nordic Battlegroup in 2015 under the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) of the European Union.",
"Latvia acts as the lead nation in the coordination of the Northern Distribution Network for transportation of non-lethal ISAF cargo by air and rail to Afghanistan.",
"It is part of the Nordic Transition Support Unit (NTSU), which renders joint force contributions in support of Afghan security structures ahead of the withdrawal of Nordic and Baltic ISAF forces in 2014.Since 1996 more than 3600 military personnel have participated in international operations, of whom 7 soldiers perished.",
"Per capita, Latvia is one of the largest contributors to international military operations.Latvian civilian experts have contributed to EU civilian missions: border assistance mission to Moldova and Ukraine (2005–2009), rule of law missions in Iraq (2006 and 2007) and Kosovo (since 2008), police mission in Afghanistan (since 2007) and monitoring mission in Georgia (since 2008).Since March 2004, when the Baltic states joined NATO, fighter jets of NATO members have been deployed on a rotational basis for the Baltic Air Policing mission at Šiauliai Airport in Lithuania to guard the Baltic airspace.",
"Latvia participates in several NATO Centres of Excellence: Civil-Military Co-operation in the Netherlands, Cooperative Cyber Defence in Estonia and Energy Security in Lithuania.",
"It plans to establish the NATO Strategic Communications Centre of Excellence in Riga.Latvia co-operates with Estonia and Lithuania in several trilateral Baltic defence co-operation initiatives:* Baltic Battalion ''(BALTBAT)'' – infantry battalion for participation in international peace support operations, headquartered near Riga, Latvia;* Baltic Naval Squadron ''(BALTRON)'' – naval force with mine countermeasures capabilities, headquartered near Tallinn, Estonia;* Baltic Air Surveillance Network ''(BALTNET)'' – air surveillance information system, headquartered near Kaunas, Lithuania;* Joint military educational institutions: Baltic Defence College in Tartu, Estonia, Baltic Diving Training Centre in Liepāja, Latvia and Baltic Naval Communications Training Centre in Tallinn, Estonia.Future co-operation will include sharing of national infrastructures for training purposes and specialisation of training areas ''(BALTTRAIN)'' and collective formation of battalion-sized contingents for use in the NATO rapid-response force.",
"In January 2011, the Baltic states were invited to join Nordic Defence Cooperation, the defence framework of the Nordic countries.",
"In November 2012, the three countries agreed to create a joint military staff in 2013.On 21 April 2022, Latvian Saeima passed amendments developed by the Ministry of Defence for the legislative draft Amendments to the Law on Financing of National Defence, which provide for gradual increase in the defence budget to 2.5% of the country's GDP over the course of the next three year.=== Human rights ===Europride 2015 in RigaAccording to the reports by Freedom House and the US Department of State, human rights in Latvia are generally respected by the government: Latvia is ranked above-average among the world's sovereign states in democracy, press freedom, privacy and human development.More than 56% of leading positions are held by women in Latvia, which ranks first in Europe; Latvia ranks first in the world in women's rights sharing the position with five other European countries according to World Bank.The country has a large ethnic Russian community, which was guaranteed basic rights under the constitution and international human rights laws ratified by the Latvian government.Approximately 206,000 non-citizens – including stateless persons – have limited access to some political rights – only citizens are allowed to participate in parliamentary or municipal elections, although there are no limitations in regards to joining political parties or other political organizations.",
"In 2011, the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities \"urged Latvia to allow non-citizens to vote in municipal elections.\"",
"Additionally, there have been reports of police abuse of detainees and arrestees, poor prison conditions and overcrowding, judicial corruption, incidents of violence against ethnic minorities, and societal violence and incidents of government discrimination against homosexuals.",
"Same-sex marriage is constitutionally prohibited in Latvia."
],
[
"Economy",
"Latvia is part of the European single market (light blue), Eurozone (dark blue) and Schengen Area (not shown).Real GPD per capita development of Estonia, Latvia and LithuaniaLatvia is a member of the World Trade Organization (1999) and the European Union (2004).",
"On 1 January 2014, the euro became the country's currency, superseding the Lats.",
"According to statistics in late 2013, 45% of the population supported the introduction of the euro, while 52% opposed it.",
"Following the introduction of the Euro, Eurobarometer surveys in January 2014 showed support for the euro to be around 53%, close to the European average.Since the year 2000, Latvia has had one of the highest (GDP) growth rates in Europe.",
"However, the chiefly consumption-driven growth in Latvia resulted in the collapse of Latvian GDP in late 2008 and early 2009, exacerbated by the global economic crisis, shortage of credit and huge money resources used for the bailout of Parex Bank.",
"The Latvian economy fell 18% in the first three months of 2009, the biggest fall in the European Union.The economic crisis of 2009 proved earlier assumptions that the fast-growing economy was heading for implosion of the economic bubble, because it was driven mainly by growth of domestic consumption, financed by a serious increase of private debt, as well as a negative foreign trade balance.",
"The prices of real estate, which rose 150% from 2004 to 2006, was a significant contributor to the economic bubble.Privatisation in Latvia is almost complete.",
"Virtually all of the previously state-owned small and medium companies have been privatised, leaving only a small number of politically sensitive large state companies.",
"The private sector accounted for 70% of the country's GDP in 2006.Foreign investment in Latvia is still modest compared with the levels in north-central Europe.",
"A law expanding the scope for selling land, including to foreigners, was passed in 1997.Representing 10.2% of Latvia's total foreign direct investment, American companies invested $127 million in 1999.In the same year, the United States of America exported $58.2 million of goods and services to Latvia and imported $87.9 million.",
"Eager to join Western economic institutions like the World Trade Organization, OECD, and the European Union, Latvia signed a Europe Agreement with the EU in 1995—with a 4-year transition period.",
"Latvia and the United States have signed treaties on investment, trade, and intellectual property protection and avoidance of double taxation.In 2010 Latvia launched a Residence by Investment program (Golden Visa) in order to attract foreign investors and make local economy benefit from it.",
"This program allows investors to get a Latvian residence permit by investing at least €250,000 in property or in an enterprise with at least 50 employees and an annual turnover of at least €10M.",
"; Economic contraction and recovery (2008–12)An airBaltic Boeing 757−200WL takes off at Riga International Airport (RIX).The Latvian economy entered a phase of fiscal contraction during the second half of 2008 after an extended period of credit-based speculation and unrealistic appreciation in real estate values.",
"The national account deficit for 2007, for example, represented more than 22% of the GDP for the year while inflation was running at 10%.Latvia's unemployment rate rose sharply in this period from a low of 5.4% in November 2007 to over 22%.",
"In April 2010 Latvia had the highest unemployment rate in the EU, at 22.5%, ahead of Spain, which had 19.7%.Paul Krugman, the Nobel Laureate in economics for 2008, wrote in his New York Times Op-Ed column on 15 December 2008:The most acute problems are on Europe's periphery, where many smaller economies are experiencing crises strongly reminiscent of past crises in Latin America and Asia: Latvia is the new ArgentinaHowever, by 2010, commentators noted signs of stabilisation in the Latvian economy.",
"Rating agency Standard & Poor's raised its outlook on Latvia's debt from negative to stable.",
"Latvia's current account, which had been in deficit by 27% in late 2006 was in surplus in February 2010.Kenneth Orchard, senior analyst at Moody's Investors Service argued that:The strengthening regional economy is supporting Latvian production and exports, while the sharp swing in the current account balance suggests that the country's 'internal devaluation' is working.The IMF concluded the First Post-Program Monitoring Discussions with the Republic of Latvia in July 2012 announcing that Latvia's economy has been recovering strongly since 2010, following the deep downturn in 2008–09.Real GDP growth of 5.5 percent in 2011 was underpinned by export growth and a recovery in domestic demand.",
"The growth momentum has continued into 2012 and 2013 despite deteriorating external conditions, and the economy is expected to expand by 4.1 percent in 2014.The unemployment rate has receded from its peak of more than 20 percent in 2010 to around 9.3 percent in 2014.; Economic recoveryGDP at current prices rose from €23.7 billion in 2014 to €30.5 billion in 2019.The employment rate rose in the same period from 59.1% to 65% with unemployment falling from 10.8% to 6.5%.=== Infrastructure ======= Transport ====Port of Ventspils is one of the busiest ports in the Baltic states.The transport sector is around 14% of GDP.",
"Transit between Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan as well as other Asian countries and the West used to be large.The four biggest ports of Latvia are located in Riga, Ventspils, Liepāja and Skulte.",
"Most transit traffic uses these and half the cargo is crude oil and oil products.",
"Free port of Ventspils is one of the busiest ports in the Baltic states.",
"Apart from road and railway connections, Ventspils is also linked to oil extraction fields and prior to 2022, transportation routes of Russian Federation via system of two pipelines from Polotsk, Belarus.Riga International Airport is the busiest airport in the Baltic states with 7.8 million passengers in 2019.It has direct flight to over 80 destinations in 30 countries.",
"The only other airport handling regular commercial flights is Liepāja International Airport.airBaltic is the Latvian flag carrier airline and a low-cost carrier with hubs in all three Baltic States, but main base in Riga, Latvia.Latvian Railway's main network consists of 1,860 km of which 1,826 km is 1,520 mm Russian gauge railway of which 251 km are electrified, making it the longest railway network in the Baltic States.",
"Latvia's railway network is currently incompatible with European standard gauge lines.",
"However, Rail Baltica railway, linking Helsinki-Tallinn-Riga-Kaunas-Warsaw is under construction and is set to be completed in 2026.National road network in Latvia totals 1675 km of main roads, 5473 km of regional roads and 13 064 km of local roads.",
"Municipal roads in Latvia totals 30 439 km of roads and 8039 km of streets.",
"The best known roads are A1 (European route E67), connecting Warsaw and Tallinn, as well as European route E22, connecting Ventspils and Terehova.",
"In 2017 there were a total of 803,546 licensed vehicles in Latvia.==== Energy ====Latvia has three large hydroelectric power stations in Pļaviņu HES (908 MW), Rīgas HES (402 MW) and Ķeguma HES-2 (248 MW).",
"In recent years a couple of dozen of wind farms as well as biogas or biomass power stations of different scale have been built in Latvia.",
"In 2022, the Latvian Prime Minister announced about the planned investments of 1 billion euros in the new wind farms and the completed project will expectedly provide additional 800 MW of capacity.Latvia operates ''Inčukalns underground gas storage facility'', one of the largest underground gas storage facilities in Europe and the only one in the Baltic states.",
"Unique geological conditions at Inčukalns and other locations in Latvia are particularly suitable for underground gas storage."
],
[
"Demographics",
"Population of Latvia (in millions) from 1920 to 2014The total fertility rate (TFR) in 2018 was estimated to be 1.61 children born/woman, which is lower than the replacement rate of 2.1.In 2012, 45.0% of births were to unmarried women.",
"The life expectancy in 2013 was estimated at 73.19 years (68.13 years male, 78.53 years female).",
"As of 2015, Latvia is estimated to have the lowest male-to-female ratio in the world, at 0.85 males per female.",
"In 2017, there were 1,054,433 females and 895,683 males living in Latvian territory.",
"Every year, more boys are born than girls.",
"Until the age of 39, there are more males than females.",
"From the age of 70, there are 2.3 times as many females as males.=== Ethnic groups ===In 2023, Latvians formed about 62.4% of the population, while 23.7% were Russians, Belarusians 3%, Ukrainians 3%, Poles 2%, Lithuanians 1%.In some cities, including Daugavpils and Rēzekne, ethnic Latvians constitute a minority of the total population.",
"Despite a steadily increasing proportion of ethnic Latvians for more than a decade, ethnic Latvians also still make up slightly less than a half of the population of the capital city of Latvia – Riga.The share of ethnic Latvians declined from 77% (1,467,035) in 1935 to 52% (1,387,757) in 1989.In the context of a decreasing overall population, there were fewer Latvians in 2011 than in 1989, but their share of the population was larger – 1,285,136 (62.1% of the population).The majority of Latvia's population are Latvians, who are an ethnic Baltic people.",
"The country also has a significant Russian minority, as well as smaller populations of Ukrainians, Belarusians, and other Slavic peoples.",
"These ethnic groups are all descended from peoples who settled in Latvia during the centuries of Russian and Soviet rule.Latvia's ethnic diversity is a result of a number of factors, including a long history of foreign rule, its location on the Baltic Sea trade route, and its proximity to other Slavic countries.",
"The Russian Empire conquered Latvia in the 18th century and ruled the country for over 200 years.",
"During this time, the Russian authorities encouraged the settlement of Russian colonists in Latvia.",
"After the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1918, Latvia became an independent country.",
"However, the country was occupied by the Soviet Union in 1940 and remained under Soviet rule until 1991.The Soviets expelled some groups and resettled others in Latvia, especially Russians.",
"After 1991 many of the expellees returned to Latvia.As a result of deteriorating relations with Russia, Latvia has decided it does not want Russian citizens in Latvia who will not integrate.",
"In late 2023 it is expected that around 5-6,000 Russians will be returned to Russia as they have made little effort to learn the Latvian language, integrate with Latvia, or apply to become Latvian citizens.=== Language ===The sole official language of Latvia is Latvian, which belongs to the Baltic language sub-group of the Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family.",
"Another notable language of Latvia is the nearly extinct Livonian language of the Finnic branch of the Uralic language family, which enjoys protection by law; Latgalian – as a dialect of Latvian is also protected by Latvian law but as a historical variation of the Latvian language.",
"Russian, which was widely spoken during the Soviet period, is still the most widely used minority language by far (in 2011, 34% spoke it at home, including people who were not ethnically Russian).While it is now required that all school students learn Latvian, schools also include English, German, French and Russian in their curricula.",
"English is also widely accepted in Latvia in business and tourism.",
"there were 109 schools for minorities that use Russian as the language of instruction (27% of all students) for 40% of subjects (the remaining 60% of subjects are taught in Latvian).On 18 February 2012, Latvia held a constitutional referendum on whether to adopt Russian as a second official language.",
"According to the Central Election Commission, 74.8% voted against, 24.9% voted for and the voter turnout was 71.1%.From 2019, instruction in the Russian language was gradually discontinued in private colleges and universities in Latvia, as well as general instruction in Latvian public high schools, except for subjects related to culture and history of the Russian minority, such as Russian language and literature classes.",
"All schools, including pre-schools, still using the Russian language in 2023 need to transition to using Latvian in all classes within 3 years.=== Religion ===The largest religion in Latvia is Christianity (79%).",
"The largest groups were:* Evangelical Lutheran Church of Latvia – 708,773* Roman Catholic – 500,000* Russian Orthodox – 370,000Riga CathedralIn the Eurobarometer Poll 2010, 38% of Latvian citizens responded that \"they believe there is a God\", while 48% answered that \"they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force\" and 11% stated that \"they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force\".Lutheranism was more prominent before the Soviet occupation, when it was adhered to by about 60% of the population, a reflection of the country's strong historical links with the Nordic countries, and to the influence of the Hansa in particular and Germany in general.",
"Since then, Lutheranism has declined to a slightly greater extent than Roman Catholicism in all three Baltic states.",
"The Evangelical Lutheran Church, with an estimated 600,000 members in 1956, was affected most adversely.",
"An internal document of 18 March 1987, near the end of communist rule, spoke of an active membership that had shrunk to only 25,000 in Latvia, but the faith has since experienced a revival.The country's Orthodox Christians belong to the Latvian Orthodox Church, a semi-autonomous body within the Russian Orthodox Church.",
"In 2011, there were 416 religious Jews in Latvia and 319 Muslims in Latvia.",
"As of 2004, there were more than 600 Latvian neopagans, ''Dievturi'' (The Godskeepers), whose religion is based on Latvian mythology.",
"About 21% of the total population is not affiliated with a specific religion.Latvia has been seeking for a number of years to separate the Latvian Orthodox Church from Moscow, stating that longstanding ties to Russia pose “national security concerns”.",
"This was achieved in September 2022 with a law removing all influence or power over the Orthodox Church from non Latvians, which would include the Patriarch of Moscow.=== Education and science ===University of LatviaThe University of Latvia and Riga Technical University are two major universities in the country, both successors to Riga Polytechnical Institute, and located in Riga.",
"Other important universities, which were established on the base of State University of Latvia, include the Latvia University of Life Sciences and Technologies (established in 1939 on the basis of the Faculty of Agriculture) and Riga Stradiņš University (established in 1950 on the basis of the Faculty of Medicine).",
"Both nowadays cover a variety of different fields.",
"The University of Daugavpils is another significant centre of education.Latvia closed 131 schools between 2006 and 2010, which is a 12.9% decline, and in the same period enrolment in educational institutions has fallen by over 54,000 people, a 10.3% decline.Latvian policy in science and technology has set out the long-term goal of transitioning from labor-consuming economy to knowledge-based economy.",
"By 2020 the government aims to spend 1.5% of GDP on research and development, with half of the investments coming from the private sector.",
"Latvia plans to base the development of its scientific potential on existing scientific traditions, particularly in organic chemistry, medical chemistry, genetic engineering, physics, materials science and information technologies.",
"The greatest number of patents, both nationwide and abroad, are in medical chemistry.",
"Latvia was ranked 37th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.=== Health ===The Latvian healthcare system is a universal programme, largely funded through government taxation.",
"It is among the lowest-ranked healthcare systems in Europe, due to excessive waiting times for treatment, insufficient access to the latest medicines, and other factors.",
"There were 59 hospitals in Latvia in 2009, down from 94 in 2007 and 121 in 2006."
],
[
"Culture",
"The historic Centre of Riga was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997.Traditional Latvian folklore, especially the dance of the folk songs, dates back well over a thousand years.",
"More than 1.2 million texts and 30,000 melodies of folk songs have been identified.Between the 13th and 19th centuries, Baltic Germans, many of whom were originally of non-German ancestry but had been assimilated into German culture, formed the upper class.",
"They developed distinct cultural heritage, characterised by both Latvian and German influences.",
"It has survived in German Baltic families to this day, in spite of their dispersal to Germany, the United States, Canada and other countries in the early 20th century.",
"However, most indigenous Latvians did not participate in this particular cultural life.",
"Thus, the mostly peasant local pagan heritage was preserved, partly merging with Christian traditions.",
"For example, one of the most popular celebrations is Jāņi, a pagan celebration of the summer solstice—which Latvians celebrate on the feast day of St. John the Baptist.In the 19th century, Latvian nationalist movements emerged.",
"They promoted Latvian culture and encouraged Latvians to take part in cultural activities.",
"The 19th century and beginning of the 20th century is often regarded by Latvians as a classical era of Latvian culture.",
"Posters show the influence of other European cultures, for example, works of artists such as the Baltic-German artist Bernhard Borchert and the French Raoul Dufy.",
"With the onset of World War II, many Latvian artists and other members of the cultural elite fled the country yet continued to produce their work, largely for a Latvian émigré audience.Participants of the Latvian Song and Dance Festival in 2018The Latvian Song and Dance Festival is an important event in Latvian culture and social life.",
"It has been held since 1873, normally every five years.",
"Approximately 30,000 performers altogether participate in the event.",
"Folk songs and classical choir songs are sung, with emphasis on a cappella singing, though modern popular songs have recently been incorporated into the repertoire as well.After incorporation into the Soviet Union, Latvian artists and writers were forced to follow the socialist realism style of art.",
"During the Soviet era, music became increasingly popular, with the most popular being songs from the 1980s.",
"At this time, songs often made fun of the characteristics of Soviet life and were concerned about preserving Latvian identity.",
"This aroused popular protests against the USSR and also gave rise to an increasing popularity of poetry.",
"Since independence, theatre, scenography, choir music, and classical music have become the most notable branches of Latvian culture.During July 2014, Riga hosted the eighth World Choir Games as it played host to over 27,000 choristers representing over 450 choirs and over 70 countries.",
"The festival is the biggest of its kind in the world and is held every two years in a different host city.Starting in 2019 Latvia hosts the inaugural Riga Jurmala Music Festival , a new festival in which world-famous orchestras and conductors perform across four weekends during the summer.",
"The festival takes place at the Latvian National Opera, the Great Guild, and the Great and Small Halls of the Dzintari Concert Hall.",
"This year features the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra, the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, the London Symphony Orchestra and the Russian National Orchestra.=== Cuisine ===Latvian cuisine typically consists of agricultural products, with meat featuring in most main meal dishes.",
"Fish is commonly consumed due to Latvia's location on the Baltic Sea.",
"Latvian cuisine has been influenced by neighbouring countries.",
"Common ingredients in Latvian recipes are found locally, such as potatoes, wheat, barley, cabbage, onions, eggs, and pork.",
"Latvian food is generally quite fatty and uses few spices.Grey peas with speck are generally considered as staple foods of Latvians.",
"Sorrel soup (''skābeņu zupa'') is also consumed by Latvians.",
"Rye bread is considered the national staple.=== Sport ===Arena Riga during the 2006 IIHF World ChampionshipIce hockey is usually considered the most popular sport in Latvia.",
"Latvia has had many famous hockey stars like Helmuts Balderis, Artūrs Irbe, Kārlis Skrastiņš and Sandis Ozoliņš and more recently Zemgus Girgensons, whom the Latvian people have strongly supported in international and NHL play, expressed through the dedication of using the NHL's All Star Voting to bring Zemgus to number one in voting.",
"Dinamo Riga is the country's strongest hockey club, playing in the Latvian Hockey Higher League.",
"The national tournament is the Latvian Hockey Higher League, held since 1931.The 2006 IIHF World Championship was held in Riga.Kristaps PorziņģisThe second most popular sport is basketball.",
"Latvia has a long basketball tradition, as the Latvian national basketball team won the first ever EuroBasket in 1935 and silver medals in 1939, after losing the final to Lithuania by one point.",
"Latvia has had many European basketball stars like Jānis Krūmiņš, Maigonis Valdmanis, Valdis Muižnieks, Valdis Valters, Igors Miglinieks, as well as the first Latvian NBA player Gundars Vētra.",
"Andris Biedriņš is one of the most well-known Latvian basketball players, who played in the NBA for the Golden State Warriors and the Utah Jazz.",
"Current NBA players include Kristaps Porziņģis, who plays for the Boston Celtics, Dāvis Bertāns, who plays for the Oklahoma City Thunder, and Rodions Kurucs, who last played for the Milwaukee Bucks.",
"Former Latvian basketball club Rīgas ASK won the Euroleague tournament three times in a row before becoming defunct.",
"Currently, VEF Rīga, which competes in EuroCup, is the strongest professional basketball club in Latvia.",
"BK Ventspils, which participates in EuroChallenge, is the second strongest basketball club in Latvia, previously winning LBL eight times and BBL in 2013.Latvia was one of the EuroBasket 2015 hosts and will be one of the hosts once again in 2025.Other popular sports include football, floorball, tennis, volleyball, cycling, bobsleigh and skeleton.",
"The Latvian national football team's only major FIFA tournament participation has been the 2004 UEFA European Championship.Latvia has participated successfully in both Winter and Summer Olympics.",
"The most successful Olympic athlete in the history of independent Latvia has been Māris Štrombergs, who became a two-time Olympic champion in 2008 and 2012 at Men's BMX.In Boxing, Mairis Briedis is the first and only Latvian to date, to win a boxing world title, having held the WBC cruiserweight title from 2017 to 2018, the WBO cruiserweight title in 2019, and the IBF / The Ring magazine cruiserweight titles in 2020.In 2017, Latvian tennis player Jeļena Ostapenko won the 2017 French Open Women's singles title, being the first unseeded player to do so in the open era.In Futsal, Latvia will host the UEFA Futsal Euro 2026 alongside Lithuania, their national team will make their debut as co-host."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"=== Latvia===* * * * * Dzenovska, Dace.",
"''School of Europeanness: Tolerance and other lessons in political liberalism in Latvia'' (Cornell University Press, 2018).",
"* * Hazans, Mihails.",
"\"Emigration from Latvia: Recent trends and economic impact.\"",
"in ''Coping with emigration in Baltic and East European countries'' (2013) pp: 65–110.online * * * * * * Pabriks, Artis, and Aldis Purs.",
"''Latvia: the challenges of change'' (Routledge, 2013).",
"* * ===Baltic states===* Auers, Daunis.",
"''Comparative politics and government of the Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in the 21st century'' (Springer, 2015).",
"* * * * * * Lane, Thomas, et al.",
"''The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania'' (Routledge, 2013).",
"* * * * * * Steen, Anton.",
"''Between past and future: elites, democracy and the state in post-communist countries: a comparison of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania'' (Routledge, 2019).",
"* ===Russia connection===* Cheskin, Ammon.",
"\"Exploring Russian-speaking identity from below: The case of Latvia.\"",
"''Journal of Baltic Studies'' 44.3 (2013): 287–312.online * Cheskin, Ammon.",
"''Russian-Speakers in Post-Soviet Latvia: Discursive Identity Strategies'' (Edinburgh University Press, 2016).",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"; Government* President of Latvia* Parliament of Latvia* Government of Latvia* Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Latvia* Statistical Office of Latvia* Latvian Institute* Bank of Latvia; General information* Latvia Online* European Union country profile* Britannica Online Encyclopedia* BBC News country profile* Latvia.",
"''The World Factbook''.",
"Central Intelligence Agency.",
"* Latvia from UCB Libraries GovPubs (archived 11 October 2008)* * Key Development Forecasts for Latvia from International Futures; Culture* Latvian Cultural Canon* Latvian Culture Map* Latvian Culture Portal (archived 18 January 2013)* Livonian Culture Portal* State Agency of Cultural Heritage* National Library of Latvia * Latvian Heritage* Latvian Music Information Centre; Travel* Official Latvian Tourism Portal; Maps* *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Luxembourg"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Luxembourg''' ( ; ; ; ), officially the '''Grand Duchy of Luxembourg''', is a small landlocked country in Western Europe.",
"It is bordered by Belgium to the west and north, Germany to the east, and France to the south.",
"Its capital and most populous city, Luxembourg, is one of the four institutional seats of the European Union (together with Brussels, Frankfurt, and Strasbourg) and the seat of several EU institutions, notably the Court of Justice of the European Union, the highest judicial authority.",
"Luxembourg's culture, people, and languages are highly intertwined with its French and German neighbors; while Luxembourgish is the only national language of the Luxembourgish people and of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, French is the only language for legislation, and all threeLuxembourgish, French and Germanare used for administrative matters in the country.With an area of , Luxembourg is Europe's seventh-smallest country.",
"In 2023, it had a population of 660,809, which makes it one of the least-populated countries in Europe, albeit with the highest population growth rate; foreigners account for nearly half the population.",
"Luxembourg is a representative democracy headed by a constitutional monarch, Grand Duke Henri, making it the world's only remaining sovereign grand duchy.Luxembourg is a developed country with an advanced economy and one of the world's highest GDP (PPP) per capita as per IMF and World Bank estimates.",
"The nation's levels of human development and LGBT equality are ranked among the highest in Europe.",
"The historic city including its fortification was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1994 due to the exceptional preservation of its vast fortifications and historic quarters.",
"Luxembourg is a founding member of the European Union, OECD, the United Nations, NATO, and the Benelux.",
"It served on the United Nations Security Council for the first time in 2013 and 2014."
],
[
"History",
"The history of Luxembourg is considered to begin in the year 963, when Count Siegfried acquired a rocky promontory and its Roman-era fortifications, known as ''Lucilinburhuc'', \"little castle\", and the surrounding area from the Imperial Abbey of St. Maximin in nearby Trier.",
"Siegfried's descendants increased their territory through marriage, conquest, and vassalage.",
"By the end of the 13th century, the counts of Luxembourg reigned over a considerable territory.",
"In 1308, Count of Luxembourg Henry VII became King of the Romans and later Holy Roman Emperor; the House of Luxembourg would produce four Holy Roman Emperors during the High Middle Ages.",
"In 1354, Charles IV elevated the county to the Duchy of Luxembourg.",
"The duchy eventually became part of the Burgundian Circle and then one of the Seventeen Provinces of the Habsburg Netherlands.Over the centuries, the City and Fortress of Luxembourg—of great strategic importance due to its location between the Kingdom of France and the Habsburg territories—was gradually built up to be one of the most reputed fortifications in Europe.",
"After belonging to both the France of Louis XIV and the Austria of Maria Theresa, Luxembourg became part of the First French Republic and Empire under Napoleon.The present-day state of Luxembourg first emerged at the Congress of Vienna in 1815.The Grand Duchy, with its powerful fortress, became an independent state under the personal possession of William I of the Netherlands with a Prussian garrison to guard the city against another invasion from France.",
"In 1839, following the turmoil of the Belgian Revolution, the purely French-speaking part of Luxembourg was ceded to Belgium and the Luxembourgish-speaking part (except the Arelerland, the area around Arlon) became what is the present state of Luxembourg.=== Before AD 963 ===Text page from the Codex Aureus of Echternach, an important surviving codex, was produced in the Abbey of Echternach in the 11th century.The first traces of settlement in what is now Luxembourg are dated back to the Paleolithic Age, about 35,000 years ago.",
"From the 2nd century BC, Celtic tribes settled in the region between the rivers Rhine and Meuse.Six centuries later the Romans would name the Celtic tribes inhabiting these exact regions collectively as the ''Treveri''.",
"Many examples of archaeological evidence proving their existence in Luxembourg have been discovered, the most famous being the Oppidum of Titelberg.In around 58 to 51 BC, the Romans invaded the country when Julius Caesar conquered Gaul and part of Germania up to the Rhine border, thus the area of what is now Luxembourg became part of the Roman Empire for the next 450 years, living in relative peace under the Pax Romana.Similar to those in Gaul, the Celts of Luxembourg adopted Roman culture, language, morals and a way of life, effectively becoming what historians later described as Gallo-Roman civilization.",
"Evidence from that period includes the Dalheim Ricciacum and the Vichten mosaic, on display at the National Museum of History and Art in Luxembourg City.The territory was infiltrated by the Germanic Franks from the 4th century, and was abandoned by Rome in AD 406, after which it became part of the Kingdom of the Franks.",
"The Salian Franks who settled in the area are often described as the ones having brought the Germanic language to present-day Luxembourg, since the old Frankish language spoken by them is considered by linguists to be a direct forerunner of the Moselle Franconian dialect, which later evolved into, among others, the modern-day Luxembourgish language.The Christianization of Luxembourg is usually dated back to the end of the 7th century.",
"The most famous figure in this context is Willibrord, a Northumbrian missionary saint, who together with other monks established the Abbey of Echternach in AD 698 and is celebrated annually in the dancing procession of Echternach.",
"For a few centuries the abbey would become one of northern Europe's most influential abbeys.",
"The Codex Aureus of Echternach, an important surviving codex written entirely in gold ink, was produced here in the 11th century.",
"The so-called Emperor's Bible and the Golden Gospels of Henry III were also produced in Echternach at this time.=== Emergence and expansion of the County of Luxemburg (963–1312) ===Charles IV, the 14th-century Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia from the House of LuxembourgWhen the Carolingian Empire was divided many times starting with the Treaty of Verdun in 843, today's Luxembourgish territory became successively part of the Kingdom of Middle Francia (843–855), the Kingdom of Lotharingia (855–959) and finally of the Duchy of Lorraine (959–1059), which itself had become a state of the Holy Roman Empire.The recorded history of Luxembourg begins with the acquisition of ''Lucilinburhuc'' (today Luxembourg Castle) situated on the Bock rock by Siegfried, Count of the Ardennes, in 963 through an exchange act with St. Maximin's Abbey, Trier.",
"Around this fort, a town gradually developed, which became the center of a state of great strategic value within the Duchy of Lorraine.",
"Over the years, the fortress was extended by Siegfried's descendants and by 1083, one of them, Conrad I, was the first to call himself a \"Count of Luxembourg\", and with it effectively creating the independent County of Luxembourg (which was still a state within the Holy Roman Empire).By the middle of the 13th century the counts of Luxembourg had managed to gain considerable wealth and power and had expanded their territory from the river Meuse to the Moselle.",
"By the time of the reign of Henry V the Blonde, Bitburg, La Roche-en-Ardenne, Durbuy, Arlon, Thionville, Marville, Longwy, and in 1264 the competing County of Vianden (and with it St Vith and Schleiden) had either been incorporated directly or become vassal states to the County of Luxembourg.",
"The only major setback during their rise in power came in 1288, when Henry VI and his three brothers died at the Battle of Worringen while trying unsuccessfully to add the Duchy of Limburg to their realm.",
"But despite the defeat, the Battle of Worringen helped the Counts of Luxembourg to achieve military glory, which they had previously lacked, as they had mostly enlarged their territory by means of inheritances, marriages and fiefdoms.The ascension of the Counts of Luxembourg culminated when Henry VII became King of the Romans, King of Italy and finally, in 1312, Holy Roman Emperor.=== Golden Age: The House of Luxembourg contending for supremacy in Central Europe (1312–1443) ===Historic map (undated) of Luxembourg City's fortificationsWith the ascension of Henry VII as Emperor, the dynasty of the House of Luxembourg not only began to rule the Holy Roman Empire, but rapidly began to exercise growing influence over other parts of Central Europe as well.Henry's son, John the Blind, in addition to being Count of Luxembourg, also became King of Bohemia.",
"He remains a major figure in Luxembourgish history and folklore and is considered by many historians the epitome of chivalry in medieval times.",
"He is also known for having founded the Schueberfouer in 1340 and for his heroic death at the Battle of Crécy in 1346.John the Blind is considered a national hero in Luxembourg.In the 14th and early 15th centuries, three more members of the House of Luxembourg reigned as Holy Roman Emperors and Bohemian Kings: John's descendants Charles IV, Sigismund (who also was King of Hungary and Croatia), and Wenceslaus IV.",
"Charles IV created the long-lasting Golden Bull of 1356, a decree which fixed important aspects of the constitutional structure of the Empire.",
"Luxembourg remained an independent fief (county) of the Holy Roman Empire, and in 1354, Charles IV elevated it to the status of a duchy with his half-brother Wenceslaus I becoming the first Duke of Luxembourg.",
"While his kin were occupied ruling and expanding their power within the Holy Roman Empire and elsewhere, Wenceslaus, annexed the County of Chiny in 1364, and with it, the territories of the new Duchy of Luxembourg reached its greatest extent.During these 130 years, the House of Luxembourg was contending with the House of Habsburg for supremacy within the Holy Roman Empire and Central Europe.",
"It all came to end in 1443, when the House of Luxembourg suffered a succession crisis, precipitated by the lack of a male heir to assume the throne.",
"Since Sigismund and Elizabeth of Görlitz were both heirless, all possessions of the Luxembourg Dynasty were redistributed among the European aristocracy.",
"The Duchy of Luxembourg become a possession of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy.As the House of Luxembourg had become extinct and Luxembourg now became part of the Burgundian Netherlands, this would mark the start of nearly 400 years of foreign rule over Luxembourg.=== Luxembourg under Habsburg rule and repeated French invasions (1444–1794) ===In 1482, Philip the Handsome inherited all of what became then known as the Habsburg Netherlands, and with it the Duchy of Luxembourg.",
"For nearly 320 years Luxembourg would remain a possession of the mighty House of Habsburg, at first under Austrian rule (1506–1556), then under Spanish rule (1556–1714), before going back again to Austrian rule (1714–1794).With having become a Habsburg possession, the Duchy of Luxembourg became, like many countries in Europe at the time, heavily involved in the many conflicts for dominance of Europe between the Habsburg-held countries and the Kingdom of France.In 1542, the King of France, Francois I, invaded Luxembourg twice, but the Habsburgs under Charles V managed to reconquer the Duchy each time.Luxembourg became part of the Spanish Netherlands in 1556, and when France and Spain went to war in 1635 it resulted in the Treaty of the Pyrenees, in which the first partition of Luxembourg was decided.",
"Under the Treaty, Spain ceded the Luxembourgish fortresses of Stenay, Thionville, and Montmédy, and the surrounding territory to France, effectively reducing the size of Luxembourg for the first time in centuries.In context of the Nine Years' War in 1684, France invaded Luxembourg again, conquering and occupying the Duchy until 1697 when it was returned to the Spanish in order to garner support for the Bourbon cause during the prelude to the War of the Spanish Succession.",
"When the war broke out in 1701 Luxembourg and the Spanish Netherlands were administered by the pro-French faction under the governor Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria and sided with the Bourbons.",
"The duchy was subsequently occupied by the pro-Austrian allied forces during the conflict and was awarded to Austria at its conclusion in 1714.As the Duchy of Luxembourg repeatedly passed back and forth from Spanish and Austrian to French rule, each of the conquering nations contributed to strengthening and expanding the Fortress that the Castle of Luxembourg had become over the years.",
"One example of this includes French military engineer Marquis de Vauban who advanced the fortifications around and on the heights of the city, fortification walls that are still visible today.=== Luxembourg under French rule (1794–1815) ===During the War of the First Coalition, Revolutionary France invaded the Austrian Netherlands, and with it, Luxembourg, yet again.",
"In the years 1793 and 1794 most of the Duchy was conquered relatively quickly and the French Revolutionary Army committed many atrocities and pillages against the Luxembourgish civilian population and abbeys, the most infamous being the massacres of Differdange and Dudelange, as well as the destruction of the abbeys of Clairefontaine, Echternach and Orval.",
"However the Fortress of Luxembourg resisted for nearly 7 months before the Austrian forces holding it surrendered.",
"Luxembourg's long defense led Lazare Carnot to call Luxembourg \"the best fortress in the world, except Gibraltar\", giving rise to the city's nickname ''the Gibraltar of the North''.Luxembourg was annexed by France, becoming the ''département des forêts'' (department of forests), and the incorporation of the former Duchy as a ''département'' into France was formalised at the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797.From the start of the occupation the new French officials in Luxembourg, who spoke only French, implemented many republican reforms, among them the principle of laicism, which led to an outcry in strongly Catholic Luxembourg.",
"Additionally French was implemented as the only official language and Luxembourgish people were barred access to all civil services.",
"When the French Army introduced military duty for the local population, riots broke out which culminated in 1798 when Luxembourgish peasants started a rebellion.",
"Even though the French managed to rapidly suppress this revolt called ''Klëppelkrich'', it had a profound effect on the historical memory of the country and its citizens.However, many republican ideas of this era continue to have a lasting effect on Luxembourg; one of the many examples features the implementation of the Napoleonic Code Civil which was introduced in 1804 and is still valid today.=== National awakening and independence (1815–1890) ===After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the Duchy of Luxembourg was restored.",
"However, as the territory had been part of the Holy Roman Empire as well as the Habsburgian Netherlands in the past, both the Kingdom of Prussia and the United Kingdom of the Netherlands now claimed possession of the territory.",
"At the Congress of Vienna the great powers decided that Luxembourg would become a member state of the newly formed German Confederation, but at the same time William I of the Netherlands, the King of the Netherlands, would become, in personal union, the head of state.",
"To satisfy Prussia, it was decided that not only the Fortress of Luxembourg be manned by Prussian troops, but also that large parts of Luxembourgish territory (mainly the areas around Bitburg and St. Vith) become Prussian possessions.",
"This marked the second time that the Duchy of Luxembourg was reduced in size, and is generally known as the Second Partition of Luxembourg.",
"To compensate the Duchy for this loss, it was decided to elevate the Duchy to a Grand-Duchy, thus giving the Dutch monarchs the additional title of Grand-Duke of Luxembourg.After Belgium became an independent country following the victorious Belgian Revolution of 1830–1831, it claimed the entire Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg as being part of Belgium, however, the Dutch King who was also Grand Duke of Luxembourg, as well as Prussia, did not want to lose their grip on the mighty fortress of Luxembourg and did not agree with the Belgian claims.",
"The dispute would be solved at the 1839 Treaty of London where the decision of the Third Partition of Luxembourg was taken.",
"This time the territory was reduced by more than half, as the predominantly francophone western part of the country (but also the then Luxembourgish-speaking part of Arelerland) was transferred to the new state of Belgium, thereby giving Luxembourg its modern-day borders.",
"The treaty of 1839 also established full independence of the remaining Germanic-speaking Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg.In 1842 Luxembourg joined the German Customs Union (''Zollverein'').",
"This resulted in the opening of the German market, the development of Luxembourg's steel industry, and expansion of Luxembourg's railway network from 1855 to 1875.After the Luxembourg Crisis of 1866 nearly led to war between Prussia and France, as both were unwilling to see the other taking influence over Luxembourg and its mighty fortress, the Grand Duchy's independence and neutrality were reaffirmed by the Second Treaty of London and Prussia was finally willing to withdraw its troops from the Fortress of Luxembourg under the condition that the fortifications would be dismantled.",
"That happened the same year.",
"At the time of the Franco-Prussian war in 1870, Luxembourg's neutrality was respected, and neither France nor Germany invaded the country.As a result of the recurring disputes between the major European powers, the people of Luxembourg gradually developed a consciousness of independence and a national awakening took place in the 19th century.",
"The people of Luxembourg began referring to themselves as ''Luxembourgers'', rather than being part of one of the larger surrounding nations.",
"This consciousness of ''Mir wëlle bleiwe wat mir sinn'' (\"''We want to remain what we are \")'' culminated in 1890, when the last step towards full independence was finally taken: due to a succession crisis the Dutch monarchy ceased to hold the title Grand-Duke of Luxembourg.",
"Beginning with Adolph of Nassau-Weilburg, the Grand-Duchy would have their own monarchy, thus reaffirming its full independence.=== Two German occupations and interwar political crisis (1890–1945) ===Frontier with Alsace-Lorraine from 1871 to 1918In August 1914, during World War I, Imperial Germany violated Luxembourg's neutrality by invading it in order to defeat France.",
"Nevertheless, despite the German occupation, Luxembourg was allowed to maintain much of its independence and political mechanisms.",
"Unaware of the fact that Germany secretly planned to annex the Grand-Duchy in case of a German victory (the Septemberprogramm), the Luxembourgish government continued to pursue a policy of strict neutrality.",
"However, the Luxembourgish population did not believe Germany had good intentions, fearing that it would annex Luxembourg.",
"Around 1,000 Luxembourgers served in the French army.",
"Their sacrifices have been commemorated at the Gëlle Fra.After the war, Grand-Duchess Marie-Adélaïde was seen by many people (including the French and Belgian governments) as having collaborated with the Germans and calls for her abdication and the establishment of a Republic became louder.",
"After the retreat of the German army, communists in Luxembourg City and Esch-sur-Alzette tried to establish a soviet worker's republic similar to the ones emerging in Germany, but these attempts lasted only 2 days.In November 1918, a motion in the Chamber of Deputies demanding the abolition of the monarchy was defeated narrowly by 21 votes to 19 (with 3 abstentions).France questioned the Luxembourgish government's, and especially Marie-Adélaïde's, neutrality during the war, and calls for an annexation of Luxembourg to either France or Belgium grew louder in both countries.In January 1919, a company of the Luxembourgish Army rebelled, declaring itself to be the army of the new republic, but French troops intervened and put an end to the rebellion.",
"Nonetheless, the disloyalty shown by her own armed forces was too much for Marie-Adélaïde, who abdicated in favor of her sister Charlotte 5 days later.The same year, in a popular referendum, 77.8% of the Luxembourgish population declared in favor of maintaining monarchy and rejected the establishment of a republic.During this time, Belgium pushed for an annexation of Luxembourg.",
"However, all such claims were ultimately dismissed at the Paris Peace Conference, thus securing Luxembourg's independence.In 1940, after the outbreak of World War II, Luxembourg's neutrality was violated again when Nazi Germany's ''Wehrmacht'' entered the country, \"entirely without justification\".",
"In contrast to the First World War, under the German occupation of Luxembourg during World War II, the country was treated as German territory and informally annexed to the adjacent province of Nazi Germany, Gau Moselland.",
"This time, Luxembourg did not remain neutral as Luxembourg's government in exile based in London supported the Allies, sending a small group of volunteers who participated in the Normandy invasion, and multiple resistance groups formed inside the occupied country.With 2.45% of its prewar population killed, and a third of all buildings in Luxembourg being destroyed or heavily damaged (mainly due to the Battle of the Bulge), Luxembourg suffered the highest such loss in Western Europe, but its commitment to the Allied war effort was never questioned.",
"Around 1,000-2,500 of Luxembourg's Jews were murdered in the Holocaust.=== Integration into NATO and European Union (1945–) ===The Grand Duchy became a founding member of the United Nations in 1945.Luxembourg's neutral status under the constitution formally ended in 1948, and in April 1949 it also became a founding member of NATO.",
"During the Cold War, Luxembourg continued its involvements on the side of the Western Bloc.",
"In the early fifties a small contingent of troops fought in the Korean War.Luxembourg troops have also deployed to Afghanistan, to support ISAF.In the 1950s, Luxembourg became one of the six founding countries of the European Communities, following the 1952 establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community, and subsequent 1958 creations of the European Economic Community and European Atomic Energy Community.",
"In 1993, the former two of these were incorporated into the European Union.",
"With Robert Schuman (one of the founding fathers of the EU), Pierre Werner (considered the father of the Euro), Gaston Thorn, Jacques Santer and Jean-Claude Juncker (all former Presidents of the European Commission), Luxembourgish politicians contributed substantially to the EU's formation and establishment.",
"In 1999, Luxembourg joined the eurozone.",
"Thereafter, the country was elected non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council (2013–14).The steel industry exploiting the Red Lands' rich iron-ore grounds in the beginning of the 20th century drove Luxembourg's industrialization.",
"After the decline of the steel industry in the 1970s, the country focused on establishing itself as a global financial center and developed into the banking hub it is reputed to be.",
"Since the beginning of the 21st century, its governments have focused on developing the country into a knowledge economy, with the founding of the University of Luxembourg and a national space program."
],
[
"Government and politics",
"Chamber of Deputies, in Luxembourg CityLuxembourg is described as a \"full democracy\", with a parliamentary democracy headed by a constitutional monarch.",
"Executive power is exercised by the grand duke and the cabinet, which consists of several members with the titles of minister, minister delegate or secretary of state, who are headed by a Prime Minister.",
"The current Constitution of Luxembourg, the supreme law of Luxembourg, was originally adopted on 17 October 1868.The Constitution was last updated on 1 July 2023.The grand duke has the power to dissolve the legislature, in which case new elections must be held within three months.",
"But since 1919, sovereignty has resided with the nation, exercised by the grand duke in accordance with the Constitution and the law.Grand Ducal Palace in Luxembourg City, the official residence of the Grand Duke of LuxembourgLegislative power is vested in the Chamber of Deputies, a unicameral legislature of sixty members, who are directly elected to five-year terms from four constituencies.",
"A second body, the Council of State (''Conseil d'État''), composed of 21 ordinary citizens appointed by the grand duke, advises the Chamber of Deputies in the drafting of legislation.Luxembourg has three lower tribunals (''justices de paix''; in Esch-sur-Alzette, the city of Luxembourg, and Diekirch), two district tribunals (Luxembourg and Diekirch), and a Superior Court of Justice (Luxembourg), which includes the Court of Appeal and the Court of Cassation.",
"There is also an Administrative Tribunal and an Administrative Court, as well as a Constitutional Court, all of which are located in the capital.=== Administrative divisions ===Luxembourg is divided into 12 cantons, which are further divided into 100 communes.",
"Twelve of the communes have city status; the city of Luxembourg is the largest.=== Foreign relations ===Luxembourg has long been a prominent supporter of European political and economic integration.",
"In 1921, Luxembourg and Belgium formed the Belgium–Luxembourg Economic Union (BLEU) to create a regime of inter-exchangeable currency and a common customs.",
"Luxembourg is a member of the Benelux Economic Union and was one of the founding members of the European Economic Community (now the European Union).",
"It also participates in the Schengen Group (named after the Luxembourg village of Schengen where the agreements were signed).",
"At the same time, the majority of Luxembourgers have consistently believed that European unity makes sense only in the context of a dynamic transatlantic relationship, and thus have traditionally pursued a pro-NATO, pro-US foreign policy.Luxembourg is considered a European capital, and is the site of the Court of Justice of the European Union, the European Court of Auditors, the European Investment Bank, the Statistical Office of the European Union (Eurostat) and other vital EU organs.",
"The Secretariat of the European Parliament is located in Luxembourg, but the Parliament usually meets in Brussels and sometimes in Strasbourg.",
"Luxembourg is also site of the EFTA Court, which is responsible for the three EFTA members who are part of the European Single Market through the EEA Agreement.=== Military ===Luxembourgish soldiers on parade during National Day, ''Grand Duke Day'', 23 JuneThe Luxembourgish army is mostly based in its casern, the ''Centre militaire Caserne Grand-Duc Jean'' on the ''Härebierg'' in Diekirch.",
"The general staff is based in the capital, the ''État-Major''.",
"The army is under civilian control, with the grand duke as Commander-in-Chief.",
"The Minister for Defense, Yuriko Backes, oversees army operations.",
"The professional head of the army is the Chief of Defense, who answers to the minister and holds the rank of general.Being landlocked, Luxembourg has no navy.",
"Seventeen NATO AWACS airplanes are registered as aircraft of Luxembourg.",
"In accordance with a joint agreement with Belgium, both countries have put forth funding for one A400M military cargo plane.Luxembourg has participated in the Eurocorps, has contributed troops to the UNPROFOR and IFOR missions in former Yugoslavia, and has participated with a small contingent in the NATO SFOR mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina.",
"Luxembourg troops have also deployed to Afghanistan, to support ISAF.",
"The army has also participated in humanitarian relief missions such as setting up refugee camps for Kurds and providing emergency supplies to Albania."
],
[
"Geography",
"Luxembourg is one of Europe's smallest countries, ranking 168th in size of the 194 independent countries of the world; it is about in size, measuring long and wide.",
"It lies between latitudes 49° and 51° N, and longitudes 5° and 7° E.Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Dudelange, and Differdange.To the east, Luxembourg borders the German ''Bundesländer'' of Rhineland-Palatinate and Saarland, and to the south, it borders the French ''région'' of Grand Est (Lorraine).",
"The Grand Duchy borders Belgium's Wallonia, in particular the Belgian provinces of Luxembourg and Liège, part of which comprises the German-speaking Community of Belgium, to the west and to the north, respectively.The northern third of the country is known as the Éislek, and forms part of the Ardennes.",
"It is dominated by hills and low mountains, including the Kneiff near Wilwerdange, which is the highest point, at .",
"Other mountains are the Buurgplaatz at near Huldange and the Napoléonsgaard at near Rambrouch.",
"The region is sparsely populated, with only one town (Wiltz) with a population of more than five thousand people.The southern two-thirds of the country is called the Gutland, and is more densely populated than the Oesling.",
"It is also more diverse and can be divided into five geographic sub-regions.",
"The Luxembourg plateau, in south-central Luxembourg, is a large, flat, sandstone formation, and the site of the city of Luxembourg.",
"Little Switzerland, in the east of Luxembourg, has craggy terrain and thick forests.",
"The Moselle valley is the lowest-lying region, running along the southeastern border.",
"The Red Lands, in the far south and southwest, are Luxembourg's industrial heartland and home to many of Luxembourg's largest towns.The border between Luxembourg and Germany is formed by three rivers: the Moselle, the Sauer, and the Our.",
"Other major rivers are the Alzette, the Attert, the Clerve, and the Wiltz.",
"The valleys of the mid-Sauer and Attert form the border between the Gutland and the Oesling.=== Environment ===According to the 2012 Environmental Performance Index, Luxembourg is one of the world's best performers in environmental protection, ranking 4th out of 132 assessed countries.",
"In 2020, it ranked second out of 180 countries.",
"Luxembourg also ranks 6th among the top ten most livable cities in the world by Mercer's.",
"The country wants to cut GHG emissions by 55% in 10 years and reach zero emissions by 2050.Luxembourg wants to increase its organic farming fivefold.",
"It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 1.12/10, ranking it 164th globally out of 172 countries.=== Climate ===Luxembourg has an oceanic climate (Köppen: ''Cfb''), marked by high precipitation, particularly in late summer.",
"The summers are warm and winters cool."
],
[
"Economy",
"Luxembourg is part of the Schengen Area, the EU single market, and the eurozone (dark blue).Luxembourg's stable and high-income market economy features moderate growth, low inflation, and a high level of innovation.",
"Unemployment is traditionally low, though it reached 6.1% by May 2012, due largely to the 2008 global financial crisis.",
"In 2011, according to the IMF, Luxembourg was the world's second-richest country, with a per capita GDP on a purchasing-power parity (PPP) basis of $80,119.Its GDP per capita in purchasing power standards was 261% of the EU average (100%) in 2019.Luxembourg ranks 13th in The Heritage Foundation's Index of Economic Freedom, 26th in the United Nations Human Development Index, and 4th in the Economist Intelligence Unit's quality of life index.",
"It ranked 21st in the Global Innovation Index in 2023, down from 18th in 2020.The industrial sector, dominated by steel until the 1960s, has since diversified to include chemicals, rubber, and other products.",
"During recent decades, growth in the financial sector has more than compensated for the decline in steel production.",
"Services, especially banking and finance, account for the majority of the economic output.",
"Luxembourg is the world's second largest investment fund center (after the United States), the most important private banking center in the eurozone and Europe's leading center for reinsurance companies.",
"Moreover, Luxembourg's government has aimed to attract Internet startups, with Skype and Amazon being two of the many Internet companies that have shifted their regional headquarters to Luxembourg.",
"Other high-tech companies have established themselves in Luxembourg, including 3D scanner developer/manufacturer Artec 3D.In April 2009, concern about Luxembourg's banking secrecy laws, as well as its reputation as a tax haven, led to its being added to a \"gray list\" of nations with questionable banking arrangements by the G20.In response, the country soon adopted OECD standards on exchange of information and was subsequently added into the category of \"jurisdictions that have substantially implemented the internationally agreed tax standard\".",
"In March 2010, the ''Sunday Telegraph'' reported that most of Kim Jong-Il's $4 billion in secret accounts was in Luxembourg banks.",
"Amazon.co.uk also benefits from Luxembourg tax loopholes by channeling substantial U.K. revenues, as reported by ''The Guardian'' in April 2012.Luxembourg ranked third on the Tax Justice Network's 2011 Financial Secrecy Index of the world's major tax havens, scoring only slightly behind the Cayman Islands.",
"In 2013, Luxembourg was ranked the 2nd safest tax haven in the world, behind Switzerland.In early November 2014, just days after becoming head of the European Commission, Luxembourg's former Prime Minister Jean-Claude Juncker was hit by media disclosures—derived from a document leak known as Luxembourg Leaks—that Luxembourg had turned into a major European center of corporate tax avoidance under his premiership.Agriculture employed about 2.1% of Luxembourg's active population in 2010, when there were 2200 agricultural holdings with an average area per holding of 60 hectares.Luxembourg has especially close trade and financial ties to Belgium and the Netherlands (see Benelux), and as a member of the EU it enjoys the advantages of the open European market.With $171 billion in May 2015, the country ranked 11th in the world in holdings of U.S. Treasury securities.",
"However, securities owned by non-Luxembourg residents, but held in custodial accounts in Luxembourg, are included in this figure., Luxembourg's public debt totaled $15,687,000,000, or $25,554 per capita.",
"The debt to GDP was 22.10%.The Luxembourg labor market represents 445,000 jobs occupied by 120,000 Luxembourgers, 120,000 foreign residents and 205,000 cross-border commuters.",
"The latter pay their taxes in Luxembourg, but their education and social rights are the responsibility of their country of residence.",
"The same applies to pensioners.",
"Luxembourg's government has never shared its tax revenues with the local authorities on the French border.",
"This system is seen as one of the keys to Luxembourg's economic growth, but at the expense of the border countries.=== Transport ===Luxembourg's international airline Luxair is based at Luxembourg Airport, the country's only international airport.Luxembourg has road, rail and air transport facilities and services.",
"The road network has been significantly modernized in recent years with of motorways connecting the capital to adjacent countries.",
"The advent of the high-speed TGV link to Paris has led to renovation of the city's railway station and a new passenger terminal at Luxembourg Airport was opened in 2008.Luxembourg City reintroduced trams in December 2017 and there are plans to open light-rail lines in adjacent areas within the next few years.There are 681 cars per 1000 persons in Luxembourg—higher than most of other states, and surpassed by the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Iceland, and other small states like Principality of Monaco, San Marino, Liechtenstein, the British overseas territory of Gibraltar, and Brunei.On 29 February 2020, Luxembourg became the first country to introduce no-charge public transportation, which will be almost completely funded by public expenditure.=== Communications ===The telecommunications industry in Luxembourg is liberalized and the electronic communications networks are significantly developed.",
"Competition between the different operators is guaranteed by the legislative framework Paquet Telecom of the Government of 2011 which transposes the European Telecom Directives into Luxembourgish law.",
"This encourages the investment in networks and services.",
"The regulator ILR – Institut Luxembourgeois de Régulation ensures the compliance to these legal rules.Luxembourg has modern and widely deployed optical fiber and cable networks throughout the country.",
"In 2010, the Luxembourg Government launched its National strategy for very high-speed networks with the aim to become a global leader in terms of very high-speed broadband by achieving full 1 Gbit/s coverage of the country by 2020.In 2011, Luxembourg had an NGA coverage of 75%.",
"In April 2013 Luxembourg featured the 6th highest download speed worldwide and the 2nd highest in Europe: 32,46 Mbit/s.",
"The country's location in Central Europe, stable economy and low taxes favour the telecommunication industry.It ranks 2nd in the world in the development of the Information and Communication Technologies in the ITU ICT Development Index and 8th in the Global Broadband Quality Study 2009 by the University of Oxford and the University of Oviedo.Signs in front of the Centre Drosbach on the Cloche d'or, in the city of LuxembourgLuxembourg is connected to all major European Internet Exchanges (AMS-IX Amsterdam, DE-CIX Frankfurt, LINX London), datacenters and POPs through redundant optical networks.",
"In addition, the country is connected to the virtual meetme room services (vmmr) of the international data hub operator Ancotel.",
"This enables Luxembourg to interconnect with all major telecommunication operators and data carriers worldwide.",
"The interconnection points are in Frankfurt, London, New York and Hong Kong.",
"Luxembourg has established itself as one of the leading financial technology (FinTech) hubs in Europe, with the Luxembourg government supporting initiatives like the Luxembourg House of Financial Technology.Some 20 data centers are operating in Luxembourg.",
"Six data centers are Tier IV Design certified: three of ebrc, two of LuxConnect and one of European Data Hub.",
"In a survey on nine international data centers carried out in December 2012 and January 2013 and measuring availability (up-time) and performance (delay by which the data from the requested website was received), the top three positions were held by Luxembourg data centers."
],
[
"Demographics",
"=== Largest towns ===communes.",
"The main urban area, Luxembourg City, is located in the south-center of the country=== Ethnicity ===+Largest groups of immigrants (2023):# Portugal (92,101)# France (49,104)# Italy (24,676)# Belgium (19,205)# Germany (12,678)# Spain (9,068)# Romania (6,625)# Ukraine (5,238)# Poland (5,130)# India (4,657)The people of Luxembourg are called Luxembourgers.",
"The immigrant population increased in the 20th century due to the arrival of immigrants from Belgium, France, Italy, Germany, and Portugal; the latter comprised the largest group.",
"In 2013 about 88,000 Luxembourg inhabitants possessed Portuguese nationality.",
"In 2013, there were 537,039 permanent residents, 44.5% of which were of foreign background or foreign nationals; the largest foreign ethnic groups were the Portuguese, comprising 16.4% of the total population, followed by the French (6.6%), Italians (3.4%), Belgians (3.3%) and Germans (2.3%).",
"Another 6.4% were of other EU background, while the remaining 6.1% were of other non-EU, but largely other European, background.Since the beginning of the Yugoslav wars, Luxembourg has seen many immigrants from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Serbia.",
"Annually, over 10,000 new immigrants arrive in Luxembourg, mostly from the EU states, as well as Eastern Europe.",
"In 2000 there were 162,000 immigrants in Luxembourg, accounting for 37% of the total population.",
"There were an estimated 5,000 illegal immigrants in Luxembourg in 1999.=== Language ===Luxembourg does not have any \"official\" languages per se.",
"As determined by the 1984 Language Regimen Act (French: ''Loi sur le régime des langues''), Luxembourgish is the sole national language of the Luxembourgish people.",
"It is considered the mother tongue or \"language of the heart\" for Luxembourgers and the language they generally use to speak or write to each other.",
"Luxembourgish as well as the dialects in adjacent Germany belong to the Moselle Franconian subgroup of the main West Central German dialect group, which are largely mutually intelligible across the border, but Luxembourgish also has more than 5,000 words of French origin.",
"Knowledge of Luxembourgish is a criterion for naturalisation.In addition to Luxembourgish, French and German are used in administrative and judicial matters, making all three administrative languages of Luxembourg.",
"Per article 4 of the law promulgated in 1984, if a citizen asks a question in Luxembourgish, German or French, the administration must reply, as far as possible, in the language in which the question was asked.Advertisement from a bank in Luxembourg with translations in (clockwise) Luxembourgish, German, English, French, and PortugueseLuxembourg is largely multilingual: , 52% of citizens claimed Luxembourgish as their native language, 16.4% Portuguese, 16% French, 2% German and 13.6% different languages (mostly English, Italian or Spanish).",
"Even though French was the mother tongue of only 16% of residents in Luxembourg (placing 3rd), 98% of its citizens were able to speak it to a high level.",
"The vast majority of Luxembourg residents are able to speak it as a second or third language.",
", much of the population was able to speak multiple other languages: 80% of citizens reported being able to hold a conversation in English, 78% in German and 77% in Luxembourgish, claiming these languages as their respective second, third or fourth language.Each of the three official languages is used as a primary language in certain spheres of everyday life, without being exclusive.",
"Luxembourgish is the language that Luxembourgers generally use to speak and write to each other, and there has been a recent increase in the production of novels and movies in the language; at the same time, the numerous expatriate workers (approximately 44% of the population) generally do not use it to speak to each other.Most official business and written communication is carried out in French, which is also the language mostly used for public communication, with written official statements, advertising displays and road signs generally in French.",
"Due to the historical influence of the Napoleonic Code on the legal system of the Grand Duchy, French is also the sole language of the legislation and generally the preferred language of the government, administration and justice.",
"Parliamentary debates are mostly conducted in Luxembourgish, whereas written government communications and official documents (e.g.",
"administrative or judicial decisions, passports, etc.)",
"are drafted mostly in French and sometimes additionally in German.Although professional life is largely multilingual, French is described by private sector business leaders as the main working language of their companies (56%), followed by Luxembourgish (20%), English (18%), and German (6%).German is very often used in much of the media along with French and is considered by most Luxembourgers their second language.",
"This is mostly due to the high similarity of German to Luxembourgish but also because it is the first language taught to children in primary school (language of literacy acquisition).Due to the large community of Portuguese origin, the Portuguese language is fairly prevalent in Luxembourg, though it remains limited to the relationships inside this community.",
"Portuguese has no official status, but the administration sometimes makes certain informative documents available in Portuguese.Even though Luxembourg is largely multilingual today, some people claim that Luxembourg is subject of intense francization and that Luxembourgish and German are in danger of disappearing in the country, making Luxembourg either a unilingual Francophone country, or at best a bilingual French- and English-speaking country sometime in the far future.===Religion===Notre-Dame Cathedral, Luxembourg CityLuxembourg is a secular state, but the state recognizes certain religions as officially mandated religions.",
"This gives the state a hand in religious administration and appointment of clergy, in exchange for which the state pays certain running costs and wages.",
"Religions covered by such arrangements are Catholicism, Judaism, Greek Orthodoxy, Anglicanism, Russian Orthodoxy, Lutheranism, Calvinism, Mennonitism, and Islam.Since 1980, it has been illegal for the government to collect statistics on religious beliefs or practices.",
"A 2000 estimate by the CIA Factbook is that 87% of Luxembourgers are Catholic, including the grand ducal family, with the remaining 13% being Protestants, Orthodox Christians, Jews, Muslims, and those of other or no religion.",
"According to a 2010 Pew Research Center study, 70.4% are Christian, 2.3% Muslim, 26.8% unaffiliated, and 0.5% other religions.According to a 2005 Eurobarometer poll, 44% of Luxembourg citizens responded that \"they believe there is a God\", whereas 28% answered that \"they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force\", and 22% that \"they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force\".=== Education ===The University of Luxembourg is the only university based in the country.Luxembourg's education system is trilingual: the first years of primary school are in Luxembourgish, before changing to German; while in secondary school, the language of instruction changes to French.",
"Proficiency in all three languages is required for graduation from secondary school, but half the students leave school without a certified qualification, with the children of immigrants being particularly disadvantaged.",
"In addition to the three national languages, English is taught in compulsory schooling and much of the population of Luxembourg can speak English.",
"The past two decades have highlighted the growing importance of English in several sectors, in particular the financial sector.",
"Portuguese, the language of the largest immigrant community, is also spoken by large segments of the population, but by relatively few from outside the Portuguese-speaking community.The University of Luxembourg is the only university based in Luxembourg.",
"In 2014, Luxembourg School of Business, a graduate business school, was created through private initiative and received the accreditation from the Ministry of Higher Education and Research of Luxembourg in 2017.Two American universities maintain satellite campuses in the country: Miami University (Dolibois European Center) and Sacred Heart University (Luxembourg Campus).=== Health ===According to data from the World Health Organization, healthcare spending on behalf of the government of Luxembourg topped $4.1 Billion, amounting to about $8,182 for each citizen in the nation.",
"The nation of Luxembourg collectively spent nearly 7% of its Gross Domestic Product on health, placing it among the highest spending countries on health services and related programs in 2010 among other well-off nations in Europe with high average income among its population."
],
[
"Culture",
"Edward Steichen, photographer and painterLuxembourg has been heavily influenced by the culture of its neighbors.",
"It retains a number of folk traditions, having been for much of its history a profoundly rural country.",
"There are several notable museums, located mostly in the capital.",
"These include the National Museum of History and Art (NMHA), the Luxembourg City History Museum, and the new Grand Duke Jean Museum of Modern Art (Mudam).",
"The National Museum of Military History (MNHM) in Diekirch is especially known for its representations of the Battle of the Bulge.",
"The Historic city of Luxembourg city including its fortification is part of the UNESCO World Heritage List, on account of the historical importance of its fortifications.The country has produced some internationally known artists, including the painters Théo Kerg, Joseph Kutter and Michel Majerus, and photographer Edward Steichen, whose ''The Family of Man'' exhibition has been placed on UNESCO's Memory of the World register, and is now permanently housed in Clervaux.",
"Editor and author Hugo Gernsback, whose publications crystallized the concept of science fiction, was born in Luxembourg City.",
"Movie star Loretta Young was of Luxembourgish descent.Luxembourg was a founding participant of the Eurovision Song Contest, and participated every year between 1956 and before it was relegated after the 1993 competition, with the exception of 1959.Although Luxembourg was free to participate again in 1995, it chose not to return to the competition before 2024.It has won the competition a total of five times, 1961, 1965, 1972, 1973 and 1983 and hosted the contest in 1962, 1966, 1973, and 1984.Only nine of its 38 entries before 2024, and none of its five winning entries, were performed by Luxembourgish artists.",
"On its 2024 return, this was, however, with a particular emphasis on promoting music and artists from Luxembourg.",
"Luxembourg was the first city to be named European Capital of Culture twice.",
"The first time was in 1995.In 2007, the European Capital of Culture was to be a cross-border area consisting of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, the Rheinland-Pfalz and Saarland in Germany, the Walloon Region and the German-speaking part of Belgium, and the Lorraine area in France.",
"The event was an attempt to promote mobility and the exchange of ideas, crossing borders physically, psychologically, artistically and emotionally.Luxembourg was represented at the World Expo 2010 in Shanghai, China, from 1 May to 31 October 2010 with its own pavilion.",
"The pavilion, designed as a forest and fortress, was based on the transliteration of the word Luxembourg into Chinese, \"Lúsēnbǎo\", which when directly translated, means \"forest and fortress\".",
"It represented Luxembourg as the \"Green Heart in Europe\".=== Sports ===Grand Tours in his cycling career.Unlike most countries in Europe, sports in Luxembourg are not concentrated upon a particular national sport, but instead encompass a number of sports, both team and individual.",
"Despite the lack of a central sporting focus, over 100,000 people in Luxembourg, out of a total population of 660,000, are licensed members of one sports federation or another.",
"The Stade de Luxembourg, situated in Gasperich, southern Luxembourg City, is the country's national stadium and largest sports venue in the country with a capacity of 9,386 for sporting events, including football and rugby union, and 15,000 for concerts.",
"The largest indoor venue in the country is d'Coque, Kirchberg, north-eastern Luxembourg City, which has a capacity of 8,300.The arena is used for basketball, handball, gymnastics, and volleyball, including the final of the 2007 Women's European Volleyball Championship.=== Cuisine ===''Judd mat Gaardebounen'', served with boiled potatoes and Diekirch beerLuxembourg cuisine reflects its position on the border between the Latin and Germanic worlds, being heavily influenced by the cuisines of neighboring France and Germany.",
"More recently, it has been enriched by its many Italian and Portuguese immigrants.Most native Luxembourg dishes, consumed as the traditional daily fare, share roots in the country's folk dishes, the same as in neighboring Germany.Luxembourg sells the most alcohol in Europe per capita.",
"However, the large proportion of alcohol purchased by customers from neighboring countries contributes to the statistically high level of alcohol sales per capita; this level of alcohol sales is thus not representative of the actual alcohol consumption of the Luxembourg population.Luxembourg has the second highest number of Michelin-starred restaurants per capita with Japan ranked at number one and Switzerland following Luxembourg at number three.=== Media ===The main languages of media in Luxembourg are French and German.",
"The newspaper with the largest circulation is the German-language daily ''Luxemburger Wort''.",
"Because of the strong multilingualism in Luxembourg, newspapers often alternate articles in French and articles in German, without translation.",
"In addition, there are both English and Portuguese radio and national print publications, but accurate audience figures are difficult to gauge since the national media survey by ILRES is conducted in French.Luxembourg is known in Europe for its radio and television stations (Radio Luxembourg and RTL Group).",
"It is also the uplink home of SES, carrier of major European satellite services for Germany and Britain.Due to a 1988 law that established a special tax scheme for audiovisual investment, the film and co-production in Luxembourg has grown steadily.",
"There are some 30 registered production companies in Luxembourg.Luxembourg won an Oscar in 2014 in the Animated Short Films category with ''Mr Hublot''.=== Notable Luxembourgers ==="
],
[
"See also",
"* Outline of Luxembourg* Disability in Luxembourg"
],
[
"References",
"=== Informational notes ====== Citations ====== Works cited ===* * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Plan d'action national luxembourgeois en matière de TIC et de haut-débit* CEE- Europe's Digital Competitiveness Report –Volume 2: i2010 –ICT Country Profiles- page 40-41* Inauguration of LU-CIX* Art and Culture in Luxembourg"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Official Portal of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg* Luxembourg from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''* Luxembourg.",
"''The World Factbook''.",
"Central Intelligence Agency.",
"* * Luxembourg profile from the BBC News* ''Luxembourg's Constitution of 1868 with Amendments through 2009'', English Translation 2012*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Location parameter"
],
[
"Introduction",
"In statistics, a '''location parameter''' of a probability distribution is a scalar- or vector-valued parameter , which determines the \"location\" or shift of the distribution.",
"In the literature of location parameter estimation, the probability distributions with such parameter are found to be formally defined in one of the following equivalent ways:* either as having a probability density function or probability mass function ; or* having a cumulative distribution function ; or* being defined as resulting from the random variable transformation , where is a random variable with a certain, possibly unknown, distribution (See also #Additive_noise).A direct example of a location parameter is the parameter of the normal distribution.",
"To see this, note that the probability density function of a normal distribution can have the parameter factored out and be written as: :thus fulfilling the first of the definitions given above.The above definition indicates, in the one-dimensional case, that if is increased, the probability density or mass function shifts rigidly to the right, maintaining its exact shape.A location parameter can also be found in families having more than one parameter, such as location–scale families.",
"In this case, the probability density function or probability mass function will be a special case of the more general form:where is the location parameter, ''θ'' represents additional parameters, and is a function parametrized on the additional parameters."
],
[
"Definition<ref>{{Cite book |last=Casella |first=George |title=Statistical Inference |last2=Berger |first2=Roger |year=2001 |isbn=978-0534243128 |edition=2nd |pages=116}}</ref>",
"Let be any probability density function and let and be any given constants.",
"Then the functionis a probability density function.The location family is then defined as follows:Let be any probability density function.",
"Then the family of probability density functions is called the location family with standard probability density function , where is called the '''location parameter''' for the family."
],
[
"Additive noise",
"An alternative way of thinking of location families is through the concept of additive noise.",
"If is a constant and ''W'' is random noise with probability density then has probability density and its distribution is therefore part of a location family."
],
[
"Proofs",
"For the continuous univariate case, consider a probability density function , where is a vector of parameters.",
"A location parameter can be added by defining::it can be proved that is a p.d.f.",
"by verifying if it respects the two conditions and .",
"integrates to 1 because::now making the variable change and updating the integration interval accordingly yields::because is a p.d.f.",
"by hypothesis.",
"follows from sharing the same image of , which is a p.d.f.",
"so its image is contained in ."
],
[
"See also",
"* Central tendency* Location test* Invariant estimator* Scale parameter* Two-moment decision models"
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Larry Wall"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Larry Arnold Wall''' (born September 27, 1954) is an American computer programmer, linguist and author.",
"He is best known for creating the Perl programming language and the patch tool."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Wall grew up in Los Angeles and then Bremerton, Washington, before starting higher education at Seattle Pacific University in 1976, majoring in chemistry and music and later pre-medicine with a hiatus of several years working in the university's computing center before graduating with a bachelor's degree in Natural and Artificial Languages.While in graduate school at the University of California, Berkeley, Wall and his wife were studying linguistics with the intention of finding an unwritten language, perhaps in Africa, and creating a writing system for it.",
"They would then use this new writing system to translate various texts into the language, among them the Bible.",
"Due to health reasons these plans were cancelled, and they remained in the United States, where Wall instead joined the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory after he finished graduate school.Wall is an active member of the New Life, Church of the Nazarene.",
"He also works with his local church for Bible Quizzing for the Nor-Cal district."
],
[
"Accomplishments",
"Wall is the author of the rn Usenet client and the widely used patch program.",
"He has won the International Obfuscated C Code Contest twice and was the recipient of the first Free Software Foundation Award for the Advancement of Free Software in 1998.Wall developed the Perl interpreter and language while working for System Development Corporation, which later became part of Burroughs and then Unisys.",
"He is the co-author of ''Programming Perl'' (often referred to as the ''Camel Book'' and published by O'Reilly), which is the definitive resource for Perl programmers; and edited the ''Perl Cookbook''.",
"He then became employed full-time by O'Reilly Media to further develop Perl and write books on the subject.Wall's training as a linguist is apparent in his books, interviews, and lectures.",
"He often compares Perl to a natural language and explains his decisions in Perl's design with linguistic rationale.",
"He also often uses linguistic terms for Perl language constructs, so instead of traditional terms such as \"variable\", \"function\", and \"accessor\" he sometimes says \"noun\", \"verb\", and \"topicalizer\".Wall's Christian faith has influenced some of the terminology of Perl, such as the name itself, a biblical reference to the \"pearl of great price\" (Matthew 13:46).",
"Similar references are the function name ''bless'', and the organization of Raku (previously known as Perl 6) design documents with categories such as ''apocalypse'' and ''exegesis''.",
"Wall has also alluded to his faith when speaking at conferences, including on August 23, 1999, at the Perl Conference 3.0 in Monterey, CA."
],
[
"See also",
"*List of computer scientists*List of programmers*Timeline of programming languages"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Slightly Skeptical View on Larry Wall and Perl (Softpanorama Larry Wall's page)* ''Perl, the first Postmodern Language''"
],
[
"External links",
"* Home page"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Language"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Language''' is a structured system of communication that consists of grammar and vocabulary.",
"It is the primary means by which humans convey meaning, both in spoken and written forms, and may also be conveyed through sign languages.",
"Human language is characterized by its cultural and historical diversity, with significant variations observed between cultures and across time.",
"Human languages possess the properties of productivity and displacement, which enable the creation of an infinite number of sentences, and the ability to refer to objects, events, and ideas that are not immediately present in the discourse.",
"The use of human language relies on social convention and is acquired through learning.Estimates of the number of human languages in the world vary between and .",
"Precise estimates depend on an arbitrary distinction (dichotomy) established between languages and dialects.",
"Natural languages are spoken, signed, or both; however, any language can be encoded into secondary media using auditory, visual, or tactile stimuli – for example, writing, whistling, signing, or braille.",
"In other words, human language is modality-independent, but written or signed language is the way to inscribe or encode the natural human speech or gestures.Depending on philosophical perspectives regarding the definition of language and meaning, when used as a general concept, \"language\" may refer to the cognitive ability to learn and use systems of complex communication, or to describe the set of rules that makes up these systems, or the set of utterances that can be produced from those rules.",
"All languages rely on the process of semiosis to relate signs to particular meanings.",
"Oral, manual and tactile languages contain a phonological system that governs how symbols are used to form sequences known as words or morphemes, and a syntactic system that governs how words and morphemes are combined to form phrases and utterances.The scientific study of language is called linguistics.",
"Critical examinations of languages, such as philosophy of language, the relationships between language and thought, how words represent experience, etc., have been debated at least since Gorgias and Plato in ancient Greek civilization.",
"Thinkers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) have argued that language originated from emotions, while others like Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) have argued that languages originated from rational and logical thought.",
"Twentieth century philosophers such as Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951) argued that philosophy is really the study of language itself.",
"Major figures in contemporary linguistics of these times include Ferdinand de Saussure and Noam Chomsky.Language is thought to have gradually diverged from earlier primate communication systems when early hominins acquired the ability to form a theory of mind and shared intentionality.",
"This development is sometimes thought to have coincided with an increase in brain volume, and many linguists see the structures of language as having evolved to serve specific communicative and social functions.",
"Language is processed in many different locations in the human brain, but especially in Broca's and Wernicke's areas.",
"Humans acquire language through social interaction in early childhood, and children generally speak fluently by approximately three years old.",
"Language and culture are codependent.",
"Therefore, in addition to its strictly communicative uses, language has social uses such as signifying group identity, social stratification, as well as use for social grooming and entertainment.Languages evolve and diversify over time, and the history of their evolution can be reconstructed by comparing modern languages to determine which traits their ancestral languages must have had in order for the later developmental stages to occur.",
"A group of languages that descend from a common ancestor is known as a language family; in contrast, a language that has been demonstrated to not have any living or non-living relationship with another language is called a language isolate.",
"There are also many unclassified languages whose relationships have not been established, and spurious languages may have not existed at all.",
"Academic consensus holds that between 50% and 90% of languages spoken at the beginning of the 21st century will probably have become extinct by the year 2100."
],
[
"Definitions",
"The English word ''language'' derives ultimately from Proto-Indo-European \"tongue, speech, language\" through Latin , \"language; tongue\", and Old French .",
"The word is sometimes used to refer to codes, ciphers, and other kinds of artificially constructed communication systems such as formally defined computer languages used for computer programming.",
"Unlike conventional human languages, a formal language in this sense is a system of signs for encoding and decoding information.",
"This article specifically concerns the properties of natural human language as it is studied in the discipline of linguistics.As an object of linguistic study, \"language\" has two primary meanings: an abstract concept, and a specific linguistic system, e.g.",
"\"French\".",
"The Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, who defined the modern discipline of linguistics, first explicitly formulated the distinction using the French word for language as a concept, as a specific instance of a language system, and for the concrete usage of speech in a particular language.When speaking of language as a general concept, definitions can be used which stress different aspects of the phenomenon.",
"These definitions also entail different approaches and understandings of language, and they also inform different and often incompatible schools of linguistic theory.",
"Debates about the nature and origin of language go back to the ancient world.",
"Greek philosophers such as Gorgias and Plato debated the relation between words, concepts and reality.",
"Gorgias argued that language could represent neither the objective experience nor human experience, and that communication and truth were therefore impossible.",
"Plato maintained that communication is possible because language represents ideas and concepts that exist independently of, and prior to, language.During the Enlightenment and its debates about human origins, it became fashionable to speculate about the origin of language.",
"Thinkers such as Rousseau and Johann Gottfried Herder argued that language had originated in the instinctive expression of emotions, and that it was originally closer to music and poetry than to the logical expression of rational thought.",
"Rationalist philosophers such as Kant and René Descartes held the opposite view.",
"Around the turn of the 20th century, thinkers began to wonder about the role of language in shaping our experiences of the world – asking whether language simply reflects the objective structure of the world, or whether it creates concepts that in turn impose structure on our experience of the objective world.",
"This led to the question of whether philosophical problems are really firstly linguistic problems.",
"The resurgence of the view that language plays a significant role in the creation and circulation of concepts, and that the study of philosophy is essentially the study of language, is associated with what has been called the linguistic turn and philosophers such as Wittgenstein in 20th-century philosophy.",
"These debates about language in relation to meaning and reference, cognition and consciousness remain active today.===Mental faculty, organ or instinct===One definition sees language primarily as the mental faculty that allows humans to undertake linguistic behaviour: to learn languages and to produce and understand utterances.",
"This definition stresses the universality of language to all humans, and it emphasizes the biological basis for the human capacity for language as a unique development of the human brain.",
"Proponents of the view that the drive to language acquisition is innate in humans argue that this is supported by the fact that all cognitively normal children raised in an environment where language is accessible will acquire language without formal instruction.",
"Languages may even develop spontaneously in environments where people live or grow up together without a common language; for example, creole languages and spontaneously developed sign languages such as Nicaraguan Sign Language.",
"This view, which can be traced back to the philosophers Kant and Descartes, understands language to be largely innate, for example, in Chomsky's theory of Universal Grammar, or American philosopher Jerry Fodor's extreme innatist theory.",
"These kinds of definitions are often applied in studies of language within a cognitive science framework and in neurolinguistics.===Formal symbolic system===Another definition sees language as a formal system of signs governed by grammatical rules of combination to communicate meaning.",
"This definition stresses that human languages can be described as closed structural systems consisting of rules that relate particular signs to particular meanings.",
"This structuralist view of language was first introduced by Ferdinand de Saussure, and his structuralism remains foundational for many approaches to language.Some proponents of Saussure's view of language have advocated a formal approach which studies language structure by identifying its basic elements and then by presenting a formal account of the rules according to which the elements combine in order to form words and sentences.",
"The main proponent of such a theory is Noam Chomsky, the originator of the generative theory of grammar, who has defined language as the construction of sentences that can be generated using transformational grammars.",
"Chomsky considers these rules to be an innate feature of the human mind and to constitute the rudiments of what language is.",
"By way of contrast, such transformational grammars are also commonly used in formal logic, in formal linguistics, and in applied computational linguistics.",
"In the philosophy of language, the view of linguistic meaning as residing in the logical relations between propositions and reality was developed by philosophers such as Alfred Tarski, Bertrand Russell, and other formal logicians.===Tool for communication===A conversation in American Sign LanguageYet another definition sees language as a system of communication that enables humans to exchange verbal or symbolic utterances.",
"This definition stresses the social functions of language and the fact that humans use it to express themselves and to manipulate objects in their environment.",
"Functional theories of grammar explain grammatical structures by their communicative functions, and understand the grammatical structures of language to be the result of an adaptive process by which grammar was \"tailored\" to serve the communicative needs of its users.This view of language is associated with the study of language in pragmatic, cognitive, and interactive frameworks, as well as in sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology.",
"Functionalist theories tend to study grammar as dynamic phenomena, as structures that are always in the process of changing as they are employed by their speakers.",
"This view places importance on the study of linguistic typology, or the classification of languages according to structural features, as it can be shown that processes of grammaticalization tend to follow trajectories that are partly dependent on typology.",
"In the philosophy of language, the view of pragmatics as being central to language and meaning is often associated with Wittgenstein's later works and with ordinary language philosophers such as J.L.",
"Austin, Paul Grice, John Searle, and W.O.",
"Quine.===Distinctive features of human language===A number of features, many of which were described by Charles Hockett and called design features set human language apart from communication used by non-human animals.Communication systems used by other animals such as bees or apes are closed systems that consist of a finite, usually very limited, number of possible ideas that can be expressed.",
"In contrast, human language is open-ended and productive, meaning that it allows humans to produce a vast range of utterances from a finite set of elements, and to create new words and sentences.",
"This is possible because human language is based on a dual code, in which a finite number of elements which are meaningless in themselves (e.g.",
"sounds, letters or gestures) can be combined to form an infinite number of larger units of meaning (words and sentences).",
"However, one study has demonstrated that an Australian bird, the chestnut-crowned babbler, is capable of using the same acoustic elements in different arrangements to create two functionally distinct vocalizations.",
"Additionally, pied babblers have demonstrated the ability to generate two functionally distinct vocalisations composed of the same sound type, which can only be distinguished by the number of repeated elements.Several species of animals have proved to be able to acquire forms of communication through social learning: for instance a bonobo named Kanzi learned to express itself using a set of symbolic lexigrams.",
"Similarly, many species of birds and whales learn their songs by imitating other members of their species.",
"However, while some animals may acquire large numbers of words and symbols, none have been able to learn as many different signs as are generally known by an average 4 year old human, nor have any acquired anything resembling the complex grammar of human language.Human languages differ from animal communication systems in that they employ grammatical and semantic categories, such as noun and verb, present and past, which may be used to express exceedingly complex meanings.",
"It is distinguished by the property of recursivity: for example, a noun phrase can contain another noun phrase (as in \"\") or a clause can contain another clause (as in \"\").",
"Human language is the only known natural communication system whose adaptability may be referred to as ''modality independent''.",
"This means that it can be used not only for communication through one channel or medium, but through several.",
"For example, spoken language uses the auditive modality, whereas sign languages and writing use the visual modality, and braille writing uses the tactile modality.Human language is unusual in being able to refer to abstract concepts and to imagined or hypothetical events as well as events that took place in the past or may happen in the future.",
"This ability to refer to events that are not at the same time or place as the speech event is called ''displacement'', and while some animal communication systems can use displacement (such as the communication of bees that can communicate the location of sources of nectar that are out of sight), the degree to which it is used in human language is also considered unique."
],
[
"Origin",
"Theories about the origin of language differ in regard to their basic assumptions about what language is.",
"Some theories are based on the idea that language is so complex that one cannot imagine it simply appearing from nothing in its final form, but that it must have evolved from earlier pre-linguistic systems among our pre-human ancestors.",
"These theories can be called continuity-based theories.",
"The opposite viewpoint is that language is such a unique human trait that it cannot be compared to anything found among non-humans and that it must therefore have appeared suddenly in the transition from pre-hominids to early man.",
"These theories can be defined as discontinuity-based.",
"Similarly, theories based on the generative view of language pioneered by Noam Chomsky see language mostly as an innate faculty that is largely genetically encoded, whereas functionalist theories see it as a system that is largely cultural, learned through social interaction.Continuity-based theories are held by a majority of scholars, but they vary in how they envision this development.",
"Those who see language as being mostly innate, such as psychologist Steven Pinker, hold the precedents to be animal cognition, whereas those who see language as a socially learned tool of communication, such as psychologist Michael Tomasello, see it as having developed from animal communication in primates: either gestural or vocal communication to assist in cooperation.",
"Other continuity-based models see language as having developed from music, a view already espoused by Rousseau, Herder, Humboldt, and Charles Darwin.",
"A prominent proponent of this view is archaeologist Steven Mithen.",
"Stephen Anderson states that the age of spoken languages is estimated at 60,000 to 100,000 years and that: Researchers on the evolutionary origin of language generally find it plausible to suggest that language was invented only once, and that all modern spoken languages are thus in some way related, even if that relation can no longer be recovered ... because of limitations on the methods available for reconstruction.Because language emerged in the early prehistory of man, before the existence of any written records, its early development has left no historical traces, and it is believed that no comparable processes can be observed today.",
"Theories that stress continuity often look at animals to see if, for example, primates display any traits that can be seen as analogous to what pre-human language must have been like.",
"Early human fossils can be inspected for traces of physical adaptation to language use or pre-linguistic forms of symbolic behaviour.",
"Among the signs in human fossils that may suggest linguistic abilities are: the size of the brain relative to body mass, the presence of a larynx capable of advanced sound production and the nature of tools and other manufactured artifacts.It was mostly undisputed that pre-human australopithecines did not have communication systems significantly different from those found in great apes in general.",
"However, a 2017 study on ''Ardipithecus ramidus'' challenges this belief.",
"Scholarly opinions vary as to the developments since the appearance of the genus ''Homo'' some 2.5 million years ago.",
"Some scholars assume the development of primitive language-like systems (proto-language) as early as ''Homo habilis'' (2.3 million years ago) while others place the development of primitive symbolic communication only with ''Homo erectus'' (1.8 million years ago) or ''Homo heidelbergensis'' (0.6 million years ago), and the development of language proper with anatomically modern ''Homo sapiens'' with the Upper Paleolithic revolution less than 100,000 years ago.Chomsky is one prominent proponent of a discontinuity-based theory of human language origins.",
"He suggests that for scholars interested in the nature of language, \"talk about the evolution of the language capacity is beside the point.\"",
"Chomsky proposes that perhaps \"some random mutation took place ... and it reorganized the brain, implanting a language organ in an otherwise primate brain.\"",
"Though cautioning against taking this story literally, Chomsky insists that \"it may be closer to reality than many other fairy tales that are told about evolutionary processes, including language.\""
],
[
"Study",
"William Jones discovered the family relation between Latin and Sanskrit, laying the ground for the discipline of historical linguistics.The study of language, linguistics, has been developing into a science since the first grammatical descriptions of particular languages in India more than 2000 years ago, after the development of the Brahmi script.",
"Modern linguistics is a science that concerns itself with all aspects of language, examining it from all of the theoretical viewpoints described above.===Subdisciplines===The academic study of language is conducted within many different disciplinary areas and from different theoretical angles, all of which inform modern approaches to linguistics.",
"For example, descriptive linguistics examines the grammar of single languages, theoretical linguistics develops theories on how best to conceptualize and define the nature of language based on data from the various extant human languages, sociolinguistics studies how languages are used for social purposes informing in turn the study of the social functions of language and grammatical description, neurolinguistics studies how language is processed in the human brain and allows the experimental testing of theories, computational linguistics builds on theoretical and descriptive linguistics to construct computational models of language often aimed at processing natural language or at testing linguistic hypotheses, and historical linguistics relies on grammatical and lexical descriptions of languages to trace their individual histories and reconstruct trees of language families by using the comparative method.===Early history===Ferdinand de Saussure developed the structuralist approach to studying language.The formal study of language is often considered to have started in India with Pāṇini, the 5th century BC grammarian who formulated 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology.",
"However, Sumerian scribes already studied the differences between Sumerian and Akkadian grammar around 1900 BC.",
"Subsequent grammatical traditions developed in all of the ancient cultures that adopted writing.In the 17th century AD, the French Port-Royal Grammarians developed the idea that the grammars of all languages were a reflection of the universal basics of thought, and therefore that grammar was universal.",
"In the 18th century, the first use of the comparative method by British philologist and expert on ancient India William Jones sparked the rise of comparative linguistics.",
"The scientific study of language was broadened from Indo-European to language in general by Wilhelm von Humboldt.",
"Early in the 20th century, Ferdinand de Saussure introduced the idea of language as a static system of interconnected units, defined through the oppositions between them.By introducing a distinction between diachronic and synchronic analyses of language, he laid the foundation of the modern discipline of linguistics.",
"Saussure also introduced several basic dimensions of linguistic analysis that are still fundamental in many contemporary linguistic theories, such as the distinctions between syntagm and paradigm, and the Langue-parole distinction, distinguishing language as an abstract system (''langue''), from language as a concrete manifestation of this system (''parole'').=== Modern linguistics ===Noam Chomsky is one of the most important linguistic theorists of the 20th century.In the 1960s, Noam Chomsky formulated the generative theory of language.",
"According to this theory, the most basic form of language is a set of syntactic rules that is universal for all humans and which underlies the grammars of all human languages.",
"This set of rules is called Universal Grammar; for Chomsky, describing it is the primary objective of the discipline of linguistics.",
"Thus, he considered that the grammars of individual languages are only of importance to linguistics insofar as they allow us to deduce the universal underlying rules from which the observable linguistic variability is generated.In opposition to the formal theories of the generative school, functional theories of language propose that since language is fundamentally a tool, its structures are best analyzed and understood by reference to their functions.",
"Formal theories of grammar seek to define the different elements of language and describe the way they relate to each other as systems of formal rules or operations, while functional theories seek to define the functions performed by language and then relate them to the linguistic elements that carry them out.",
"The framework of cognitive linguistics interprets language in terms of the concepts (which are sometimes universal, and sometimes specific to a particular language) which underlie its forms.",
"Cognitive linguistics is primarily concerned with how the mind creates meaning through language."
],
[
"Physiological and neural architecture of language and speech",
"Speaking is the default modality for language in all cultures.",
"The production of spoken language depends on sophisticated capacities for controlling the lips, tongue and other components of the vocal apparatus, the ability to acoustically decode speech sounds, and the neurological apparatus required for acquiring and producing language.",
"The study of the genetic bases for human language is at an early stage: the only gene that has definitely been implicated in language production is FOXP2, which may cause a kind of congenital language disorder if affected by mutations.===The brain===Language Areas of the brain.",
"The brain is the coordinating center of all linguistic activity; it controls both the production of linguistic cognition and of meaning and the mechanics of speech production.",
"Nonetheless, our knowledge of the neurological bases for language is quite limited, though it has advanced considerably with the use of modern imaging techniques.",
"The discipline of linguistics dedicated to studying the neurological aspects of language is called neurolinguistics.Early work in neurolinguistics involved the study of language in people with brain lesions, to see how lesions in specific areas affect language and speech.",
"In this way, neuroscientists in the 19th century discovered that two areas in the brain are crucially implicated in language processing.",
"The first area is Wernicke's area, which is in the posterior section of the superior temporal gyrus in the dominant cerebral hemisphere.",
"People with a lesion in this area of the brain develop receptive aphasia, a condition in which there is a major impairment of language comprehension, while speech retains a natural-sounding rhythm and a relatively normal sentence structure.",
"The second area is Broca's area, in the posterior inferior frontal gyrus of the dominant hemisphere.",
"People with a lesion to this area develop expressive aphasia, meaning that they know what they want to say, they just cannot get it out.",
"They are typically able to understand what is being said to them, but unable to speak fluently.",
"Other symptoms that may be present in expressive aphasia include problems with word repetition.",
"The condition affects both spoken and written language.",
"Those with this aphasia also exhibit ungrammatical speech and show inability to use syntactic information to determine the meaning of sentences.",
"Both expressive and receptive aphasia also affect the use of sign language, in analogous ways to how they affect speech, with expressive aphasia causing signers to sign slowly and with incorrect grammar, whereas a signer with receptive aphasia will sign fluently, but make little sense to others and have difficulties comprehending others' signs.",
"This shows that the impairment is specific to the ability to use language, not to the physiology used for speech production.With technological advances in the late 20th century, neurolinguists have also incorporated non-invasive techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electrophysiology to study language processing in individuals without impairments.===Anatomy of speech===Spoken language relies on human physical ability to produce sound, which is a longitudinal wave propagated through the air at a frequency capable of vibrating the ear drum.",
"This ability depends on the physiology of the human speech organs.",
"These organs consist of the lungs, the voice box (larynx), and the upper vocal tract – the throat, the mouth, and the nose.",
"By controlling the different parts of the speech apparatus, the airstream can be manipulated to produce different speech sounds.The sound of speech can be analyzed into a combination of segmental and suprasegmental elements.",
"The segmental elements are those that follow each other in sequences, which are usually represented by distinct letters in alphabetic scripts, such as the Roman script.",
"In free flowing speech, there are no clear boundaries between one segment and the next, nor usually are there any audible pauses between them.",
"Segments therefore are distinguished by their distinct sounds which are a result of their different articulations, and can be either vowels or consonants.",
"Suprasegmental phenomena encompass such elements as stress, phonation type, voice timbre, and prosody or intonation, all of which may have effects across multiple segments.Consonants and vowel segments combine to form syllables, which in turn combine to form utterances; these can be distinguished phonetically as the space between two inhalations.",
"Acoustically, these different segments are characterized by different formant structures, that are visible in a spectrogram of the recorded sound wave.",
"Formants are the amplitude peaks in the frequency spectrum of a specific sound.Vowels are those sounds that have no audible friction caused by the narrowing or obstruction of some part of the upper vocal tract.",
"They vary in quality according to the degree of lip aperture and the placement of the tongue within the oral cavity.",
"Vowels are called ''close'' when the lips are relatively closed, as in the pronunciation of the vowel (English \"ee\"), or ''open'' when the lips are relatively open, as in the vowel (English \"ah\").",
"If the tongue is located towards the back of the mouth, the quality changes, creating vowels such as (English \"oo\").",
"The quality also changes depending on whether the lips are rounded as opposed to unrounded, creating distinctions such as that between (unrounded front vowel such as English \"ee\") and (rounded front vowel such as German \"ü\").Consonants are those sounds that have audible friction or closure at some point within the upper vocal tract.",
"Consonant sounds vary by place of articulation, i.e.",
"the place in the vocal tract where the airflow is obstructed, commonly at the lips, teeth, alveolar ridge, palate, velum, uvula, or glottis.",
"Each place of articulation produces a different set of consonant sounds, which are further distinguished by manner of articulation, or the kind of friction, whether full closure, in which case the consonant is called ''occlusive'' or ''stop'', or different degrees of aperture creating ''fricatives'' and ''approximants''.",
"Consonants can also be either ''voiced or unvoiced'', depending on whether the vocal cords are set in vibration by airflow during the production of the sound.",
"Voicing is what separates English in ''bus'' (unvoiced sibilant) from in ''buzz'' (voiced sibilant).Some speech sounds, both vowels and consonants, involve release of air flow through the nasal cavity, and these are called ''nasals'' or ''nasalized'' sounds.",
"Other sounds are defined by the way the tongue moves within the mouth such as the l-sounds (called ''laterals'', because the air flows along both sides of the tongue), and the r-sounds (called ''rhotics'').By using these speech organs, humans can produce hundreds of distinct sounds: some appear very often in the world's languages, whereas others are much more common in certain language families, language areas, or even specific to a single language."
],
[
"Modality",
"Human languages display considerable plasticity in their deployment of two fundamental modes: oral (speech and mouthing) and manual (sign and gesture).",
"For example, it is common for oral language to be accompanied by gesture, and for sign language to be accompanied by mouthing.",
"In addition, some language communities use both modes to convey lexical or grammatical meaning, each mode complementing the other.",
"Such bimodal use of language is especially common in genres such as story-telling (with Plains Indian Sign Language and Australian Aboriginal sign languages used alongside oral language, for example), but also occurs in mundane conversation.",
"For instance, many Australian languages have a rich set of case suffixes that provide details about the instrument used to perform an action.",
"Others lack such grammatical precision in the oral mode, but supplement it with gesture to convey that information in the sign mode.",
"In Iwaidja, for example, 'he went out for fish using a torch' is spoken as simply \"he-hunted fish torch\", but the word for 'torch' is accompanied by a gesture indicating that it was held.",
"In another example, the ritual language Damin had a heavily reduced oral vocabulary of only a few hundred words, each of which was very general in meaning, but which were supplemented by gesture for greater precision (e.g., the single word for fish, ''l*i'', was accompanied by a gesture to indicate the kind of fish).Secondary modes of language, by which a fundamental mode is conveyed in a different medium, include writing (including braille), sign (in manually coded language), whistling and drumming.",
"Tertiary modes – such as semaphore, Morse code and spelling alphabets – convey the secondary mode of writing in a different medium.",
"For some extinct languages that are maintained for ritual or liturgical purposes, writing may be the primary mode, with speech secondary."
],
[
"Structure",
"When described as a system of symbolic communication, language is traditionally seen as consisting of three parts: signs, meanings, and a code connecting signs with their meanings.",
"The study of the process of semiosis, how signs and meanings are combined, used, and interpreted is called semiotics.",
"Signs can be composed of sounds, gestures, letters, or symbols, depending on whether the language is spoken, signed, or written, and they can be combined into complex signs, such as words and phrases.",
"When used in communication, a sign is encoded and transmitted by a sender through a channel to a receiver who decodes it.Tamil inscription at ThanjavurSome of the properties that define human language as opposed to other communication systems are: the arbitrariness of the linguistic sign, meaning that there is no predictable connection between a linguistic sign and its meaning; the duality of the linguistic system, meaning that linguistic structures are built by combining elements into larger structures that can be seen as layered, e.g.",
"how sounds build words and words build phrases; the discreteness of the elements of language, meaning that the elements out of which linguistic signs are constructed are discrete units, e.g.",
"sounds and words, that can be distinguished from each other and rearranged in different patterns; and the productivity of the linguistic system, meaning that the finite number of linguistic elements can be combined into a theoretically infinite number of combinations.The rules by which signs can be combined to form words and phrases are called syntax or grammar.",
"The meaning that is connected to individual signs, morphemes, words, phrases, and texts is called semantics.",
"The division of language into separate but connected systems of sign and meaning goes back to the first linguistic studies of de Saussure and is now used in almost all branches of linguistics.===Semantics===Languages express meaning by relating a sign form to a meaning, or its content.",
"Sign forms must be something that can be perceived, for example, in sounds, images, or gestures, and then related to a specific meaning by social convention.",
"Because the basic relation of meaning for most linguistic signs is based on social convention, linguistic signs can be considered arbitrary, in the sense that the convention is established socially and historically, rather than by means of a natural relation between a specific sign form and its meaning.Thus, languages must have a vocabulary of signs related to specific meaning.",
"The English sign \"dog\" denotes, for example, a member of the species ''Canis familiaris''.",
"In a language, the array of arbitrary signs connected to specific meanings is called the lexicon, and a single sign connected to a meaning is called a lexeme.",
"Not all meanings in a language are represented by single words.",
"Often, semantic concepts are embedded in the morphology or syntax of the language in the form of grammatical categories.All languages contain the semantic structure of predication: a structure that predicates a property, state, or action.",
"Traditionally, semantics has been understood to be the study of how speakers and interpreters assign truth values to statements, so that meaning is understood to be the process by which a predicate can be said to be true or false about an entity, e.g.",
"\"\".",
"Recently, this model of semantics has been complemented with more dynamic models of meaning that incorporate shared knowledge about the context in which a sign is interpreted into the production of meaning.",
"Such models of meaning are explored in the field of pragmatics.===Sounds and symbols===Depending on modality, language structure can be based on systems of sounds (speech), gestures (sign languages), or graphic or tactile symbols (writing).",
"The ways in which languages use sounds or signs to construct meaning are studied in phonology.Sounds as part of a linguistic system are called phonemes.",
"Phonemes are abstract units of sound, defined as the smallest units in a language that can serve to distinguish between the meaning of a pair of minimally different words, a so-called minimal pair.",
"In English, for example, the words ''bat'' and ''pat'' form a minimal pair, in which the distinction between and differentiates the two words, which have different meanings.",
"However, each language contrasts sounds in different ways.",
"For example, in a language that does not distinguish between voiced and unvoiced consonants, the sounds and (if they both occur) could be considered a single phoneme, and consequently, the two pronunciations would have the same meaning.",
"Similarly, the English language does not distinguish phonemically between aspirated and non-aspirated pronunciations of consonants, as many other languages like Korean and Hindi do: the unaspirated in ''spin'' and the aspirated in ''pin'' are considered to be merely different ways of pronouncing the same phoneme (such variants of a single phoneme are called allophones), whereas in Mandarin Chinese, the same difference in pronunciation distinguishes between the words 'crouch' and 'eight' (the accent above the á means that the vowel is pronounced with a high tone).All spoken languages have phonemes of at least two different categories, vowels and consonants, that can be combined to form syllables.",
"As well as segments such as consonants and vowels, some languages also use sound in other ways to convey meaning.",
"Many languages, for example, use stress, pitch, duration, and tone to distinguish meaning.",
"Because these phenomena operate outside of the level of single segments, they are called suprasegmental.",
"Some languages have only a few phonemes, for example, Rotokas and Pirahã language with 11 and 10 phonemes respectively, whereas languages like Taa may have as many as 141 phonemes.",
"In sign languages, the equivalent to phonemes (formerly called cheremes) are defined by the basic elements of gestures, such as hand shape, orientation, location, and motion, which correspond to manners of articulation in spoken language.Writing systems represent language using visual symbols, which may or may not correspond to the sounds of spoken language.",
"The Latin alphabet (and those on which it is based or that have been derived from it) was originally based on the representation of single sounds, so that words were constructed from letters that generally denote a single consonant or vowel in the structure of the word.",
"In syllabic scripts, such as the Inuktitut syllabary, each sign represents a whole syllable.",
"In logographic scripts, each sign represents an entire word, and will generally bear no relation to the sound of that word in spoken language.Because all languages have a very large number of words, no purely logographic scripts are known to exist.",
"Written language represents the way spoken sounds and words follow one after another by arranging symbols according to a pattern that follows a certain direction.",
"The direction used in a writing system is entirely arbitrary and established by convention.",
"Some writing systems use the horizontal axis (left to right as the Latin script or right to left as the Arabic script), while others such as traditional Chinese writing use the vertical dimension (from top to bottom).",
"A few writing systems use opposite directions for alternating lines, and others, such as the ancient Maya script, can be written in either direction and rely on graphic cues to show the reader the direction of reading.In order to represent the sounds of the world's languages in writing, linguists have developed the International Phonetic Alphabet, designed to represent all of the discrete sounds that are known to contribute to meaning in human languages.===Grammar===Grammar is the study of how meaningful elements called ''morphemes'' within a language can be combined into utterances.",
"Morphemes can either be ''free'' or ''bound''.",
"If they are free to be moved around within an utterance, they are usually called ''words'', and if they are bound to other words or morphemes, they are called affixes.",
"The way in which meaningful elements can be combined within a language is governed by rules.",
"The study of the rules for the internal structure of words are called morphology.",
"The rules of the internal structure of phrases and sentences are called ''syntax''.====Grammatical categories====Grammar can be described as a system of categories and a set of rules that determine how categories combine to form different aspects of meaning.",
"Languages differ widely in whether they are encoded through the use of categories or lexical units.",
"However, several categories are so common as to be nearly universal.",
"Such universal categories include the encoding of the grammatical relations of participants and predicates by grammatically distinguishing between their relations to a predicate, the encoding of temporal and spatial relations on predicates, and a system of grammatical person governing reference to and distinction between speakers and addressees and those about whom they are speaking.====Word classes====Languages organize their parts of speech into classes according to their functions and positions relative to other parts.",
"All languages, for instance, make a basic distinction between a group of words that prototypically denotes things and concepts and a group of words that prototypically denotes actions and events.",
"The first group, which includes English words such as \"dog\" and \"song\", are usually called nouns.",
"The second, which includes \"think\" and \"sing\", are called verbs.",
"Another common category is the adjective: words that describe properties or qualities of nouns, such as \"red\" or \"big\".",
"Word classes can be \"open\" if new words can continuously be added to the class, or relatively \"closed\" if there is a fixed number of words in a class.",
"In English, the class of pronouns is closed, whereas the class of adjectives is open, since an infinite number of adjectives can be constructed from verbs (e.g.",
"\"saddened\") or nouns (e.g.",
"with the -like suffix, as in \"noun-like\").",
"In other languages such as Korean, the situation is the opposite, and new pronouns can be constructed, whereas the number of adjectives is fixed.Word classes also carry out differing functions in grammar.",
"Prototypically, verbs are used to construct predicates, while nouns are used as arguments of predicates.",
"In a sentence such as \"Sally runs\", the predicate is \"runs\", because it is the word that predicates a specific state about its argument \"Sally\".",
"Some verbs such as \"curse\" can take two arguments, e.g.",
"\"Sally cursed John\".",
"A predicate that can only take a single argument is called ''intransitive'', while a predicate that can take two arguments is called ''transitive''.Many other word classes exist in different languages, such as conjunctions like \"and\" that serve to join two sentences, articles that introduce a noun, interjections such as \"wow!",
"\", or ideophones like \"splash\" that mimic the sound of some event.",
"Some languages have positionals that describe the spatial position of an event or entity.",
"Many languages have classifiers that identify countable nouns as belonging to a particular type or having a particular shape.",
"For instance, in Japanese, the general noun classifier for humans is ''nin'' (人), and it is used for counting humans, whatever they are called::''san-nin no gakusei'' (三人の学生) lit.",
"\"3 human-classifier of student\" – three studentsFor trees, it would be::''san-bon no ki'' (三本の木) lit.",
"\"3 classifier-for-long-objects of tree\" – three trees====Morphology====In linguistics, the study of the internal structure of complex words and the processes by which words are formed is called morphology.",
"In most languages, it is possible to construct complex words that are built of several morphemes.",
"For instance, the English word \"unexpected\" can be analyzed as being composed of the three morphemes \"un-\", \"expect\" and \"-ed\".Morphemes can be classified according to whether they are independent morphemes, so-called roots, or whether they can only co-occur attached to other morphemes.",
"These bound morphemes or affixes can be classified according to their position in relation to the root: ''prefixes'' precede the root, suffixes follow the root, and infixes are inserted in the middle of a root.",
"Affixes serve to modify or elaborate the meaning of the root.",
"Some languages change the meaning of words by changing the phonological structure of a word, for example, the English word \"run\", which in the past tense is \"ran\".",
"This process is called ''ablaut''.",
"Furthermore, morphology distinguishes between the process of inflection, which modifies or elaborates on a word, and the process of derivation, which creates a new word from an existing one.",
"In English, the verb \"sing\" has the inflectional forms \"singing\" and \"sung\", which are both verbs, and the derivational form \"singer\", which is a noun derived from the verb with the agentive suffix \"-er\".Languages differ widely in how much they rely on morphological processes of word formation.",
"In some languages, for example, Chinese, there are no morphological processes, and all grammatical information is encoded syntactically by forming strings of single words.",
"This type of morpho-syntax is often called isolating, or analytic, because there is almost a full correspondence between a single word and a single aspect of meaning.",
"Most languages have words consisting of several morphemes, but they vary in the degree to which morphemes are discrete units.",
"In many languages, notably in most Indo-European languages, single morphemes may have several distinct meanings that cannot be analyzed into smaller segments.",
"For example, in Latin, the word , or \"good\", consists of the root , meaning \"good\", and the suffix -, which indicates masculine gender, singular number, and nominative case.",
"These languages are called ''fusional languages'', because several meanings may be fused into a single morpheme.",
"The opposite of fusional languages are agglutinative languages which construct words by stringing morphemes together in chains, but with each morpheme as a discrete semantic unit.",
"An example of such a language is Turkish, where for example, the word , or \"from your houses\", consists of the morphemes, with the meanings ''house-plural-your-from''.",
"The languages that rely on morphology to the greatest extent are traditionally called polysynthetic languages.",
"They may express the equivalent of an entire English sentence in a single word.",
"For example, in Persian the single word means ''I didn't understand it'' consisting of morphemes with the meanings, \"negation.understand.past.I.it\".",
"As another example with more complexity, in the Yupik word , which means \"He had not yet said again that he was going to hunt reindeer\", the word consists of the morphemes with the meanings, \"reindeer-hunt-future-say-negation-again-third.person.singular.indicative\", and except for the morpheme (\"reindeer\") none of the other morphemes can appear in isolation.Many languages use morphology to cross-reference words within a sentence.",
"This is sometimes called ''agreement''.",
"For example, in many Indo-European languages, adjectives must cross-reference the noun they modify in terms of number, case, and gender, so that the Latin adjective , or \"good\", is inflected to agree with a noun that is masculine gender, singular number, and nominative case.",
"In many polysynthetic languages, verbs cross-reference their subjects and objects.",
"In these types of languages, a single verb may include information that would require an entire sentence in English.",
"For example, in the Basque phrase , or \"you saw me\", the past tense auxiliary verb (similar to English \"do\") agrees with both the subject (you) expressed by the - prefix, and with the object (me) expressed by the – suffix.",
"The sentence could be directly transliterated as \"see you-did-me\"====Syntax====subject of the phrase, \"on the mat\" is a locative phrase, and \"sat\" is the core of the predicate.Another way in which languages convey meaning is through the order of words within a sentence.",
"The grammatical rules for how to produce new sentences from words that are already known is called syntax.",
"The syntactical rules of a language determine why a sentence in English such as \"I love you\" is meaningful, but \"*love you I\" is not.",
"Syntactical rules determine how word order and sentence structure is constrained, and how those constraints contribute to meaning.",
"For example, in English, the two sentences \"the slaves were cursing the master\" and \"the master was cursing the slaves\" mean different things, because the role of the grammatical subject is encoded by the noun being in front of the verb, and the role of object is encoded by the noun appearing after the verb.",
"Conversely, in Latin, both ''Dominus servos vituperabat'' and ''Servos vituperabat dominus'' mean \"the master was reprimanding the slaves\", because ''servos'', or \"slaves\", is in the accusative case, showing that they are the grammatical object of the sentence, and ''dominus'', or \"master\", is in the nominative case, showing that he is the subject.Latin uses morphology to express the distinction between subject and object, whereas English uses word order.",
"Another example of how syntactic rules contribute to meaning is the rule of inverse word order in questions, which exists in many languages.",
"This rule explains why when in English, the phrase \"John is talking to Lucy\" is turned into a question, it becomes \"Who is John talking to?",
"\", and not \"John is talking to who?\".",
"The latter example may be used as a way of placing special emphasis on \"who\", thereby slightly altering the meaning of the question.",
"Syntax also includes the rules for how complex sentences are structured by grouping words together in units, called phrases, that can occupy different places in a larger syntactic structure.",
"Sentences can be described as consisting of phrases connected in a tree structure, connecting the phrases to each other at different levels.",
"To the right is a graphic representation of the syntactic analysis of the English sentence \"the cat sat on the mat\".",
"The sentence is analyzed as being constituted by a noun phrase, a verb, and a prepositional phrase; the prepositional phrase is further divided into a preposition and a noun phrase, and the noun phrases consist of an article and a noun.The reason sentences can be seen as being composed of phrases is because each phrase would be moved around as a single element if syntactic operations were carried out.",
"For example, \"the cat\" is one phrase, and \"on the mat\" is another, because they would be treated as single units if a decision was made to emphasize the location by moving forward the prepositional phrase: \"And on the mat, the cat sat\".",
"There are many different formalist and functionalist frameworks that propose theories for describing syntactic structures, based on different assumptions about what language is and how it should be described.",
"Each of them would analyze a sentence such as this in a different manner.===Typology and universals===Languages can be classified in relation to their grammatical types.",
"Languages that belong to different families nonetheless often have features in common, and these shared features tend to correlate.",
"For example, languages can be classified on the basis of their basic word order, the relative order of the verb, and its constituents in a normal indicative sentence.",
"In English, the basic order is SVO (subject–verb–object): \"The snake(S) bit(V) the man(O)\", whereas for example, the corresponding sentence in the Australian language Gamilaraay would be ''d̪uyugu n̪ama d̪ayn yiːy'' (snake man bit), SOV.",
"Word order type is relevant as a typological parameter, because basic word order type corresponds with other syntactic parameters, such as the relative order of nouns and adjectives, or of the use of prepositions or postpositions.",
"Such correlations are called implicational universals.",
"For example, most (but not all) languages that are of the SOV type have postpositions rather than prepositions, and have adjectives before nouns.All languages structure sentences into Subject, Verb, and Object, but languages differ in the way they classify the relations between actors and actions.",
"English uses the nominative-accusative word typology: in English transitive clauses, the subjects of both intransitive sentences (\"I run\") and transitive sentences (\"I love you\") are treated in the same way, shown here by the nominative pronoun ''I''.",
"Some languages, called ergative, Gamilaraay among them, distinguish instead between Agents and Patients.",
"In ergative languages, the single participant in an intransitive sentence, such as \"I run\", is treated the same as the patient in a transitive sentence, giving the equivalent of \"me run\".",
"Only in transitive sentences would the equivalent of the pronoun \"I\" be used.",
"In this way the semantic roles can map onto the grammatical relations in different ways, grouping an intransitive subject either with Agents (accusative type) or Patients (ergative type) or even making each of the three roles differently, which is called the tripartite type.The shared features of languages which belong to the same typological class type may have arisen completely independently.",
"Their co-occurrence might be due to universal laws governing the structure of natural languages, \"language universals\", or they might be the result of languages evolving convergent solutions to the recurring communicative problems that humans use language to solve."
],
[
"Social contexts of use and transmission",
"''Wall of Love'' on Montmartre in Paris: \"I love you\" in 250 languages, by calligraphist Fédéric Baron and artist Claire Kito (2000)While humans have the ability to learn any language, they only do so if they grow up in an environment in which language exists and is used by others.",
"Language is therefore dependent on communities of speakers in which children learn language from their elders and peers and themselves transmit language to their own children.",
"Languages are used by those who speak them to communicate and to solve a plethora of social tasks.",
"Many aspects of language use can be seen to be adapted specifically to these purposes.",
"Owing to the way in which language is transmitted between generations and within communities, language perpetually changes, diversifying into new languages or converging due to language contact.",
"The process is similar to the process of evolution, where the process of descent with modification leads to the formation of a phylogenetic tree.However, languages differ from biological organisms in that they readily incorporate elements from other languages through the process of diffusion, as speakers of different languages come into contact.",
"Humans also frequently speak more than one language, acquiring their first language or languages as children, or learning new languages as they grow up.",
"Because of the increased language contact in the globalizing world, many small languages are becoming endangered as their speakers shift to other languages that afford the possibility to participate in larger and more influential speech communities.===Usage and meaning===When studying the way in which words and signs are used, it is often the case that words have different meanings, depending on the social context of use.",
"An important example of this is the process called deixis, which describes the way in which certain words refer to entities through their relation between a specific point in time and space when the word is uttered.",
"Such words are, for example, the word, \"I\" (which designates the person speaking), \"now\" (which designates the moment of speaking), and \"here\" (which designates the position of speaking).",
"Signs also change their meanings over time, as the conventions governing their usage gradually change.",
"The study of how the meaning of linguistic expressions changes depending on context is called pragmatics.",
"Deixis is an important part of the way that we use language to point out entities in the world.",
"Pragmatics is concerned with the ways in which language use is patterned and how these patterns contribute to meaning.",
"For example, in all languages, linguistic expressions can be used not just to transmit information, but to perform actions.",
"Certain actions are made only through language, but nonetheless have tangible effects, e.g.",
"the act of \"naming\", which creates a new name for some entity, or the act of \"pronouncing someone man and wife\", which creates a social contract of marriage.",
"These types of acts are called speech acts, although they can also be carried out through writing or hand signing.The form of linguistic expression often does not correspond to the meaning that it actually has in a social context.",
"For example, if at a dinner table a person asks, \"Can you reach the salt?",
"\", that is, in fact, not a question about the length of the arms of the one being addressed, but a request to pass the salt across the table.",
"This meaning is implied by the context in which it is spoken; these kinds of effects of meaning are called conversational implicatures.",
"These social rules for which ways of using language are considered appropriate in certain situations and how utterances are to be understood in relation to their context vary between communities, and learning them is a large part of acquiring communicative competence in a language.===Acquisition===All healthy, normally developing human beings learn to use language.",
"Children acquire the language or languages used around them: whichever languages they receive sufficient exposure to during childhood.",
"The development is essentially the same for children acquiring sign or oral languages.",
"This learning process is referred to as first-language acquisition, since unlike many other kinds of learning, it requires no direct teaching or specialized study.",
"In ''The Descent of Man'', naturalist Charles Darwin called this process \"an instinctive tendency to acquire an art\".A lesson at Kituwah Academy, a school where English and the Cherokee language are mediums of instructionFirst language acquisition proceeds in a fairly regular sequence, though there is a wide degree of variation in the timing of particular stages among normally developing infants.",
"Studies published in 2013 have indicated that unborn fetuses are capable of language acquisition to some degree.",
"From birth, newborns respond more readily to human speech than to other sounds.",
"Around one month of age, babies appear to be able to distinguish between different speech sounds.",
"Around six months of age, a child will begin babbling, producing the speech sounds or handshapes of the languages used around them.",
"Words appear around the age of 12 to 18 months; the average vocabulary of an eighteen-month-old child is around 50 words.",
"A child's first utterances are holophrases (literally \"whole-sentences\"), utterances that use just one word to communicate some idea.",
"Several months after a child begins producing words, the child will produce two-word utterances, and within a few more months will begin to produce telegraphic speech, or short sentences that are less grammatically complex than adult speech, but that do show regular syntactic structure.",
"From roughly the age of three to five years, a child's ability to speak or sign is refined to the point that it resembles adult language.Acquisition of second and additional languages can come at any age, through exposure in daily life or courses.",
"Children learning a second language are more likely to achieve native-like fluency than adults, but in general, it is very rare for someone speaking a second language to pass completely for a native speaker.",
"An important difference between first language acquisition and additional language acquisition is that the process of additional language acquisition is influenced by languages that the learner already knows.===Culture===Arnold Lakhovsky, ''The Conversation'' ()Languages, understood as the particular set of speech norms of a particular community, are also a part of the larger culture of the community that speaks them.",
"Languages differ not only in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar, but also through having different \"cultures of speaking.\"",
"Humans use language as a way of signalling identity with one cultural group as well as difference from others.",
"Even among speakers of one language, several different ways of using the language exist, and each is used to signal affiliation with particular subgroups within a larger culture.",
"Linguists and anthropologists, particularly sociolinguists, ethnolinguists, and linguistic anthropologists have specialized in studying how ways of speaking vary between speech communities.Linguists use the term \"varieties\" to refer to the different ways of speaking a language.",
"This term includes geographically or socioculturally defined dialects as well as the jargons or styles of subcultures.",
"Linguistic anthropologists and sociologists of language define communicative style as the ways that language is used and understood within a particular culture.Because norms for language use are shared by members of a specific group, communicative style also becomes a way of displaying and constructing group identity.",
"Linguistic differences may become salient markers of divisions between social groups, for example, speaking a language with a particular accent may imply membership of an ethnic minority or social class, one's area of origin, or status as a second language speaker.",
"These kinds of differences are not part of the linguistic system, but are an important part of how people use language as a social tool for constructing groups.However, many languages also have grammatical conventions that signal the social position of the speaker in relation to others through the use of registers that are related to social hierarchies or divisions.",
"In many languages, there are stylistic or even grammatical differences between the ways men and women speak, between age groups, or between social classes, just as some languages employ different words depending on who is listening.",
"For example, in the Australian language Dyirbal, a married man must use a special set of words to refer to everyday items when speaking in the presence of his mother-in-law.",
"Some cultures, for example, have elaborate systems of \"social deixis\", or systems of signalling social distance through linguistic means.",
"In English, social deixis is shown mostly through distinguishing between addressing some people by first name and others by surname, and in titles such as \"Mrs.\", \"boy\", \"Doctor\", or \"Your Honor\", but in other languages, such systems may be highly complex and codified in the entire grammar and vocabulary of the language.",
"For instance, in languages of east Asia such as Thai, Burmese, and Javanese, different words are used according to whether a speaker is addressing someone of higher or lower rank than oneself in a ranking system with animals and children ranking the lowest and gods and members of royalty as the highest.===Writing, literacy and technology===Swampy Cree using Canadian Aboriginal syllabics, an abugida developed by Christian missionaries for Indigenous Canadian languagesThroughout history a number of different ways of representing language in graphic media have been invented.",
"These are called writing systems.The use of writing has made language even more useful to humans.",
"It makes it possible to store large amounts of information outside of the human body and retrieve it again, and it allows communication across physical distances and timespans that would otherwise be impossible.",
"Many languages conventionally employ different genres, styles, and registers in written and spoken language, and in some communities, writing traditionally takes place in an entirely different language than the one spoken.",
"There is some evidence that the use of writing also has effects on the cognitive development of humans, perhaps because acquiring literacy generally requires explicit and formal education.The invention of the first writing systems is roughly contemporary with the beginning of the Bronze Age in the late 4th millennium BC.",
"The Sumerian archaic cuneiform script and the Egyptian hieroglyphs are generally considered to be the earliest writing systems, both emerging out of their ancestral proto-literate symbol systems from 3400 to 3200 BC with the earliest coherent texts from about 2600 BC.",
"It is generally agreed that Sumerian writing was an independent invention; however, it is debated whether Egyptian writing was developed completely independently of Sumerian, or was a case of cultural diffusion.",
"A similar debate exists for the Chinese script, which developed around 1200 BC.",
"The pre-Columbian Mesoamerican writing systems (including among others Olmec and Maya scripts) are generally believed to have had independent origins.===Change===The first page of the poem ''Beowulf'', written in Old English in the early medieval period (800–1100 AD).",
"Although Old English is the direct ancestor of modern English, it is unintelligible to contemporary English speakers.All languages change as speakers adopt or invent new ways of speaking and pass them on to other members of their speech community.",
"Language change happens at all levels from the phonological level to the levels of vocabulary, morphology, syntax, and discourse.",
"Even though language change is often initially evaluated negatively by speakers of the language who often consider changes to be \"decay\" or a sign of slipping norms of language usage, it is natural and inevitable.Changes may affect specific sounds or the entire phonological system.",
"Sound change can consist of the replacement of one speech sound or phonetic feature by another, the complete loss of the affected sound, or even the introduction of a new sound in a place where there had been none.",
"Sound changes can be ''conditioned'' in which case a sound is changed only if it occurs in the vicinity of certain other sounds.",
"Sound change is usually assumed to be ''regular'', which means that it is expected to apply mechanically whenever its structural conditions are met, irrespective of any non-phonological factors.",
"On the other hand, sound changes can sometimes be ''sporadic'', affecting only one particular word or a few words, without any seeming regularity.",
"Sometimes a simple change triggers a chain shift in which the entire phonological system is affected.",
"This happened in the Germanic languages when the sound change known as Grimm's law affected all the stop consonants in the system.",
"The original consonant * became /b/ in the Germanic languages, the previous * in turn became /p/, and the previous * became /f/.",
"The same process applied to all stop consonants and explains why Italic languages such as Latin have ''p'' in words like '''''p'''ater'' and '''''p'''isces'', whereas Germanic languages, like English, have '''''f'''ather'' and '''''f'''ish''.Another example is the Great Vowel Shift in English, which is the reason that the spelling of English vowels do not correspond well to their current pronunciation.",
"This is because the vowel shift brought the already established orthography out of synchronization with pronunciation.",
"Another source of sound change is the erosion of words as pronunciation gradually becomes increasingly indistinct and shortens words, leaving out syllables or sounds.",
"This kind of change caused Latin ''mea domina'' to eventually become the French ''madame'' and American English ''ma'am''.Change also happens in the grammar of languages as discourse patterns such as idioms or particular constructions become grammaticalized.",
"This frequently happens when words or morphemes erode and the grammatical system is unconsciously rearranged to compensate for the lost element.",
"For example, in some varieties of Caribbean Spanish the final /s/ has eroded away.",
"Since Standard Spanish uses final /s/ in the morpheme marking the second person subject \"you\" in verbs, the Caribbean varieties now have to express the second person using the pronoun ''tú''.",
"This means that the sentence \"what's your name\" is ''¿como te llamas?''",
"in Standard Spanish, but in Caribbean Spanish.",
"The simple sound change has affected both morphology and syntax.",
"Another common cause of grammatical change is the gradual petrification of idioms into new grammatical forms, for example, the way the English \"going to\" construction lost its aspect of movement and in some varieties of English has almost become a full-fledged future tense (e.g.",
"''I'm gonna'').Language change may be motivated by \"language internal\" factors, such as changes in pronunciation motivated by certain sounds being difficult to distinguish aurally or to produce, or through patterns of change that cause some rare types of constructions to drift towards more common types.",
"Other causes of language change are social, such as when certain pronunciations become emblematic of membership in certain groups, such as social classes, or with ideologies, and therefore are adopted by those who wish to identify with those groups or ideas.",
"In this way, issues of identity and politics can have profound effects on language structure.===Contact===Multi-lingual sign outside the mayor's office in Novi Sad, written in the four official languages of the city: Serbian, Hungarian, Slovak, and Pannonian RusynOne important source of language change is contact and resulting diffusion of linguistic traits between languages.",
"Language contact occurs when speakers of two or more languages or varieties interact on a regular basis.",
"Multilingualism is likely to have been the norm throughout human history and most people in the modern world are multilingual.",
"Before the rise of the concept of the ethno-national state, monolingualism was characteristic mainly of populations inhabiting small islands.",
"But with the ideology that made one people, one state, and one language the most desirable political arrangement, monolingualism started to spread throughout the world.",
"Nonetheless, there are only 250 countries in the world corresponding to some 6000 languages, which means that most countries are multilingual and most languages therefore exist in close contact with other languages.When speakers of different languages interact closely, it is typical for their languages to influence each other.",
"Through sustained language contact over long periods, linguistic traits diffuse between languages, and languages belonging to different families may converge to become more similar.",
"In areas where many languages are in close contact, this may lead to the formation of language areas in which unrelated languages share a number of linguistic features.",
"A number of such language areas have been documented, among them, the Balkan language area, the Mesoamerican language area, and the Ethiopian language area.",
"Also, larger areas such as South Asia, Europe, and Southeast Asia have sometimes been considered language areas, because of widespread diffusion of specific areal features.Multilingualism is also common in the Indian Republic.",
"The signboard is displayed in the Imphal International Airport in Meitei, Hindi and English, some of the official languages of the Indian Republic.Language contact may also lead to a variety of other linguistic phenomena, including language convergence, borrowing, and relexification (replacement of much of the native vocabulary with that of another language).",
"In situations of extreme and sustained language contact, it may lead to the formation of new mixed languages that cannot be considered to belong to a single language family.",
"One type of mixed language called pidgins occurs when adult speakers of two different languages interact on a regular basis, but in a situation where neither group learns to speak the language of the other group fluently.",
"In such a case, they will often construct a communication form that has traits of both languages, but which has a simplified grammatical and phonological structure.",
"The language comes to contain mostly the grammatical and phonological categories that exist in both languages.",
"Pidgin languages are defined by not having any native speakers, but only being spoken by people who have another language as their first language.",
"But if a Pidgin language becomes the main language of a speech community, then eventually children will grow up learning the pidgin as their first language.",
"As the generation of child learners grow up, the pidgin will often be seen to change its structure and acquire a greater degree of complexity.",
"This type of language is generally called a creole language.",
"An example of such mixed languages is Tok Pisin, the official language of Papua New-Guinea, which originally arose as a Pidgin based on English and Austronesian languages; others are Kreyòl ayisyen, the French-based creole language spoken in Haiti, and Michif, a mixed language of Canada, based on the Native American language Cree and French."
],
[
"Linguistic diversity",
" Language Native speakers(millions)Mandarin848Spanish329 English328Portuguese250Arabic221Hindi 182Bengali181Russian144Japanese122Javanese84.3''SIL Ethnologue'' defines a \"living language\" as \"one that has at least one speaker for whom it is their first language\".",
"The exact number of known living languages varies from 6,000 to 7,000, depending on the precision of one's definition of \"language\", and in particular, on how one defines the distinction between a \"language\" and a \"dialect\".",
"As of 2016, ''Ethnologue'' cataloged 7,097 living human languages.",
"The ''Ethnologue'' establishes linguistic groups based on studies of mutual intelligibility, and therefore often includes more categories than more conservative classifications.",
"For example, the Danish language that most scholars consider a single language with several dialects is classified as two distinct languages (Danish and Jutish) by the ''Ethnologue''.According to the ''Ethnologue'', 389 languages (nearly 6%) have more than a million speakers.",
"These languages together account for 94% of the world's population, whereas 94% of the world's languages account for the remaining 6% of the global population.===Languages and dialects===There is no clear distinction between a language and a dialect, notwithstanding a famous aphorism attributed to linguist Max Weinreich that \"a language is a dialect with an army and navy\".",
"For example, national boundaries frequently override linguistic difference in determining whether two linguistic varieties are languages or dialects.",
"Hakka, Cantonese and Mandarin are, for example, often classified as \"dialects\" of Chinese, even though they are more different from each other than Swedish is from Norwegian.",
"Before the Yugoslav Wars, Serbo-Croatian was generally considered a single language with two normative variants, but due to sociopolitical reasons, Croatian and Serbian are now often treated as separate languages and employ different writing systems.",
"In other words, the distinction may hinge on political considerations as much as on cultural differences as on distinctive writing systems or the degree of mutual intelligibility.",
"The latter is, in fact, a rather unreliable criterion to discriminate languages and dialects.",
"Pluricentric languages, which are languages with more than one standard variety, are a case in point.",
"Standard American English and Standard RP (English) English, for instance, may in some areas be more different than languages with names, e.g.",
"Swedish and Norwegian.",
"A complex social process of \"language making\" underlies these assignments of status and in some cases even linguistic experts may not agree (e.g.",
"the One Standard German Axiom).",
"The language making process is dynamic and subject to change over time.===Language families of the world===Distribution of languages in the world''.The world's languages can be grouped into language families consisting of languages that can be shown to have common ancestry.",
"Linguists recognize many hundreds of language families, although some of them can possibly be grouped into larger units as more evidence becomes available and in-depth studies are carried out.",
"At present, there are also dozens of language isolates: languages that cannot be shown to be related to any other languages in the world.",
"Among them are Basque, spoken in Europe, Zuni of New Mexico, Purépecha of Mexico, Ainu of Japan, Burushaski of Pakistan, and many others.The language family of the world that has the most speakers is the Indo-European languages, spoken by 46% of the world's population.",
"This family includes major world languages like English, Spanish, French, German, Russian, and Hindustani (Hindi/Urdu).",
"The Indo-European family spread first through hypothesized Indo-European migrations that would have taken place some time in the period –1500 BCE, and subsequently through much later European colonial expansion, which brought the Indo-European languages to a politically and often numerically dominant position in the Americas and much of Africa.",
"The Sino-Tibetan languages are spoken by 20% of the world's population and include many of the languages of East Asia, including Hakka, Mandarin Chinese, Cantonese, and hundreds of smaller languages.Africa is home to a large number of language families, the largest of which is the Niger-Congo language family, which includes such languages as Swahili, Shona, and Yoruba.",
"Speakers of the Niger-Congo languages account for 6.9% of the world's population.",
"A similar number of people speak the Afroasiatic languages, which include the populous Semitic languages such as Arabic, Hebrew language, and the languages of the Sahara region, such as the Berber languages and Hausa.The Austronesian languages are spoken by 5.5% of the world's population and stretch from Madagascar to maritime Southeast Asia all the way to Oceania.",
"It includes such languages as Malagasy, Māori, Samoan, and many of the indigenous languages of Indonesia and Taiwan.",
"The Austronesian languages are considered to have originated in Taiwan around 3000 BC and spread through the Oceanic region through island-hopping, based on an advanced nautical technology.",
"Other populous language families are the Dravidian languages of South Asia (among them Kannada, Tamil, and Telugu), the Turkic languages of Central Asia (such as Turkish), the Austroasiatic (among them Khmer), and Tai–Kadai languages of Southeast Asia (including Thai).The areas of the world in which there is the greatest linguistic diversity, such as the Americas, Papua New Guinea, West Africa, and South-Asia, contain hundreds of small language families.",
"These areas together account for the majority of the world's languages, though not the majority of speakers.",
"In the Americas, some of the largest language families include the Quechumaran, Arawak, and Tupi-Guarani families of South America, the Uto-Aztecan, Oto-Manguean, and Mayan of Mesoamerica, and the Na-Dene, Iroquoian, and Algonquian language families of North America.",
"In Australia, most indigenous languages belong to the Pama-Nyungan family, whereas New Guinea is home to a large number of small families and isolates, as well as a number of Austronesian languages.",
"Due to its remoteness and geographical fragmentation, Papua New Guinea emerges in fact as the leading location worldwide for both species (8% of world total) and linguistic richness – with 830 living tongues (12% of world total).===Language endangerment=== Language endangerment occurs when a language is at risk of falling out of use as its speakers die out or shift to speaking another language.",
"Language loss occurs when the language has no more native speakers, and becomes a ''dead language''.",
"If eventually no one speaks the language at all, it becomes an ''extinct language''.",
"While languages have always gone extinct throughout human history, they have been disappearing at an accelerated rate in the 20th and 21st centuries due to the processes of globalization and neo-colonialism, where the economically powerful languages dominate other languages.The more commonly spoken languages dominate the less commonly spoken languages, so the less commonly spoken languages eventually disappear from populations.",
"Of the between 6,000 and 7,000 languages spoken as of 2010, between 50 and 90% of those are expected to have become extinct by the year 2100.The top 20 languages, those spoken by more than 50 million speakers each, are spoken by 50% of the world's population, whereas many of the other languages are spoken by small communities, most of them with less than 10,000 speakers.UNESCO's five levels of language endangermentThe United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) operates with five levels of language endangerment: \"safe\", \"vulnerable\" (not spoken by children outside the home), \"definitely endangered\" (not spoken by children), \"severely endangered\" (only spoken by the oldest generations), and \"critically endangered\" (spoken by few members of the oldest generation, often semi-speakers).",
"Notwithstanding claims that the world would be better off if most adopted a single common ''lingua franca'', such as English or Esperanto, there is a consensus that the loss of languages harms the cultural diversity of the world.",
"It is a common belief, going back to the biblical narrative of the tower of Babel in the Old Testament, that linguistic diversity causes political conflict, but this is contradicted by the fact that many of the world's major episodes of violence have taken place in situations with low linguistic diversity, such as the Yugoslav and American Civil War, or the genocide of Rwanda, whereas many of the most stable political units have been highly multilingual.Many projects aim to prevent or slow this loss by revitalizing endangered languages and promoting education and literacy in minority languages.",
"Across the world, many countries have enacted specific legislation to protect and stabilize the language of indigenous speech communities.",
"A minority of linguists have argued that language loss is a natural process that should not be counteracted, and that documenting endangered languages for posterity is sufficient.The University of Waikato are using the Welsh language as a model for their Māori language revitalisation programme as they deem Welsh to be the world's leading example for the survival of languages.",
"In 2019 a Hawaiian TV company Oiwi visited a Welsh language centre in Nant Gwrtheyrn, North Wales to help find ways of preserving their Ōlelo Hawaiʻi language."
],
[
"See also",
"* Father Tongue hypothesis* Human communication** Attitude (psychology)** Body language (approachable)** Humor** Listening** Reading** Speaking** Social skills* International auxiliary language* Linguistic rights* List of language regulators* Lists of languages* List of official languages* Outline of linguistics* Problem of religious language* Psycholinguistics* Speech–language pathology"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"===Works cited===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * (pbk)* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* World Atlas of Language Structures: a large database of structural (phonological, grammatical, lexical) properties of languages* Ethnologue: Languages of the World is a comprehensive catalog of all of the world's known living languages"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Laura Bush"
],
[
"Introduction",
" '''Laura Welch Bush''' (born '''Laura Lane Welch'''; November 4, 1946) is the wife of George W. Bush and served as the first lady of the United States from 2001 to 2009.Bush previously served as the first lady of Texas from 1995 to 2000.She is also the daughter-in-law of former president George H. W. Bush.",
"Born in Midland, Texas, Bush graduated from Southern Methodist University in 1968 with a bachelor's degree in education, and took a job as a second grade teacher.",
"After attaining her master's degree in library science at the University of Texas at Austin, she was employed as a librarian.Bush met her future husband, George W. Bush, in 1977, and they were married later that year.",
"The couple had twin daughters in 1981.Bush's political involvement began during her marriage.",
"She campaigned with her husband during his unsuccessful 1978 run for the United States Congress, and later for his successful Texas gubernatorial campaign.As First Lady of Texas, Bush implemented many initiatives focused on health, education, and literacy.",
"In 1999–2000, she aided her husband in campaigning for the presidency in a number of ways, such as delivering a keynote address at the 2000 Republican National Convention, which gained her national attention.",
"She became First Lady after her husband was inaugurated as president on January 20, 2001.Polled by The Gallup Organization as one of the most popular First Ladies, Bush was involved in national and global concerns during her tenure.",
"She continued to advance her trademark interests of education and literacy by establishing the annual National Book Festival in 2001, and encouraged education on a worldwide scale.",
"She also advanced women's causes through The Heart Truth and Susan G. Komen for the Cure organizations.",
"She represented the United States during her foreign trips, which tended to focus on HIV/AIDS and malaria awareness.",
"She is the oldest living former First Lady, following the death of Rosalynn Carter in 2023."
],
[
"Early life and career",
"Laura Lane Welch was born on November 4, 1946, at Midland Memorial Hospital in Midland, Texas, the only child of Harold Welch and Jenna Louise ( Hawkins) Welch.",
"She is of English, French, and Swiss ancestry.Her father was a house builder and later successful real estate developer, while her mother worked as the bookkeeper for her father's business.",
"Early on, her parents encouraged her to read, leading to what would become her love of reading.",
"She said, \"I learned how important reading is at home from my mother.",
"When I was a little girl, my mother would read stories to me.",
"I have loved books and going to the library ever since.",
"In the summer, I liked to spend afternoons reading in the library.",
"I enjoyed the ''Little House on the Prairie'' and ''Little Women'' books, and many others ... Reading gives you enjoyment throughout your life.\"",
"Bush has also credited her second grade teacher, Charlene Gnagy, for inspiring her interest in education.On the night of November 6, 1963, two days after her 17th birthday, Laura Welch ran a stop sign and struck another car, killing its driver.",
"The victim was her close friend and classmate Michael Dutton Douglas.",
"By some accounts, Douglas had been Welch's boyfriend at one time, but she stated that he was not her boyfriend at that time but rather a very close friend.",
"Welch and her passenger, both 17, were treated for minor injuries.",
"According to the accident report released by the city of Midland in 2000, in response to an open-records request, she was not charged in the incident.",
"In 2000 Laura Bush's spokesman said, \"It was a very tragic accident that deeply affected the families and was very painful for all involved, including the community at large.\"",
"In her book ''Spoken from the Heart'', she said that the crash caused her to lose her faith \"for many, many years\".She attended James Bowie Elementary School, San Jacinto Junior High School, and Robert E. Lee High School in Midland.",
"She graduated from Lee in 1964 and went on to attend Southern Methodist University in Dallas where she was a member of Kappa Alpha Theta.",
"She graduated in 1968 with a Bachelor of Science degree in education.After graduating from SMU, she began her career as a school teacher at Longfellow Elementary School in the Dallas Independent School District.",
"She then taught for three years at John F. Kennedy Elementary School, a Houston Independent School District school in Houston, until 1972.In 1973, Bush attained a Master of Science degree in Library Science from the University of Texas at Austin.",
"She was soon employed as a librarian at the Kashmere Gardens Branch at the Houston Public Library.",
"The following year, she moved back to Austin and took another job as a librarian in the Austin Independent School District school Dawson Elementary until 1977.She reflected on her employment experiences to a group of children in 2003, saying, \"I worked as a teacher and librarian and I learned how important reading is in school and in life.\""
],
[
"Marriage and family",
"Bush met her husband in July 1977 when mutual friends Joe and Jan O'Neill invited them to a backyard barbecue at their home.",
"He proposed to her at the end of September and they were married on November 5 of that year, the day after her 31st birthday, at the First United Methodist Church in Midland, the same church in which she had been baptized.",
"Laura bought a tan, two-toned dress off the rack for the wedding.",
"The couple honeymooned in Cozumel, Mexico.",
"George W. Bush detailed his choice to marry Laura as the \"best decision of his life\".",
"Laura, an only child, said she gained \"brothers and sisters and wonderful in-laws\" who all accepted her after she wed George W. Bush.Jenna and Barbara Bush, Kennebunkport, 1990The year after their marriage, the couple began campaigning for George W. Bush's 1978 Congressional candidacy.",
"According to George Bush, when he asked her to marry him, she had said, \"Yes.",
"But only if you promise me that I'll never have to make a campaign speech.\"",
"She soon relented and gave her first stump speech for him in 1978 on the courthouse steps in Muleshoe, Texas.",
"After narrowly winning the primary, he lost the general election.Bush attended the inauguration of her father-in-law George H. W. Bush as Ronald Reagan's vice-president in January 1981, after Reagan won the 1980 United States presidential election.",
"She credited her father-in-law's election to the vice presidency with giving her and her husband national exposure.",
"The Bushes had tried to conceive for three years, but pregnancy did not happen easily.",
"On November 25, 1981, Laura Bush gave birth to fraternal twin daughters, Barbara and Jenna.",
"The twins were born five weeks early by an emergency Caesarean section in Baylor University Medical Center in Dallas, Texas, as Laura had developed life-threatening pre-eclampsia (toxemia).George W. Bush credited his wife with his decision to stop drinking in 1986.She reflected that she thought her husband \"was drinking too much\" amid her knowing it was not his desired way of living.",
"Approaching him, she related that her father had been alcoholic and it was not a pattern she wished to repeat in their family.She is also credited with having a stabilizing effect on his private life.",
"According to ''People'' magazine reporter Jane Simms Podesta, \"She is the steel in his back.",
"She is a civilizing influence on him.",
"I think she built him, in many ways, into the person he is today.",
"\"Bush traveled to Kuwait in April 1993, accompanying her in-laws as well as brothers-in-law Jeb and Marvin Bush after former president Bush was invited to return to the Middle East for the first time since his presidency.Several times a year, Bush and her husband travel to their sprawling family estate, the Bush compound, better known as Walker's Point.",
"Located in Kennebunkport, Maine, the compound is where Bush family gatherings have been held for nearly 100 years."
],
[
"First Lady of Texas",
"George H. W. Bush Presidential Library, 1997Bush became the First Lady of Texas when her husband was elected as the Governor of Texas and served as first lady of that state from January 17, 1995, to December 21, 2000.When asked about her interest in politics, she responded \"It doesn't drive me.",
"\"Though during her years in the Governor's Mansion, she did not hold a single formal event, Laura worked for women's and children's causes including health, education, and literacy.",
"She implemented four major initiatives: Take Time For Kids, an awareness campaign to educate parents and caregivers on parenting; family literacy, through cooperation with the Barbara Bush Foundation for Family Literacy, she urged Texas communities to establish family literacy programs; Reach Out and Read, a pediatric reading program; and Ready to Read, an early childhood educational program.She raised money for public libraries through her establishment of the Texas Book Festival, in 1995.She established the First Lady's Family Literacy Initiative, which encouraged families to read together.",
"Bush further established \"Rainbow Rooms\" across the state, in an effort to provide emergency services for neglected or abused children.",
"Through this, she promoted the Adopt-a-Caseworker Program to provide support for Child Protective Services.",
"She used her position to advocate Alzheimer's disease and breast cancer awareness as well.Her husband announced his campaign for President of the United States in mid-1999, something that she agreed to.",
"She did say, however, that she had never dreamed that he would run for office.",
"The Bush campaign worked to assure voters that as First Lady, she would not seek to emulate then-First Lady Hillary Clinton, who had faced controversy for leading several policy initiatives from within the White House despite being unelected.",
"When asked who she would be like out of the past First Ladies, she insisted it would be herself.In July, she delivered a keynote address to the delegates at the 2000 Republican National Convention, which put her on the national stage.",
"In December 2000, her husband resigned as Governor of Texas to prepare for his inauguration as President of the United States in January 2001."
],
[
"First Lady of the United States",
"As First Lady, Bush was involved in issues of concern to children and women, both nationally and internationally.",
"Her major initiatives included education and women's health.===Education and children and National Book Festival===Early into the administration, Bush made it known that she would focus much of her attention on education.",
"This included recruiting highly qualified teachers to ensure that young children would be taught well.",
"She also focused on early child development.",
"In 2001, to promote reading and education, she partnered with the Library of Congress to launch the annual National Book Festival.",
"More than 60 organizations that promote reading, literacy, and libraries--including the National Basketball Association participated.",
"In January 2002, Bush testified before the Senate Committee on Education, asking for higher teachers' salaries and better training for Head Start programs.",
"She is also credited with creating a national initiative called \"Ready to Read, Ready to Learn\", which promotes reading at a young age.",
"To promote American patriotic heritage in schools, she helped launch the National Anthem Project.",
"In 2006, Bush and media executives worked together to provide a $500,000 grant for school libraries along the Gulf Coast which had been devastated by Hurricanes Katrina and Rita.Immediately following the September 11, 2001 attacks, Bush spoke regarding America's children:\"We need to reassure our children that they are safe in their homes and schools.",
"We need to reassure them that many people love them and care for them, and that while there are some bad people in the world, there are many more good people.",
"\"Bucharest, 2002The First Lady shares a laugh with fifth graders in Des Moines, Iowa, 2005The following day, she composed open letters to America's families, focusing on elementary and middle school students, which she distributed through state education officials.",
"She took an interest in mitigating the emotional effects of the attacks on children, particularly the disturbing images repeatedly replayed on television.",
"On the one-year anniversary, she encouraged parents to instead read to their children, and perhaps light a candle in memoriam, saying, \"Don't let your children see the images, especially on September 11, when you know it'll probably be on television again and again – the plane hitting the building or the buildings falling.",
"\"Later in her tenure, she was honored by the United Nations, as the body named her honorary ambassador for the United Nations' Decade of Literacy.",
"In this position, she announced that she would host a Conference on Global Literacy.",
"The conference, held in September 2006, encouraged a constant effort to promote literacy and highlighted many successful literacy programs.",
"She coordinated this as a result of her many trips abroad where she witnessed how literacy benefited children in poorer nations.On July 28, 2008, she visited Carl Sandburg Home National Historic Site in Flat Rock, North Carolina, where she met with superintendent Connie Backlund and the Friends of Carl Sandburg Home's President Linda Holt as well as various students from Boys and Girls Club of Henderson County, North Carolina.On October 3, 2008, she visited Laura Ingalls Wilder Historic Home and Museum where she praised her works such as ''Farmer Boy'', ''These Happy Golden Years'' and ''Little House on the Prairie'', the last of which she had felt an association with as a child.",
"During the same Laura Ingalls Wilder's estate visit, she said that she read her books to her daughters and gave the writer Save America's Treasures grant.===September 11 attacks===On September 11, 2001, Bush had been hosting her in-laws George H. W. Bush and Barbara Bush at the White House and was scheduled to give a testimony to Congress on education.",
"Instead, during the September 11 attacks, Bush was taken to inside the White House and placed in an underground bunker, later being met by her husband, who had returned to Washington from Florida.Two weeks after the September 11 terrorist attacks, Bush inaugurated a music concert at the Kennedy Center, organized to raise funds for families of the victims.",
"Though she received applause, she returned the compliment to members of the audience and added that although the event was tragic, Americans had deepened their appreciation \"of life itself, how fragile it can be, what a gift it is and how much we need each other\".",
"Senator Ted Kennedy, who introduced Bush at the event, praised her and said he knew his late brother, President John F. Kennedy, would also be proud of her.",
"Bush believes the September 11 attacks ignited the interest in the way Afghan women were treated.===Women's health and rights===Another of her signature issues were those relating to the health and well-being of women.",
"She established the Women's Health and Wellness Initiative and became involved with two major campaigns.Bush first became involved with The Heart Truth awareness campaign in 2003.It is an organization established by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute to raise awareness about heart disease in women, and how to prevent the condition.",
"She serves in the honorary position of ambassador for the program leading the federal government's effort to give women a \"wake up call\" about the risk of heart disease.",
"She commented on the disease: \"Like many women, I assumed heart disease was a man's disease and cancer was what we would fear the most.",
"Yet heart disease kills more women in our country than all forms of cancer combined.",
"When it comes to heart disease, education, prevention, and even a little red dress can save lives.\"",
"She has undertaken a signature personal element of traveling around the country and talking to women at hospital and community events featuring the experiences of women who live, or had lived, with the condition.",
"This outreach was credited with directly saving the life of at least one woman who went to the hospital after experiencing symptoms of a heart attack after hearing her message.Laura Bush meets with members of the Pink Majlis, a forum focusing on issues related to breast cancer, in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, October 22, 2007.With her predecessor, former First Lady Nancy Reagan, Bush dedicated the First Ladies Red Dress Collection at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in May 2005.It is an exhibit containing red suits worn by former First Ladies Lady Bird Johnson, Betty Ford, Rosalynn Carter, Nancy Reagan, Barbara Bush, Hillary Clinton, and Laura Bush meant to raise awareness by highlighting America's first ladies.",
"She has participated in fashion shows displaying red dresses worn on celebrities as well.Bush's mother, Jenna Welch, was diagnosed with breast cancer at the age of 78.She endured surgery and had no further signs of cancer.",
"Laura Bush has become a breast cancer activist on her mother's behalf through her involvement in the Susan G. Komen for the Cure.",
"She applauded the foundation's efforts in eliminating cancer and said, \"A few short years ago, a diagnosis of breast cancer left little hope of recovery.",
"But thanks to the work of the Komen Foundation ... more women and men are beating breast cancer and beating the odds.\"",
"She used her position to gain international support for the foundation through the Partnership for Breast Cancer Awareness and Research of the Americas, an initiative that unites experts from the United States, Brazil, Costa Rica and Mexico.In November 2001, she became the first person other than a president to deliver the weekly presidential radio address.",
"She used the opportunity to discuss the plight of women in Afghanistan leading up to the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan, saying \"The brutal oppression of women is a central goal of the terrorists.\"",
"Her husband was originally to give the address but he felt that she should do it; she later recalled, \"At that moment, it was not that I found my voice.",
"Instead, it was as if my voice found me.\"",
"Her words summarized one of the goals and moral rationales of the U.S. involvement in Afghanistan and it became one of the more famous speeches of his administration.",
"In May 2002, she made a speech to the people of Afghanistan through Radio Liberty.",
"In March 2005, she made the first of three trips to that country as First Lady.===Campaigning===Bush appearing alongside Bill Clinton in New York, September 20, 2006Bush campaigned for Republicans around the country in 2002 for that year's midterm elections, attending and hosting fundraisers as well as giving speeches.Opponents deemed this as the Bush administration \"working against women's rights issues and using women to do their dirty work\" and partly a test for Bush on how well she could campaign for her husband in the impending two years when he sought re-election.During the 2004 election cycle, Bush made joint appearances with her husband on the campaign trail, including in battleground states such as Florida.",
"She advocated for his re-election in a speech at the 2004 Republican National Convention, and was credited with having raised $15 million for her husband's campaign as well as the Republican Party while still succeeding in keeping a separate schedule that allowed for her to tend to the traditional duties she had as First Lady.",
"In a July 2004 interview, Teresa Heinz, wife of Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry, said, \"Well, you know, I don't know Laura Bush.",
"But she seems to be calm, and she has a sparkle in her eye, which is good.",
"But I don't know that she's ever had a real job—I mean, since she's been grown up.\"",
"Heinz later apologized for the remark, stating that she had forgotten that Laura Bush was a teacher and librarian prior to her marriage.",
"Bush stated that she forgave her while insisting her apology was unnecessary, citing her understanding of the \"trick questions\" asked by the media.Bush was a participant in the 2006 midterm elections, beginning her campaigning in April.",
"Though her poll numbers had decreased from an 80% approval rating, they still superseded that of President Bush, whose approval rating was only praised by a third of Americans.",
"Ed Henry of CNN noted Bush's popularity, writing, \"The first lady is treated like a rock star on the campaign trail – with local Republicans lining up for photographs and autographs – as she criss-crosses the country to help candidates.\"",
"Bush relied on a strategy of praising the Republican candidate for their achievements and attending events alongside them.",
"In September 2008, Bush spoke during the first night of the 2008 Republican National Convention, her joint appearance with Cindy McCain geared toward raising hurricane relief funds for victims of Hurricane Gustav.===Popularity and style===Laura's husband, President George W. Bush, is sworn into a second term on January 20, 2005, by Chief Justice William Rehnquist, as Laura Bush and daughters Barbara and Jenna look on.Laura Bush's approval ratings have consistently ranked very high.",
"In January 2006, a ''USA Today''/CBS/Gallup poll recorded her approval rating at 82 percent and disapproval at 13 percent.",
"That places Bush as one of the most popular first ladies.",
"Former White House Press Secretary Ari Fleischer said, \"She is more popular, and more welcome, in many parts of the country than the president ...",
"In races where the moderates are in the most trouble, Laura Bush is the one who can do the most good.",
"\"Jude Ellison Sady Doyle reasoned that Bush was hard to dislike due to her adopting \"the least partisan causes\" such as literacy and breast cancer, which would attract the support of most Americans and her coming off as a \"mild, polite, ordinary woman who might go to church with your mother, or organize suburban potlucks\".",
"Doyle furthered that her statements were never enough to offend others and the harshest criticism that could be bestowed upon her was that she was boring.She disagreed with Fox News' Chris Wallace in 2006 when Wallace asked why the American people were beginning to lose confidence in President Bush, saying, \"Well, I don't think they are.",
"And I don't really believe those polls.",
"I travel around the country, I see people, I see their response to my husband, I see their response to me.",
"There are a lot of difficult challenges right now in the United States ... All of those decisions that the President has to make surrounding each one of these very difficult challenges are hard.",
"They're hard decisions to make.",
"And of course some people are unhappy about what some of those decisions are.",
"But I think people know that he is doing what he thinks is right for the United States, that he's doing what he – especially in the war on terror, what he thinks he is obligated to do for the people in the United States, and that is to protect them ...",
"When his polls were really high they weren't on the front page.",
"\"During the January 2005 second inauguration ceremonies for her husband, Laura Bush was looked highly upon by ''People'' magazine, ''The Washington Post'', and others for her elegance and fashion sense.",
"At the inauguration she wore a winter white cashmere dress and matching coat designed by Oscar de la Renta.",
"Following the inauguration were the inaugural galas, to which Bush wore a pale, aqua lace gown, sprinkled with crystals, with long sleeves in a silver blue mist.",
"The tulle gown was also designed for her by de la Renta.",
"According to ''The Washington Post'', \"It made her look radiant and glamorous.",
"\"===Foreign trips===Laura Bush talks with Raphael Lungo of Zambia as a part of her 2007 African tripLaura Bush with her husband and several other dignitaries from around the world at the funeral of Pope John Paul II During her husband's second term, Bush was more involved in foreign matters.",
"She traveled to numerous countries as a representative of the United States.As First Lady, she took five goodwill trips to Africa.",
"The purpose of these has mostly been to raise awareness about HIV/AIDS and malaria as part of the Bush administration's initiative to address the global epidemics, but Bush has also stressed the need for education and greater opportunities for women.",
"She has taken many other trips to other countries to promote and gain support for President Bush's Emergency Plan for AIDS relief; these countries include Zambia (2007), Mozambique (2007), Mali (2007), Senegal (2007), and Haiti (2008).In mid-2007, she took a trip to Myanmar where she spoke out in support of the pro-democracy movement, and urged Burmese soldiers and militias to refrain from violence.",
"Later that October, she ventured to the Middle East.",
"Bush said she was in the region in an attempt to improve America's image by highlighting concern for women's health, specifically promoting her breast cancer awareness work with the US-Middle East Partnership for Breast Cancer Awareness and Research.",
"She defined the trip as successful, saying that stereotypes were broken on both sides.Overall, Bush traveled to 77 countries in the eight years of her husband's presidency, touring 67 of those during the second term.===Views on policy===Bush is a Republican and has identified herself with the GOP since her marriage.When asked about abortion in 2000, Bush said she did not believe ''Roe v. Wade'' should be overturned.",
"She did not comment on whether women had the right to an abortion.",
"She did say, however, that the country should do \"what we can to limit the number of abortions, to try to reduce the number of abortions in a lot of ways, and that is, by talking about responsibility with girls and boys, by teaching abstinence, having abstinence classes everywhere in schools and in churches and in Sunday school\".Bush responded to a question during a 2006 interview concerning the Federal Marriage Amendment by calling for elected leaders not to politicize same-sex marriage, \"I don't think it should be used as a campaign tool, obviously.",
"It requires a lot of sensitivity to just talk about the issue ... a lot of sensitivity.",
"\"On July 12, 2005, while in South Africa, Bush suggested her husband replace retiring Supreme Court justice Sandra Day O'Connor with another woman.",
"On October 2, during a private dinner at the White House with his wife, President Bush nominated Harriet Miers to replace O'Connor.",
"Later that month, after Miers had faced intense criticism, Laura Bush questioned whether the charges were sexist in nature.===Legacy===Queen Elizabeth II and Laura Bush at the 225x225pxIn late October 2008, days before that year's presidential election, Bush hosted a three-hour session with staffers and historians discussing how she would like to be remembered, leading to this meeting being termed the \"legacy lunch\".",
"According to historian Myra Gutin, this was the first time in history that a First Lady had ever directly reached out to historians to talk about her accomplishments.",
"Attendants of the meeting said that Bush wanted to change the perception that she was a traditional First Lady in that she always stayed by her husband's side.",
"At a 2014 National Press Club, Anita McBride opined that it would be harder for people to understand where Bush had \"the greatest impact\" due to the several signature issues that Bush advocated for while First Lady.In 2017, journalist Brooke Baldwin suggested Bush's efforts toward improving the lives of Afghan women may have contributed to more Afghanistan women being in positions within the Afghanistan private sector.Bush enjoyed widespread approval by the American public both as the incumbent First Lady and during her retirement.",
"''The Washington Post'' contributor Krissah Thompson recalled Bush's favorability being \"as close to universal popularity as any modern political figure\" when the Bushes left the White House in 2009 and called her \"the most high-profile promoter of the George W. Bush legacy — a burden she carries lightly and with a smile.\"",
"A 2014 poll which asked who was the most popular First Lady in the past 25 years found Bush ranked in fourth place (out of 4 candidates), behind Hillary Clinton, mother-in-law Barbara and direct successor Michelle Obama."
],
[
"Subsequent activities",
"Former First Lady Laura Bush and her husband being escorted to a waiting helicopter by President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama on January 20, 2009In February 2009, the month after she and her husband left office, Laura and George W. Bush moved into a new residence in Dallas.",
"In November 2009, the former First Lady, accompanied by her husband, made a visit to families of veterans in Fort Hood.",
"The couple expressed their wishes that the trip not be publicized.",
"However, Fox News revealed the trip the following morning.In May 2010, Bush released her memoir, ''Spoken from the Heart'', in conjunction with a national tour.On May 11, 2010, during an interview on ''Larry King Live'', Bush was asked about same-sex marriage.",
"She said she viewed it as a generational issue and believed it would be made legal in the future.",
"Bush offered support for the issue by saying \"when couples are committed to each other and love each other ... they ought to have the same sort of rights that everyone has.\"",
"Bush referred to her 2000 interview, reaffirming her support for ''Roe v. Wade'', \"I think it's important that abortion remain legal.",
"Because I think it's important for people – that for medical reasons and, and other reasons.",
"\"On February 22, 2013, without her consent, she was included in a pro-gay advertisement from the Respect of Marriage Coalition.",
"A statement from Bush's spokesperson states that Bush \"did not approve of her inclusion in this advertisement nor is she associated with the group that made the ad in any way.",
"When she became aware of the advertisement last night, we requested that the group remove her from it.",
"\"Bush continued to remain involved and concerned over the state of women in Afghanistan, speaking out editorials and appearances during 2013 that the women and girls who had been helped could not be abandoned during and after the planned withdrawal of U.S. troops from Afghanistan.",
"In March 2016, Bush wrote an op-ed for ''The Washington Post'' on changes occurring among women in Afghanistan while noting continued violence and calling for American involvement in Afghanistan to be consistent and predictable in continuing along with the international community \"to provide significant development assistance in the areas of health care, entrepreneurship and education\".",
"In June 2016, Bush stated that she hoped the US remained in Afghanistan and had consulted with women there who feared the departure of American troops would create \"a vacuum\" similar to Iraq, furthering that the US \"would have to start all over again\" if they withdrew troops.",
"In late 2017, Bush and First Lady of Afghanistan Rula Ghani traveled to Washington to rally lawmaker support for Afghanistan and women there.In April 2015, Bush criticized Rand Paul's isolationist stance on U.S. foreign aid, calling the view \"not really realistic\" and asserting the United States should save lives whenever it can.",
"That August, she shared the first public photos of her newborn granddaughter Poppy Louise.===Public appearances===On October 26, 2009, Bush spoke at the 25th Annual Women's Conference in Salt Lake City, Utah.On May 31, 2012, Bush and her husband unveiled their official portraits painted by John Howard Sanden in a ceremony at the White House attended by several members of their family and former members of the Bush administration.",
"Bush jokingly told then First Lady Michelle Obama at the ceremony that \"nothing makes a house a home like having portraits of its former occupants staring down at you from the walls\".",
"Bush was portrayed in the White House's Green Room in her portrait, wearing a midnight blue gown.On July 25, 2012, she spoke at the Luisa Hunnewell's estate, where she praised Edith Wharton's works, in particular ''Ethan Frome'' on her 150th anniversary.",
"She also said that prior to this speech she also visited houses of Mark Twain at his 166th anniversary on November 29, 2001, and was a guest of the show Mark Twain Tonight.",
"Ten years prior to the Luisa Hunnewell's estate visit she also visited Louisa May Alcott's Orchard House in Concord, Massachusetts at which she met with the National Trust for Historic Preservation's President and listened to Concord-Carlisle High School's chorus.In April 2013, Bush was in attendance at a news conference, where she said the recently built George W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum was not a monument for her husband but instead a representation of the White House and the struggles of America during his tenure.",
"She also mentioned not having trouble donating clothes to the library, admitting that she probably would have never worn them again in the first place.",
"That month it was announced that she would serve as a keynote speaker for the 2013 Global Business Travel Association Convention in August.",
"At the convention, she stressed the importance of child literacy, continuing her advocating of an issue that she had become associated with since her tenure as First Lady.",
"In early August 2013, she reported that her husband was in stable condition after having a stent implanted in his heart, calling it \"terrific\" that it was caught in time, and stressed the importance of regular check ups with doctors.",
"In September, she appeared at a fundraiser for the organization Solutions for Change.On April 26, 2014, she gave a speech at the Ericsson Center in Plano, Texas, where she spoke on behalf of the company's mentoring program for girls.",
"Throughout the month, she made appearances at fundraisers for schools in Colorado.",
"On May 9, 2014, she was scheduled to speak at the Boston Convention and Exhibition Center on the anniversary of the Boston Marathon bombing.",
"She was to arrive there with her daughter Barbara Pierce Bush, her husband George W. Bush, and Soledad O'Brien, a journalist.In 2015, Bush had several speaking arrangements on issues relating to her husband's presidency.",
"In July, the former First Lady, accompanied by her husband, attended the centennial anniversary of Tioga Road In Yosemite National Park in July and appeared in New Orleans in order to commemorate the tenth anniversary of Hurricane Katrina.",
"In October, she was a featured speaker for Wayland Baptist University.Bush was keynote speaker at the Go Red for Women Summit in Austin in February 2016, an event designed to promote both financing and awareness for women fighting heart disease.",
"In March, Bush attended the funeral of Nancy Reagan in California.",
"and attended the memorial service for victims in the Dallas police officers shooting four months later in July.On February 4, 2017, Bush appeared at the annual Union Regional Foundation's Heart of a Woman brunch, saying women do not worry about their own health due to often taking care of someone else and that their improving in health would benefit those around them.",
"On March 8, Bush was keynote speaker at the Illinois Holocaust Museum and Education Center's annual Humanitarian Awards Dinner, Bush relating that she had learned about the Holocaust through her father.",
"In April, Bush was the keynote speaker of the 25th annual Art of Hope Gala at the Dallas Museum of Art.",
"On May 17, Bush made her second visit to the Andrew Johnson Hermitage and gave the keynote address at the 117th Spring Outing celebration.",
"On May 31, Bush delivered a speech at the South-Central Monarch Symposium on the monarch butterfly decline in recent years.",
"On June 3, Bush served as the keynote speaker at the National Willa Cather Center dedication in Red Cloud, Nebraska and officially opened the center with a ribbon cut.",
"The following month, Bush accepted an invitation to join the eminent international Council of Patrons of the Asian University for Women (AUW) in Chittagong, Bangladesh.",
"The university, which is the product of east–west foundational partnerships (Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Open Society Foundation, IKEA Foundation etc.)",
"and regional cooperation, serves extraordinarily talented women from 15 countries across Asia and the Middle East, including Afghanistan and Myanmar.",
"In September, Bush delivered the keynote address at the Gateway to Opportunity luncheon at the Omni Dallas Hotel.In April 2020, amid the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, Bush and Michelle Obama made a joint appearance on the \"One World: Together At Home\" televised concert special by the Global Citizen Festival where they expressed appreciation for healthcare workers, first responders, pharmacists, veterinarians, sanitation workers as well as grocery store workers and those delivering food and supplies to homes.Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Arlington National Cemetery after the inauguration of Joe BidenOn September 11, 2021, Bush and her husband commemorated the 20th anniversary of the September 11 attacks at the Flight 93 National Memorial.===Obama administration===Laura Bush and Michelle Obama on November 10, 2008.The two First Ladies formed a friendship.Over the course of the Obama presidency, she developed an alliance with Michelle Obama, her immediate successor as First Lady.",
"Despite their political differences, Michelle Obama has called Laura Bush both her friend and a role model, crediting Bush with setting \"a high bar\" for her during her tenure as First Lady.",
"Bush defended Obama during her husband's campaign for president in 2008, publicly coming to her defense when she received criticism for a remark she made about being proud of her country for the first time in her adulthood during the campaign.Obama sent Bush a note thanking her and after the election met with Bush at the White House in November 2008, Bush giving Obama a tour of her and her family's soon-to-be home.In September 2009, Bush openly praised President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama.",
"She reasoned that President Obama was performing well in the presidency despite having multiple initiatives taking place and complimented the First Lady's transformation of the White House into \"a comfortable home for her family\".The following year, in September 2010, Bush and Obama commemorated the ninth anniversary of the September 11 attacks by leading a ceremony from a mountaintop to national memorial park.The two both acted as keynote speakers and met with the families of the 40 victims of United Airlines Flight 93 plane crash.",
"In their remarks, the two sang each other's praises.",
"Obama thanked Bush for her handling of the aftermath of September 11 attacks, while Bush called her a \"first lady who serves this country with such grace\".In July 2013, Bush and Obama appeared together in Africa at the First Ladies Summit.",
"Their husbands were also present, leading White House staffer Ben Rhodes to refer to the joint appearance as proof of the support for Africa in the United States regardless of political party.",
"In their remarks, both Bush and Obama stressed the importance of being role models.Nine months later, on April 18, 2014, Bush spoke to ''Inquisitr'' regarding income inequality where she said next regarding Michelle Obama's income: \"I want to make sure that when she's working she's getting paid the same as men.",
"I gotta say that First Ladies right now don't get paid, even though that's a tough job!\"",
"In August 2014, Bush and Obama appeared together at the Kennedy Center.",
"Shortly afterward, Bush told ''The Washington Post'' that she believed Obama was ready to leave the White House.In March 2015, Bush and Obama were named as co-chairs of the Find Your Park campaign, an attempt to increase national park support and introduce millennials to the park service before its centennial the following year.",
"The pair made a joint appearance at the George W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum in September 2015, Bush appearing physically while Obama was present through a video call.",
"Obama spoke of her admiration for Bush, who in turn mentioned their collaborations as \"a great example for the world to see that women in different political parties, in the United States, agree on so many issues\".===Trump administration===On January 20, 2017, Bush and her husband attended the inauguration of Donald Trump.",
"In a November interview, Bush stated that she wished the Trumps \"the very best\" given that she knew what it was like to live in the White House and confirmed that she both been in contact with former First Lady Melania Trump and been invited to the Diplomatic Reception Room by retained personnel from the Bush administration.On June 17, 2018, Bush wrote an opinion piece firmly opposing the Trump administration family separation policy in ''The Washington Post''.",
"She mentioned how her mother-in-law Barbara Bush had picked up a crying AIDS baby while on a visit to the HIV/AIDS shelter \"Grandma's House\" in 1989.She mentioned this to indicate her shock upon discovery that the workers at the children's border shelter have been instructed \"not to pick up or touch the children to comfort them\".===Biden administration===On January 20, 2021, Bush and her husband attended the inauguration of Joe Biden.===Involvement with GOP===In the later months of 2012, Bush campaigned for Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney, hosting a fundraiser in September with Ann Romney and appearing in Livonia, Michigan, the following month for a Romney campaign event.",
"Michigan spokeswoman for the Romney campaign Kelsey Knight said having Mrs. Bush there would \"just fuel the fire and the momentum we are seeing\".",
"She also campaigned for vice presidential nominee Paul Ryan, telling a crowd in Detroit that he and Romney had \"better answers\" on the economy and foreign policy.After the 2012 election, where Romney lost to President Obama, Bush was asked in March 2013 during an interview whether the GOP's positions on social issues such as same-sex marriage and abortion led to more than half of female voters voting for the President.",
"Bush responded that some of the candidates had \"frightened some candidates\", but at the same time expressed her liking of the Republican Party having room for difference of opinion and that within the party, \"we have room for all\".Throughout 2015, Bush was active in the presidential campaign of brother-in-law Jeb Bush, hosting fundraisers and endorsing him.",
"This was the most politically involved she had been since leaving the White House seven years prior, supporting her brother-in-law alongside the rest of her family because, in her words, he was \"our candidate\".In March she affirmed her support for her brother-in-law, calling herself and her husband \"huge Jeb supporters\".",
"It was reported that she would be assisting the campaign's fundraising in Florida in October, Bloomberg News commenting that Jeb Bush was \"calling in help from perhaps the most popular member of his family\".",
"According to Clay Johnson, a friend of the Bush family, she was reportedly surprised by Donald Trump's becoming frontrunner over the course of the election cycle.",
"In February 2016, amid her brother-in-law's campaign trailing Trump in South Carolina polls, Bush traveled there with her husband.",
"Jeb Bush dropped out of the race after the South Carolina primary.",
"The following month, Bush declined answering if she would vote for Trump, who was the frontrunner in the Republican primary, should he become the nominee and said the U.S. was going through a xenophobic period at the time of the election cycle.",
"Ultimately, Bush and her husband refused to vote for president in 2016."
],
[
"Libraries",
"Laura Bush and mother in-law, former First Lady Barbara Bush, at the LBJ Presidential Library in 2012Bush created the Laura Bush Foundation for America's Libraries \"to support the education of our nation's children by providing funds to update, extend, and diversify the book and print collections of America's school libraries\".",
"Every year, the Laura Bush Foundation's grants awards more than $1,000,000 to US schools.",
"The Laura Bush 21st Century Library Program grant, offered by the Institute of Museum and Library Services, provides funding for \"the recruitment and education of library students and continuing education for those already in the profession, as well as the development of new programs and curricula\".",
"Bush's 21st Century Library Program is an equal opportunity grant that does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, disability, or age.",
"In May 2015, Bush bestowed a $7,000 grant to six schools within Austin, Texas.",
"After Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita in 2005, the Laura Bush Foundation for America's Libraries awarded grants of $10,000 to $75,000 to school libraries whose collections were damaged or destroyed in the hurricanes.",
"In 2017, after the devastation from Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria as well the California wildfires, the foundation again is going to dedicate their resources to disaster-affected schools to rebuild their book collections."
],
[
"Laura W. Bush Institute for Women's Health",
"In August 2007, the Laura W. Bush Institute for Women's Health (LWBIWH) was founded at the Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center.",
"This institute aims to integrate research, education and community outreach in a multidisciplinary approach to women's health and has begun efforts to establish a multi-campus women's health institute in Amarillo, El Paso, Lubbock and the Permian Basin.A subsidiary of the center, the Jenna Welch Women's Center, opened in Midland, Texas, on August 10, 2010, to deliver expert medical care to women and their families.",
"Operating in partnership with the Laura Bush Institute, the Jenna Welch Center, named for Bush's mother, strives for excellence in research, education and community outreach."
],
[
"Writings and recordings",
"Bush wrote her first book with her daughter Jenna called ''Read All About It!''.",
"It was published on April 23, 2008.Bush's memoir, ''Spoken from the Heart'', was published in 2010.The book received mixed reviews from critics but got positive responses from readers.",
"The book earned ''Goodreads'' Choice Award Nominee for Memoir and Autobiography (2010).",
"Her non-fictional book about oppressed women of Afghanistan titled ''We Are Afghan Women: Voices of Hope'' was published on March 8, 2016.She wrote another children's book with her daughter Jenna, ''Our Great Big Backyard''.",
"The book was published on May 10, 2016.She was the recipient of a lifetime achievement award from the Junior League of Dallas, of which she is a member."
],
[
"Awards and honors",
"Bush is awarded the Living Legend Medallion from James H. Billington, the Librarian of Congress, for her work in support of the National Book Festival, September 2008.During and after her tenure as the First Lady, Laura Bush received a number of awards and honors.",
"In October 2002, the Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity honored her in recognition of her efforts on behalf of education.",
"Also in 2002, she was named Barbara Walters' Most Fascinating Person of the year.The American Library Association honored her for her years of support to America's libraries and librarians in April 2005.On October 18, 2003, she was conferred by the former president Gloria Macapagal Arroyo the Order of Gabriela Silang, a single-class order which makes her the first U.S. First Lady recipient during the state visit of President George Bush to the Philippines.She received an award in honor of her dedication to help improve the living conditions and education of children around the world, from the Kuwait-American Foundation in March 2006.She accepted The Nichols-Chancellor's Medal on behalf of disaster relief workers around the world in May 2006 from Vanderbilt University.",
"In 2007, she received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.Four learning facilities have been named for her: the Laura Welch Bush Elementary School of Pasadena ISD in Houston, Texas, the Laura W. Bush Elementary School in the Leander ISD in Travis County, Texas, just outside Austin, the Laura Bush Middle School (Lubbock-Cooper ISD) in Lubbock, Texas, and the Laura Bush Education Center at Camp Bondsteel, a U.S. military base in Kosovo.",
"She was awarded the 2008 Christian Freedom International Freedom Award.",
"Bush is on the Board of Selectors of Jefferson Awards for Public Service.In 2012, Bush—along with Hector Ruiz, Charles Matthews, Melinda Perrin, Julius Glickman and Admiral William H. McRaven, the Navy Seal who oversaw the raid that killed Osama bin Laden—was named a Distinguished Alumnus of the University of Texas at Austin.In October 2015, Bush was conferred an honorary Doctor of Letters degree from Wayland Baptist University in recognition of her longtime advocacy on behalf of education, health care and human rights following an address she gave on the university's campus.",
"November, she received the 2015 Prevent Blindness Person of Vision Award.In November 2016 Bush received 10 for 10 award from ''Women's Democracy Network'' in recognition of her years of work on behalf of Afghan women's rights.In May 2017 Bush received an honor at the ''Women Making History Awards'' in Washington, D.C.In 2018 Laura Bush and former President George W. Bush were awarded the National Constitution Center Liberty Medal for their work with U.S. military veterans since leaving the White House.In 2021 Bush received the Concordia Leadership Award."
],
[
"In popular culture",
"Laura Bush is portrayed by Elizabeth Banks in Oliver Stone's film ''W''.",
"Curtis Sittenfeld's bestselling novel ''American Wife'' is largely based on her life.In 2018, Bush appeared in an episode of HGTV's ''Fixer Upper''."
],
[
"See also"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*Gerhart, Ann.",
"''The Perfect Wife: The Life and Choices of Laura Bush''.",
"A biography.",
"*Gormley, Beatrice.",
"''Laura Bush: America's First Lady''.",
"A biography.",
"*Kelley, Kitty.",
"''The Family: The Real Story of the Bush Dynasty''.",
"*Kessler, Ronald.",
"''Laura Bush: An Intimate Portrait of the First Lady''.",
"A biography.",
"*Montgomery, Leslie.",
"''Were It Not For Grace: Stories From Women After God's Own Heart; Featuring Condoleezza Rice, First Lady Laura Bush, Beth Moore & Others''.",
"Laura Bush shares her story about how God has had his hand on her life."
],
[
"External links",
"** Laura Bush 21st Century Librarian Program.",
"U.S.Institute of Museums and Library Services.",
"* First Lady biography at Whitehouse.gov* \"The book on Laura Bush\" by Dennis B. Roddy, ''Pittsburgh Post-Gazette''* \"A Laura Bush we don't know\" by Eugene Robinson, ''San Francisco Chronicle''*** Laura Bush at C-SPAN's ''First Ladies: Influence & Image''* Jessie Hawkins and Jenna Welch Grandmother and Mother of Laura Bush Borderlands EPCC"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lattice"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lattice''' may refer to:"
],
[
"Arts and design",
"* Latticework, an ornamental criss-crossed framework, an arrangement of crossing laths or other thin strips of material* Lattice (music), an organized grid model of pitch ratios* Lattice (pastry), an ornamental pattern of crossing strips of pastry"
],
[
"Companies",
"* Lattice Engines, a technology company specializing in business applications for marketing and sales* Lattice Group, a former British gas transmission business* Lattice Semiconductor, a US-based integrated circuit manufacturer"
],
[
"Science, technology, and mathematics",
"=== Mathematics ===* Lattice (group), a repeating arrangement of points** Lattice (discrete subgroup), a discrete subgroup of a topological group whose quotient carries an invariant finite Borel measure** Lattice (module), a module over a ring that is embedded in a vector space over a field** Lattice graph, a graph that can be drawn within a repeating arrangement of points** Lattice-based cryptography, encryption systems based on repeating arrangements of points* Lattice (order), a partially ordered set with unique least upper bounds and greatest lower bounds** Lattice-based access control, computer security systems based on partially ordered access privileges** Skew lattice, a non-commutative generalization of order-theoretic lattices* Lattice multiplication, a multiplication algorithm suitable for hand calculation=== Other uses in science and technology ===* Bethe lattice, a regular infinite tree structure used in statistical mechanics* Bravais lattice, a repetitive arrangement of atoms* Lattice C, a compiler for the C programming language* Lattice mast, a type of observation mast common on major warships in the early 20th century* Lattice model (physics), a model defined not on a continuum, but on a grid* Lattice tower, or truss tower is a type of freestanding framework tower* Lattice truss bridge, a type of truss bridge that uses many closely spaced diagonal elements"
],
[
"Other uses",
"* Lattice model (finance), a method for evaluating stock options that divides time into discrete intervals"
],
[
"See also",
"* Grid (disambiguation)* Mesh (disambiguation)* Trellis (disambiguation)*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lorisidae"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lorisidae''' (or sometimes '''Loridae''') is a family of strepsirrhine primates.",
"The '''lorisids''' are all slim arboreal animals and comprise the lorises, pottos and angwantibos.",
"Lorisids live in tropical, central Africa as well as in south and southeast Asia."
],
[
"Classification",
"There are five genera and sixteen species of lorisid.",
"* Order Primates** Suborder Strepsirrhini: non-tarsier prosimians*** Infraorder Lemuriformes**** Superfamily Lemuroidea**** Superfamily Lorisoidea***** '''Family Lorisidae'''****** Subfamily Perodicticinae******* Genus ''Arctocebus'', angwantibos******* Genus ''Perodicticus'', pottos****** Subfamily Lorisinae******* Genus ''Loris'', slender lorises******* Genus ''Nycticebus'', slow lorises******* Genus ''Xanthonycticebus'', pygmy slow loris***** Family Galagidae: galagos** Suborder Haplorrhini: tarsiers, monkeys and apes"
],
[
"Description",
"Lorisids have a close, woolly fur, which is usually grey or brown, darker on the top side.",
"The eyes are large and face forward.",
"The ears are small and often partially hidden in the fur.",
"The thumbs are opposable and the index finger is short.",
"The second toe of the hind legs has a fine claw for grooming, typical for strepsirrhines.",
"Their tails are short or are missing completely.",
"They grow to a length of 17 to 40 cm and a weight of between 0.3 and 2 kg, depending on the species.",
"Their dental formula is similar to that of lemurs:"
],
[
"Behavior and ecology",
"Lorisids are nocturnal and arboreal.",
"Unlike the closely related galagos, lorisids never jump.",
"Some have slow deliberate movements, whilst others can move with some speed across branches.",
"It was previously thought that all lorisids moved slowly, but investigations using red light proved this to be wrong.",
"Nonetheless, even the faster species freeze or move slowly if they hear or see any potential predator.",
"This habit of remaining motionless whilst in danger is successful only because of the leafy environment of their jungle home, which helps to conceal their true position.",
"With their strong hands they clasp at the branches and cannot be removed without significant force.",
"Most lorisids are solitary or live in small family groups.Slow lorises from southeast Asia produce a secretion from their brachial gland (a scent gland on the upper arm, between the axilla and elbow), that is licked and mixed with their saliva to form a toxin which may be used for defense.",
"The red slender loris (''Loris tardigradus'') from India also possesses brachial glands, but it is uncertain whether they also synthesize the toxin.",
"The potto (''Perodicticus potto'') is thought to lack brachial glands, though it produces similar toxic excretions with its anal glands.Lorisids have a gestation period of four to six months and give birth to two young.",
"These often clasp themselves to the belly of the mother or wait in nests, while the mother goes to search for food.",
"After three to nine months - depending on the species - they are weaned and are fully mature within 10 to 18 months.",
"The life expectancy of lorises can be to up to 20 years.Lorisids consume insects, bird eggs and small vertebrates as well as fruits and gums."
],
[
"References",
"===Literature cited===*"
],
[
"External links"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"LSD"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lysergic acid diethylamide''', commonly known as '''LSD''' (from German ), and known colloquially as '''acid''' or '''lucy''' is a potent psychedelic drug.",
"Effects typically include intensified thoughts, emotions, and sensory perception.",
"At sufficiently high dosages LSD manifests primarily mental, visual, and auditory hallucinations.",
"Dilated pupils, increased blood pressure, and increased body temperature are typical.",
"Effects typically begin within half an hour and can last for up to 20 hours (although on average, experiences last 8–12 hours).",
"LSD is also capable of causing mystical experiences and ego dissolution.",
"It is used mainly as a recreational drug or for spiritual reasons.",
"LSD is both the prototypical psychedelic and one of the \"classical\" psychedelics, being the psychedelic with the greatest scientific and cultural significance.",
"LSD is synthesized as a solid compound, typically in the form of a powder or a crystalline material.",
"This solid LSD is then dissolved in a liquid solvent, such as ethanol or distilled water, to create a solution.",
"The liquid serves as a carrier for the LSD, allowing for accurate dosage and administration onto small pieces of blotter paper called tabs.",
"LSD is typically either swallowed or held under the tongue.",
"In pure form, LSD is clear or white in color, has no smell, and is crystalline.",
"It breaks down with exposure to ultraviolet light.LSD is pharmacologically considered to be non-addictive with a low potential for abuse.",
"Adverse psychological reactions are possible, such as anxiety, paranoia, and delusions.",
"In rare cases, LSD can induce \"flashbacks\", known as hallucinogen persisting perception disorder, in which a person experiences apparent lasting or persistent visual hallucinations or perceptual distortions, such as visual snow and palinopsia.LSD is structurally related to substituted tryptamines, a class of compounds that includes psilocybin, the active compound found in psychedelic mushrooms.",
"Thus, LSD shares some mechanisms of action and psychedelic effects with psilocybin and other tryptamines.The effects of LSD are thought to stem primarily from it being an agonist at the 5-HT2A serotonin receptor.",
"While exactly how LSD exerts its effects by agonism at this receptor is not fully understood, corresponding increased glutamatergic neurotransmission and reduced default mode network activity are thought to be key mechanisms of action.",
"LSD also binds to dopamine D1 and D2 receptors, which is thought to contribute to reports of LSD being more stimulating than compounds such as psilocybin.LSD was first synthesized by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann in 1938 from lysergic acid, a chemical derived from the hydrolysis of ergotamine, an alkaloid found in ergot, a fungus that infects grain.",
"LSD was the 25th of various lysergamides Hofmann synthesized from lysergic acid while trying to develop a new analeptic, hence the alternate name LSD-25.Hofmann discovered its effects in humans in 1943, after unintentionally ingesting an unknown amount, possibly absorbing it through his skin.",
"LSD was subject to exceptional interest within the field of psychiatry in the 1950s and early 1960s, with Sandoz distributing LSD to researchers under the trademark name Delysid in an attempt to find a marketable use for it.LSD-assisted psychotherapy was used in the 1950s and early 1960s by psychiatrists such as Humphry Osmond, who pioneered the application of LSD to the treatment of alcoholism, with promising results.",
"Osmond coined the term \"psychedelic\" (lit.",
"''mind manifesting'') as a term for LSD and related hallucinogens, superseding the previously held \"psychotomimetic\" model in which LSD was believed to mimic schizophrenia.",
"In contrast to schizophrenia, LSD can induce transcendent experiences, or mental states that transcend the experience of everyday consciousness, with lasting psychological benefit.",
"During this time, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) began using LSD in the research project Project MKUltra, which used psychoactive substances to aid interrogation.",
"The CIA administered LSD to unwitting test subjects in order to observe how they would react, the most well-known example of this being Operation Midnight Climax.",
"LSD was one of several psychoactive substances evaluated by the U.S. Army Chemical Corps as possible non-lethal incapacitants in the Edgewood Arsenal human experiments.In the 1960s, LSD and other psychedelics were adopted by, and became synonymous with, the counterculture movement due to their perceived ability to expand consciousness.",
"This resulted in LSD being viewed as a cultural threat to American values and the Vietnam war effort, and it was designated as a Schedule I (illegal for medical as well as recreational use) substance in 1968.It was listed as a Schedule 1 controlled substance by the United Nations in 1971 and currently has no approved medical uses.",
", about 10% of people in the United States have used LSD at some point in their lives, while 0.7% have used it in the last year.",
"It was most popular in the 1960s to 1980s.",
"The use of LSD among US adults increased 56.4% from 2015 to 2018."
],
[
"Uses",
"===Recreational===LSD is commonly used as a recreational drug.===Spiritual===LSD can catalyze intense spiritual experiences and is thus considered an entheogen.",
"Some users have reported out of body experiences.",
"In 1966, Timothy Leary established the League for Spiritual Discovery with LSD as its sacrament.",
"Stanislav Grof has written that religious and mystical experiences observed during LSD sessions appear to be phenomenologically indistinguishable from similar descriptions in the sacred scriptures of the great religions of the world and the texts of ancient civilizations.===Medical===LSD currently has no approved uses in medicine.",
"A meta analysis concluded that a single dose was shown to be effective at reducing alcohol consumption in people suffering from alcoholism.",
"LSD has also been studied in depression, anxiety, and drug dependence, with positive preliminary results."
],
[
"Effects",
"LSD is exceptionally potent, with as little as 20 μg capable of producing a noticeable effect.===Physical===Some symptoms reported for LSDPatient with mydriasis (pupil dilation) due to usage of LSDLSD can induce physical effects such as pupil dilation, decreased appetite, increased sweating, and wakefulness.",
"The physical reactions to LSD vary greatly and some may be a result of its psychological effects.",
"Commonly observed symptoms include increased body temperature, blood sugar, and heart rate, as well as goose bumps, jaw clenching, dry mouth, and hyperreflexia.",
"In cases of adverse reactions, users may experience numbness, weakness, nausea, and tremors.===Psychological===The primary immediate psychological effects of LSD are visual hallucinations and illusions, often referred to as \"trips\".",
"These effects typically begin within 20–30 minutes of oral ingestion, peak three to four hours after ingestion, and can last up to 20 hours, particularly with higher doses.",
"An \"afterglow\" effect, characterized by an improved mood or perceived mental state, may persist for days or weeks following ingestion.",
"Positive experiences, or \"good trips\", are described as intensely pleasurable and can include feelings of joy, euphoria, an increased appreciation for life, decreased anxiety, a sense of spiritual enlightenment, and a feeling of interconnectedness with the universe.Conversely, negative experiences, known as \"bad trips,\" can induce feelings of fear, anxiety, panic, paranoia, and even suicidal ideation.",
"While the occurrence of a bad trip is unpredictable, factors such as mood, surroundings, sleep, hydration, and social setting, collectively referred to as \"set and setting\", can influence the risk and are considered important in minimizing the likelihood of a negative experience.===Sensory===LSD induces an animated sensory experience affecting senses, emotions, memories, time, and awareness, lasting from 6 to 20 hours, with the duration dependent on dosage and individual tolerance.",
"Effects typically commence within 30 to 90 minutes post-ingestion, ranging from subtle perceptual changes to profound cognitive shifts.",
"Alterations in auditory and visual perception are common.Users may experience enhanced visual phenomena, such as vibrant colors, objects appearing to morph, ripple or move, and geometric patterns on various surfaces.",
"Changes in the perception of food's texture and taste are also noted, sometimes leading to aversion towards certain foods.There are reports of inanimate objects appearing animated, with static objects seeming to move in additional spatial dimensions.",
"The auditory effects of LSD may include echo-like distortions of sounds.",
"Basic visual effects often resemble phosphenes and can be influenced by concentration, thoughts, emotions, or music.",
"Auditory effects may include echo-like distortions and an intensified experience of music.",
"Higher doses can lead to more intense sensory perception alterations, including synesthesia, perception of additional dimensions, and temporary dissociation."
],
[
"Adverse effects",
"delphic analysis regarding 20 popular recreational drugs.",
"LSD was ranked 14th in dependence, 15th in physical harm, and 13th in social harm.LSD, a classical psychedelic, is deemed physiologically safe at standard dosages (50–200 μg) and its primary risks lie in psychological effects rather than physiological harm.",
"A 2010 study by David Nutt ranked LSD as significantly less harmful than alcohol, placing it near the bottom of a list assessing the harm of 20 drugs.===Psychological effects=======Mental disorders====LSD can induce panic attacks or extreme anxiety, colloquially termed a \"bad trip\".",
"Despite lower rates of depression and substance abuse found in psychedelic drug users compared to controls, LSD presents heightened risks for individuals with severe mental illnesses like schizophrenia.",
"These hallucinogens can catalyze psychiatric disorders in predisposed individuals, although they do not tend to induce illness in emotionally healthy people.",
"Several behavioral-related fatalities and suicides have been associated with LSD.====Suggestibility====While research from the 1960s indicated increased suggestibility under the influence of LSD among both mentally ill and healthy individuals, recent documents suggest that the CIA and Department of Defense have discontinued research into LSD as a means of mind control.====Flashbacks====Flashbacks are psychological episodes where individuals re-experience some of LSD's subjective effects after the drug has worn off, persisting for days or months post-hallucinogen use.",
"These experiences are associated with hallucinogen persisting perception disorder, where flashbacks occur intermittently or chronically, causing distress or functional impairment.The etiology of flashbacks is varied.",
"Some cases are attributed to somatic symptom disorder, where individuals fixate on normal somatic experiences previously unnoticed prior to drug consumption.",
"Other instances are linked to associative reactions to contextual cues, similar to responses observed in individuals with past trauma or emotional experiences.",
"The risk factors for flashbacks remain unclear, but pre-existing psychopathologies may be significant contributors.Estimating the prevalence of HPPD is challenging.",
"It is considered rare, with occurrences ranging from 1 in 20 users experiencing the transient and less severe type 1 HPPD, to 1 in 50,000 for the more concerning type 2 HPPD.",
"Contrary to internet rumors, LSD is not stored long-term in the spinal cord or other body parts.",
"Pharmacological evidence indicates LSD has a half-life of 175 minutes and is metabolized into water-soluble compounds like 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD, eliminated through urine without evidence of long-term storage.",
"Clinical evidence also suggests that chronic use of SSRIs can potentiate LSD-induced flashbacks, even months after stopping LSD use.===Drug-interactions===Several psychedelics, including LSD, are metabolized by CYP2D6.Concurrent use of SSRIs, potent inhibitors of CYP2D6, with LSD may heighten the risk of serotonin syndrome.",
"Chronic usage of SSRIs, TCAs, and MAOIs is believed to diminish the subjective effects of psychedelics, likely due to SSRI-induced 5-HT2A receptor downregulation and MAOI-induced 5-HT2A receptor desensitization.",
"Interactions between psychedelics and antipsychotics or anticonvulsants are not well-documented; however, co-use with mood stabilizers like lithium may induce seizures and dissociative effects, particularly in individuals with bipolar disorder.",
"Lithium notably intensifies LSD reactions, potentially leading to acute comatose states when combined.===Fatal dose===Lethal oral dose of LSD in humans is estimated at 100 mg, based on LD50 and lethal blood concentrations observed in rodent studies.===Tolerance===LSD shows significant tachyphylaxis, with tolerance developing 24 hours after administration.",
"The progression of tolerance at intervals shorter than 24 hours remains largely unknown.",
"Tolerance typically resets to baseline after 3–4 days of abstinence.",
"Cross-tolerance occurs between LSD, mescaline, psilocybin, and to some degree DMT.",
"Tolerance to LSD also builds up with consistent use, and is believed to result from serotonin 5-HT2A receptor downregulation.",
"Researchers believe that tolerance returns to baseline after two weeks of not using psychedelics.===Addiction and dependence liability===The NIH states that LSD is addictive, while most other sources state it is not.",
"A 2009 textbook states that it \"rarely produces compulsive use.\"",
"A 2006 review states it is readily abused, but does not result in addiction.",
"There are no recorded successful attempts to train animals to self-administer LSD in laboratory settings.",
"A study reports that although tolerance to LSD builds up rapidly, a withdrawal syndrome does not appear, suggesting that a potential syndrome does not necessarily relate to the possibility of acquiring rapid tolerance to a substance.",
"A report examining substance use disorder for DSM-IV noted that almost no hallucinogens produced dependence, unlike psychoactive drugs of other classes such as stimulants and depressants.===Cancer and pregnancy===The mutagenic potential of LSD is unclear.",
"Overall, the evidence seems to point to limited or no effect at commonly used doses.",
"Studies showed no evidence of teratogenic or mutagenic effects."
],
[
"Overdose",
"There have been no documented fatal human overdoses from LSD, although there has been no \"comprehensive review since the 1950s\" and \"almost no legal clinical research since the 1970s\".",
"Eight individuals who had accidentally consumed an exceedingly high amount of LSD, mistaking it for cocaine, had plasma levels of 1000–7000 μg per 100 mL blood plasma had suffered from comatose states, vomiting, respiratory problems, hyperthermia, and light gastrointestinal bleeding; however, all of them survived without residual effects upon hospital intervention.Individuals experiencing a bad trip after LSD intoxication may be presented with severe anxiety, tachycardia, often accompanied by phases of psychotic agitation and varying degrees of delusions.",
"Cases of death on a bad trip have been reported due to prone maximal restraint (PMR) and positional asphyxia when the individuals were held restraint by law enforcement personnel.Massive doses are largely managed by symptomatic treatments, and agitation can be addressed with benzodiazepines.",
"Reassurance in a calm, safe environment is beneficial.",
"Antipsychotic agents such as neuroleptics and haloperidol are not recommended as they may have adverse psychotomimetic effects.",
"Gastrointestinal decontamination with activated charcoal is of little use due to the rapid absorption of LSD, unless done within 30–60 minutes of ingesting exceedingly huge amounts.",
"Administration of anticoagulants, vasodilators, and sympatholytics may be useful for treating ergotism.===Designer drug overdose===Many novel psychoactive substances of 25-NB (NBOMe) series, such as 25I-NBOMe and 25B-NBOMe, are regularly sold as LSD in blotter papers.",
"NBOMe compounds are often associated with life-threatening toxicity and death.",
"Fatalities involved in NBOMe intoxication suggest that a significant number of individuals ingested the substance which they believed was LSD, and researchers report that \"users familiar with LSD may have a false sense of security when ingesting NBOMe inadvertently\".",
"Researchers state that the alleged physiological toxicity of LSD is likely due to psychoactive substances other than LSD.",
"NBOMe compounds are reported to have a bitter taste, and are not active orally, and are usually taken sublingually.",
"When NBOMes are administered sublingually, numbness of the tongue and mouth followed by a metallic chemical taste was observed, and researchers describe this physical side effect as one of the main discriminants between NBOMe compounds and LSD.",
"Despite high potency, recreational doses of LSD have only produced low incidents of acute toxicity, but NBOMe compounds have extremely different safety profiles.",
"Ehrlich's reagent can be used to test for the presence of LSD."
],
[
"Pharmacology",
"===Pharmacodynamics===Binding affinities of LSD for various receptors.",
"The lower the dissociation constant (Ki), the more strongly LSD binds to that receptor (i.e.",
"with higher affinity).",
"The horizontal line represents an approximate value for human plasma concentrations of LSD, and hence, receptor affinities that are above the line are unlikely to be involved in LSD's effect.",
"Data averaged from data from the Ki Database+Binding affinity for various serotonin receptorsReceptorKi (nM)5-HT1A1.15-HT2A2.95-HT2B4.95-HT2C235-HT5A95-HT62.3Most serotonergic psychedelics are not significantly dopaminergic, and LSD is therefore atypical in this regard.",
"The agonism of the D2 receptor by LSD may contribute to its psychoactive effects in humans.LSD binds to most serotonin receptor subtypes except for the 5-HT3 and 5-HT4 receptors.",
"However, most of these receptors are affected at too low affinity to be sufficiently activated by the brain concentration of approximately 10–20 nM.",
"In humans, recreational doses of LSD can affect 5-HT1A (Ki = 1.1 nM), 5-HT2A (Ki = 2.9 nM), 5-HT2B (Ki = 4.9 nM), 5-HT2C (Ki = 23 nM), 5-HT5A (Ki = 9 nM in cloned rat tissues), and 5-HT6 receptors (Ki = 2.3 nM).",
"Although not present in humans, 5-HT5B receptors found in rodents also have a high affinity for LSD.",
"The psychedelic effects of LSD are attributed to cross-activation of 5-HT2A receptor heteromers.",
"Many but not all 5-HT2A agonists are psychedelics and 5-HT2A antagonists block the psychedelic activity of LSD.",
"LSD exhibits functional selectivity at the 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors in that it activates the signal transduction enzyme phospholipase A2 instead of activating the enzyme phospholipase C as the endogenous ligand serotonin does.Exactly how LSD produces its effects is unknown, but it is thought that it works by increasing glutamate release in the cerebral cortex and therefore excitation in this area, specifically in layer V. LSD, like many other drugs of recreational use, has been shown to activate DARPP-32-related pathways.",
"The drug enhances dopamine D2 receptor protomer recognition and signaling of D2–5-HT2A receptor complexes, which may contribute to its psychotropic effects.",
"LSD has been shown to have low affinity for H1 receptors, displaying antihistamine effects.LSD is a biased agonist that induces a conformation in serotonin receptors that preferentially recruits β-arrestin over activating G proteins.",
"LSD also has an exceptionally long residence time when bound to serotonin receptors lasting hours, consistent with the long lasting effects of LSD despite its relatively rapid clearance.",
"A crystal structure of 5-HT2B bound to LSD reveals an extracellular loop that forms a lid over the diethylamide end of the binding cavity which explains the slow rate of LSD unbinding from serotonin receptors.",
"The related lysergamide lysergic acid amide (LSA) that lacks the diethylamide moiety is far less hallucinogenic in comparison.===Pharmacokinetics===Resting state fMRI BOLD-contrast imaging shows increased primary visual cortex (V1) cerebral blood flow (CBF) and increased V1 resting state functional connectivity (RSFC), which correlated more strongly with the visual hallucinatory aspect of the LSD experience.",
"Increased V1 RSFC also correlated with visual analogue scale (VAS) ratings of simple hallucinations and the magnitude of CBF observed in visual cortex correlated positively with ratings of complex imagery on the LSD-induced altered state of consciousness (ASC).Resting state fMRI BOLD-contrast imaging shows decreased bilateral parahippocampal (PH) resting state functional connectivity (RSFC), which correlated with the ego-dissolution aspect of the LSD experience.",
"A significant relationship was also found between decreased posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) alpha power and default mode network (DMN) disintegration with ego-dissolution.The effects of LSD normally last between 6 and 12 hours depending on dosage, tolerance, and age.",
"Aghajanian and Bing (1964) found LSD had an elimination half-life of only 175 minutes (about 3 hours).",
"However, using more accurate techniques, Papac and Foltz (1990) reported that 1 µg/kg oral LSD given to a single male volunteer had an apparent plasma half-life of 5.1 hours, with a peak plasma concentration of 5 ng/mL at 3 hours post-dose.The pharmacokinetics of LSD were not properly determined until 2015, which is not surprising for a drug with the kind of low-μg potency that LSD possesses.",
"In a sample of 16 healthy subjects, a single mid-range 200 μg oral dose of LSD was found to produce mean maximal concentrations of 4.5 ng/mL at a median of 1.5 hours (range 0.5–4 hours) post-administration.",
"Concentrations of LSD decreased following first-order kinetics with a half-life of 3.6±0.9 hours and a terminal half-life of 8.9±5.9 hours.The effects of the dose of LSD given lasted for up to 12 hours and were closely correlated with the concentrations of LSD present in circulation over time, with no acute tolerance observed.",
"Only 1% of the drug was eliminated in urine unchanged, whereas 13% was eliminated as the major metabolite 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD (O-H-LSD) within 24 hours.",
"O-H-LSD is formed by cytochrome P450 enzymes, although the specific enzymes involved are unknown, and it does not appear to be known whether O-H-LSD is pharmacologically active or not.",
"The oral bioavailability of LSD was crudely estimated as approximately 71% using previous data on intravenous administration of LSD.",
"The sample was equally divided between male and female subjects and there were no significant sex differences observed in the pharmacokinetics of LSD.===Mechanisms of action===Neuroimaging studies using resting state fMRI recently suggested that LSD changes the cortical functional architecture.",
"These modifications spatially overlap with the distribution of serotoninergic receptors.",
"In particular, increased connectivity and activity were observed in regions with high expression of 5-HT2A receptor, while a decrease in activity and connectivity was observed in cortical areas that are dense with 5-HT1A receptor.",
"Experimental data suggest that subcortical structures, particularly the thalamus, play a synergistic role with the cerebral cortex in mediating the psychedelic experience.",
"LSD, through its binding to cortical 5-HT2A receptor, may enhance excitatory neurotransmission along frontostriatal projections and, consequently, reduce thalamic filtering of sensory stimuli towards the cortex.",
"This phenomenon appears to selectively involve ventral, intralaminar, and pulvinar nuclei."
],
[
"Chemistry",
"The four possible stereoisomers of LSD.",
"Only (+)-LSD is psychoactive.LSD is a chiral compound with two stereocenters at the carbon atoms C-5 and C-8, so that theoretically four different optical isomers of LSD could exist.",
"LSD, also called (+)-D-LSD, has the absolute configuration (5''R'',8''R'').",
"5''S'' stereoisomers of lysergamides do not exist in nature and are not formed during the synthesis from ''d''-lysergic acid.",
"Retrosynthetically, the C-5 stereocenter could be analysed as having the same configuration of the alpha carbon of the naturally occurring amino acid L-tryptophan, the precursor to all biosynthetic ergoline compounds.However, LSD and iso-LSD, the two C-8 isomers, rapidly interconvert in the presence of bases, as the alpha proton is acidic and can be deprotonated and reprotonated.",
"Non-psychoactive iso-LSD which has formed during the synthesis can be separated by chromatography and can be isomerized to LSD.Pure salts of LSD are triboluminescent, emitting small flashes of white light when shaken in the dark.",
"LSD is strongly fluorescent and will glow bluish-white under UV light.===Synthesis===LSD is an ergoline derivative.",
"It is commonly synthesized by reacting diethylamine with an activated form of lysergic acid.",
"Activating reagents include phosphoryl chloride and peptide coupling reagents.",
"Lysergic acid is made by alkaline hydrolysis of lysergamides like ergotamine, a substance usually derived from the ergot fungus on agar plate; or, theoretically possible, but impractical and uncommon, from ergine (lysergic acid amide, LSA) extracted from morning glory seeds.",
"Lysergic acid can also be produced synthetically, although these processes are not used in clandestine manufacture due to their low yields and high complexity.====Research====The precursor for LSD, lysergic acid, has been produced by GMO baker's yeast.===Dosage===White on White blotters (WoW) for sublingual administrationA single dose of LSD may be between 40 and 500 micrograms—an amount roughly equal to one-tenth the mass of a grain of sand.",
"Threshold effects can be felt with as little as 25 micrograms of LSD.",
"The practice of using sub-threshold doses is called microdosing.",
"Dosages of LSD are measured in micrograms (µg), or millionths of a gram.In the mid-1960s, the most important black market LSD manufacturer (Owsley Stanley) distributed LSD at a standard concentration of 270 µg, while street samples of the 1970s contained 30 to 300 µg.",
"By the 1980s, the amount had reduced to between 100 and 125 µg, dropping more in the 1990s to the 20–80 µg range, and even more in the 2000s (decade).===Reactivity and degradation===\"LSD,\" writes the chemist Alexander Shulgin, \"is an unusually fragile molecule ... As a salt, in water, cold, and free from air and light exposure, it is stable indefinitely.",
"\"LSD has two labile protons at the tertiary stereogenic C5 and C8 positions, rendering these centers prone to epimerisation.",
"The C8 proton is more labile due to the electron-withdrawing carboxamide attachment, but removal of the chiral proton at the C5 position (which was once also an alpha proton of the parent molecule tryptophan) is assisted by the inductively withdrawing nitrogen and pi electron delocalisation with the indole ring.LSD also has enamine-type reactivity because of the electron-donating effects of the indole ring.",
"Because of this, chlorine destroys LSD molecules on contact; even though chlorinated tap water contains only a slight amount of chlorine, the small quantity of compound typical to an LSD solution will likely be eliminated when dissolved in tap water.",
"The double bond between the 8-position and the aromatic ring, being conjugated with the indole ring, is susceptible to nucleophilic attacks by water or alcohol, especially in the presence of UV or other kinds of light.",
"LSD often converts to \"lumi-LSD,\" which is inactive in human beings.A controlled study was undertaken to determine the stability of LSD in pooled urine samples.The concentrations of LSD in urine samples were followed over time at various temperatures, in different types of storage containers, at various exposures to different wavelengths of light, and at varying pH values.",
"These studies demonstrated no significant loss in LSD concentration at 25 °C for up to four weeks.",
"After four weeks of incubation, a 30% loss in LSD concentration at 37 °C and up to a 40% at 45 °C were observed.",
"Urine fortified with LSD and stored in amber glass or nontransparent polyethylene containers showed no change in concentration under any light conditions.",
"Stability of LSD in transparent containers under light was dependent on the distance between the light source and the samples, the wavelength of light, exposure time, and the intensity of light.",
"After prolonged exposure to heat in alkaline pH conditions, 10 to 15% of the parent LSD epimerized to iso-LSD.",
"Under acidic conditions, less than 5% of the LSD was converted to iso-LSD.",
"It was also demonstrated that trace amounts of metal ions in buffer or urine could catalyze the decomposition of LSD and that this process can be avoided by the addition of EDTA.===Detection===Ehrlich's reagent can be used to test for the presence of LSD in a sample, turning purple upon reaction.LSD can be detected in concentrations larger than approximately 10% in a sample using Ehrlich's reagent and Hofmann's reagent.",
"However, detecting LSD in human tissues is more challenging due to its active dosage being significantly lower (in micrograms) compared to most other drugs (in milligrams).LSD may be quantified in urine for drug abuse testing programs, in plasma or serum to confirm poisoning in hospitalized victims, or in whole blood for forensic investigations.",
"The parent drug and its major metabolite are unstable in biofluids when exposed to light, heat, or alkaline conditions, necessitating protection from light, low-temperature storage, and quick analysis to minimize losses.",
"Maximum plasma concentrations are typically observed 1.4 to 1.5 hours after oral administration of 100 µg and 200 µg, respectively, with a plasma half-life of approximately 2.6 hours (ranging from 2.2 to 3.4 hours among test subjects).Due to its potency in microgram quantities, LSD is often not included in standard pre-employment urine or hair analyses.",
"However, advanced liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry methods can detect LSD in biological samples even after a single use."
],
[
"History",
"LSD was first synthesized on November 16, 1938 by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann at the Sandoz Laboratories in Basel, Switzerland as part of a large research program searching for medically useful ergot alkaloid derivatives.",
"The abbreviation \"LSD\" is from the German \"Lysergsäurediethylamid\".Albert Hofmann in 2006LSD's psychedelic properties were discovered 5 years later when Hofmann himself accidentally ingested an unknown quantity of the chemical.",
"The first intentional ingestion of LSD occurred on April 19, 1943, when Hofmann ingested 250 µg of LSD.",
"He said this would be a threshold dose based on the dosages of other ergot alkaloids.",
"Hofmann found the effects to be much stronger than he anticipated.",
"Sandoz Laboratories introduced LSD as a psychiatric drug in 1947 and marketed LSD as a psychiatric panacea, hailing it \"as a cure for everything from schizophrenia to criminal behavior, 'sexual perversions', and alcoholism.\"",
"Sandoz would send the drug for free to researchers investigating its effects.",
"'Effects of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) on Troops Marching' – 16mm film produced by the United States military circa 1958Beginning in the 1950s, the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) began a research program code named Project MKUltra.",
"The CIA introduced LSD to the United States, purchasing the entire world's supply for $240,000 and propagating the LSD through CIA front organizations to American hospitals, clinics, prisons and research centers.",
"Experiments included administering LSD to CIA employees, military personnel, doctors, other government agents, prostitutes, mentally ill patients, and members of the general public in order to study their reactions, usually without the subjects' knowledge.",
"The project was revealed in the US congressional Rockefeller Commission report in 1975.In 1963, the Sandoz patents on LSD expired and the Czech company Spofa began to produce the substance.",
"Sandoz stopped the production and distribution in 1965.Several figures, including Aldous Huxley, Timothy Leary, and Al Hubbard, had begun to advocate the consumption of LSD.",
"LSD became central to the counterculture of the 1960s.",
"In the early 1960s the use of LSD and other hallucinogens was advocated by new proponents of consciousness expansion such as Leary, Huxley, Alan Watts and Arthur Koestler, and according to L. R. Veysey they profoundly influenced the thinking of the new generation of youth.On October 24, 1968, possession of LSD was made illegal in the United States.",
"The last FDA approved study of LSD in patients ended in 1980, while a study in healthy volunteers was made in the late 1980s.",
"Legally approved and regulated psychiatric use of LSD continued in Switzerland until 1993.In November 2020, Oregon became the first US state to decriminalize possession of small amounts of LSD after voters approved Ballot Measure 110."
],
[
"Society and culture",
"===Counterculture===By the mid-1960s, the youth countercultures in California, particularly in San Francisco, had widely adopted the use of hallucinogenic drugs, including LSD.",
"The first major underground LSD factory was established by Owsley Stanley.",
"Around this time, the Merry Pranksters, associated with novelist Ken Kesey, organized the Acid Tests, events in San Francisco involving LSD consumption, accompanied by light shows and improvised music.",
"Their activities, including cross-country trips in a psychedelically decorated bus and interactions with major figures of the beat movement, were later documented in Tom Wolfe's ''The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test'' (1968).In San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury neighborhood, the Psychedelic Shop was opened in January 1966 by brothers Ron and Jay Thelin to promote safe use of LSD.",
"This shop played a significant role in popularizing LSD in the area and establishing Haight-Ashbury as the epicenter of the hippie counterculture.",
"The Thelins also organized the Love Pageant Rally in Golden Gate Park in October 1966, protesting against California's ban on LSD.A similar movement developed in London, led by British academic Michael Hollingshead, who first tried LSD in America in 1961.After experiencing LSD and interacting with notable figures such as Aldous Huxley, Timothy Leary, and Richard Alpert, Hollingshead played a key role in the famous LSD research at Millbrook before moving to New York City for his own experiments.",
"In 1965, he returned to the UK and founded the World Psychedelic Center in Chelsea, London.===Music and Art===Psychedelic art aims to capture the experiences of psychedelic trips.The influence of LSD in the realms of music and art became pronounced in the 1960s, especially through the Acid Tests and related events involving bands like the Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane, and Big Brother and the Holding Company.",
"San Francisco-based artists such as Rick Griffin, Victor Moscoso, and Wes Wilson contributed to this movement through their psychedelic poster and album art.",
"The Grateful Dead, in particular, became central to the culture of \"Deadheads,\" with their music heavily influenced by LSD.In the United Kingdom, Michael Hollingshead, reputed for introducing LSD to various artists and musicians like Storm Thorgerson, Donovan, Keith Richards, and members of the Beatles, played a significant role in the drug's proliferation in the British art and music scene.",
"Despite LSD's illegal status from 1966, it was widely used by groups including the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, and the Moody Blues.",
"Their experiences influenced works such as the Beatles' ''Sgt.",
"Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band'' and Cream's ''Disraeli Gears'', featuring psychedelic-themed music and artwork.Psychedelic music of the 1960s often sought to replicate the LSD experience, incorporating exotic instrumentation, electric guitars with effects pedals, and elaborate studio techniques.",
"Artists and bands utilized instruments like sitars and tablas, and employed studio effects such as backwards tapes, panning, and phasing.",
"Songs such as John Prine's \"Illegal Smile\" and the Beatles' \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\" have been associated with LSD, although the latter's authors denied such claims.Contemporary artists influenced by LSD include Keith Haring in the visual arts, various electronic dance music creators, and the jam band Phish.",
"The 2018 Leo Butler play ''All You Need is LSD'' is inspired by the author's interest in the history of LSD.===Legal status===The United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971 mandates that signing parties, including the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and most of Europe, prohibit LSD.",
"Enforcement of these laws varies by country.",
"The convention allows medical and scientific research with LSD.====Australia====In Australia, LSD is classified as a Schedule 9 prohibited substance under the Poisons Standard (February 2017), indicating it may be abused or misused and its manufacture, possession, sale, or use should be prohibited except for approved research purposes.",
"In Western Australia, the Misuse of Drugs Act 1981 provides guidelines for possession and trafficking of substances like LSD.====Canada====In Canada, LSD is listed under Schedule III of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act.",
"Unauthorized possession and trafficking of the substance can lead to significant legal penalties.====United Kingdom====In the United Kingdom, LSD is a Class A drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, making unauthorized possession and trafficking punishable by severe penalties.",
"The Runciman Report and Transform Drug Policy Foundation have made recommendations and proposals regarding the legal regulation of LSD and other psychedelics.====United States====In the United States, LSD is classified as a Schedule I controlled substance under the Controlled Substances Act of 1970, making its manufacture, possession, and distribution illegal without a DEA license.",
"The law considers LSD to have a high potential for abuse, no legitimate medical use, and to be unsafe even under medical supervision.",
"The US Supreme Court case Neal v. United States (1995) clarified the sentencing guidelines related to LSD possession.Oregon decriminalized personal possession of small amounts of drugs, including LSD, in February 2021, and California has seen legislative efforts to decriminalize psychedelics.====Mexico====Mexico decriminalized the possession of small amounts of drugs, including LSD, for personal use in 2009.The law specifies possession limits and establishes that possession is not a crime within designated quantities.====Czech Republic====In the Czech Republic, possession of \"amount larger than small\" of LSD is criminalized, while possession of smaller amounts is a misdemeanor.",
"The definition of \"amount larger than small\" is determined by judicial practice and specific regulations.===Economics=======Production====Glassware seized by the DEAAn active dose of LSD is very minute, allowing a large number of doses to be synthesized from a comparatively small amount of raw material.",
"Twenty five kilograms of precursor ergotamine tartrate can produce 5–6 kg of pure crystalline LSD; this corresponds to around 50–60 million doses at 100 µg.",
"Because the masses involved are so small, concealing and transporting illicit LSD is much easier than smuggling cocaine, cannabis, or other illegal drugs.Manufacturing LSD requires laboratory equipment and experience in the field of organic chemistry.",
"It takes two to three days to produce 30 to 100 grams of pure compound.",
"It is believed that LSD is not usually produced in large quantities, but rather in a series of small batches.",
"This technique minimizes the loss of precursor chemicals in case a step does not work as expected.=====Forms=====Five doses of LSD, often called a \"five strip\"LSD is produced in crystalline form and is then mixed with excipients or redissolved for production in ingestible forms.",
"Liquid solution is either distributed in small vials or, more commonly, sprayed onto or soaked into a distribution medium.",
"Historically, LSD solutions were first sold on sugar cubes, but practical considerations forced a change to tablet form.",
"Appearing in 1968 as an orange tablet measuring about 6 mm across, \"Orange Sunshine\" acid was the first largely available form of LSD after its possession was made illegal.",
"Tim Scully, a prominent chemist, made some of these tablets, but said that most \"Sunshine\" in the USA came by way of Ronald Stark, who imported approximately thirty-five million doses from Europe.Over a period of time, tablet dimensions, weight, shape and concentration of LSD evolved from large (4.5–8.1 mm diameter), heavyweight (≥150 mg), round, high concentration (90–350 µg/tab) dosage units to small (2.0–3.5 mm diameter) lightweight (as low as 4.7 mg/tab), variously shaped, lower concentration (12–85 µg/tab, average range 30–40 µg/tab) dosage units.",
"LSD tablet shapes have included cylinders, cones, stars, spacecraft, and heart shapes.",
"The smallest tablets became known as \"Microdots.",
"\"After tablets came \"computer acid\" or \"blotter paper LSD,\" typically made by dipping a preprinted sheet of blotting paper into an LSD/water/alcohol solution.",
"More than 200 types of LSD tablets have been encountered since 1969 and more than 350 blotter paper designs have been observed since 1975.About the same time as blotter paper LSD came \"Windowpane\" (AKA \"Clearlight\"), which contained LSD inside a thin gelatin square a quarter of an inch (6 mm) across.",
"LSD has been sold under a wide variety of often short-lived and regionally restricted street names including Acid, Trips, Uncle Sid, Blotter, Lucy, Alice and doses, as well as names that reflect the designs on the sheets of blotter paper.",
"Authorities have encountered the drug in other forms—including powder or crystal, and capsule.=====Modern distribution=====LSD manufacturers and traffickers in the United States can be categorized into two groups: A few large-scale producers, and an equally limited number of small, clandestine chemists, consisting of independent producers who, operating on a comparatively limited scale, can be found throughout the country.As a group, independent producers are of less concern to the Drug Enforcement Administration than the large-scale groups because their product reaches only local markets.Many LSD dealers and chemists describe a religious or humanitarian purpose that motivates their illicit activity.",
"Nicholas Schou's book ''Orange Sunshine: The Brotherhood of Eternal Love and Its Quest to Spread Peace, Love, and Acid to the World'' describes one such group, the Brotherhood of Eternal Love.",
"The group was a major American LSD trafficking group in the late 1960s and early 1970s.In the second half of the 20th century, dealers and chemists loosely associated with the Grateful Dead like Owsley Stanley, Nicholas Sand, Karen Horning, Sarah Maltzer, \"Dealer McDope,\" and Leonard Pickard played an essential role in distributing LSD.===== Mimics=====LSD blotter acid mimic actually containing DOCDifferent blotters which could possibly be mimicsSince 2005, law enforcement in the United States and elsewhere has seized several chemicals and combinations of chemicals in blotter paper which were sold as LSD mimics, including DOB, a mixture of DOC and DOI, 25I-NBOMe, and a mixture of DOC and DOB.",
"Many mimics are toxic in comparatively small doses, or have extremely different safety profiles.",
"Many street users of LSD are often under the impression that blotter paper which is actively hallucinogenic can only be LSD because that is the only chemical with low enough doses to fit on a small square of blotter paper.",
"While it is true that LSD requires lower doses than most other hallucinogens, blotter paper is capable of absorbing a much larger amount of material.",
"The DEA performed a chromatographic analysis of blotter paper containing 2C-C which showed that the paper contained a much greater concentration of the active chemical than typical LSD doses, although the exact quantity was not determined.",
"Blotter LSD mimics can have relatively small dose squares; a sample of blotter paper containing DOC seized by Concord, California police had dose markings approximately 6 mm apart.",
"Several deaths have been attributed to 25I-NBOMe."
],
[
"Research",
"In the United States the earliest research began in the 1950s.",
"For instance, with his colleagues Albert Kurland published research on LSD's therapeutic potential in treating to schizophrenia.",
"In Canada began Humphrey Osmond and Abram Hoffer completed LSD studies as early as 1952.By the 1960s, controversies surrounding \"hippie\" counter culture began to deplete institutional support for continued studies.Currently, a number of organizations—including the Beckley Foundation, MAPS, Heffter Research Institute and the Albert Hofmann Foundation—exist to fund, encourage and coordinate research into the medicinal and spiritual uses of LSD and related psychedelics.",
"New clinical LSD experiments in humans started in 2009 for the first time in 35 years.",
"As it is illegal in many areas of the world, potential medical uses are difficult to study.In 2001 the United States Drug Enforcement Administration stated that LSD \"produces no aphrodisiac effects, does not increase creativity, has no lasting positive effect in treating alcoholics or criminals, does not produce a \"model psychosis\", and does not generate immediate personality change.\"",
"More recently, experimental uses of LSD have included the treatment of alcoholism, pain and cluster headache relief, and prospective studies on depression.A 2020 meta-review indicated possible positive effects of LSD in reducing psychiatric symptoms, mainly in cases of alcoholism.",
"There is evidence that psychedelics induce molecular and cellular adaptations related to neuroplasticity and that these could potentially underlie therapeutic benefits.===Psychedelic therapy===In the 1950s and 1960s, LSD was used in psychiatry to enhance psychotherapy, known as psychedelic therapy.",
"Some psychiatrists, such as Ronald A. Sandison, who pioneered its use at Powick Hospital in England, believed LSD was especially useful at helping patients to \"unblock\" repressed subconscious material through other psychotherapeutic methods, and also for treating alcoholism.",
"One study concluded, \"The root of the therapeutic value of the LSD experience is its potential for producing self-acceptance and self-surrender,\" presumably by forcing the user to face issues and problems in that individual's psyche.Two recent reviews concluded that conclusions drawn from most of these early trials are unreliable due to serious methodological flaws.",
"These include the absence of adequate control groups, lack of followup, and vague criteria for therapeutic outcome.",
"In many cases studies failed to convincingly demonstrate whether the drug or the therapeutic interaction was responsible for any beneficial effects.In recent years, organizations like the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies have renewed clinical research of LSD.It has been proposed that LSD be studied for use in the therapeutic setting, particularly in anxiety.===Other uses===In the 1950s and 1960s, some psychiatrists (e.g.",
"Oscar Janiger) explored the potential effect of LSD on creativity.",
"Experimental studies attempted to measure the effect of LSD on creative activity and aesthetic appreciation.",
"In 1966 Dr. James Fadiman conducted a study with the central question \"How can psychedelics be used to facilitate problem solving?\"",
"This study attempted to solve 44 different problems and had 40 satisfactory solutions when the FDA banned all research into psychedelics.",
"LSD was a key component of this study.Since 2008 there has been ongoing research into using LSD to alleviate anxiety for terminally ill cancer patients coping with their impending deaths.A 2012 meta-analysis found evidence that a single dose of LSD in conjunction with various alcoholism treatment programs was associated with a decrease in alcohol abuse, lasting for several months, but no effect was seen at one year.",
"Adverse events included seizure, moderate confusion and agitation, nausea, vomiting, and acting in a bizarre fashion.LSD has been used as a treatment for cluster headaches with positive results in some small studies.Recently, researchers discovered that LSD is a potent psychoplastogen, a compound capable of promoting rapid and sustained neural plasticity that may have wide-ranging therapeutic benefit.",
"LSD has been shown to increase markers of neuroplasticity in human brain organoids and improve memory performance in human subjects.LSD may have analgesic properties related to pain in terminally ill patients and phantom pain and may be useful for treating inflammatory diseases including rheumatoid arthritis."
],
[
"Notable individuals",
"Some notable individuals have commented publicly on their experiences with LSD.",
"Some of these comments date from the era when it was legally available in the US and Europe for non-medical uses, and others pertain to psychiatric treatment in the 1950s and 1960s.",
"Still others describe experiences with illegal LSD, obtained for philosophic, artistic, therapeutic, spiritual, or recreational purposes.",
"* W. H. Auden, the poet, said, \"I myself have taken mescaline once and L.S.D.",
"once.",
"Aside from a slight schizophrenic dissociation of the I from the Not-I, including my body, nothing happened at all.\"",
"He also said, \"LSD was a complete frost.",
"… What it does seem to destroy is the power of communication.",
"I have listened to tapes done by highly articulate people under LSD, for example, and they talk absolute drivel.",
"They may have seen something interesting, but they certainly lose either the power or the wish to communicate.\"",
"He also said, \"Nothing much happened but I did get the distinct impression that some birds were trying to communicate with me.",
"\"* Daniel Ellsberg, an American peace activist, says he has had several hundred experiences with psychedelics.",
"* Richard Feynman, a notable physicist at California Institute of Technology, tried LSD during his professorship at Caltech.",
"Feynman largely sidestepped the issue when dictating his anecdotes; he mentions it in passing in the \"O Americano, Outra Vez\" section.",
"* Jerry Garcia stated in a July 3, 1989 interview for ''Relix Magazine'', in response to the question \"Have your feelings about LSD changed over the years?,\" \"They haven't changed much.",
"My feelings about LSD are mixed.",
"It's something that I both fear and that I love at the same time.",
"I never take any psychedelic, have a psychedelic experience, without having that feeling of, \"I don't know what's going to happen.\"",
"In that sense, it's still fundamentally an enigma and a mystery.",
"\"* Bill Gates implied in an interview with ''Playboy'' that he tried LSD during his youth.",
"* Aldous Huxley, author of ''Brave New World'', became a user of psychedelics after moving to Hollywood.",
"He was at the forefront of the counterculture's use of psychedelic drugs, which led to his 1954 work ''The Doors of Perception''.",
"Dying from cancer, he asked his wife on 22 November 1963 to inject him with 100 µg of LSD.",
"He died later that day.",
"* Steve Jobs, co-founder and former CEO of Apple Inc., said, \"Taking LSD was a profound experience, one of the most important things in my life.",
"\"* Ernst Jünger, German writer and philosopher, throughout his life had experimented with drugs such as ether, cocaine, and hashish; and later in life he used mescaline and LSD.",
"These experiments were recorded comprehensively in ''Annäherungen'' (1970, ''Approaches'').",
"The novel ''Besuch auf Godenholm'' (1952, ''Visit to Godenholm'') is clearly influenced by his early experiments with mescaline and LSD.",
"He met with LSD inventor Albert Hofmann and they took LSD together several times.",
"Hofmann's memoir ''LSD, My Problem Child'' describes some of these meetings.",
"* In a 2004 interview, Paul McCartney said that The Beatles' songs \"Day Tripper\" and \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\" were inspired by LSD trips.",
"Nonetheless, John Lennon consistently stated over the course of many years that the fact that the initials of \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\" spelled out L-S-D was a coincidence (he stated that the title came from a picture drawn by his son Julian) and that the band members did not notice until after the song had been released, and Paul McCartney corroborated that story.",
"John Lennon, George Harrison, and Ringo Starr also used the drug, although McCartney cautioned that \"it's easy to overestimate the influence of drugs on the Beatles' music.",
"\"*Michel Foucault had an LSD experience with Simeon Wade in the Death Valley and later wrote \"it was the greatest experience of his life, and that it profoundly changed his life and his work.\"",
"According to Wade, as soon as he came back to Paris, Foucault scrapped the second History of Sexuality's manuscript, and totally rethought the whole project.",
"* Kary Mullis is reported to credit LSD with helping him develop DNA amplification technology, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1993.",
"* Carlo Rovelli, an Italian theoretical physicist and writer, has credited his use of LSD with sparking his interest in theoretical physics.",
"* Oliver Sacks, a neurologist famous for writing best-selling case histories about his patients' disorders and unusual experiences, talks about his own experiences with LSD and other perception altering chemicals, in his book, ''Hallucinations''.",
"* Matt Stone and Trey Parker, creators of the TV series ''South Park'', claimed to have shown up at the 72nd Academy Awards, at which they were nominated for Best Original Song, under the influence of LSD."
],
[
"See also",
"* 1P-LSD* 1cP-LSD* LSD art* Owsley Stanley* Psychedelic microdosing* Psychedelic therapy* Psychoplastogen* Urban legends about LSD"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Drug Profiles: LSD European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction* LSD-25 at Erowid* LSD at PsychonautWiki* LSD entry in TiHKAL • info * U.S. National Library of Medicine: Drug Information Portal – Lysergic acid diethylamide===Documentaries===* ''Hofmann's Potion'' a documentary on the origins of LSD, 2002* , documentary film directed by Aron Ranen, 2006* ''Inside LSD'' National Geographic Channel, 2009* '' How to Change Your Mind'' Netflix docuseries, 2022"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Linnaean taxonomy"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The title page of ''Systema Naturae'', Leiden (1735)'''Linnaean taxonomy''' can mean either of two related concepts: # The particular form of biological classification (taxonomy) set up by Carl Linnaeus, as set forth in his ''Systema Naturae'' (1735) and subsequent works.",
"In the taxonomy of Linnaeus there are three kingdoms, divided into ''classes'', and they, in turn, into lower ranks in a hierarchical order.# A term for rank-based classification of organisms, in general.",
"That is, taxonomy in the traditional sense of the word: rank-based scientific classification.",
"This term is especially used as opposed to cladistic systematics, which groups organisms into clades.",
"It is attributed to Linnaeus, although he neither invented the concept of ranked classification (it goes back to Plato and Aristotle) nor gave it its present form.",
"In fact, it does not have an exact present form, as \"Linnaean taxonomy\" as such does not really exist: it is a collective (abstracting) term for what actually are several separate fields, which use similar approaches.",
"'''Linnaean name''' also has two meanings, depending on the context: it may either refer to a formal name given by Linnaeus (personally), such as ''Giraffa camelopardalis'' Linnaeus, 1758; or a formal name in the accepted nomenclature (as opposed to a modernistic clade name)."
],
[
"The taxonomy of Linnaeus",
"In his ''Imperium Naturae'', Linnaeus established three kingdoms, namely ''Regnum Animale'', ''Regnum Vegetabile'' and ''Regnum Lapideum''.",
"This approach, the Animal, Vegetable and Mineral Kingdoms, survives today in the popular mind, notably in the form of the parlour game question: \"Is it animal, vegetable or mineral?\".",
"The work of Linnaeus had a huge impact on science; it was indispensable as a foundation for biological nomenclature, now regulated by the nomenclature codes.",
"Two of his works, the first edition of the ''Species Plantarum'' (1753) for plants and the tenth edition of the ''Systema Naturae'' (1758), are accepted as part of the starting points of nomenclature; his binomials (names for species) and generic names take priority over those of others.",
"However, the impact he had on science was not because of the value of his taxonomy.Linnaeus' kingdoms were in turn divided into ''classes'', and they, in turn, into ''orders'', ''genera'' (singular: ''genus''), and ''species'' (singular: ''species''), with an additional rank lower than species, though these do not precisely correspond to the use of these terms in modern taxonomy.=== Classification of plants ===In ''Systema Naturae'' (1735), his classes and orders of plants, according to his ''Systema Sexuale'', were not intended to represent natural groups (as opposed to his ''ordines naturales'' in his ''Philosophia Botanica'') but only for use in identification.",
"However, in 1737 he published ''Genera Plantarum'' in which he claimed that his classification of genera was a natural system.",
"His botanical classification and sexual system were used well into the nineteenth century.",
"Within each class were several orders.",
"This system is based on the number and arrangement of male (stamens) and female (pistils) organs.Key to the Sexual System (from the 10th, 1758, edition of the ''Systema Naturae'')''Kalmia'' is classified according to Linnaeus' sexual system in class Decandria, order Monogyna, because it has 10 stamens and one pistilThe Linnaean classes for plants, in the Sexual System, were (page numbers refer to ''Species plantarum''): * Classis 1.Monandria: flowers with 1 stamen* Classis 2.Diandria: flowers with 2 stamens* Classis 3.Triandria: flowers with 3 stamens* Classis 4.Tetrandria: flowers with 4 stamens* Classis 5.Pentandria: flowers with 5 stamens* Classis 6.Hexandria: flowers with 6 stamens** Hexandria monogynia pp.",
"285–352** Hexandria polygynia pp.",
"342–343* Classis 7.Heptandria: flowers with 7 stamens* Classis 8.Octandria: flowers with 8 stamens* Classis 9.Enneandria: flowers with 9 stamens* Classis 10.Decandria: flowers with 10 stamens* Classis 11.Dodecandria: flowers with 11 to 19 stamens* Classis 12.Icosandria: flowers with 20 (or more) stamens, perigynous* Classis 13.Polyandria: flowers with many stamens, inserted on the receptacle* Classis 14.Didynamia: flowers with 4 stamens, 2 long and 2 short** Gymnospermia** Angiospermia * Classis 15.Tetradynamia: flowers with 6 stamens, 4 long and 2 short * Classis 16.Monadelphia; flowers with the anthers separate, but the filaments united, at least at the base** Pentandria ** Decandria ** Polyandria* Classis 17.Diadelphia; flowers with the stamens united in two separate groups** Hexandria** Octandria ** Decandria * Classis 18.Polyadelphia; flowers with the stamens united in several separate groups** Pentandria** Icosandria ** Polyandria* Classis 19.Syngenesia; flowers with stamens united by their anthers** Polygamia aequalis ** Polygamia superba** Polygamia frustranea** Polygamia necessaria** Monogamia* Classis 20.Gynandria; flowers with the stamens united to the pistils* Classis 21.Monoecia: monoecious plants* Classis 22.Dioecia: dioecious plants* Classis 23.Polygamia: polygamodioecious plants* Classis 24.Cryptogamia: the \"flowerless\" plants, including ferns, fungi, algae, and bryophytesThe classes based on the number of stamens were then subdivided by the number of pistils, e.g.",
"''Hexandria monogynia'' with six stamens and one pistil.",
"Index to genera p. 1201By contrast his ''ordines naturales'' numbered 69, from Piperitae to Vagae.=== Classification for animals ===The 1735 classification of animalsOnly in the Animal Kingdom is the higher taxonomy of Linnaeus still more or less recognizable and some of these names are still in use, but usually not quite for the same groups.",
"He divided the Animal Kingdom into six classes.",
"In the tenth edition, of 1758, these were:* Classis 1.Mammalia (mammals)* Classis 2.Aves (birds)* Classis 3.Amphibia (amphibians)* Classis 4.Pisces (fishes)* Classis 5.Insecta (arthropods)* Classis 6.Vermes (worms)=== Classification for minerals ===His taxonomy of minerals has long since been dropped from use.",
"In the tenth edition, 1758, of the ''Systema Naturae'', the Linnaean classes were:* Classis 1.Petræ* Classis 2.Mineræ* Classis 3.Fossilia* Classis 4.Vitamentra"
],
[
"Rank-based scientific classification",
"This rank-based method of classifying living organisms was originally popularized by (and much later named for) Linnaeus, although it has changed considerably since his time.",
"The greatest innovation of Linnaeus, and still the most important aspect of this system, is the general use of binomial nomenclature, the combination of a genus name and a second term, which together uniquely identify each species of organism within a kingdom.",
"For example, the human species is uniquely identified within the animal kingdom by the name ''Homo sapiens''.",
"No other species of animal can have this same binomen (the technical term for a binomial in the case of animals).",
"Prior to Linnaean taxonomy, animals were classified according to their mode of movement.Linnaeus's use of binomial nomenclature was anticipated by the theory of definition used in Scholasticism.",
"Scholastic logicians and philosophers of nature defined the species human, for example, as ''Animal rationalis'', where ''animal'' was considered a genus and ''rationalis'' (Latin for \"rational\") the characteristic distinguishing humans from all other animals.",
"Treating ''animal'' as the immediate genus of the species human, horse, etc.",
"is of little practical use to the biological taxonomist, however.",
"Accordingly, Linnaeus's classification treats ''animal'' as a class including many genera (subordinated to the animal \"kingdom\" via intermediary classes such as \"orders\"), and treats ''homo'' as the genus of a species ''Homo sapiens'', with ''sapiens'' (Latin for \"knowing\" or \"understanding\") playing a differentiating role analogous to that played, in the Scholastic system, by ''rationalis'' (the word ''homo'', Latin for \"human being\", was used by the Scholastics to denote a species, not a genus).A strength of Linnaean taxonomy is that it can be used to organize the different kinds of living organisms, simply and practically.",
"Every species can be given a unique (and, one hopes, stable) name, as compared with common names that are often neither unique nor consistent from place to place and language to language.",
"This uniqueness and stability are, of course, a result of the acceptance by working systematists (biologists specializing in taxonomy), not merely of the binomial names themselves, but of the rules governing the use of these names, which are laid down in formal nomenclature codes.Species can be placed in a ranked hierarchy, starting with either ''domains'' or ''kingdoms''.",
"Domains are divided into kingdoms.",
"Kingdoms are divided into ''phyla'' (singular: ''phylum'') — for animals; the term ''division'', used for plants and fungi, is equivalent to the rank of phylum (and the current International Code of Botanical Nomenclature allows the use of either term).",
"Phyla (or divisions) are divided into ''classes'', and they, in turn, into ''orders'', ''families'', ''genera'' (singular: ''genus''), and ''species'' (singular: ''species'').",
"There are ranks below species: in zoology, ''subspecies'' (but see ''form'' or ''morph''); in botany, ''variety'' (varietas) and ''form'' (forma), etc.Groups of organisms at any of these ranks are called ''taxa'' (singular: ''taxon'') or ''taxonomic groups''.The Linnaean system has proven robust and it remains the only extant working classification system at present that enjoys universal scientific acceptance.",
"However, although the number of ranks is unlimited, in practice any classification becomes more cumbersome the more ranks are added.",
"Among the later subdivisions that have arisen are such entities as phyla, families, and tribes, as well as any number of ranks with prefixes (superfamilies, subfamilies, etc.).",
"The use of newer taxonomic tools such as cladistics and phylogenetic nomenclature has led to a different way of looking at evolution (expressed in many nested clades) and this sometimes leads to a desire for more ranks.",
"An example of such complexity is the scheme for mammals proposed by McKenna and Bell.=== Alternatives ===Over time, understanding of the relationships between living things has changed.",
"Linnaeus could only base his scheme on the structural similarities of the different organisms.",
"The greatest change was the widespread acceptance of evolution as the mechanism of biological diversity and species formation, following the 1859 publication of Charles Darwin's ''On the Origin of Species''.",
"It then became generally understood that classifications ought to reflect the phylogeny of organisms, their descent by evolution.",
"This led to evolutionary taxonomy, where the various extant and extinct are linked together to construct a phylogeny.",
"This is largely what is meant by the term 'Linnaean taxonomy' when used in a modern context.In cladistics, originating in the work of Willi Hennig, 1950 onwards, each taxon is grouped so as to include the common ancestor of the group's members (and thus to avoid phylogeny).",
"Such taxa may be either monophyletic (including all descendants) such as genus ''Homo'', or paraphyletic (excluding some descendants), such as genus ''Australopithecus''.Originally, Linnaeus established three kingdoms in his scheme, namely for Plants, Animals and an additional group for minerals, which has long since been abandoned.",
"Since then, various life forms have been moved into three new kingdoms: Monera, for prokaryotes (i.e., bacteria); Protista, for protozoans and most algae; and Fungi.",
"This five kingdom scheme is still far from the phylogenetic ideal and has largely been supplanted in modern taxonomic work by a division into three domains: Bacteria and Archaea, which contain the prokaryotes, and Eukaryota, comprising the remaining forms.",
"These arrangements should not be seen as definitive.",
"They are based on the genomes of the organisms; as knowledge on this increases, classifications will change.Representing presumptive evolutionary relationships within the framework of Linnaean taxonomy is sometimes seen as problematic, especially given the wide acceptance of cladistic methodology and numerous molecular phylogenies that have challenged long-accepted classifications.",
"Therefore, some systematists have proposed a PhyloCode to replace it."
],
[
"See also",
"* History of plant systematics* Phylogenetic tree – a way to express insights into evolutionary relationships* Zoology mnemonic for a list of mnemonic sentences used to help people remember the list of Linnaean ranks."
],
[
"References",
"== Bibliography ==;Books* * * * * Dawkins, Richard.",
"2004.",
"''The Ancestor's Tale: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life''.",
"Boston: Houghton Mifflin.",
"* Ereshefsky, Marc.",
"2000.",
"''The Poverty of the Linnaean Hierarchy: A Philosophical Study of Biological Taxonomy''.",
"Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
"* Gould, Stephen Jay.",
"1989.",
"''Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History''.",
"W. W. Norton & Co. * Pavord, Anna.",
"''The Naming of Names: The Search for Order in the World of Plants''.",
"Bloomsbury.",
";Articles* * ;Websites*"
],
[
"External links",
"* International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Saint Louis Code), Electronic version* International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (Melbourne Code, 2011), Electronic version* ICZN website, for zoological nomenclature* Text of the ICZN, Electronic version* ZooBank: The World Register of Animal Names* International Committee on Systematics of Prokaryotes for bacteria* International Code of Zoological Nomenclature.",
"4th Edition.",
"By the International Union of Biological Sciences* ICTVdB website, for virus nomenclature by the International Union of Microbiological Societies* Tree of Life* European Species Names in Linnaean, Czech, English, German and French"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lawyer"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''lawyer''' is a person who practices law.",
"The role of a lawyer varies greatly across different legal jurisdictions.",
"A lawyer can be classified as an advocate, attorney, barrister, canon lawyer, civil law notary, counsel, solicitor, legal executive, or public servant — with each role having different functions and privileges.",
"Working as a lawyer generally involves the practical application of abstract legal theories and knowledge to solve specific problems.",
"Some lawyers also work primarily in advancing the interests of the law and legal profession."
],
[
"Terminology",
"Different legal jurisdictions have different requirements in the determination of who is recognized as a lawyer.",
"As a result, the meaning of the term \"lawyer\" may vary from place to place.Some jurisdictions have two types of lawyers, barrister and solicitors, while others fuse the two.",
"A barrister (also known as an advocate or counselor in some jurisdictions) is a lawyer who typically specializes in arguing before courts, particularly in higher courts.",
"A solicitor (or attorney) is a lawyer who is trained to prepare cases and give advice on legal subjects.",
"Depending on jurisdiction, solicitors can also represent people in lower courts but do not ordinarily have rights of audience in higher courts.",
"Both solicitors and barristers are trained in law.",
"However, in jurisdictions where there is a split profession, only barristers are admitted as members of a bar association.Additionally, England and Wales have many other classifications of lawyers, which include registered foreign lawyers, patent attorneys, trademark attorneys, licensed conveyancers, public notaries, commissioners for oaths, immigration advisers and chartered legal executives.",
"Under the English Legal Services Act 2007, \"lawyer\" is not a protected title.",
"In other jurisdictions, like the United States, there are strict restrictions on who may call themselves a lawyer, with paralegals and patent agents generally disallowed.The distinction between barristers and solicitors originated in the English legal system, but many countries which have adopted English law have eliminated the distinction.",
"Countries such as New Zealand, Canada (except for Quebec, which practices civil law), India, Pakistan, and the US have adopted a fused profession, where all lawyers have the privileges of both barristers and solicitors.Some fused-profession jurisdictions use one term to describe lawyers generally.",
"For example, US lawyers are typically referred to as \"attorneys\", while Indian and Pakistani lawyers are known as \"advocates\".",
"Other fused jurisdictions use terms such as \"barrister and solicitor\" or \"attorney and counselor\" to describe lawyers in general.",
"In countries like the US, however, the term \"trial lawyer\" typically describes the work of a lawyer who specialises primarily in arguing cases.In some jurisdictions, the terminology of \"barrister\" and \"solicitor\" may still be applied to lawyers who deal in the specific kinds of work barristers and solicitors generally do.",
"In most countries, particularly civil law countries, a tradition has existed of giving many legal tasks to a variety of civil law notaries, clerks, and scriveners.",
"These countries do not have \"lawyers\" in terms of a single general-purpose legal services provider.",
"Rather, their legal professions consist of a large number of different kinds of legally-trained persons, known as jurists, some of whom are advocates who are licensed to practice in the courts.",
"Because each country has traditionally had its own method of dividing up legal work among its legal professionals, it has been difficult to formulate accurate generalizations that cover all the countries with multiple legal professions."
],
[
"Responsibilities",
"England, the mother of the common law jurisdictions, emerged from the Middle Ages with a complexity in its legal professions similar to that of civil law jurisdictions, but then evolved by the 19th century to a single division between barristers and solicitors.",
"An equivalent division developed between advocates and procurators in some civil law countries; these two types did not always monopolize the practice of law, in that they coexisted with civil law notaries.Several countries that originally had two or more legal professions have since ''fused'' or ''united'' their professions into a single type of lawyer.",
"Most countries in this category are common law countries, though France, a civil law country, merged its jurists in 1990 and 1991 in response to Anglo-American competition.",
"In countries with fused professions, a lawyer is usually permitted to carry out all or nearly all the responsibilities listed below.===Oral argument in the courts===Oral arguments being made before the 250x250pxArguing a client's case before a judge or jury in a court of law is the traditional province of the barrister, and of advocates in some civil law jurisdictions.",
"However, the boundary between barristers and solicitors has evolved.",
"In England today, solicitor advocates can argue at all levels of court, and barristers must compete directly with solicitors in many trial courts.",
"In countries like the United States, which have fused legal professions, there are trial lawyers who specialize in trying cases in court, but trial lawyers do not have a legal monopoly like barristers in some jurisdictions.",
"In some countries, litigants have the option of arguing ''pro se'', or on their own behalf.",
"It is common for litigants to appear unrepresented before certain courts like small claims courts; many such courts do not allow lawyers to speak for their clients, in an effort to save money for participants in a small case.",
"In other countries, like Venezuela, no one may appear before a judge unless represented by a lawyer.",
"The advantage of the latter regime is that lawyers are familiar with the court's customs and procedures, and make the legal system more efficient for all involved.",
"Unrepresented parties often damage their own credibility or slow the court down as a result of their inexperience.===Research and drafting of court papers===Often, lawyers brief a court in writing on the issues in a case before the issues can be orally argued.",
"They may have to perform extensive research into relevant facts.",
"Also, they draft legal papers and prepare for an oral argument.In split common law jurisdictions, the usual division of labor is that a solicitor will obtain the facts of the case from the client and then brief a barrister, usually in writing.",
"The barrister then researches and drafts the necessary court pleadings, which will be filed and served by the solicitor, and orally argues the case.In Spanish civil law, the procurator merely signs and presents the papers to the court, but it is the advocate who drafts the papers and argues the case.",
"In other civil law jurisdictions, like Japan, a scrivener or clerk may fill out court forms and draft simple papers for laypersons who cannot afford or do not need attorneys, and advise them on how to manage and argue their own cases.===Advocacy in administrative hearings===In most developed countries, the legislature has granted original jurisdiction over highly technical matters to executive branch administrative agencies which oversee such things.",
"As a result, some lawyers have become specialists in administrative law.",
"In a few countries, there is a special category of jurists with a monopoly over this form of advocacy; for example, France formerly had ''conseils juridiques'' (who were merged into the main legal profession in 1991).",
"In other countries, like the United States, lawyers have been effectively barred by statute from certain types of administrative hearings in order to preserve their informality.===Client intake and counseling===An important aspect of a lawyer's job is developing and managing relationships with clients or the employees of the government or corporation.",
"In some fused common law jurisdictions, the client-lawyer relationship begins with an intake interview where the lawyer gets to know the client personally, following which the lawyer discovers the facts of the client's case, clarifies what the client wants to accomplish, and shapes the client's expectations as to what actually can be accomplished.",
"The second to last step begins to develop various claims or defenses for the client.",
"Lastly, the lawyer explains her or his fees to the client.In England, only solicitors were traditionally in direct contact with the client, but barristers nowadays may apply for rights to liaise with clients directly.",
"The solicitor retained a barrister if one was necessary and acted as an intermediary between the barrister and the client.",
"In most cases barristers were obliged, under what is known as the \"cab rank rule\", to accept instructions for a case in an area in which they held themselves out as practicing, at a court at which they normally appeared and at their usual rates.===Legal advice===Legal advice is the application of abstract principles of law to the concrete facts of the client's case to advise the client about what they should do next.",
"In some jurisdictions, only a properly licensed lawyer may provide legal advice to clients for good consideration, even if no lawsuit is contemplated or is in progress.",
"In these jurisdictions, even conveyancers and corporate in-house counsel must first get a license to practice, though they may actually spend very little of their careers in court.",
"Some jurisdictions have made the violation of such a rule the crime of unauthorized practice of law.In other countries, jurists who hold law degrees are allowed to provide legal advice to individuals or to corporations, and it is irrelevant if they lack a license and cannot appear in court.",
"Some countries go further; in England and Wales, there is ''no'' general prohibition on the giving of legal advice.",
"Singapore does not have any admission requirements for in-house counsel.",
"Sometimes civil law notaries are allowed to give legal advice, as in Belgium.In many countries, non-jurist accountants may provide what is technically legal advice in tax and accounting matters.===Protecting intellectual property===In virtually all countries, patents, trademarks, industrial designs and other forms of intellectual property must be formally registered with a government agency in order to receive maximum protection under the law.",
"The division of such work among lawyers, licensed non-lawyer jurists/agents, and ordinary clerks or scriveners varies greatly from one country to the next.The trend in industrialized countries since the 1970s has been to greatly restrict the role of clerks and scriveners in patent and trademark work, and to require these functions to be performed only by lawyers or other licensed agents.",
"This ensures that all work product in such cases receives the full protection of attorney-client privilege.In the United States, for example, the Patent and Trademark Office may not speak with anyone but the applicant's attorney about pending applications, and all documents filed in connection with a pending application are automatically accorded attorney-client privilege.",
"The European Patent Office has a similar policy.",
"In contrast, many countries in the world do not recognize attorney-client privilege for work product related to intellectual property, or have only very limited recognition of the privilege.",
"These countries include China, Japan, Korea, much of Southeast Asia, and most of Latin America.",
"As a result, great care must be taken in these countries to protect intellectual property, as any work product related to a pending application may be disclosed to the public.Many companies choose to file their applications in the United States or Europe first, and then file for protection in other countries where attorney-client privilege is not recognized.",
"This allows them to keep their work product confidential while they are still in the process of perfecting their invention or design.=== Negotiating and drafting contracts ===In some countries, the negotiating and drafting of contracts is considered to be similar to the provision of legal advice, so that it is subject to the licensing requirement explained above.",
"In others, jurists or notaries may negotiate or draft contracts.===Conveyancing===Conveyancing is the drafting of the documents necessary for the transfer of real property, such as deeds and mortgages.",
"In some jurisdictions, all real estate transactions must be carried out by a lawyer.",
"Historically, conveyancing accounted for about half of English solicitors' income, though this has since changed, and a 1978 study showed that conveyancing \"accounts for as much as 80 percent of solicitor-client contact in New South Wales.\"",
"In most common law jurisdictions outside of the United States, this monopoly arose from an 1804 law that was introduced by William Pitt the Younger as a ''quid pro quo'' for the raising of fees on the certification of legal professionals such as barristers, solicitors, attorneys, and notaries.In others, the use of a lawyer is optional and banks, title companies, or realtors may be used instead.",
"In some civil law jurisdictions, real estate transactions are handled by civil law notaries.",
"In England and Wales, a special class of legal professionals–the licensed conveyancer–is also allowed to carry out conveyancing services for reward.===Carrying out the intent of the deceased===In many countries, only lawyers have the legal authority to draft wills, trusts, and any other documents that ensure the efficient disposition of a person's property after death.",
"In some civil law countries, this responsibility is handled by civil law notaries.===Prosecution and defense of criminal suspects===In many civil law countries, prosecutors are trained and employed as part of the judiciary.",
"They are law-trained jurists, but may not necessarily be lawyers in the sense that the word is used in the common law world.",
"In common law countries, prosecutors are usually lawyers holding regular licenses who work for the government office that files criminal charges against suspects.",
"Criminal defense lawyers specialize in the defense of those charged with any crimes."
],
[
"Education",
"Law Faculty of Comenius University in Bratislava (Slovakia)The educational prerequisites for becoming a lawyer vary greatly from country to country.",
"In some countries, law is taught by a faculty of law, which is a department of a university's general undergraduate college.",
"Law students in those countries pursue a Master or Bachelor of Laws degree.",
"In some countries it is common or even required for students to earn another bachelor's degree at the same time.",
"It is often followed by a series of advanced examinations, apprenticeships, and additional coursework at special government institutes.In other countries, particularly the UK and US, law is primarily taught at law schools.",
"In America, the American Bar Association decides which law schools to approve for the purposes of admission to the bar.",
"In jurisdictions following the English system, individuals with a law degree may have to undergo further training before qualifying as a lawyer, such as the Bar Professional Training Course.",
"In the United States and countries following the American model, such as Canada with the exception Quebec, law schools are graduate schools where a bachelor's degree is a prerequisite for admission.",
"Most law schools are part of universities but a few are independent institutions.",
"Law schools in the United States award graduating students a J.D.",
"(Juris Doctor), as opposed to the Bachelor of Laws, as the practitioner's law degree.",
"Many schools also offer post-doctoral law degrees such as the LL.M (Master of Laws), or the S.J.D.",
"(Doctor of Juridical Science) for students interested in advancing their legal knowledge.The methods and quality of legal education vary widely.",
"Some countries require extensive clinical training in the form of apprenticeships or special clinical courses.",
"Others, like Venezuela, do not.",
"A few countries prefer to teach through assigned readings of judicial opinions (the casebook method) followed by intense in-class cross-examination by the professor (the Socratic method).",
"Many others focus on theoretical aspects of law, leaving the professional and practical training of lawyers to apprenticeship and employment contexts.",
"Depending upon the country, a typical class size could range from five students in a seminar to five hundred in a giant lecture room.Some countries, particularly industrialized ones, have a traditional preference for full-time law programs, while in developing countries, students often work full- or part-time to pay the tuition and fees of their part-time law programs.",
"Law schools in developing countries share several common problems, such as an over reliance on practicing judges and lawyers who treat teaching as a part-time hobby (and a concomitant scarcity of full-time law professors); incompetent faculty with questionable credentials; and textbooks that lag behind the current state of the law by two or three decades.===Earning the right to practice law===leftSome jurisdictions grant a \"diploma privilege\" to certain institutions, so that merely earning a degree or credential from those institutions is the primary qualification for practicing law.",
"Mexico allows anyone with a law degree to practice law.",
"However, in a large number of countries, a law student must pass a bar examination (or a series of such examinations) before receiving a license to practice.",
"In a handful of U.S. states, one may become an attorney (a so-called country lawyer) by simply \"reading law\" and passing the bar examination, without having to attend law school first, although very few people actually become lawyers that way.Some countries require a formal apprenticeship with an experienced practitioner, while others do not.",
"A few jurisdictions still allow an apprenticeship in place of any kind of formal legal education, though the number of persons who actually become lawyers that way is increasingly rare."
],
[
"Career structure",
"U.S. President Abraham Lincoln is a famous example of a lawyer who became a politician.The career structure of lawyers varies widely from one country to the next.===Common and civil law===In most common law countries, especially those with fused professions, lawyers have many options over the course of their careers.",
"Besides private practice, they can become a prosecutor, government counsel, corporate in-house counsel, administrative law judge, judge, arbitrator, or law professor.",
"There are also many non-legal jobs for which legal training is good preparation, such as politician, corporate executive, government administrator, investment banker, entrepreneur, or journalist.",
"In developing countries like India, a large majority of law students never actually practice, but simply use their law degree as a foundation for careers in other fields.In most civil law countries, lawyers generally structure their legal education around their chosen specialty; the boundaries between different types of lawyers are carefully defined and hard to cross.",
"After one earns a law degree, career mobility may be severely constrained.",
"For example, unlike their Anglo-American counterparts, it is difficult for German judges to leave the bench and become advocates in private practice.",
"Another interesting example is France, where for much of the 20th century, all judiciary officials were graduates of an elite professional school for judges.In a few civil law countries, such as Sweden, the legal profession is not rigorously bifurcated and everyone within it can easily change roles and arenas.===Specialization===In many countries, lawyers are general practitioners who represent clients in a broad field of legal matters.",
"In others, there has been a tendency since the start of the 20th century for lawyers to specialize early in their careers.",
"In countries where specialization is prevalent, many lawyers specialize in representing one side in one particular area of the law; thus, it is common in the United States to hear of plaintiffs' personal injury attorneys.",
"===Organizations===Lawyers in private practice generally work in specialized businesses known as law firms, with the exception of English barristers.",
"The vast majority of law firms worldwide are small businesses that range in size from 1 to 10 lawyers.",
"The United States, United Kingdom and Australia are exceptions, home to several firms with more than 1,000 lawyers after a wave of mergers in the late 1990s.Notably, barristers in England, Wales, Northern Ireland and some states in Australia do ''not'' work in law firms.",
"Those who offer their services to members of the general public—as opposed to those working in-house — are generally self-employed.",
"Most work in groupings known as \"sets\" or \"chambers\", where some administrative and marketing costs are shared.",
"An important effect of this different organizational structure is that there is no conflict of interest where barristers in the same chambers work for opposing sides in a case, and in some specialized chambers this is commonplace.",
"Some large businesses employ their own legal staff in a legal department.",
"Other organizations buy in legal services from outside companies."
],
[
"Professional associations and regulation",
"Stamp issued to commemorate the 75th anniversary of the American Bar Association===Mandatory licensing and membership in professional organizations===In some jurisdictions, either the judiciary or the Ministry of Justice directly supervises the admission, licensing, and regulation of lawyers.Other jurisdictions, by statute, tradition, or court order, have granted such powers to a professional association which all lawyers must belong to.",
"In the U.S., such associations are known as mandatory, integrated, or unified bar associations.",
"In the Commonwealth of Nations, similar organizations are known as Inns of Court, bar councils or law societies.",
"In civil law countries, comparable organizations are known as Orders of Advocates, Chambers of Advocates, Colleges of Advocates, Faculties of Advocates, or similar names.",
"Generally, a nonmember caught practicing law may be liable for the crime of unauthorized practice of law.In common law countries with divided legal professions, barristers traditionally belong to the bar council (or an Inn of Court) and solicitors belong to the law society.",
"In the English-speaking world, the largest mandatory professional association of lawyers is the State Bar of California, with 230,000 members.Some countries admit and regulate lawyers at the national level, so that a lawyer, once licensed, can argue cases in any court in the land.",
"This is common in small countries like New Zealand, Japan, and Belgium.",
"Others, especially those with federal governments, tend to regulate lawyers at the state or provincial level; this is the case in the United States, Canada, Australia, and Switzerland, to name a few.",
"Brazil is the most well-known federal government that regulates lawyers at the national level.Some countries, like Italy, regulate lawyers at the regional level, and a few, like Belgium, even regulate them at the local level (that is, they are licensed and regulated by the local equivalent of bar associations but can advocate in courts nationwide).",
"In Germany, lawyers are admitted to regional bars and may appear for clients before all courts nationwide with the exception of the Federal Court of Justice of Germany (''Bundesgerichtshof'' or BGH.Generally, geographic limitations can be troublesome for a lawyer who discovers that his client's cause requires him to litigate in a court beyond the normal geographic scope of his license.",
"Although most courts have special ''pro hac vice'' rules for such occasions, the lawyer will still have to deal with a different set of professional responsibility rules, as well as the possibility of other differences in substantive and procedural law.Some countries grant licenses to non-resident lawyers, who may then appear regularly on behalf of foreign clients.",
"Others require all lawyers to live in the jurisdiction or to even hold national citizenship as a prerequisite for receiving a license to practice.",
"But the trend in industrialized countries since the 1970s has been to abolish citizenship and residency restrictions.",
"For example, the Supreme Court of Canada struck down a citizenship requirement on equality rights grounds in 1989, and similarly, American citizenship and residency requirements were struck down as unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1973 and 1985, respectively.",
"The European Court of Justice made similar decisions in 1974 and 1977 striking down citizenship restrictions in Belgium and France.===Regulation of lawyers===A key difference among countries is whether lawyers should be regulated solely by an independent judiciary and its subordinate institutions (a self-regulating legal profession), or whether lawyers should be subject to supervision by the Ministry of Justice in the executive branch.In most civil law countries, the government has traditionally exercised tight control over the legal profession in order to ensure a steady supply of loyal judges and bureaucrats.",
"That is, lawyers were expected first and foremost to serve the state, and the availability of counsel for private litigants was an afterthought.",
"Even in civil law countries like Norway which have partially self-regulating professions, the Ministry of Justice is the sole issuer of licenses, and makes its own independent re-evaluation of a lawyer's fitness to practice after a lawyer has been expelled from the Advocates' Association.",
"Brazil is an unusual exception in that its national Order of Advocates has become a fully self-regulating institution with direct control over licensing and has successfully resisted government attempts to place it under the control of the Ministry of Labor.Of all the civil law countries, communist countries historically went the farthest towards total state control, with all communist lawyers forced to practice in collectives by the mid-1950s.",
"China is a prime example: technically, the People's Republic of China did not have lawyers, and instead had only poorly trained, state-employed \"legal workers\" prior to the enactment of a comprehensive reform package in 1996 by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress.In contrast, common law lawyers have traditionally regulated themselves through institutions where the influence of non-lawyers, if any, was weak and indirect, despite nominal state control.",
"Such institutions have been traditionally dominated by private practitioners who opposed strong state control of the profession on the grounds that it would endanger the ability of lawyers to zealously and competently advocate their clients' causes in the adversarial system of justice.",
"However, the concept of the self-regulating profession has been criticized as a sham which serves to legitimize the professional monopoly while protecting the profession from public scrutiny.",
"In some jurisdictions, mechanisms have been astonishingly ineffective, and penalties have been light or nonexistent.===Voluntary associations===Lawyers are always free to form voluntary associations of their own, apart from any licensing or mandatory membership that may be required by the laws of their jurisdiction.",
"Like their mandatory counterparts, such organizations may exist at all geographic levels.",
"In American English, such associations are known as voluntary bar associations.",
"The largest voluntary professional association of lawyers in the English-speaking world is the American Bar Association.",
"In some countries, like France and Italy, lawyers have also formed trade unions."
],
[
"Cultural perception",
"A British political cartoon showing a barrister and a solicitor throwing black paint at a woman sitting at the feet of a statue representing JusticeHostility towards the legal profession is a widespread phenomenon.",
"For example, William Shakespeare famously wrote, \"The first thing we do, let's kill all the lawyers\" in ''Henry VI, Part 2'', Act IV, Scene 2.The legal profession was abolished in Prussia in 1780 and in France in 1789, though both countries eventually realized that their judicial systems could not function efficiently without lawyers.",
"Complaints about too many lawyers were common in both England and the United States in the 1840s, Germany in the 1910s, and in Australia, Canada, the United States, and Scotland in the 1980s.Public distrust of lawyers reached record heights in the United States after the Watergate scandal.",
"In the aftermath of Watergate, legal self-help books became popular among those who wished to solve their legal problems without having to deal with lawyers.",
"Lawyer jokes also soared in popularity in English-speaking North America as a result of Watergate.",
"In ''Adventures in Law and Justice'', legal researcher Bryan Horrigan dedicated a chapter to \"Myths, Fictions, and Realities\" about law and illustrated the perennial criticism of lawyers as \"amoral ... guns for hire\" with a quote from Ambrose Bierce's satirical ''The Devil's Dictionary'' that summarized the noun as: \"LAWYER, n. One skilled in circumvention of the law.",
"\"More generally, in ''Legal Ethics: A Comparative Study'', law professor Geoffrey C. Hazard, Jr. with Angelo Dondi briefly examined the \"regulations attempting to suppress lawyer misconduct\" and noted that their similarity around the world was paralleled by a \"remarkable consistency\" in certain \"persistent grievances\" about lawyers that transcends both time and locale, from the Bible to medieval England to dynastic China.",
"The authors then generalized these common complaints about lawyers as being classified into five \"general categories\" as follows:* abuse of litigation in various ways, including using dilatory tactics and false evidence and making frivolous arguments to the courts* preparation of false documentation, such as false deeds, contracts, or wills* deceiving clients and other persons and misappropriating property* procrastination in dealings with clients* charging excessive fees.Some studies have shown that suicide rates among lawyers in certain jurisdictions may be as much as six times higher than the average population, and commentators suggest that the low opinion the public has of lawyers, combined with their own high ideals of justice, which in practice they may see denied, increase the depression rates of those in this profession.",
"Additionally, lawyers are twice as likely to suffer from addiction to alcohol and other drugs."
],
[
"Compensation",
"Peasants paying for legal services with produce in ''The Village Lawyer'', , by Pieter Brueghel the YoungerIn the United States, lawyers typically earn between $45,000 and $160,000 per year, although earnings vary by age, experience, and practice setting.",
"Solo practitioners typically earn less than lawyers in corporate law firms but more than those working for state or local government.Lawyers are paid for their work in a variety of ways.",
"In private practice, they may work for an hourly fee according to a billable hour structure, a contingency fee, or a lump sum payment.",
"Normally, most lawyers negotiate a written fee agreement up front and may require a non-refundable retainer in advance.",
"Recent studies suggest that when lawyers charge a fixed fee rather than billing by the hour, they work less hard on behalf of clients, and clients get worse outcomes.",
"In many countries there are fee-shifting arrangements by which the loser must pay the winner's fees and costs; the United States is the major exception, although in turn, its legislators have carved out many exceptions to the so-called \"American Rule\" of no fee shifting.Lawyers working directly on the payroll of governments, nonprofits, and corporations usually earn a regular annual salary.",
"In many countries, with the notable exception of Germany, lawyers can also volunteer their labor in the service of worthy causes through an arrangement called ''pro bono'' (short for ''pro bono publico'', \"for the common good\").",
"Traditionally such work was performed on behalf of the poor, but in some countries it has now expanded to many other causes such as environmental law.In some countries, there are legal aid lawyers who specialize in providing legal services to the indigent.",
"France and Spain even have formal fee structures by which lawyers are compensated by the government for legal aid cases on a per-case basis.",
"A similar system, though not as extensive or generous, operates in Australia, Canada, and South Africa.In other countries, legal aid specialists are practically nonexistent.",
"This may be because non-lawyers are allowed to provide such services; in both Italy and Belgium, trade unions and political parties provide what can be characterized as legal aid services.",
"Some legal aid in Belgium is also provided by young lawyer apprentices subsidized by local bar associations (known as the ''pro deo'' system), as well as consumer protection nonprofit organizations and Public Assistance Agencies subsidized by local governments.",
"In Germany, mandatory fee structures have enabled widespread implementation of affordable legal expense insurance."
],
[
"History",
"16th-century painting of a civil law notary, by Flemish painter Quentin Massys.",
"A civil law notary is roughly analogous to a common law solicitor, except that, unlike solicitors, civil law notaries do not practice litigation to any degree.===Ancient Greece===The earliest people who could be described as \"lawyers\" were probably the orators of ancient Athens.",
"However, Athenian orators faced serious structural obstacles.",
"First, there was a rule that individuals were supposed to plead their own cases, which was soon bypassed by the increasing tendency of individuals to ask a \"friend\" for assistance.",
"However, around the middle of the fourth century, the Athenians disposed of the perfunctory request for a friend.",
"Second, a more serious obstacle, which the Athenian orators never completely overcame, was the rule that no one could take a fee to plead the cause of another.",
"This law was widely disregarded in practice, but was never abolished, which meant that orators could ''never'' present themselves as legal professionals or experts.",
"They had to uphold the legal fiction that they were merely an ordinary citizen generously helping out a friend for free, and thus they could never organize into a real profession.",
"If one narrows the definition of lawyers to people who could practice the legal profession openly and legally, then the first lawyers would be the orators of ancient Rome.===Ancient Rome===A law enacted in 204 BC barred Roman advocates from taking fees, but the law was widely ignored.",
"The ban on fees was abolished by Emperor Claudius, who legalized advocacy as a profession and allowed the Roman advocates to become the first lawyers who could practice openly—but he also imposed a fee ceiling of 10,000 sesterces.",
"This was apparently not much money; the Satires of Juvenal complained that there was no money in working as an advocate.Like their Greek contemporaries, early Roman advocates were trained in rhetoric, not law, and the judges before whom they argued were also not legally trained.",
"But very early on, unlike Athens, Rome developed a class of specialists who were learned in the law, known as jurisconsults (''iuris consulti'').",
"Jurisconsults were wealthy amateurs who dabbled in law as an intellectual hobby; they did not make their primary living from it.",
"They gave legal opinions (''responsa'') on legal issues to all comers (a practice known as ''publice respondere'').",
"Roman judges and governors would routinely consult with an advisory panel of jurisconsults before rendering a decision, and advocates and ordinary people also went to jurisconsults for legal opinions.",
"The Romans were the first to have a class of people who spent their days thinking about legal problems, and this is why their law developed in a systematic and technical way.Detail from the sarcophagus of Roman lawyer Valerius Petronianus 315–320 AD.",
"Picture by Giovanni Dall'Orto.During the Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire, jurisconsults and advocates were unregulated, since the former were amateurs and the latter were technically illegal.",
"Any citizen could call himself an advocate or a legal expert, though whether people believed him would depend upon his personal reputation.",
"This changed once Claudius legalized the legal profession.",
"By the start of the Byzantine Empire, the legal profession had become well-established, heavily regulated, and highly stratified.",
"The centralization and bureaucratization of the profession was apparently gradual at first, but accelerated during the reign of Emperor Hadrian.",
"At the same time, the jurisconsults went into decline during the imperial period.By the fourth century, advocates had to be enrolled on the bar of a court to argue before it, they could only be attached to one court at a time, and there were restrictions on how many advocates could be enrolled at a particular court.",
"By the 380s, advocates were studying law in addition to rhetoric, thus reducing the need for a separate class of jurisconsults; in 460, Emperor Leo imposed a requirement that new advocates seeking admission had to produce testimonials from their teachers; and by the sixth century, a regular course of legal study lasting about four years was required for admission.",
"Claudius's fee ceiling lasted all the way into the Byzantine period, though by then it was measured at 100 solidi.",
"It was widely evaded, either through demands for maintenance and expenses or a ''sub rosa'' barter transaction.",
"The latter was cause for disbarment.The notaries (''tabelliones'') appeared in the late Roman Empire.",
"Like their modern-day descendants, the civil law notaries, they were responsible for drafting wills, conveyances, and contracts.",
"They were ubiquitous and most villages had one.",
"In Roman times, notaries were widely considered to be inferior to advocates and jury consults.===Middle Ages===King James I overseeing a medieval court, from an illustrated manuscript of a legal codeAfter the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the onset of the Early Middle Ages, the legal profession of Western Europe collapsed.",
"As James Brundage has explained: \"by 1140, no one in Western Europe could properly be described as a professional lawyer or a professional canonist in anything like the modern sense of the term 'professional.'",
"\" However, from 1150 (when ''Decretum Gratiani'' was compiled) onward, a small but increasing number of men became experts in canon law but only in furtherance of other occupational goals, such as serving the Catholic Church as priests.",
"From 1190 to 1230, however, there was a crucial shift in which some men began to practice canon law as a lifelong profession in itself.The legal profession's return was marked by the renewed efforts of church and state to regulate it.",
"In 1231, two French councils mandated that lawyers had to swear an oath of admission before practicing before the bishop's courts in their regions, and a similar oath was promulgated by the papal legate in London in 1237.During the same decade, the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Frederick II, the king of the Kingdom of Sicily, imposed a similar oath in his civil courts.",
"By 1250, the nucleus of a new legal profession had clearly formed.",
"The new trend towards professionalization culminated in a controversial proposal at the Second Council of Lyon in 1275 that ''all'' ecclesiastical courts should require an oath of admission.",
"Although not adopted by the council, it was highly influential in many such courts throughout Europe.",
"The civil courts in England also joined the trend towards professionalization; in 1275 a statute was enacted that prescribed punishment for professional lawyers guilty of deceit, and in 1280 the mayor's court of the city of London promulgated regulations concerning admission procedures, including the administering of an oath.",
"And in 1345, the French crown promulgated a royal ordinance which set forth 24 rules governing advocates, of which 12 were integrated into the oath to be taken by them.The French medieval oaths were widely influential and of enduring importance; for example, they directly influenced the structure of the advocates' oath adopted by the Canton of Geneva in 1816.In turn, the 1816 Geneva oath served as the inspiration for the attorney's oath drafted by David Dudley Field as Section 511 of the proposed New York Code of Civil Procedure of 1848, which was the first attempt in the United States at a comprehensive statement of a lawyer's professional duties."
],
[
"Titles",
"Example of a diploma from Suffolk University Law School conferring the Juris Doctor degreeGenerally speaking, the modern practice is for lawyers to avoid use of any title, although formal practice varies across the world.Historically, lawyers in most European countries were addressed with the title of doctor, and countries outside of Europe have generally followed the practice of the European country which had policy influence through colonization.",
"The first university degrees, starting with the law school of the University of Bologna in the 11th century, were all law degrees and doctorates.",
"Degrees in other fields did not start until the 13th century, but the doctor continued to be the only degree offered at many of the old universities until the 20th century.",
"Therefore, in many of the southern European countries, including Portugal, Italy and Malta, lawyers have traditionally been addressed as \"doctor\", a practice, which was transferred to many countries in South America and Macau.",
"The term \"doctor\" has since fallen into disuse, although it is still a legal title in Italy and in use in many countries outside of Europe.In French (France, Quebec, Belgium, Luxembourg, French-speaking area of Switzerland) and Dutch-speaking countries (Netherlands, Belgium), legal professionals are addressed as , abbreviated to (in French) or , abbreviated to (in Dutch).The title of doctor has traditionally never been used to address lawyers in England or other common law countries.",
"Until 1846, lawyers in England were not required to have a university degree and were trained by other lawyers by apprenticeship or in the Inns of Court.",
"Since law degrees started to become a requirement for lawyers in England, the most common degree awarded has been the undergraduate LL.B.",
"In South Africa, holders of a LL.B who have completed a year of pupillage and been admitted to the bar may use the title \"Advocate\", abbreviated to \"Adv\" in written correspondence.",
"Holders of an LL.B who have completed two years of clerkship with a principal Attorney and passed all four board exams may be admitted as an \"Attorney\" and refer to themselves as such.",
"Likewise, Italian law graduates who have qualified for the bar use the title \"Avvocato\", abbreviated in \"Avv.",
"\"Even though most lawyers in the United States do not use any titles, the law degree in that country is the Juris Doctor, a professional doctorate degree.",
"Although it is uncommon, some J.D.",
"holders in the United States use the title of \"doctor\".",
"It is common for lawyers in the United States to use the honorific suffix \"Esq.\"",
"(for \"Esquire\").",
"In some Asian countries, holders of the Juris Doctor degree are also called \"博士\" (doctor)."
],
[
"See also",
"* Avocats Sans Frontières* Cause lawyer* Counsel* Corporate lawyer* Court dress* Fiduciary* Ghost lawyer* Law broker* Lawyer-supported mediation* Legalese* List of jurists* Notary public* Privilege of the predecessors* Public defender* Rules lawyer* Shyster* Sole practitioner (lawyer) * St. Ivo of Kermartin (patron saint of lawyers)* Trainee solicitor"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Logrolling"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Logrolling''' is the trading of favors, or ''quid pro quo'', such as vote trading by legislative members to obtain passage of actions of interest to each legislative member.",
"In organizational analysis, it refers to a practice in which different organizations promote each other's agendas, each in the expectation that the other will reciprocate.",
"In an academic context, the ''Nuttall Encyclopedia'' describes logrolling as \"mutual praise by authors of each other's work\".",
"Where intricate tactics or strategy are involved, the process may be called horse trading."
],
[
"Concept and origin",
"There are three types of logrolling:* Logrolling in direct democracies: a few individuals vote openly, and votes are easy to trade, rearrange, and observe.",
"Direct democracy is pervasive in representative assemblies and small-government units* Implicit logrolling: large bodies of voters decide complex issues and trade votes without a formal vote trade (Buchanan and Tullock 1962)* Distributive logrolling: enables policymakers to achieve their public goals.",
"These policymakers logroll to ensure that their district policies and pork barrel packages are put into practice regardless of whether their policies are actually efficient (Evans 1994 and Buchanan and Tullock 1962).Distributive logrolling is the most prevalent kind of logrolling found in a democratic system of governance.",
"''Quid pro quo'' sums up the concept of logrolling in the United States' political process today.",
"Logrolling is the process by which politicians trade support for one issue or piece of legislation in exchange for another politician's support, especially by means of legislative votes (Holcombe 2006).",
"If a legislator logrolls, he initiates the trade of votes for one particular act or bill in order to secure votes on behalf of another act or bill.",
"Logrolling means that two parties will pledge their mutual support, so both bills can attain a simple majority.",
"For example, a vote on behalf of a tariff may be traded by a congressman for a vote from another congressman on behalf of an agricultural subsidy to ensure that both acts will gain a majority and pass through the legislature (Shughart 2008).",
"Logrolling cannot occur during presidential elections, where a vast voting population necessitates that individual votes have little political power, or during secret-ballot votes (Buchanan and Tullock 1962).",
"Because logrolling is pervasive in the political process, it is important to understand which external situations determine when, why, and how logrolling will occur, and whether it is beneficial, efficient, or neither.===Origins===Davy Crockett by William Henry Huddle, 1889.The widest accepted origin is the old custom of neighbors assisting each other with the moving of logs.",
"If two neighbors had cut a lot of timber that needed to be moved, it made more sense for them to work together to roll the logs.",
"In this way, it is similar to a barn-raising where a neighbor comes and helps a family build their barn, and, in turn, that family goes and returns the favor, helping him build his.",
"Here is an example of the term's original use:\"A family comes to sit in the forest,\" wrote an observer in 1835; \"Their neighbors lay down their employments, shoulder their axes, and come in to the log-rolling.",
"They spend the day in hard labor, and then retire, leaving the newcomers their good wishes, and a habitation.",
"\"American frontiersman Davy Crockett was one of the first to apply the term to legislation:The first known use of the term was by Congressman Davy Crockett, who said on the floor (of the U.S. House of Representatives) in 1835, \"my people don't like me to log-roll in their business, and vote away pre-emption rights to fellows in other states that never kindle a fire on their own land.",
"\"=== Choice to logroll ===Human beings, whether ignorant or informed, rational or irrational, logical or illogical, determine individual and group action through choices.",
"Economics studies these choices, including the choice to logroll, and their particular influence within the market sector (Schwartz 1977).",
"In America, political and economic decisions are usually made by politicians elected to legislative assemblies, and not directly by the citizenry (Buchanan and Tullock 1962).",
"Although legislative votes are recorded and are available to the American public, legislators can exchange their votes on issues they do not care much about for votes on other issues that are more important to their personal agendas (Holcombe 2006).",
"In ''The Calculus of Consent'', James M. Buchanan and Gordon Tullock explore the relationship between individual choice in the voting process and in the marketplace, specifically within logrolling.",
"Logrolling vote trades, like any activity within the marketplace, must be mutually beneficial (Buchanan and Tullock 1962).A vote trade is like a legislative IOU.",
"When a legislator needs a few more votes to acquire a simple majority, he will seek support through a vote exchange.",
"He will promise a fellow legislator an IOU vote for another piece of legislation in return for a vote on his own act or bill.",
"Legislators who logroll within a small body, for example, the U.S. House or Senate, have incentive to honor their IOU votes because they cannot have their reputations tainted if they wish to be effective politicians (Holcombe 2006).===Logrolling and the role of preference===People have varying preferences, and make decisions at the margin to maximize their utility and improve their welfare.",
"The same is true for legislators, who all enter office with different agendas, passions, and goals.",
"Ideological diversity plays a significant role in the result of a vote and carries with it a significant cost.",
"In addition, legislators will favor interests that offer them the most support.",
"Legislative votes are determined by the intensity of personal preference, desires of constituents, and, ultimately, what will lead to the particular legislator's greatest utility.",
"When people have ideologies at opposite ends of the political spectrum, it's difficult to ensure a simple majority, so buying a supermajority vote through logrolling may be the most cost effective (Buchanan and Tullock 1962).In the General Possibility Theorem, Kenneth Arrow argues that if a legislative consensus can be reached through a simple majority, then minimum conditions must be satisfied, and these conditions must provide a superior ranking to any subset of alternative votes (Arrow 1963).",
"A bill must be attractive to a legislator, or else he will not cast his vote for it.",
"A vote, by the pure nature of the voting process, demonstrates explicit interest in whatever is voted upon.",
"In logrolling, a superior ranking means that the marginal benefit of the vote is greater than any alternatives, so exchanging votes is worthwhile.",
"The General Possibility Theorem necessitates that allocating one vote for another must constitute true utility and a sincere vote.",
"Arrow's theory may place more restrictions and limitations on an individual voter's preferences than Buchanan and Tullock's; regardless, individuals will always choose the option they value most.=== Logrolling to reach the optimal decision ===Decisions reach an optimum only when they are unanimous, when votes are not coerced and everyone has veto power (Buchanan and Tullock 1962).",
"Unanimous votes, however, are not required for the American voting process.",
"This is why some logrolling advocates argue that logrolling must be allowed within a democracy—sometimes there may not be a \"best\" or \"most efficient\" option on a vote.Logrolling creates a market within which votes are exchanged as a sort of currency, and thus, facilitates the political process that produces the highest valued outcomes (Holcombe 2006).",
"If individual participants recognize the value of their own vote, they are motivated to trade.",
"When methods of trade do not conflict with given standards or ethical procedures, individuals naturally seek mutually advantageous vote trades.",
"An individual may effectually, but imperfectly, \"sell\" his vote on a particular issue to, in return, secure votes from other individuals on behalf of legislation he prefers (Buchanan and Tullock 1962).Logrolling has one necessary condition: benefits from the public activity must be significantly more concentrated or localized than the costs.",
"In economics, decisions are made at the margin.",
"Logrolling depends on the reality that the marginal benefit (or utility) of at least some elected officials, or the citizenry, will increase when the legislation is passed (Buchanan and Tullock 1962).",
"Any economist will consider the immediate opportunity cost of the logrolling procedure within the legislative body, as well as the external cost of the vote (the cost to enact and see the bill through to fruition).When transaction costs are low and parties involved are perfectly informed, a mutually beneficial agreement will occur: whoever values the property the highest will end up with it.",
"This is what Ronald H. Coase proposed in his ''Theory of Property Rights'' in 1960.This theory holds true within the world of economics.",
"In the American system of government, legislators have the incentive to logroll because transaction costs are low.",
"When transaction costs are low, the Coase theorem says that the political marketplace (the decisions of the legislatures) will allocate resources to the highest valued point (Coase 1960).Typically, logrolling is a mechanism used to gain support for special interest and minority groups.",
"However, because of the ideological mix that already exists within the legislature itself, minority views are often represented, even if only marginally.",
"With low transaction costs, the Coase theorem will come into play.",
"The highest valued outcome is chosen by the legislature, regardless the member's ideological stance or political affiliation (Holcombe 2006).The problem of cyclical majorities may arise with the absence of logrolling.",
"The cyclical majority problem occurs when voters are faced with multiple voting options but cannot choose the option they most prefer, since it is not available.",
"Voters must consider whether the alternative option is closer to their original preference (Bara and Weale 2006).",
"However, when logrolling is allowed, the highest valued outcome is secure without the threat of a cyclical majority.",
"For example, suppose a country road in West Virginia is in disrepair.",
"The local congressman proposes a bill to have the main road in his community resurfaced and paved.",
"The road leads to a town of merely 600 residents.",
"Thus, the other legislators will vote against the measure because the funding is not worthwhile to their constituents.",
"In a logrolling system, the local legislator can use his vote to bargain with his fellow legislators.",
"He will exchange his vote for his fellow legislators' bills to promote, for instance, the construction of new hospitals and the increase of veteran's benefits, in return for their votes to repair the road (Buchanan and Tullock 1962).=== Logrolling: An example ===+ Table 1-1 Agriculture Tax Vote School Tax Vote Fire Tax VoteTanya $300 $200 Y $150 $200 N $100 $200 NAlvin $150 $200 N $350 $200 Y $150 $200 NRebecca $100 $200 N $50 $200 N $225 $200 YTotal $550 $600 Inefficient $550 $600 Inefficient $475 $600 Inefficient'''Table 1-1''' explains another example of logrolling.",
"In the example, we have three individuals: Tanya, Alvin, and Rebecca.",
"Tanya favors subsidies for agriculture, Alvin favors school construction, and Rebecca favors the recruitment of more firefighters.",
"It seems as if the proposals are doomed to fail because each is opposed by a majority of voters.",
"Even so, this may not be the outcome.",
"Tanya may visit Rebecca and tell her that she will vote for Rebecca's bill to recruit more firefighters so long as Rebecca votes for her policy, subsidies for agriculture, in return.",
"Now both proposals will win because they have gained a simple majority ('''Table 1-2'''), even though in reality the subsidy is opposed by two of the three voters.",
"It's easy to see the Coase theorem at work in examples like this.",
"Here, transaction costs are low, so mutually beneficial agreements are found, and the person who values the service the most will hold it (Browning and Browning 1979).",
"Still, outcomes may be inefficient.=== Efficient logrolling ===+ Table 1-2 Agriculture Tax Vote School Tax Vote Fire Tax VoteTanya $350 $200 Y $150 $200 N $100 $200 YAlvin $150 $200 N $350 $200 Y $200 $200 NRebecca $125 $200 Y $50 $200 N $300 $200 YExample $625 $600 Efficient $550 $600 Inefficient $600 $600 EfficientIf the sum of the total benefit of the legislation for all the voters is less than the cost of the legislation itself, the legislation is inefficient.",
"Despite its inefficiency, however, it still may pass if logrolling is permitted.",
"If Tanya trades her vote to recruit more firemen to Rebecca in exchange for Rebecca's vote in favor of agriculture subsidies, a mutually beneficial agreement will be reached, even though the outcome is inefficient.",
"On the other hand, if the sum of the total benefit of the legislation for all voters is greater than the cost of the legislation itself, the legislation is efficient.",
"If Tanya trades her vote once again for Rebecca's vote, both parties will reach a mutually beneficial agreement and an efficient outcome.=== Minimum winning coalitions and logrolling ===A minimum winning coalition is the smallest number of votes required to win the passage of a piece of legislation.",
"Minimum winning coalitions demonstrate the importance of logrolling within a democracy, because the minimal winning coalition may be overthrown with the sway of a single vote.",
"As previously mentioned, coalitions will buy a supermajority of votes if the support for the proposed legislation sways.",
"If a legislator logrolls a few votes beyond the minimal winning coalition to his side, he will ensure that the final vote will be in favor of his legislation.",
"In a way, vote trading does combine positions on distinct issues to form single legislative votes and packages (Stratmann 1992).",
"Logrolled votes transcend affiliations and party lines and become feasible outcomes preferred by a majority or winning coalition (Schwartz 1977).=== Logrolling in real politics ===A problem in research is that it is impossible to identify vote trading directly within the House of Representatives or the Senate because roll call votes on specific goods are not observed (Irwin and Kroszner 1996).",
"However, examples of refurbished bills can shed some light on the working-out of logrolling within the legislature.",
"For example, in 1930, the Smoot-Hawley tariff, the second-highest tariff in U.S. history, passed the House and Senate.",
"Congress voted to increase tariffs exponentially, which worked to push the United States from a stagnant recession into a plummeting depression (Irwin and Kroszner 1996).",
"Strict party line votes suggest that partisan polarization in 1929 prevented the Smoot-Hawley bill from passing through Congress.",
"The bill, however, was revamped, and legislators used logrolling to pass it through both chambers in 1930.Omnibus bills can be an alternative market to logrolling.",
"Various clauses are added to a bill to satisfy all involved parties sufficiently.",
"However, large bills, like the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, require an in depth knowledge of 1,000 plus pages.",
"Many sections of these types of bills are initially opposed but are later supported because of special benefit clauses (Evans 1994).Because logrolling allows special-interest groups a voice in the political process, programs that benefit a minority group can get the approval of a majority.",
"However, this may not be in the best interest of the majority.",
"Special-interest groups typically do not represent the typical voter, but rather, small branches of minority ideologies (Holcombe 2006).",
"Voting results with or without logrolling will differ only if the minority is more interested in an issue than the majority, enough to separate the marginal voters from the majority.",
"Studies show that lobbying and political pressure exerted by special-interest groups are not atypical behavior in a modern democracy (Buchanan and Tullock 1962).",
"Conditions imposed upon the social choice of the legislature imply a more severe restriction on the individual voter's preferences than the theory of logrolling presented by Buchanan and Tullock and presumed by Arrow's General Possibility Theory (Wilson 1969).Critics reproach members of Congress for protecting their own electoral interests at the expense of the general welfare.",
"Congressmen tend to distribute specialized benefits at a great cost and ignore the particular costs the legislation bears upon the taxpayers (Evans 1994).",
"Legislators, who seek their personal benefit via logrolling even though it may not benefit those who must pay for the measure, are known as maximizers.",
"Maximizers only take into account their personal cost and electability, instead of the effects of their actions on other parties involved.",
"In short, other taxpayers will pay for the policy even if it does not affect them (Buchanan and Tullock 1962).",
"Initially, maximizers will encourage other legislators to have the same selfish behavior because significant gains can be accrued in the short run.",
"Buchanan and Tullock state that within a system of maximizers, all individuals are worse off than if they had all adopted Kantian norms of behavior.Legislative bodies can expect higher government spending and taxation when logrolling is allowed to flourish.",
"Logrolling does not imply excessive spending; members can trade tax reductions just as easily as they can trade pork barrel policies.",
"The problem is that benefits of a vote only reach a particular portion of the population, while the tax costs that pay for the vote are spread throughout the entire populace, especially when the act depends on revenue from sales or income taxes.",
"Benefits are concentrated in localities, and the costs are dispersed throughout the nation.",
"Committee members can thus exploit pork barrel projects for electoral purposes.",
"The citizenry is seen as a \"common pool,\" used to finance projects through taxes.",
"Somehow the citizens end up paying higher taxes than those who are not in a logroll system (Dalenberg and Duffy-Deno 1991 and Gilligan and Matsusaka 1995).",
"In a system where logrolling is permitted, a third party may bear the cost of the project, rather than those who receive the full benefit of the legislation.",
"This is always inefficient.The logic of collective action shows that votes for bills are motivated by politicians and are determined by a simple majority (Olson 1971).",
"Politicians are in the game to win it.",
"Collective effort explains why farms acquire government subsidies at the expense of millions of consumers and why those in the textile industry benefit at the expense of clothing buyers (Shughart 2008).",
"Congressional committees ensure that each committee leader will create legislative coalitions to push his policies to fruition.",
"Thus, ceteris paribus, members who receive such projects, are likely to vote in support of their leader's wishes (Evans 1994).Policymakers and congressmen have goals of power, and making their own mark in public policy, not pure aims of reelection (Dodd 1977).",
"Reelection does play a great part in the legislative process as a condition to achieving any other political goal.",
"Thus, logrolling can be a powerful tool for committee chairs, who control the voting agendas (Evans 1994).",
"While committee leaders create the supermajority, they try to achieve their personal goals and help a bare majority of members achieve theirs.",
"A skilled policy-oriented committee leader often seeks to exploit the goals of other members in order to construct legislation he or she will prefer (Arnold 1979 and Strahan 1989).====Wafelijzerpolitiek====''Wafelijzerpolitiek'' (lit.",
"waffle iron politics) is a form of logrolling used in Belgium.",
"Until the split of the unitary Belgium in several parts, the unitary government decided on the funds given to big projects.",
"As there were usually two opposing groups of about equal size in Belgium, this norm resulted in the approval of two equally sized projects in the two parts of the country, with the funds given to the two projects being equal.",
"As a result, one project was always overfunded.",
"Many see ''wafelijzerpolitiek'' as the source of Belgium's high debt.After the first state reformation in 1988, many big projects were decided regionally, so the number of ''wafelijzer'' projects went down.",
"There are still some things that fall under the supervision of the federal government, where ''wafelijzerpolitiek'' still happens.",
"One example is the Belgian railway network.Another result of the ''wafelijzerpolitiek'' is the big useless works.",
"As Flanders is a part of Belgium with many ports (e.g., big ports in Antwerp and Zeebrugge), for every investment in Flemish waterways there had to be an investment in Walloon waterways.",
"Some results are the Ronquières inclined plane and the Strépy-Thieu boat lift.=== Simple referendums ===In a referendum on a simple issue, the voter cannot easily trade his own vote for a vote on a reciprocal favor.",
"This is because first, he is unsure as to when and how the other issues will be voted upon, and second, he and his immediate neighbors represent a fraction of the total electorate.",
"Thus, trading may not be worthwhile (Buchanan and Tullock 1962).Vote trading under a democratic, majority-rule institution is sometimes considered morally reprehensible behavior.",
"However, the only perfect solution to rid the political system of distributive logrolling would be to develop a specific formula to weigh the costs and benefits of legislation perfectly and only allow efficient programs to be enacted (This is inconceivable.",
"Therefore, logrolling must occur, but only by observing the constitutional rules that have been laid down as safeguards of democracy (Buchanan and Tullock 1962).=== Summary ===The reality is that transaction costs are high, and most voters, who are ignorant of political issues and the political process, see little incentive to attempt to influence their local legislator's political decisions (Holcombe 2006).",
"It is also difficult for voters to be informed of their legislator's voting habits.",
"Because of this, distributive logrolling will occur in democratic systems.",
"Furthermore, it is the responsibility of the legislator to measure the costs and benefits of legislation and determine what is most efficient for his constituents.",
"Logrolling will occur only if members of the legislature fail to gather enough votes for the passage of specific legislation.",
"In essence, logrolling is a legal way to manipulate voter preference toward either an efficient or an inefficient outcome that would not otherwise be enacted (Browning 1979)."
],
[
"Legality",
"Logrolling is illegal in numerous jurisdictions, and in some instances is a crime.",
"Sophisticated computational techniques have been developed for the detection and prosecution of this crime."
],
[
"Other usages",
"''Spy Magazine'' ran a feature entitled \"Logrolling in Our Time\" that cited suspicious or humorous examples of mutually admiring book jacket blurbs by pairs of authors.",
"''Private Eye'' magazine regularly draws attention to alleged logrolling by authors in \"books of the year\" features published by British newspapers and magazines.Log rolling or a hodgepodge legislation in the Philippines also refers to any legislation that have several subjects on unrelated matters combined together.",
"It is expressed in Article 6 Section 26.1 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution as a guarantee to prevent surprise or fraud from the legislature."
],
[
"See also",
"* Barn raising* Bee (gathering)* Blog roll* Political corruption, which can overlap in instances where logrolling is corrupted by personal gain** Pay to play* Vote trading"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Playing by ear"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Playing''' or '''learning by ear''' is the ability of a performing musician to reproduce a piece of music they have heard, without having seen it notated in any form of sheet music.",
"It is considered to be a desirable skill among musical performers, especially for those that play in a musical tradition where notating music is not the norm'''''.",
"'''''It is a misconception that musicians who play by ear do not have or do not require musical education, or have no theoretical understanding of the music they are playing.Playing by ear is often also used to refer more generally to making music without using musical notation, perhaps using (elements of) improvisation and instant composition.Blues, pop, jazz, and many forms of non-western music are fundamentally rooted in the concept of playing by ear, where musical compositions are passed down from generation to generation.",
"In this respect, playing by ear can also be seen as a music-specific example of oral tradition.The concept of playing by ear has led to the development of the idiom to play by ear or \"play ''it'' by ear.\""
],
[
"Method",
"One learns a piece of music by ear by repeatedly listening to it performed, memorizing it, and then trying to recreate what one has heard.",
"This requires the use of several related skills such as ear training, musical perception, tonal memory, audiation, music theory, and knowledge of the traditions of the music one is trying to learn.",
"As such, learning to play by ear involves training those skills as well.To practice playing music by ear, music teachers often have a student listen to short musical examples which the student will have to write out in musical notation, play back on an instrument, sing, or describe using note names or a solfège system.",
"Musicians will also train their playing by ear skills by taking recordings of full songs and pieces, figuring out the notes by ear, and either transcribing or memorizing them.",
"According to studies playing by ear is associated with a higher level of creativity and musical intelligence.",
"Audiation is a vital skill for playing music by ear.",
"Edwin Gordon, originator of the term, describes audiation as: \"the foundation of musicianship.",
"It takes place when we hear and comprehend music for which the sound is no longer or may never have been present.\"",
"It is often described as the ability to hear music in your head.",
"In this sense, audiation is to music what thought is to language.",
"Learning to play by ear, in the sense of making music without notation, is often compared to learning to speak a language.",
"When sufficiently mastered, playing music by ear should be as comfortable and easy as having a conversation.",
"We speak and react to what we hear, without having to think too deeply about every word we use.",
"The same would be true when playing by ear.",
"A musician can produce a sound at the same time they think of it, without having to consider every separate note they play."
],
[
"Existence in musical traditions",
"In most instances, traditions in which music is primarily learned by ear do not use musical notation in any form.",
"Some examples are early Blues guitarists and pianists, Romani fiddlers, and folk music guitarists.",
"''Hindustani'' musicians(c. 1870)One particularly prominent example is Indian classical music: the teaching methods of its two major strands (''Hindustani'' and ''Carnatic'') are almost exclusively oral.=== In the West ===Historically, the Western classical music tradition has been based on the process of learning new pieces from musical notation, and hence playing by ear has a lower importance in musical training.",
"Before the widespread use of sheet music, much early medieval Western music was learnt by ear, particularly in monasteries.However, many teaching methods in this tradition incorporate playing by ear in some form.",
"For instance, \"ear training\" courses are a standard part of conservatory or college music programs (including use of Solfège), and the Suzuki method, which incorporates a highly developed focus on playing by ear from a very young age.In the West, learning by ear is also used heavily in the genres of folk music, blues, rock, pop, funk, reggae, and jazz.",
"While most professional musicians currently active in these genres are capable of reading musical notation, playing by ear is still widely practiced for a number of reasons.",
"Among those are ease and speed of learning songs, flexibility while improvising and playing variations, and working around the limitations of western musical notation.",
"Since western musical notation was developed for classical music, musicians sometimes run into issues when musical expressions are commonly used in the genre they are performing but not in classical music.",
"Examples of this are percussion instruments in Afro-Cuban music, where different strokes and techniques are used to produce different tones and timbres, or improvised music like jazz and classical Indian music, where large parts of the composition consists of guidelines for improvisation.",
"Western musical notation can be ill-suited for these situations, and although supplements to musical notation can be invented to try to accommodate this, playing by ear and oral learning are often preferred because of readability, ease, and tradition."
],
[
"See also",
"* Fiddle* Tonal memory* Ear training* Musical aptitude * Music education for young children* Absolute pitch"
],
[
"Notes and references"
],
[
"External links",
"* Description of Audiation from the Gordon Institute for Music Learning* Basic introduction to playing by ear by Allan Jeong Professor of Instructional Systems & Learning Technology"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Louvre"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Louvre''' ( ), or the '''Louvre Museum''' ( ), is a national art museum in Paris, France.",
"It is located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the city's 1st arrondissement (district or ward) and home to some of the most canonical works of Western art, including the ''Mona Lisa'' and the ''Venus de Milo''.",
"The museum is housed in the Louvre Palace, originally built in the late 12th to 13th century under Philip II.",
"Remnants of the Medieval Louvre fortress are visible in the basement of the museum.",
"Due to urban expansion, the fortress eventually lost its defensive function, and in 1546 Francis I converted it into the primary residence of the French Kings.The building was extended many times to form the present Louvre Palace.",
"In 1682, Louis XIV chose the Palace of Versailles for his household, leaving the Louvre primarily as a place to display the royal collection, including, from 1692, a collection of ancient Greek and Roman sculpture.",
"In 1692, the building was occupied by the and the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, which in 1699 held the first of a series of salons.",
"The Académie remained at the Louvre for 100 years.",
"During the French Revolution, the National Assembly decreed that the Louvre should be used as a museum to display the nation's masterpieces.The museum opened on 10 August 1793 with an exhibition of 537 paintings, the majority of the works being royal and confiscated church property.",
"Because of structural problems with the building, the museum was closed from 1796 until 1801.The collection was increased under Napoleon and the museum was renamed ''Musée Napoléon'', but after Napoleon's abdication, many works seized by his armies were returned to their original owners.",
"The collection was further increased during the reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X, and during the Second French Empire the museum gained 20,000 pieces.",
"Holdings have grown steadily through donations and bequests since the Third Republic.",
"The collection is divided among eight curatorial departments: Egyptian Antiquities; Near Eastern Antiquities; Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Antiquities; Islamic Art; Sculpture; Decorative Arts; Paintings; Prints and Drawings.The Musée du Louvre contains approximately 500,000 objects and displays 35,000 works of art in eight curatorial departments with more than dedicated to the permanent collection.",
"The Louvre exhibits sculptures, objets d'art, paintings, drawings, and archaeological finds.",
"At any given point in time, approximately 38,000 objects from prehistory to the 21st century are being exhibited over an area of .",
"It received 8.9 million visitors in 2023, 14 percent more than in 2022, but still below the 10.1 million visitors in 2018."
],
[
"Location and visiting",
"Aerial view of the Louvre Palace and Tuileries ParkThe Louvre museum is located inside the Louvre Palace, in the center of Paris, adjacent to the Tuileries Gardens.",
"The two nearest Métro stations are Louvre-Rivoli and Palais Royal-Musée du Louvre, the latter having a direct underground access to the Carrousel du Louvre commercial mall.Before the Grand Louvre overhaul of the late 1980s and 1990s, the Louvre had several street-level entrances, most of which are now permanently closed.",
"Since 1993, the museum's main entrance has been the underground space under the Louvre Pyramid, or ''Hall Napoléon'', which can be accessed from the Pyramid itself, from the underground Carrousel du Louvre, or (for authorized visitors) from the connecting to the nearby rue de Rivoli.",
"A secondary entrance at the , near the western end of the Denon Wing, was created in 1999 but is not permanently open.The museum's entrance conditions have varied over time.",
"Prior to the 1850s, artists and foreign visitors had privileged access.",
"At the time of initial opening in 1793, the French Republican calendar had imposed ten-day \"weeks\" (), the first six days of which were reserved for visits by artists and foreigners and the last three for visits by the general public.",
"In the early 1800s, after the seven-day week had been reinstated, the general public had only four hours of museum access per weeks, between 2pm and 4pm on Saturdays and Sundays.",
"In 1824, a new regulation allowed public access only on Sundays and holidays; the other days the museum was open only to artists and foreigners, except for closure on Mondays.",
"That changed in 1855 when the museum became open to the public all days except Mondays.",
"It was free until 1922, when an entrance fee was introduced except on Sundays.",
"Since its post-World War II reopening in 1946, the Louvre has been closed on Tuesdays, and habitually open to the public the rest of the week except for some holidays.The use of cameras and video recorders is permitted inside, but flash photography is forbidden.Beginning in 2012, Nintendo 3DS portable video game systems were used as the official museum audio guides.",
"The following year, the museum contracted Nintendo to create a 3DS-based audiovisual visitor guide.",
"Entitled ''Nintendo 3DS Guide: Louvre'', it contains over 30 hours of audio and over 1,000 photographs of artwork and the museum itself, including 3D views, and also provides navigation thanks to differential GPS transmitters installed within the museum.The upgraded 2013 Louvre guide was also announced in a special Nintendo Direct featuring Satoru Iwata and Shigeru Miyamoto demonstrating it at the museum, and 3DS XLs pre-loaded with the guide are available to rent at the museum.",
"As of August 2023, there are virtual tours through rooms and galleries accessible online."
],
[
"History",
"===Before the museum===Below-ground portions of the medieval Louvre are still visible.The Louvre Palace, which houses the museum, was begun by King Philip II in the late 12th century to protect the city from the attack from the West, as the Kingdom of England still held Normandy at the time.",
"Remnants of the Medieval Louvre are still visible in the crypt.",
"Whether this was the first building on that spot is not known, and it is possible that Philip modified an existing tower.The origins of the name \"Louvre\" are somewhat disputed.",
"According to the authoritative ''Grand Larousse encyclopédique'', the name derives from an association with a wolf hunting den (via Latin: ''lupus'', lower Empire: ''lupara'').",
"In the 7th century, Burgundofara (also known as Saint Fare), abbess in Meaux, is said to have gifted part of her \"Villa called Luvra situated in the region of Paris\" to a monastery, even though it is doubtful that this land corresponded exactly to the present site of the Louvre.The Louvre Palace has been subject to numerous renovations since its construction.",
"In the 14th century, Charles V converted the building from its military role into a residence.",
"In 1546, Francis I started its rebuilding in French Renaissance style.",
"After Louis XIV chose Versailles as his residence in 1682, construction works slowed to a halt.",
"The royal move away from Paris resulted in the Louvre being used as a residence for artists, under Royal patronage.",
"For example, four generations of craftsmen-artists from the Boulle family were granted Royal patronage and resided in the Louvre.Meanwhile, the collections of the Louvre originated in the acquisitions of paintings and other artworks by the monarchs of the House of France.",
"At the Palace of Fontainebleau, Francis collected art that would later be part of the Louvre's art collections, including Leonardo da Vinci's ''Mona Lisa''.The Cabinet du Roi consisted of seven rooms west of the Galerie d'Apollon on the upper floor of the remodeled Petite Galerie.",
"Many of the king's paintings were placed in these rooms in 1673, when it became an art gallery, accessible to certain art lovers as a kind of museum.",
"In 1681, after the court moved to Versailles, 26 of the paintings were transferred there, somewhat diminishing the collection, but it is mentioned in Paris guide books from 1684 on, and was shown to ambassadors from Siam in 1686.By the mid-18th century there were an increasing number of proposals to create a public gallery in the Louvre.",
"Art critic Étienne La Font de Saint-Yenne in 1747 published a call for a display of the royal collection.",
"On 14 October 1750, Louis XV decided on a display of 96 pieces from the royal collection, mounted in the Galerie royale de peinture of the Luxembourg Palace.",
"A hall was opened by Le Normant de Tournehem and the Marquis de Marigny for public viewing of the \"king's paintings\" (''Tableaux du Roy'') on Wednesdays and Saturdays.",
"The Luxembourg gallery included Andrea del Sarto's ''Charity'' and works by Raphael; Titian; Veronese; Rembrandt; Poussin or Van Dyck.",
"It closed in 1780 as a result of the royal gift of the Luxembourg palace to the Count of Provence (the future king, Louis XVIII) by the king in 1778.Under Louis XVI, the idea of a royal museum in the Louvre came closer to fruition.",
"The comte d'Angiviller broadened the collection and in 1776 proposed to convert the of the Louvre – which at that time contained the ''plans-reliefs'' or 3D models of key fortified sites in and around France – into the \"French Museum\".",
"Many design proposals were offered for the Louvre's renovation into a museum, without a final decision being made on them.",
"Hence the museum remained incomplete until the French Revolution.===Revolutionary opening===The Louvre finally became a public museum during the French Revolution.",
"In May 1791, the National Constituent Assembly declared that the Louvre would be \"a place for bringing together monuments of all the sciences and arts\".",
"On 10 August 1792, Louis XVI was imprisoned and the royal collection in the Louvre became national property.",
"Because of fear of vandalism or theft, on 19 August, the National Assembly pronounced the museum's preparation urgent.",
"In October, a committee to \"preserve the national memory\" began assembling the collection for display.Antonio Canova's ''Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss'' was commissioned in 1787 and donated in 1824.The museum opened on 10 August 1793, the first anniversary of the monarchy's demise, as ''Muséum central des Arts de la République''.",
"The public was given free accessibility on three days per week, which was \"perceived as a major accomplishment and was generally appreciated\".",
"The collection showcased 537 paintings and 184 objects of art.",
"Three-quarters were derived from the royal collections, the remainder from confiscated émigrés and Church property (''biens nationaux'').",
"To expand and organize the collection, the Republic dedicated 100,000 livres per year.",
"In 1794, France's revolutionary armies began bringing pieces from Northern Europe, augmented after the Treaty of Tolentino (1797) by works from the Vatican, such as the ''Laocoön'' and ''Apollo Belvedere'', to establish the Louvre as a museum and as a \"sign of popular sovereignty\".The early days were hectic.",
"Privileged artists continued to live in residence, and the unlabeled paintings hung \"frame to frame from floor to ceiling\".",
"The structure itself closed in May 1796 due to structural deficiencies.",
"It reopened on 14 July 1801, arranged chronologically and with new lighting and columns.",
"On 15 August 1797, the Galerie d'Apollon was opened with an exhibition of drawings.",
"Meanwhile, the Louvre's Gallery of Antiquity sculpture (''musée des Antiques''), with artefacts brought from Florence and the Vatican, had opened in November 1800 in Anne of Austria's former summer apartment, located on the ground floor just below the Galerie d'Apollon.===Napoleonic era===On 19 November 1802, Napoleon appointed Dominique Vivant Denon, a scholar and polymath who had participated in the Egyptian campaign of 1798–1801, as the museum's first director, in preference to alternative contenders such as antiquarian Ennio Quirino Visconti, painter Jacques-Louis David, sculptor Antonio Canova and architects Léon Dufourny or Pierre Fontaine.",
"On Denon's suggestion in July 1803, the museum itself was renamed ''Musée Napoléon''.The collection grew through successful military campaigns.",
"Acquisitions were made of Spanish, Austrian, Dutch, and Italian works, either as the result of war looting or formalized by treaties such as the Treaty of Tolentino.",
"At the end of Napoleon's First Italian Campaign in 1797, the Treaty of Campo Formio was signed with Count Philipp von Cobenzl of the Austrian Monarchy.",
"This treaty marked the completion of Napoleon's conquest of Italy and the end of the first phase of the French Revolutionary Wars.",
"It compelled Italian cities to contribute pieces of art and heritage to Napoleon's \"parades of spoils\" through Paris before being put into the Louvre Museum.",
"The Horses of Saint Mark, which had adorned the basilica of San Marco in Venice after the sack of Constantinople in 1204, were brought to Paris where they were placed atop Napoleon's Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel in 1797.Under the Treaty of Tolentino, the two statues of the Nile and Tiber were taken to Paris from the Vatican in 1797, and were both kept in the Louvre until 1815.",
"(The Nile was later returned to Rome, whereas the Tiber has remained in the Louvre to this day.)",
"The despoilment of Italian churches and palaces outraged the Italians and their artistic and cultural sensibilities.After the French defeat at Waterloo, the looted works' former owners sought their return.",
"The Louvre's administrator, Denon, was loath to comply in absence of a treaty of restitution.",
"In response, foreign states sent emissaries to London to seek help, and many pieces were returned, though far from all.",
"In 1815 Louis XVIII finally concluded agreements with the Austrian government for the keeping of works such as Veronese's ''Wedding at Cana'' which was exchanged for a large Le Brun or the repurchase of the Albani collection.===From 1815 to 1852===The ''Venus de Milo'' was added to the Louvre's collection during the reign of Louis XVIII.For most of the 19th century, from Napoleon's time to the Second Empire, the Louvre and other national museums were managed under the monarch's civil list and thus depended much on the ruler's personal involvement.",
"Whereas the most iconic collection remained that of paintings in the , a number of other initiatives mushroomed in the vast building, named as if they were separate museums even though they were generally managed under the same administrative umbrella.",
"Correspondingly, the museum complex was often referred to in the plural (\"\") rather than singular.During the Bourbon Restoration (1814–1830), Louis XVIII and Charles X added to the collections.",
"The Greek and Roman sculpture gallery on the ground floor of the southwestern side of the Cour Carrée was completed on designs by Percier and Fontaine.",
"In 1819 an exhibition of manufactured products was opened in the first floor of the Cour Carrée's southern wing and would stay there until the mid-1820s.",
"Charles X in 1826 created the and in 1827 included it in his broader , a new section of the museum complex located in a suite of lavishly decorated rooms on the first floor of the South Wing of the Cour Carrée.",
"The Egyptian collection, initially curated by Jean-François Champollion, formed the basis for what is now the Louvre's Department of Egyptian Antiquities.",
"It was formed from the purchased collections of Edmé-Antoine Durand, Henry Salt and the second collection of Bernardino Drovetti (the first one having been purchased by Victor Emmanuel I of Sardinia to form the core of the present Museo Egizio in Turin).",
"The Restoration period also saw the opening in 1824 of the , a section of largely French sculptures on the ground floor of the Northwestern side of the Cour Carrée, many of whose artefacts came from the Palace of Versailles and from Alexandre Lenoir's Musée des Monuments Français following its closure in 1816.Meanwhile, the French Navy created an exhibition of ship models in the Louvre in December 1827, initially named in honor of Dauphin Louis Antoine, building on an 18th-century initiative of Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau.",
"This collection, renamed in 1833 and later to develop into the Musée national de la Marine, was initially located on the first floor of the Cour Carrée's North Wing, and in 1838 moved up one level to the 2nd-floor attic, where it remained for more than a century.File:Dernière salle des antiquités égyptiennes (Louvre).jpg|First roomFile:Egyptian antiquities in the Louvre - Room 27 and others.jpg|Room 27File:Egyptian antiquities in the Louvre - Room 29 D201903.jpg|Room 29File:Salles des colonnes du Louvre, vue vers l'ouest.jpg|Salle des ColonnesFile:Greek antiquities in the Louvre - Room 35 D201903.jpg|Room 35File:Room 36 of the Greek antiquities in the Louvre.jpg|Room 36File:Greek antiquities in the Louvre - Room 38 D201903.jpg|Room 38The display in the Salon Carré, painted by Giuseppe Castiglione in 1861 following its repurposing of the late 1840sVeronese's ''Wedding at Cana'' is visible on the left, and his ''Supper in the House of Simon'' (now at the Palace of Versailles) is on the right.Following the July Revolution, King Louis Philippe focused his interest on the repurposing of the Palace of Versailles into a Museum of French History conceived as a project of national reconciliation, and the Louvre was kept in comparative neglect.",
"Louis-Philippe did, however, sponsor the creation of the to host the monumental Assyrian sculpture works brought to Paris by Paul-Émile Botta, in the ground-floor gallery north of the eastern entrance of the Cour Carrée.",
"The Assyrian Museum opened on 1 May 1847.Separately, Louis-Philippe had his Spanish gallery displayed in the Louvre from 7 January 1838, in five rooms on the first floor of the Cour Carrée's East (Colonnade) Wing, but the collection remained his personal property.",
"As a consequence, the works were removed after Louis-Philippe was deposed in 1848, and were eventually auctioned away in 1853.The short-lived Second Republic had more ambitions for the Louvre.",
"It initiated repair work, the completion of the Galerie d'Apollon and of the , and the overhaul of the (former site of the iconic yearly Salon) and of the Grande Galerie.",
"In 1848, the Naval Museum in the Cour Carrée's attic was brought under the common Louvre Museum management, a change which was again reversed in 1920.In 1850 under the leadership of curator Adrien de Longpérier, the musée mexicain opened within the Louvre as the first European museum dedicated to pre-Columbian art.===Second Empire===The rule of Napoleon III was transformational for the Louvre, both the building and the museum.",
"In 1852, he created the Musée des Souverains in the Colonnade Wing, an ideological project aimed at buttressing his personal legitimacy.",
"In 1861, he bought 11,835 artworks including 641 paintings, Greek gold and other antiquities of the Campana collection.",
"For its display, he created another new section within the Louvre named , occupying a number of rooms in various parts of the building.",
"Between 1852 and 1870, the museum added 20,000 new artefacts to its collections.The main change of that period was to the building itself.",
"In the 1850s architects Louis Visconti and Hector Lefuel created massive new spaces around what is now called the Cour Napoléon, some of which (in the South Wing, now Aile Denon) went to the museum.",
"In the 1860s, Lefuel also led the creation of the with a new closer to Napoleon III's residence in the Tuileries Palace, with the effect of shortening the by about a third of its previous length.",
"A smaller but significant Second Empire project was the decoration of the below the Salon carré.",
"File:Musée Napoléon III.jpg|Entrance to a section of the ''Musée Napoléon III'' from the ''salle des séances'', then a double-height spaceFile:Galerie Daru - Musée du Louvre.jpg|''Galerie Daru'', part of the New Louvre building program under Napoleon IIIFile:Paris - Musée du Louvre (30612872064).jpg|''Salle Daru'' above the ''galerie Daru'', also created under Napoleon IIIFile:Escalier Mollien in 2010 (1).jpg|''Escalier Mollien'' in the New LouvreFile:P1080712 Louvre salle romaine rwk.JPG|''Salle des Empereurs''===From 1870 to 1981===Memorial plaques honoring the Louvre's defenders in May 1871The Louvre narrowly escaped serious damage during the suppression of the Paris Commune.",
"On 23 May 1871, as the French Army advanced into Paris, a force of ''Communards'' led by set fire to the adjoining Tuileries Palace.",
"The fire burned for forty-eight hours, entirely destroying the interior of the Tuileries and spreading to the north west wing of the museum next to it.",
"The emperor's Louvre library (''Bibliothèque du Louvre'') and some of the adjoining halls, in what is now the Richelieu Wing, were separately destroyed.",
"But the museum was saved by the efforts of Paris firemen and museum employees led by curator Henry Barbet de Jouy.Following the end of the monarchy, several spaces in the Louvre's South Wing went to the museum.",
"The Salle du Manège was transferred to the museum in 1879, and in 1928 became its main entrance lobby.",
"The large Salle des Etats that had been created by Lefuel between the and Pavillon Denon was redecorated in 1886 by , Lefuel's successor as architect of the Louvre, and opened as a spacious exhibition room.",
"Edomond Guillaume also decorated the first-floor room at the northwest corner of the Cour Carrée, on the ceiling of which he placed in 1890 a monumental painting by Carolus-Duran, ''The Triumph of Marie de' Medici'' originally created in 1879 for the Luxembourg Palace.The Louvre's monumental Escalier Daru, topped by the ''Winged Victory of Samothrace'', took its current appearance in the early 1930s.Meanwhile, during the Third Republic (1870–1940) the Louvre acquired new artefacts mainly via donations, gifts, and sharing arrangements on excavations abroad.",
"The 583-item , donated in 1869 by Louis La Caze, included works by Chardin; Fragonard, Rembrandt and Watteau.",
"In 1883, the ''Winged Victory of Samothrace'', which had been found in the Aegean Sea in 1863, was prominently displayed as the focal point of the Escalier Daru.",
"Major artifacts excavated at Susa in Iran, including the massive ''Apadana capital'' and glazed brick decoration from the Palace of Darius there, accrued to the Oriental (Near Eastern) Antiquities Department in the 1880s.",
"The Société des amis du Louvre was established in 1897 and donated prominent works, such as the ''Pietà of Villeneuve-lès-Avignon''.",
"The expansion of the museum and its collections slowed after World War I, however, despite some prominent acquisitions such as Georges de La Tour's ''Saint Thomas'' and Baron Edmond de Rothschild's 1935 donation of 4,000 prints, 3,000 drawings, and 500 illustrated books.From the late 19th century, the Louvre gradually veered away from its mid-century ambition of universality to become a more focused museum of French, Western and Near Eastern art, covering a space ranging from Iran to the Atlantic.",
"The collections of the Louvre's musée mexicain were transferred to the Musée d'Ethnographie du Trocadéro in 1887.As the was increasingly constrained to display its core naval-themed collections in the limited space it had in the second-floor attic of the northern half of the Cour Carrée, many of its significant holdings of non-Western artefacts were transferred in 1905 to the Trocadéro ethnography museum, the National Antiquities Museum in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, and the Chinese Museum in the Palace of Fontainebleau.",
"The Musée de Marine itself was relocated to the Palais de Chaillot in 1943.The Louvre's extensive collections of Asian art were moved to the Guimet Museum in 1945.Nevertheless, the Louvre's first gallery of Islamic art opened in 1893.Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt is seen with a plaster model of the ''Venus de Milo'', while visiting the Louvre with the curator Alfred Merlin on 7 October 1940.Seating designed by Pierre Paulin in the late 1960s, 's 1972 museography for the Salon Carré, with \"dos-à-dos\" seat designed in 1967 by Pierre PaulinIn the late 1920s, Louvre Director Henri Verne devised a master plan for the rationalization of the museum's exhibitions, which was partly implemented in the following decade.",
"In 1932–1934, Louvre architects and Albert Ferran redesigned the Escalier Daru to its current appearance.",
"The in the South Wing was covered by a glass roof in 1934.Decorative arts exhibits were expanded in the first floor of the North Wing of the Cour Carrée, including some of France's first period room displays.",
"In the late 1930s, The La Caze donation was moved to a remodeled above the , with reduced height to create more rooms on the second floor and a sober interior design by Albert Ferran.During World War II, the Louvre conducted an elaborate plan of evacuation of its art collection.",
"When Germany occupied the Sudetenland, many important artworks such as the ''Mona Lisa'' were temporarily moved to the Château de Chambord.",
"When war was formally declared a year later, most of the museum's paintings were sent there as well.",
"Select sculptures such as ''Winged Victory of Samothrace'' and the ''Venus de Milo'' were sent to the Château de Valençay.",
"On 27 August 1939, after two days of packing, truck convoys began to leave Paris.",
"By 28 December, the museum was cleared of most works, except those that were too heavy and \"unimportant paintings that were left in the basement\".",
"In early 1945, after the liberation of France, art began returning to the Louvre.New arrangements after the war revealed the further evolution of taste away from the lavish decorative practices of the late 19th century.",
"In 1947, Edmond Guillaume's ceiling ornaments were removed from the , where the ''Mona Lisa'' was first displayed in 1966.Around 1950, Louvre architect streamlined the interior decoration of the .",
"In 1953, a new ceiling by Georges Braque was inaugurated in the , next to the .",
"In the late 1960s, seats designed by Pierre Paulin were installed in the .",
"In 1972, the 's museography was remade with lighting from a hung tubular case, designed by Louvre architect with assistance from designers , Joseph-André Motte and Paulin.In 1961, the Finance Ministry accepted to leave the Pavillon de Flore at the southwestern end of the Louvre building, as Verne had recommended in his 1920s plan.",
"New exhibition spaces of sculptures (ground floor) and paintings (first floor) opened there later in the 1960s, on a design by government architect Olivier Lahalle.===Grand Louvre===In 1981, French President François Mitterrand proposed, as one of his Grands Projets, the Grand Louvre plan to relocate the Finance Ministry, until then housed in the North Wing of the Louvre, and thus devote almost the entire Louvre building (except its northwestern tip, which houses the separate Musée des Arts Décoratifs) to the museum which would be correspondingly restructured.",
"In 1984 I. M. Pei, the architect personally selected by Mitterrand, proposed a master plan including an underground entrance space accessed through a glass pyramid in the Louvre's central ''Cour Napoléon''.The open spaces surrounding the pyramid were inaugurated on 15 October 1988, and its underground lobby was opened on 30 March 1989.New galleries of early modern French paintings on the 2nd floor of the Cour Carrée, for which the planning had started before the ''Grand Louvre'', also opened in 1989.Further rooms in the same sequence, designed by Italo Rota, opened on 15 December 1992.On 18 November 1993, Mitterrand inaugurated the next major phase of the Grand Louvre plan: the renovated North (Richelieu) Wing in the former Finance Ministry site, the museum's largest single expansion in its entire history, designed by Pei, his French associate Michel Macary, and Jean-Michel Wilmotte.",
"Further underground spaces known as the Carrousel du Louvre, centered on the Inverted Pyramid and designed by Pei and Macary, had opened in October 1993.Other refurbished galleries, of Italian sculptures and Egyptian antiquities, opened in 1994.The third and last main phase of the plan unfolded mainly in 1997, with new renovated rooms in the Sully and Denon wings.",
"A new entrance at the ''porte des Lions'' opened in 1998, leading on the first floor to new rooms of Spanish paintings.As of 2002, the Louvre's visitor count had doubled from its pre-Grand-Louvre levels.File:Louvre Courtyard, Looking West.jpg|The Napoleon Courtyard and I. M. Pei's pyramid in its center, at dusk.===21st century===Ceiling by Cy Twombly installed in 2010 in the , before the room's redesign in 2021President Jacques Chirac, who had succeeded Mitterrand in 1995, insisted on the return of non-Western art to the Louvre, upon a recommendation from his friend the art collector and dealer .",
"On his initiative, a selection of highlights from the collections of what would become the Musée du Quai Branly – Jacques Chirac was installed on the ground floor of the and opened in 2000, six years ahead of the Musée du Quai Branly itself.The main other initiative in the aftermath of the Grand Louvre project was Chirac's decision to create a new department of Islamic Art, by executive order of 1 August 2003, and to move the corresponding collections from their prior underground location in the Richelieu Wing to a more prominent site in the Denon Wing.",
"That new section opened on 22 September 2012, together with collections from the Roman-era Eastern Mediterranean, with financial support from the Al Waleed bin Talal Foundation and on a design by Mario Bellini and Rudy Ricciotti.In 2007, German painter Anselm Kiefer was invited to create a work for the North stairs of the Perrault Colonnade, ''Athanor''.",
"This decision announces the museum's reengagement with contemporary art under the direction of Henri Loyrette, fifty years after the institution's last order to a contemporary artists, George Braque.In 2010, American painter Cy Twombly completed a new ceiling for the (the former ), a counterpoint to that of Braque installed in 1953 in the adjacent .",
"The room's floor and walls were redesigned in 2021 by Louvre architect Michel Goutal to revert the changes made by his predecessor Albert Ferran in the late 1930s, triggering protests from the Cy Twombly Foundation on grounds that the then-deceased painter's work had been created to fit with the room's prior decoration.That same year, the Louvre commissioned French artist François Morellet to create a work for the Lefuel stairs, on the first floor.",
"For ''L'esprit d'escalier'' Morellet redesigned the stairscase's windows, echoing their original structures but distorting them to create a disturbing optical effect.On 6 June 2014, the Decorative Arts section on the first floor of the Cour Carrée's northern wing opened after comprehensive refurbishment.In January 2020, under the direction of Jean-Luc Martinez, the museum inaugurated a new contemporary art commission, ''L'Onde du Midi'' by Venezuelan kinetic artist Elias Crespin.",
"The sculpture hovers under the Escalier du Midi, the staircase on the South of the Perrault Colonnade.The Louvre, like many other museums and galleries, felt the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the arts and cultural heritage.",
"It was closed for six months during French coronavirus lockdowns and saw visitor numbers plunge to 2.7 million in 2020, from 9.6 million in 2019 and 10.2 million in 2018, which was a record year.Attendance rose to 8.9 million in 2023, 14 percent above 2022, but still short of the record of 10.2 million in 2018.File:Pavillon des Sessions 01.jpg|The 's display of non-Western art from the Musée du Quai Branly, opened in 2000File:Cour Visconti (Louvre) D201512a.jpg|The 's ground floor covered to host the new Islamic Art Department in 2012File:Les arts de lIslam au Louvre (8055981963).jpg|Islamic art display in the covered , 2012File:Louvre, dipartimento di arte islamica, 01.JPG|Underground display of the Islamic Art Department, 2012"
],
[
"Collections",
"The Musée du Louvre owns 615,797 objects of which 482,943 are accessible online since 24 March 2021 and displays 35,000 works of art in eight curatorial departments.===Egyptian antiquities===The Louvre is home to one of the world's most extensive collections of art, including works from diverse cultures and time periods.",
"Visitors can view iconic works like the Mona Lisa and the Winged Victory of Samothrace, as well as pieces from ancient civilizations such as Egypt, Greece, and Rome.",
"The museum also features collections of decorative arts, Islamic art, and sculptures.The department, comprising over 50,000 pieces, includes artifacts from the Nile civilizations which date from 4,000 BC to the 4th century AD.",
"The collection, among the world's largest, overviews Egyptian life spanning Ancient Egypt, the Middle Kingdom, the New Kingdom, Coptic art, and the Roman, Ptolemaic, and Byzantine periods.The department's origins lie in the royal collection, but it was augmented by Napoleon's 1798 expeditionary trip with Dominique Vivant, the future director of the Louvre.",
"After Jean-François Champollion translated the Rosetta Stone, Charles X decreed that an Egyptian Antiquities department be created.",
"Champollion advised the purchase of three collections, formed by Edmé-Antoine Durand, Henry Salt, and Bernardino Drovetti; these additions added 7,000 works.",
"Growth continued via acquisitions by Auguste Mariette, founder of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.",
"Mariette, after excavations at Memphis, sent back crates of archaeological finds including ''The Seated Scribe''.Guarded by the Great Sphinx of Tanis, the collection is housed in more than 20 rooms.",
"Holdings include art, papyrus scrolls, mummies, tools, clothing, jewelry, games, musical instruments, and weapons.",
"Pieces from the ancient period include the ''Gebel el-Arak Knife'' from 3400 BC, ''The Seated Scribe'', and the ''Head of King Djedefre''.",
"Middle Kingdom art, \"known for its gold work and statues\", moved from realism to idealization; this is exemplified by the schist statue of Amenemhatankh and the wooden ''Offering Bearer''.",
"The New Kingdom and Coptic Egyptian sections are deep, but the statue of the goddess Nephthys and the limestone depiction of the goddess Hathor demonstrate New Kingdom sentiment and wealth.Gebel el-Arak knife mp3h8783-cropped.jpg|The ''Gebel el-Arak Knife''; 3300-3200 BC; handle: elephant ivory, blade: flint; length: 25.8 cmFile:The seated scribe-E 3023-IMG 4267-gradient.jpg| ''The Seated Scribe''; 2613–2494 BC; painted limestone and inlaid quartz; height: 53.7 cmSphinx, Louvre 15 June 2014.jpg|The ''Great Sphinx of Tanis''; circa 2600 BC; rose granite; height: 183 cm, width: 154 cm, thickness: 480 cmAkhenathon and Nefertiti E15593 mp3h8771-gradient.jpg|''Akhenaten and Nefertiti''; 1345 BC; painted limestone; height: 22.2 cm, width: 12.3 cm, thickness: 9.8 cm===Near Eastern antiquities===Near Eastern antiquities, the second newest department, dates from 1881 and presents an overview of early Near Eastern civilization and \"first settlements\", before the arrival of Islam.",
"The department is divided into three geographic areas: the Levant, Mesopotamia (Iraq), and Persia (Iran).",
"The collection's development corresponds to archaeological work such as Paul-Émile Botta's 1843 expedition to Khorsabad and the discovery of Sargon II's palace.",
"These finds formed the basis of the Assyrian museum, the precursor to today's department.The museum contains exhibits from Sumer and the city of Akkad, with monuments such as the Prince of Lagash's ''Stele of the Vultures'' from 2450 BC and the stele erected by Naram-Sin, King of Akkad, to celebrate a victory over barbarians in the Zagros Mountains.",
"The Code of Hammurabi, discovered in 1901, displays Babylonian Laws prominently, so that no man could plead their ignorance.",
"The 18th-century BC mural of the ''Investiture of Zimrilim'' and the 25th-century BC ''Statue of Ebih-Il'' found in the ancient city-state of Mari are also on display at the museum.A significant portion of the department covers the ancient Levant, including the ''Sarcophagus of Eshmunazar II'' discovered in 1855, which catalyzed Ernest Renan's 1860 ''Mission de Phénicie''.",
"It contains one of the world's largest and most comprehensive collections of Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions.",
"The section also covers North African Punic antiquities (Punic = Western Phoenician), given the significant French presence in the region in the 19th century, with early finds including the 1843 discovery of the Ain Nechma inscriptions.The Persian portion of Louvre contains work from the archaic period, like the ''Funerary Head'' and the Persian ''Archers of Darius I'', and rare objects from Persepolis.Eshmunazar II sarcophagus (cleaned up).jpg|Sarcophagus of Eshmunazar II, one of only three Ancient Egyptian sarcophagi found outside Egypt, and the first Phoenician inscription discovered in PhoeniciaCup Idalion Louvre N3455.jpg|Phoenician metal bowls from CyprusEbih-Il Louvre AO17551 n01.jpg|The ''Statue of Ebih-Il''; circa 2400 BC; gypsum, schist, shells and lapis lazuli; height: 52.5 cmP1050763 Louvre code Hammurabi face rwk.JPG|The ''Code of Hammurabi''; 1755–1750 BC; basalt; height: 225 cm, width: 79 cm, thickness: 47 cmHuman headed winged bull profile.jpg|Assyrian lamassu (Human-headed winged bull); circa 713–716 BC; 4.2 x 4.4 x 1 mImmortels - dynamosquito.jpg|Frieze of archers, from the Palace of Darius at Susa; circa 510 BC; bricksSidon Mithraeum 'Collection Péretié', Louvre (2014-02-02a).jpg|Statues from the Sidon Mithraeum===Greek, Etruscan, and Roman===Greek antiquities in Room 11The Greek, Etruscan, and Roman department displays pieces from the Mediterranean Basin dating from the Neolithic to the 6th century.",
"The collection spans from the Cycladic period to the decline of the Roman Empire.",
"This department is one of the museum's oldest, and contains works acquired by Francis I.",
"Initially, the collection focused on marble sculptures, such as the ''Venus de Milo''.",
"Works such as the ''Apollo Belvedere'' arrived during the Napoleonic Wars, of which some were returned after Napoleon I's fall in 1815.Other works, such as the Borghese Vase, were bought by Napoleon.",
"Later in the 19th century, the Louvre acquired works including vases from the Durand collection and bronzes.The archaic is demonstrated by jewellery and pieces such as the limestone Lady of Auxerre, from 640 BC; and the cylindrical ''Hera of Samos'', c. 570–560 BC.",
"After the 4th century BC, focus on the human form increased, exemplified by the ''Borghese Gladiator''.",
"The Louvre holds masterpieces from the Hellenistic era, including The ''Winged Victory of Samothrace'' (190 BC) and the Venus de Milo, symbolic of classical art.",
"The long ''Galerie Campana'' displays an outstanding collection of more than one thousand Greek potteries.",
"In the galleries paralleling the Seine, much of the museum's Roman sculpture is displayed.",
"The Roman portraiture is representative of that genre; examples include the portraits of Agrippa and Annius Verus; among the bronzes is the Greek Apollo of Piombino.Head figurine Spedos Louvre Ma2709.jpg|Cycladic head of a woman; 27th century BC; marble; height: 27 cmCrater Actaeon Louvre CA3482.jpg|Volute krater that depicts Actaeon's death; circa 450–440 BC; ceramic; height: 51 cm, diameter: 33.1 cmVictoire de Samothrace - vue de trois-quart gauche, gros plan de la statue (2).JPG|The ''Winged Victory of Samothrace''; 200–190 BC; Parian marble; 244 cmFront views of the Venus de Milo.jpg|''Venus de Milo''; 130–100 BC; marble; height: 203 cmLas Incantadas (Louvre) 4.jpg|Las Incantadas, sculptures from a portico that adorned the Roman Forum of Thessalonica, 150-230 AD===Islamic art===The Islamic art collection, the museum's newest, spans \"thirteen centuries and three continents\".",
"These exhibits, of ceramics, glass, metalware, wood, ivory, carpet, textiles, and miniatures, include more than 5,000 works and 1,000 shards.",
"Originally part of the decorative arts department, the holdings became separate in 2003.Among the works are the ''Pyxide d'al-Mughira'', a 10th century ivory box from Andalusia; the ''Baptistery of Saint-Louis'', an engraved brass basin from the 13th or 14th century Mamluk period; and the 10th century ''Shroud of Saint-Josse'' from Iran.",
"The collection contains three pages of the ''Shahnameh'', an epic book of poems by Ferdowsi in Persian, and a Syrian metalwork named the ''Barberini Vase''.",
"In September 2019, a new and improved Islamic art department was opened by Princess Lamia bint Majed Al Saud.",
"The new department exhibits 3,000 pieces were collected from Spain to India via the Arabian peninsula dating from the 7th to the 19th centuries.Spagna, cordoba, pisside col nome di al-mughina, avorio, X sec.",
"04.JPG|The ''Pyxis of al-Mughira''; 10th century (maybe 968); ivory; 15 x 8 cmTile with bismillah Louvre AD28001a.jpg|Iranian tile with bismillah; turn of the 13th-14th century; molded ceramic, luster glaze and glazeSiria, bacile detto battistero di s.luigi, 1320-40 ca, firmato muhammad ibn al-zayn, con restauri del 1821, ottone incr.",
"d'oro, arge e pasta nera 01.JPG|The ''Baptistère de Saint Louis''; by Muhammad ibn al-Zayn; 1320–1340; hammering, engraving, inlay in brass, gold, and silver; 50.2 x 22.2 cmDoor Louvre AA320 n01.jpg|Door; 15th-16th century; sculpted, painted and gilded walnut wood===Sculptures===The Cour Marly of the Louvre, where many French sculptures are exhibitedThe sculpture department consists of works created before 1850 not belonging in the Etruscan, Greek, and Roman department.",
"The Louvre has been a repository of sculpted material since its time as a palace; however, only ancient architecture was displayed until 1824, except for Michelangelo's ''Dying Slave'' and ''Rebellious Slave''.",
"Initially the collection included only 100 pieces, the rest of the royal sculpture collection being at Versailles.",
"It remained small until 1847, when Léon Laborde was given control of the department.",
"Laborde developed the medieval section and purchased the first such statues and sculptures in the collection, ''King Childebert'' and ''stanga door'', respectively.",
"The collection was part of the Department of Antiquities but was given autonomy in 1871 under Louis Courajod, a director who organized a wider representation of French works.",
"In 1986, all post-1850 works were relocated to the new Musée d'Orsay.",
"The Grand Louvre project separated the department into two exhibition spaces; the French collection is displayed in the Richelieu Wing, and foreign works in the Denon Wing.The collection's overview of French sculpture contains Romanesque works such as the 11th-century ''Daniel in the Lions' Den'' and the 12th-century ''Virgin of Auvergne''.",
"In the 16th century, Renaissance influence caused French sculpture to become more restrained, as seen in Jean Goujon's bas-reliefs, and Germain Pilon's ''Descent from the Cross'' and ''Resurrection of Christ''.",
"The 17th and 18th centuries are represented by Gian Lorenzo Bernini's 1640–1 Bust of Cardinal Richelieu, Étienne Maurice Falconet's ''Woman Bathing'' and ''Amour menaçant'', and François Anguier's obelisks.",
"Neoclassical works includes Antonio Canova's ''Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss'' (1787).",
"The 18th and 19th centuries are represented by the French sculptors like Alfred Barye and Émile Guillemin.Tomb of Philippe Pot, Right Side - Louvre, Room 10.jpg|The ''Tomb of Philippe Pot''; 1477 and 1483; limestone, paint, gold and lead; height: 181 cm, width: 260 cm, depth: 167 cmFame riding Pegasus Coysevox Louvre MR1824.jpg|''The King's Fame Riding Pegasus''; by Antoine Coysevox; 1701–1702; Carrara marble; height: 3.15 m, width: 2.91 m, depth: 1.28 mFile:Louvre seine marne mr1801.jpg|Group sculpture; by Nicolas Coustou; 1701–1712; marble; height: 2.44 mFile:Louis XV Coustou Louvre MR1811.jpg|Louis XV as Jupiter; 1731; probably marble; height: 1.95 m, width: 1.20 m, depth: 68 cm===Decorative arts===The Objets d'art collection spans the time from the Middle Ages to the mid-19th century.",
"The department began as a subset of the sculpture department, based on royal property and the transfer of work from the Basilique Saint-Denis, the burial ground of French monarchs that held the ''Coronation Sword of the Kings of France''.",
"Among the budding collection's most prized works were pietre dure vases and bronzes.",
"The Durand collection's 1825 acquisition added \"ceramics, enamels, and stained glass\", and 800 pieces were given by Pierre Révoil.",
"The onset of Romanticism rekindled interest in Renaissance and Medieval artwork, and the Sauvageot donation expanded the department with 1,500 middle-age and faïence works.",
"In 1862, the Campana collection added gold jewelry and maiolicas, mainly from the 15th and 16th centuries.The works are displayed on the Richelieu Wing's first floor and in the Apollo Gallery, named by the painter Charles Le Brun, who was commissioned by Louis XIV (the Sun King) to decorate the space in a solar theme.",
"The medieval collection contains the coronation crown of Louis XIV, Charles V's sceptre, and the 12th century ''porphyry vase''.",
"The Renaissance art holdings include Giambologna's bronze ''Nessus and Deianira'' and the tapestry ''Maximillian's Hunt''.",
"From later periods, highlights include Madame de Pompadour's Sèvres vase collection and Napoleon III's apartments.In September 2000, the Louvre Museum dedicated the Gilbert Chagoury and Rose-Marie Chagoury Gallery to display tapestries donated by the Chagourys, including a 16th-century six-part tapestry suite, sewn with gold and silver threads representing sea divinities, which was commissioned in Paris for Colbert de Seignelay, Secretary of State for the Navy.Armoire Louvre OA 6968.jpg|Henry II style wardrobe; ; walnut and oak, partially gilded and painted; height: 2.06 m, width: 1.50 m, depth: 0.60 mMusée du Louvre - Département des Objets d'art - Salle 34 -2.JPG|Louis XIV style cabinet on stand; by André Charles Boulle; –1710; oak frame, resinous wood and walnut, ebony veneer, tortoiseshell, brass and pewter marquetry, and ormoluCommode de la comtesse du Barry (Louvre, OA 11293).jpg|Louis XVI style commode of Madame du Barry; 1772; oak frame, veneer of pearwood, rosewood and kingwood, soft-paste Sèvres porcelain, gilded bronze, white marble, and glass; height: 0.87 m, width: 1.19 m, depth: 0.48 mBaromètre - thermomètre (Louvre, OA 10545).jpg|Louis XVI style barometer-thermometer; ; soft-paste Sèvres porcelain, enamel, and ormolu; height: 1 m, width: 0.27 m===Painting===''Mona Lisa''; by Leonardo da Vinci, 1503–1506, perhaps continuing until 1517; oil on poplar panel; 77 cm × 53 cmThe painting collection has more than 7,500 works from the 13th century to 1848 and is managed by 12 curators who oversee the collection's display.",
"Nearly two-thirds are by French artists, and more than 1,200 are Northern European.",
"The Italian paintings compose most of the remnants of Francis I and Louis XIV's collections, others are unreturned artwork from the Napoleon era, and some were bought.",
"The collection began with Francis, who acquired works from Italian masters such as Raphael and Michelangelo and brought Leonardo da Vinci to his court.",
"After the French Revolution, the Royal Collection formed the nucleus of the Louvre.",
"When the ''d'Orsay'' train station was converted into the Musée d'Orsay in 1986, the collection was split, and pieces completed after the 1848 Revolution were moved to the new museum.",
"French and Northern European works are in the Richelieu Wing and ''Cour Carrée''; Spanish and Italian paintings are on the first floor of the Denon Wing.Exemplifying the French School are the early ''Avignon Pietà'' of Enguerrand Quarton; the anonymous painting of ''King Jean le Bon'' ( 1360), possibly the oldest independent portrait in Western painting to survive from the postclassical era; Hyacinthe Rigaud's ''Louis XIV''; Jacques-Louis David's ''The Coronation of Napoleon''; Théodore Géricault's ''The Raft of the Medusa''; and Eugène Delacroix's ''Liberty Leading the People''.",
"Nicolas Poussin, the Le Nain brothers, Philippe de Champaigne, Le Brun, La Tour, Watteau, Fragonard, Ingres, Corot, and Delacroix are well represented.Northern European works include Johannes Vermeer's ''The Lacemaker'' and ''The Astronomer''; Caspar David Friedrich's ''The Tree of Crows''; Rembrandt's ''The Supper at Emmaus'', ''Bathsheba at Her Bath'', and ''The Slaughtered Ox''.The Italian holdings are notable, particularly the Renaissance collection.",
"The works include Andrea Mantegna and Giovanni Bellini's ''Calvary''s, which reflect realism and detail \"meant to depict the significant events of a greater spiritual world\".",
"The High Renaissance collection includes Leonardo da Vinci's ''Mona Lisa'', ''Virgin and Child with St. Anne'', ''St.",
"John the Baptist'', and ''Madonna of the Rocks''.",
"The Baroque collection includes Giambattista Pittoni's ''The Continence of Scipio'', ''Susanna and the Elders'', ''Bacchus and Ariadne'', ''Mars and Venus'', and others Caravaggio is represented by ''The Fortune Teller'' and ''Death of the Virgin''.",
"From 16th century Venice, the Louvre displays Titian's ''Le Concert Champetre'', ''The Entombment,'' and ''The Crowning with Thorns''.The La Caze Collection, a bequest to the Musée du Louvre in 1869 by Louis La Caze, was the largest contribution of a person in the history of the Louvre.",
"La Caze gave 584 paintings of his personal collection to the museum.",
"The bequest included Antoine Watteau's Commedia dell'arte player of Pierrot (\"Gilles\").",
"In 2007, this bequest was the topic of the exhibition \"1869: Watteau, Chardin... entrent au Louvre.",
"La collection La Caze\".Some of the best known paintings of the museum have been digitized by the French Center for Research and Restoration of the Museums of France.Quentin Massys 001.jpg|''The Money Changer and His Wife''; by Quentin Massys; 1514; oil on panel; 70.5 × 67 cmGiuseppe Arcimboldo - Spring, 1573.jpg|''Spring''; by Giuseppe Arcimboldo; 1573; oil on canvas; 76 × 64 cmSuzanne et les vieillards - Giovanni Battista Pittoni - Q18573893.jpg|''Susanna and the Elders''; by Giambattista Pittoni; 1720; oil on panel; 37 × 46 cmLa Continence de Scipion - Giovanni Battista Pittoni - Q18573892.jpg|''The Continence of Scipio''; by Giambattista Pittoni; 1733; oil on panel; 96 × 56 cmFrançois boucher, diana che esce dal bagno, 1742, 01.jpg|''Diana after the Bath''; by François Boucher; 1742; oil on canvas; 73 × 56 cmJacques-Louis David, Le Serment des Horaces.jpg|''Oath of the Horatii''; by Jacques-Louis David; 1784; oil on canvas; height: 330 cm, width: 425 cmJacques-Louis David 006.jpg|''The Coronation of Napoleon'' by Jacques-Louis DavidVirgin of the Rocks (Louvre).jpg| Leonardo da Vinci - Virgin and Child with St Anne C2RMF retouched.jpg|===Prints and drawings===The prints and drawings department encompasses works on paper.",
"The origins of the collection were the 8,600 works in the Royal Collection (''Cabinet du Roi''), which were increased via state appropriation, purchases such as the 1,200 works from Fillipo Baldinucci's collection in 1806, and donations.",
"The department opened on 5 August 1797, with 415 pieces displayed in the Galerie d'Apollon.",
"The collection is organized into three sections: the core ''Cabinet du Roi'', 14,000 royal copper printing-plates, and the donations of Edmond de Rothschild, which include 40,000 prints, 3,000 drawings, and 5,000 illustrated books.",
"The holdings are displayed in the Pavillon de Flore; due to the fragility of the paper medium, only a portion are displayed at one time.Trois têtes d'hommes en relation avec le lion.jpg|Three lion-like heads; by Charles Le Brun; ; black chalk, pen and ink, brush and gray wash, white gouache on paper; 21.7 × 32.7 cmAntoine Coypel - Bacchus.jpg|''Bacchus''; by Antoine Coypel; black chalk, white highlights, and sanguine; 42.7 × 37.7 cmWATTEAU Antoine - Huit études de têtes de femme, et une tête d'homme.jpg|''Studies of Women's Heads and a Man's Head''; by Antoine Watteau; first half of the 18th century; sanguine, black chalk and white chalk on gray paper; 28 × 38.1 cmEdgar Germain Hilaire Degas 018.jpg|''Danseuse sur la scène''; by Edgar Degas; pastel; 58 × 42 cmMatthias Grünewald - Smiling Woman - WGA10822.jpg|Portrait of elderly woman, by Matthias GrünewaldHans Holbein d. J.",
"- Head of a Woman - WGA11590.jpg|Portrait of a young woman, by Hans HolbeinAndrea del Sarto - Head of a Young Man - WGA0384.jpg|Head of a man, by Andrea del SartoBiagio Pupini - Vierge à l'Enfant.jpg|Virgin and Child, by Biagio Pupini"
],
[
"Management, administration, partnerships",
"Leonardo da Vinci's ''Mona Lisa'' is the Louvre's most popular attraction.Restoration workshops in the LouvreThe Louvre is owned by the French government.",
"Since the 1990s, its management and governance have been made more independent.",
"Since 2003, the museum has been required to generate funds for projects.",
"By 2006, government funds had dipped from 75 percent of the total budget to 62 percent.",
"Every year, the Louvre now raises as much as it gets from the state, about €122 million.",
"The government pays for operating costs (salaries, safety, and maintenance), while the rest – new wings, refurbishments, acquisitions – is up to the museum to finance.",
"A further €3 million to €5 million a year is raised by the Louvre from exhibitions that it curates for other museums, while the host museum keeps the ticket money.",
"As the Louvre became a point of interest in the book ''The Da Vinci Code'' and the 2006 film based on the book, the museum earned $2.5 million by allowing filming in its galleries.",
"In 2008, the French government provided $180 million of the Louvre's yearly $350 million budget; the remainder came from private contributions and ticket sales.The Louvre employs a staff of 2,000 led by Director Jean-Luc Martinez, who reports to the French Ministry of Culture and Communications.",
"Martinez replaced Henri Loyrette in April 2013.Under Loyrette, who replaced Pierre Rosenberg in 2001, the Louvre has undergone policy changes that allow it to lend and borrow more works than before.",
"In 2006, it loaned 1,300 works, which enabled it to borrow more foreign works.",
"From 2006 to 2009, the Louvre lent artwork to the High Museum of Art in Atlanta, Georgia, and received a $6.9 million payment to be used for renovations.In 2009, Minister of culture Frédéric Mitterrand approved a plan that would have created a storage facility northwest of Paris to hold objects from the Louvre and two other national museums in Paris's flood zone, the Musée du Quai Branly and the Musée d'Orsay; the plan was later scrapped.",
"In 2013, his successor Aurélie Filippetti announced that the Louvre would move more than 250,000 works of art held in a basement storage area in Liévin; the cost of the project, estimated at €60 million, will be split between the region (49%) and the Louvre (51%).",
"The Louvre will be the sole owner and manager of the store.",
"In July 2015, a team led by British firm Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners was selected to design the complex, which will have light-filled work spaces under one vast, green roof.In 2012, the Louvre and the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco announced a five-year collaboration on exhibitions, publications, art conservation and educational programming.",
"The €98.5 million expansion of the Islamic Art galleries in 2012 received state funding of €31 million, as well as €17 million from the Alwaleed Bin Talal Foundation founded by the eponymous Saudi prince.",
"The Republic of Azerbaijan, the Emir of Kuwait, the Sultan of Oman and King Mohammed VI of Morocco donated in total €26 million.",
"In addition, the opening of the Louvre Abu Dhabi is supposed to provide €400 million over the course of 30 years for its use of the museum's brand.",
"Loyrette has tried to improve weak parts of the collection through income generated from loans of art and by guaranteeing that \"20% of admissions receipts will be taken annually for acquisitions\".",
"He has more administrative independence for the museum and achieved 90 percent of galleries to be open daily, as opposed to 80 percent previously.",
"He oversaw the creation of extended hours and free admission on Friday nights and an increase in the acquisition budget to $36 million from $4.5 million.In March 2018, an exhibition of dozens of artworks and relics belonging to France's Louvre Museum was opened to visitors in Tehran, as a result of an agreement between Iranian and French presidents in 2016.In the Louvre, two departments were allocated to the antiquities of the Iranian civilization, and the managers of the two departments visited Tehran.",
"Relics belonging to Ancient Egypt, Rome and Mesopotamia as well as French royal items were showcased at the Tehran exhibition.Iran's National Museum building was designed and constructed by French architect André Godard.",
"Following its time in Tehran, the exhibition is set to be held in the Khorasan Grand Museum in Mashhad, northeastern Iran in June 2018.On the 500th anniversary of Leonardo da Vinci's death, the Louvre held the largest ever single exhibit of his work, from 24 October 2019 to 24 February 2020.The event included over a hundred items: paintings, drawings and notebooks.",
"A full 11 of the fewer than 20 paintings that Da Vinci completed in his lifetime were displayed.",
"Five of them are owned by the Louvre, but the Mona Lisa was not included because it is in such great demand among visitors to the Louvre museum; the work remained on display in its gallery.",
"Salvator Mundi was also not included since the Saudi owner did not agree to move the work from its hiding place.",
"Vitruvian Man, however, was on display, after a successful legal battle with its owner, the Galleria dell'Accademia in Venice.In 2021, a Renaissance era ceremonial helmet and breastplate stolen from the museum in 1983 were recovered.",
"The museum noted that the 1983 theft had \"deeply troubled all the staff at the time.\"",
"There are few publicly accessible details on the theft itself.The current director of the Louvre is Laurence des Cars, who was selected by French president Emmanuel Macron in 2021.She is the first women to hold this position.During the COVID-19 pandemic, the Louvre has launched a digital platform where most of its works, including those that are not on display, can be seen.",
"The database includes more than 482,000 illustrated records, representing 75% of the Louvre's collections.",
"The museum was visited by over 7.6 million visitors in 2022, up 170 percent from 2021, but still below the 10.8 million visitors in 2018 before the COVID-19 pandemic.In 2023, the Louvre Museum in Paris implemented a significant change in its pricing policy, marking the first price increase since 2017.The decision to raise ticket prices by 30% is part of a broader strategy aimed at supporting free entry during the Olympics and effectively managing the anticipated crowd.",
"Director Laurence des Cars has introduced measures to regulate attendance, including capping daily visitors at 30,000 and planning a new entrance to alleviate congestion.",
"These efforts are geared towards ensuring a top-notch experience for art enthusiasts during the Olympic Games, as the museum expects to host approximately 8.7 million visitors this year, with a remarkable 80% seeking to view the renowned Mona Lisa."
],
[
"Archaeological research",
"List of excavations that benefited the Louvre (Rotonde d'Apollon)The Louvre's ancient art collections are to a significant extent the product of excavations, some of which the museum sponsored under various legal regimes over time, often as a companion to France's diplomacy and/or colonial enterprises.",
"In the , a carved marble panel lists a number of such campaigns, led by: * Louis-François-Sébastien Fauvel in Greece (1818)* Jean-François Champollion in Egypt (1828–1829)* Guillaume-Abel Blouet and Léon-Jean-Joseph Dubois with the Morea expedition in Greece (1829)* in Algeria (1842–1845)* Paul-Émile Botta in the Nineveh Plains (1845)* in Cyrenaica (1850)* Auguste Mariette in Egypt (1850–1854)* Victor Langlois in Cilicia (1852)* Ernest Renan with the Mission de Phénicie following the 1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus (1860–1861)* Léon Heuzey and Honoré Daumet in Macedonia (1861)* Eugène-Melchior de Vogüé and Edmond Duthoit in Cyprus (1863–1866)* Charles Champoiseau in Samothrace (1863)* in Thessaloniki and Thasos (1864–1865)* Olivier Rayet and Albert-Félix-Théophile Thomas in Ionia (1872–1873)* Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau in Palestine (1873)* in Algeria and Tunisia (1874)* Ernest de Sarzec in Tello / ancient Girsu, Mesopotamia (1877–1900)* Paul Girard in Greece (1881)* Edmond Pottier, Salomon Reinach and Alphonse Veyries in Myrina (Aeolis) (1872–1873)* Marcel-Auguste Dieulafoy and Jane Dieulafoy in Susa, Persia (1884–1886)* Charles Huber in Tayma, Arabia (1885)* Alfred Charles Auguste Foucher in India and present-day Pakistan (1895–1897)* Arthur Engel and in Spain (1897)* Jacques de Morgan in Susa (1897)* Gaston Cros in Tello / ancient Girsu (1902)* Paul Pelliot in Chinese Turkestan (1907–1909)* Maurice Pézard in Northern Palestine (1923)* Georges Aaron Bénédite in Egypt (1926)* François Thureau-Dangin in Northern Syria (1929)* Henri de Genouillac in Mesopotamia (1912, 1929)* the Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale in Cairo, created in 1880The rest of the plaque combines donors of archaeological items, many of whom were archaeologists themselves, and other archaeologists whose excavations contributed to the Louvre's collections: * in France (1899)* Édouard Piette in France (1902)* in France (1899–1906)* Henri and Jacques de Morgan in Susa (1909–1910)* (1906–1920) and his daughter Germaine in France (1976) * in France (1929)* and his wife Suzanne in France (1935)* Fernand Bisson de la Roque in Egypt (1922–1950)* Bernard Bruyère in Egypt (1920–1951)* Raymond Weill in Egypt (1952)* Pierre Montet in Egypt (1921–1956)* in the Indus Valley and Afghanistan (1950–1973)* in France (1973)* André Parrot in Mari, Syria (1931–1974)* Claude Frédéric-Armand Schaeffer in Ugarit, Syria (1929–1970)* Roman Ghirshman in Iraq and Iran (1931–1972)"
],
[
"Satellites and offshoots",
"Several museums in and outside France have been or are placed under the Louvre's administrative authority or linked to it through exclusive partnerships, while not being located in the Louvre Palace.",
"Since 2019, the Louvre has also maintained a large art storage and research facility in the Northern French town of Liévin, the , which is not open to the public.===Musée de Cluny (1926–1977)===In February 1926, the Musée de Cluny, whose creation dates back to the 19th century, was brought under the aegis of the Louvre's department of decorative arts ().",
"That affiliation was terminated in 1977.===Musée du Jeu de Paume (1947–1986)===The building in the Tuileries Garden, initially intended as a sports venue, was repurposed from 1909 as an art gallery.",
"In 1947, it became the exhibition space for the Louvre's collections of late 19th and early 20th paintings, most prominently Impressionism, as the Louvre Palace was lacking space to display them, and was consequently brought under direct management by the Louvre's .",
"In 1986, these collections were transferred to the newly created Musée d'Orsay.===Gypsothèque du Louvre (since 2001)===The (plaster cast gallery) of the Louvre is a collection of plaster casts that was formed in 1970 by the reunion of the corresponding inventories of the Louvre, the and the Art and Archaeology Institute of the Sorbonne University, the latter two following depredations during the May 68 student unrest.",
"Initially called the from 1970 to 1978, the project was subsequently left unfinished and only came to fruition after being brought under the Louvre's management by ministerial decision in 2001.It is located in the Petite Écurie, a dependency of Versailles Palace, and has been open to the public since 2012.===Musée Delacroix (since 2004)===The small museum located in Eugène Delacroix's former workshop in central Paris, created in the 1930s, has been placed under management by the Louvre since 2004.===Louvre-Lens (since 2012)===The Louvre-Lens follows a May 2003 initiative by then culture minister Jean-Jacques Aillagon to promote cultural projects outside of Paris that would make the riches of major Parisian institutions available to a broader French public, including a satellite () of the Louvre.",
"After several rounds of competition, a former mining site in the town of Lens was selected for its location and announced by Prime Minister Jean-Pierre Raffarin on 2004-11-29.Japanese architects SANAA and landscape architect Catherine Mosbach were respectively selected in September 2005 to design the museum building and garden.",
"Inaugurated by President François Hollande on 2012-12-04, the Louvre-Lens is run by the Hauts-de-France region under a contract () with the Louvre for art loans and brand use.",
"Its main attraction is an exhibition of roughly 200 artworks from the Louvre on a rotating basis, presented chronologically in a single large room (the or \"gallery of time\") that transcends the geographical and object-type divisions along which the Parisian Louvre's displays are organized.",
"The Louvre-Lens has been successful at attracting around 500,000 visitors per year until the COVID-19 pandemic.===Louvre Abu Dhabi (since 2017)===The Louvre Abu Dhabi is a separate entity from the Louvre, but the two entities have a multifaceted contractual relationship that allows the Emirati museum to use the Louvre name until 2037, and to exhibit artworks from the Louvre until 2027.It was inaugurated on 2017-11-08 and opened to the public three days later.",
"A 30-year agreement, signed in early 2007 by French Culture Minister Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres and Sheik Sultan bin Tahnoon Al Nahyan, establishes that Abu Dhabi shall pay €832,000,000 (US$1.3 billion) in exchange for the Louvre name use, managerial advice, art loans, and special exhibitions.",
"The Louvre Abu Dhabi is located on Saadiyat Island and was designed by the French architect Jean Nouvel and engineering firm of Buro Happold.",
"It occupies and is covered by an iconic metallic dome designed to cast rays of light mimicking sunlight passing through date palm fronds in an oasis.",
"The French art loans, expected to total between 200 and 300 artworks during a 10-year period, come from multiple museums, including the Louvre, the Centre Georges Pompidou, the Musée d'Orsay, Versailles, the Guimet Museum, the Musée Rodin, and the Musée du quai Branly."
],
[
"Controversy",
"The Louvre is involved in controversies that surround cultural property seized under Napoleon I, as well as during World War II by the Nazis.",
"In the early 2010s, workers' rights in the construction of Louvre Abu Dhabi were also a point of controversy for the museum.=== Napoleonic looting ===Napoleon's campaigns acquired Italian pieces by treaties, as war reparations, and Northern European pieces as spoils as well as some antiquities excavated in Egypt, though the vast majority of the latter were seized as war reparations by the British army and are now part of collections of the British Museum.",
"On the other hand, the Dendera zodiac is, like the Rosetta Stone, claimed by Egypt even though it was acquired in 1821, before the Egyptian Anti-export legislation of 1835.The Louvre administration has thus argued in favor of retaining this item despite requests by Egypt for its return.",
"The museum participates too in arbitration sessions held via UNESCO's Committee for Promoting the Return of Cultural Property to Its Countries of Origin.",
"The museum consequently returned in 2009 five Egyptian fragments of frescoes (30 cm x 15 cm each) whose existence of the tomb of origin had only been brought to the authorities attention in 2008, eight to five years after their good-faith acquisition by the museum from two private collections and after the necessary respect of the procedure of ''déclassement'' from French public collections before the Commission scientifique nationale des collections des musées de France.=== Nazi looting ===During Nazi occupation, thousands of artworks were stolen.",
"But after the war, 61,233 articles on more than 150,000 seized artworks returned to France and were assigned to the Office des Biens Privés.",
"In 1949, it entrusted 2,130 unclaimed pieces (including 1,001 paintings) to the Direction des Musées de France in order to keep them under appropriate conditions of conservation until their restitution and meanwhile classified them as MNRs (Musées Nationaux Recuperation or, in English, the National Museums of Recovered Artwork).",
"Some 10% to 35% of the pieces are believed to come from Jewish spoliations and until the identification of their rightful owners, which declined at the end of the 1960s, they are registered indefinitely on separate inventories from the museum's collections.They were exhibited in 1946 and shown all together to the public during four years (1950–1954) in order to allow rightful claimants to identify their properties, then stored or displayed, according to their interest, in several French museums including the Louvre.",
"From 1951 to 1965, about 37 pieces were restituted.",
"Since November 1996, the partly illustrated catalogue of 1947–1949 has been accessible online and completed.",
"In 1997, Prime Minister Alain Juppé initiated the Mattéoli Commission, headed by Jean Mattéoli, to investigate the matter and according to the government, the Louvre is in charge of 678 pieces of artwork still unclaimed by their rightful owners.",
"During the late 1990s, the comparison of the American war archives, which had not been done before, with the French and German ones as well as two court cases which finally settled some of the heirs' rights (Gentili di Giuseppe and Rosenberg families) allowed more accurate investigations.",
"Since 1996, the restitutions, according sometimes to less formal criteria, concerned 47 more pieces (26 paintings, with 6 from the Louvre including a then displayed Tiepolo), until the last claims of French owners and their heirs ended again in 2006.According to Serge Klarsfeld, since the now complete and constant publicity which the artworks got in 1996, the majority of the French Jewish community is nevertheless in favour of the return to the normal French civil rule of ''prescription acquisitive'' of any unclaimed good after another long period of time and consequently to their ultimate integration into the common French heritage instead of their transfer to foreign institutions like during World War II.=== Construction of Louvre Abu Dhabi ===In 2011, over 130 international artists urged a boycott of the new Guggenheim museum as well as Louvre Abu Dhabi, citing reports, since 2009, of abuses of foreign construction workers on Saadiyat Island, including the arbitrary withholding of wages, unsafe working conditions, and failure of companies to pay or reimburse the steep recruitment fees being charged to laborers.",
"According to ''Architectural Record'', Abu Dhabi has comprehensive labor laws to protect the workers, but they are not conscientiously implemented or enforced.",
"In 2010, the Guggenheim Foundation placed on its website a joint statement with Abu Dhabi's Tourism Development and Investment Company (TDIC) recognizing the following workers' rights issues, among others: health and safety of the workers; their access to their passports and other documents that the employers have been retaining to guaranty that they stay on the job; using a general contractor that agrees to obey the labor laws; maintaining an independent site monitor; and ending the system that has been generally used in the Persian Gulf region of requiring workers to reimburse recruitment fees.In 2013, ''The Observer'' reported that conditions for the workers at the Louvre and New York University construction sites on Saadiyat amounted to \"modern-day slavery\".",
"In 2014, the Guggenheim's Director, Richard Armstrong, said that he believed that living conditions for the workers at the Louvre project were now good and that \"many fewer\" of them were having their passports confiscated.",
"He stated that the main issue then remaining was the recruitment fees charged to workers by agents who recruit them.",
"Later in 2014, the Guggenheim's architect, Gehry, commented that working with the Abu Dhabi officials to implement the law to improve the labor conditions at the museum's site is \"a moral responsibility.\"",
"He encouraged the TDIC to build additional worker housing and proposed that the contractor cover the cost of the recruitment fees.",
"In 2012, TDIC engaged PricewaterhouseCoopers as an independent monitor required to issue reports every quarter.",
"Labor lawyer Scott Horton told ''Architectural Record'' that he hoped the Guggenheim project will influence the treatment of workers on other Saadiyat sites and will \"serve as a model for doing things right.\""
],
[
"See also",
"* Center for Research and Restoration of Museums of France* List of museums in Paris* Musée de la mode et du textile* List of tourist attractions in Paris* List of largest art museums"
],
[
"References",
"=== Works cited ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Digital Collection* Louvre's 360x180 degree panorama virtual tour* Louvre virtual tours"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Love"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Love''' encompasses a range of strong and positive emotional and mental states, from the most sublime virtue or good habit, the deepest interpersonal affection, to the simplest pleasure.",
"An example of this range of meanings is that the love of a mother differs from the love of a spouse, which differs from the love for food.",
"Most commonly, love refers to a feeling of strong attraction and emotional attachment.Love is considered to be both positive and negative, with its virtue representing human kindness, compassion, and affection—\"the unselfish, loyal and benevolent concern for the good of another\"—and its vice representing a human moral flaw akin to vanity, selfishness, amour-propre, and egotism, potentially leading people into a type of mania, obsessiveness, or codependency.",
"It may also describe compassionate and affectionate actions towards other humans, oneself, or animals.",
"In its various forms, love acts as a major facilitator of interpersonal relationships and, owing to its central psychological importance, is one of the most common themes in the creative arts.",
"Love has been postulated to be a function that keeps human beings together against menaces and to facilitate the continuation of the species.Ancient Greek philosophers identified six forms of love: familial love (), friendly love or platonic love (), romantic love (), self-love (), guest love (), and divine or unconditional love ().",
"Modern authors have distinguished further varieties of love: unrequited love, empty love, companionate love, consummate love, infatuated love, amour de soi, and courtly love.",
"Numerous cultures have also distinguished , , , , , , , , , , Charity, (and other variants or symbioses of these states), as culturally unique words, definitions, or expressions of love in regard to specified \"moments\" currently lacking in the English language.The color wheel theory of love defines three primary, three secondary, and nine tertiary love styles, describing them in terms of the traditional color wheel.",
"The triangular theory of love suggests intimacy, passion, and commitment are core components of love.",
"Love has additional religious or spiritual meaning.",
"This diversity of uses and meanings, combined with the complexity of the feelings involved, makes love unusually difficult to consistently define, compared to other emotional states."
],
[
"Definitions",
"The word \"love\" can have a variety of related but distinct meanings in different contexts.",
"Many other languages use multiple words to express some of the different concepts that in English are denoted as \"love\"; one example is the plurality of Greek concepts for \"love\" (, , , ).",
"Cultural differences in conceptualizing love make it difficult to establish a universal definition.Although the nature or essence of love is a subject of frequent debate, different aspects of the word can be clarified by determining what is ''not'' love (antonyms of \"love\").",
"Love, as a general expression of positive sentiment (a stronger form of ''like''), is commonly contrasted with hate (or neutral apathy).",
"As a less sexual and more emotionally intimate form of romantic attachment, love is commonly contrasted with lust.",
"As an interpersonal relationship with romantic overtones, love is sometimes contrasted with friendship, although the word ''love'' is often applied to close friendships or platonic love.",
"(Further possible ambiguities come with usages like \"girlfriend\", \"boyfriend\" and \"just good friends\".",
")Huastec origin).",
"Museum of Anthropology in Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico Abstractly discussed, ''love'' usually refers to a feeling one person experiences for another person.",
"Love often involves caring for, or identifying with, a person or thing (cf.",
"vulnerability and care theory of love), including oneself (cf.",
"narcissism).",
"In addition to cross-cultural differences in understanding love, ideas about love have also changed greatly over time.",
"Some historians date modern conceptions of romantic love to courtly Europe during or after the Middle Ages, although the prior existence of romantic attachments is attested by ancient love poetry.The complex and of love often reduces its discourse to a thought-terminating cliché.",
"Several common proverbs regard love, from Virgil's \"Love conquers all\" to The Beatles' \"All You Need Is Love\".",
"St. Thomas Aquinas, following Aristotle, defines love as \"to will the good of another.\"",
"Bertrand Russell describes love as \"absolute value,\" as opposed to relative value.",
"Philosopher Gottfried Leibniz said that love is \"to be delighted by the happiness of another.\"",
"Meher Baba stated that in love there is a \"feeling of unity\" and an \"active appreciation of the intrinsic worth of the object of love.\"",
"Biologist Jeremy Griffith defines love as \"unconditional selflessness\".",
"According to Ambrose Bierce, love is a temporary insanity curable by marriage."
],
[
"Impersonal",
"People can have a profound dedication and immense appreciation for an object, principle, or objective, thereby experiencing a sense of love towards it.",
"For example, compassionate outreach and volunteer workers' \"love\" of their cause may sometimes be born not of interpersonal love but impersonal love, altruism, and strong spiritual or political convictions.",
"People can also \"love\" material objects, animals, or activities if they invest themselves in bonding or otherwise identifying with those things.",
"If sexual passion is also involved, then this feeling is called paraphilia."
],
[
"Interpersonal",
"Interpersonal love refers to love between human beings.",
"It is a much more potent sentiment than ''liking'' a person.",
"Unrequited love refers to feelings of love that are not reciprocated.",
"Interpersonal love is most closely associated with interpersonal relationships.",
"Such love might exist between family members, friends, and couples.",
"There are several psychological disorders related to love, such as erotomania.Throughout history, philosophy and religion have speculated about the phenomenon of love.",
"In the 20th century, the science of psychology has studied the subject.",
"The sciences of anthropology, neuroscience, and biology have also added to the understanding of the concept of love.===Biological basis===Biological models of sex tend to view love as a mammalian drive, much like hunger or thirst.",
"Helen Fisher, an anthropologist and human behavior researcher, divides the experience of love into three partly overlapping stages: lust, attraction, and attachment.",
"Lust is the feeling of sexual desire; romantic attraction determines what partners find attractive and pursue, ; and attachment involves sharing a home, parental duties, mutual defense, and in humans involves feelings of safety and security.",
"Three distinct neural circuitries, including neurotransmitters, and three behavioral patterns, are associated with these three romantic styles.",
"''Pair of Lovers''.",
"1480–1485Lust is the initial passionate sexual desire that promotes mating, and involves the increased release of hormones such as testosterone and estrogen.",
"These effects rarely last more than a few weeks or months.",
"Attraction is the more individualized and romantic desire for a specific candidate for mating, which develops out of lust as commitment to an individual mate form.",
"Recent studies in neuroscience have indicated that as people fall in love, the brain consistently releases a certain set of chemicals, including the neurotransmitter hormones dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, the same compounds released by amphetamine, stimulating the brain's pleasure center and leading to side effects such as increased heart rate, reduced appetite and sleep, and an intense feeling of excitement.",
"Research indicates that this stage generally lasts from one and a half to three years.Since the lust and attraction stages are both considered temporary, a third stage is needed to account for long-term relationships.",
"Attachment is the bonding that promotes relationships lasting for many years and even decades.",
"Attachment is generally based on commitments such as marriage and children, or mutual friendship based on things like shared interests.",
"It has been linked to higher levels of the chemicals oxytocin and vasopressin, to a greater degree than what is found in short-term relationships.",
"Enzo Emanuele and coworkers reported the protein molecule known as the nerve growth factor (NGF) has high levels when people first fall in love, but these return to previous levels after one year.===Psychological basis===Grandmother and grandchild in Sri LankaPsychology depicts love as a cognitive and social phenomenon.",
"Psychologist Robert Sternberg formulated a triangular theory of love in which love has three components: intimacy, commitment, and passion.",
"Intimacy is when two people share confidences and various details of their personal lives, and is usually shown in friendships and romantic love affairs.",
"Commitment is the expectation that the relationship is permanent.",
"Passionate love is shown in infatuation as well as romantic love.",
"All forms of love are viewed as varying combinations of these three components.",
"Non-love does not include any of these components.",
"Liking only includes intimacy.",
"Infatuated love only includes passion.",
"Empty love only includes commitment.",
"Romantic love includes both intimacy and passion.",
"Companionate love includes intimacy and commitment.",
"Fatuous love includes passion and commitment.",
"Consummate love includes all three components.American psychologist Zick Rubin sought to define ''love'' by psychometrics in the 1970s.",
"His work identifies a different set of three factors that constitute love: attachment, caring, and intimacy.Following developments in electrical theories such as Coulomb's law, which showed that positive and negative charges attract, analogs in human life were envisioned, such as \"opposites attract\".",
"Research on human mating has generally found this not to be true when it comes to character and personality—people tend to like people similar to themselves.",
"However, in a few unusual and specific domains, such as immune systems, it seems that humans prefer others who are unlike themselves (e.g., with an orthogonal immune system), perhaps because this will lead to a baby that has the best of both worlds.In recent years, various human bonding theories have been developed, described in terms of attachments, ties, bonds, and affinities.Some Western authorities into two main components, the altruistic and the narcissistic.",
"This view is represented in the works of Scott Peck, whose work in the field of applied psychology explored the definitions of love and evil.",
"Peck maintains that love is a combination of the \"concern for the spiritual growth of another\" and simple narcissism.",
"In combination, love is an ''activity'', not simply a feeling.Psychologist Erich Fromm maintained in his book ''The Art of Loving'' that love is not merely a feeling but is also actions, and that in fact the \"feeling\" of love is superficial in comparison to one's commitment to love via a series of loving actions over time.",
"Fromm held that love is ultimately not a feeling at all, but rather is a commitment to, and adherence to, loving actions towards another, oneself, or many others, over a sustained duration.",
"Fromm also described love as a conscious choice that in its early stages might originate as an involuntary feeling, but which then later no longer depends on those feelings, but rather depends only on conscious commitment.===Evolutionary basis===''Wall of Love'' on Montmartre in Paris: \"I love you\" in 250 languages, by calligraphist Fédéric Baron and artist Claire Kito (2000)Evolutionary psychology has attempted to provide various reasons for love as a survival tool.",
"Humans are dependent on parental help for a large portion of their lifespans compared to other mammals.",
"Love has therefore been seen as a mechanism to promote parental support of children for this extended time period.",
"Furthermore, researchers as early as Charles Darwin identified unique features of human love compared to other mammals and credited love as a major factor for creating social support systems that enabled the development and expansion of the human species.",
"Another factor may be that sexually transmitted diseases can cause, among other effects, permanently reduced fertility, injury to the fetus, and increase complications during childbirth.",
"This would favor monogamous relationships over polygamy.===Adaptive benefit===Interpersonal love between a man and woman provides an evolutionary adaptive benefit since it facilitates mating and sexual reproduction.",
"However, some organisms can reproduce asexually without mating.",
"Understanding the adaptive benefit of interpersonal love depends on understanding the adaptive benefit of sexual reproduction as opposed to asexual reproduction.",
"Richard Michod reviewed evidence that love, and consequently sexual reproduction, provides two major adaptive advantages.",
"First, sexual reproduction facilitates repair of damages in the DNA that is passed from parent to progeny (during meiosis, a key stage of the sexual process).",
"Second, a gene in either parent may contain a harmful mutation, but in the progeny produced by sexual reproduction, expression of a harmful mutation introduced by one parent is likely to be masked by expression of the unaffected homologous gene from the other parent.===Comparison of scientific models===Biological models of love tend to see it as a drive, similar to hunger or thirst.",
"Psychology sees love as more of a social and cultural phenomenon.",
"Love is influenced by hormones (such as oxytocin), neurotrophins (such as NGF), and pheromones, and how people think and behave in love is influenced by their conceptions of love.",
"The conventional view in biology is that there are two major drives in love: sexual attraction and attachment.",
"Attachment between adults is presumed to work on the same principles that lead an infant to become attached to its mother.",
"The traditional psychological view sees love as being a combination of companionate love and passionate love.",
"Passionate love is intense longing, and is often accompanied by physiological arousal (shortness of breath, rapid heart rate); companionate love is affection and a feeling of intimacy not accompanied by physiological arousal.===Health===The psychologist Abraham Maslow identified a person feeling truly loved as a basic and foundational human need.",
"Love has been found to have a strong correlation to happinness and being able to build relationships and develop communities.",
"Adverse effects of feeling unloved can result in conditions such post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)."
],
[
"Cultural views",
"===Ancient Greek===Roman copy of a Greek sculpture by Lysippus depicting Eros, the Greek personification of romantic loveGreek distinguishes several different senses in which the word \"love\" is used.",
"Ancient Greeks identified four forms of love: kinship or familiarity (), friendship and/or platonic desire (), sexual and/or romantic desire (), and self-emptying or divine love ().",
"Modern authors have distinguished further varieties of romantic love.",
"However, with Greek (as with many other languages), it has been historically difficult to separate the meanings of these words totally.",
"At the same time, the Ancient Greek text of the Bible has examples of the verb having the same meaning as .",
";''Agape'' ( ): ''love'' in modern-day Greek.",
"The term means ''I love you'' in Greek.",
"The word is the verb ''I love''.",
"It generally refers to a \"pure,\" ideal type of love, rather than the physical attraction suggested by .",
"However, there are some examples of used to mean the same as .",
"It has also been translated as \"love of the soul.",
"\";''Eros'' ( ): (from the Greek deity Eros) is passionate love, with sensual desire and longing.",
"The Greek word means ''in love''.",
"Plato refined his own definition.",
"Although is initially felt for a person, with contemplation it becomes an appreciation of the beauty within that person, or even becomes appreciation of beauty itself.",
"helps the soul recall knowledge of beauty and contributes to an understanding of spiritual truth.",
"Lovers and philosophers are all inspired to seek truth by .",
"Some translations list it as \"love of the body\".",
";''Philia'' ( ): dispassionate virtuous love, was a concept addressed and developed by Aristotle in his Nicomachean Ethics Book VIII.",
"It includes loyalty to friends, family, and community, and requires virtue, equality, and familiarity.",
"is motivated by practical reasons; one or both of the parties benefit from the relationship.",
"It can also mean \"love of the mind.",
"\";''Storge'' ( ) : natural affection, like that felt by parents for offspring; ''Xenia'' ( ): hospitality, was an extremely important practice in ancient Greece.",
"It was an almost ritualized friendship formed between a host and his guest, who could previously have been strangers.",
"The host fed and provided quarters for the guest, who was expected to repay only with gratitude.",
"The importance of this can be seen throughout Greek mythology—in particular, Homer's ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey''.===Ancient Roman (Latin)===The Latin language has several verbs corresponding to the English word \"love.\"",
"is the basic verb meaning ''I love'', with the infinitive (\"to love\") as it still is in Italian today.",
"The Romans used it both in an affectionate sense as well as in a romantic or sexual sense.",
"From this verb come —a lover, , \"professional lover,\" often with the accessory notion of lechery—and , \"girlfriend\" in the English sense, often being applied euphemistically to a prostitute.",
"The corresponding noun is (the significance of this term for the Romans is well illustrated in the fact, that the name of the city, Rome—in Latin: —can be viewed as an anagram for , which was used as the secret name of the City in wide circles in ancient times), which is also used in the plural form to indicate love affairs or sexual adventures.",
"This same root also produces —\"friend\"—and , \"friendship\" (often based to mutual advantage, and corresponding sometimes more closely to \"indebtedness\" or \"influence\").",
"Cicero wrote a treatise called ''On Friendship'' (), which discusses the notion at some length.",
"Ovid wrote a guide to dating called (''The Art of Love''), which addresses, in depth, everything from extramarital affairs to overprotective parents.Latin sometimes uses where English would simply say ''to like''.",
"This notion, however, is much more generally expressed in Latin by the terms or , which are used more colloquially, the latter used frequently in the love poetry of Catullus.",
"often implies \"to be affectionate for,\" \"to esteem,\" and rarely if ever is used for romantic love.",
"This word would be appropriate to describe the friendship of two men.",
"The corresponding noun , however, has the meaning of \"diligence\" or \"carefulness,\" and has little semantic overlap with the verb.",
"is a synonym for ; despite the cognate with English, this verb and its corresponding noun, , often denote \"esteem\" or \"affection.\"",
"is used in Latin translations of the Christian Bible to mean \"charitable love\"; this meaning, however, is not found in Classical pagan Roman literature.",
"As it arises from a conflation with a Greek word, there is no corresponding verb.===Chinese and other Sinic=== (Mandarin: ), the traditional Chinese character for love contains a heart () in the middle.Two philosophical underpinnings of love exist in the Chinese tradition, one from Confucianism which emphasized actions and duty while the other came from Mohism which championed a universal love.",
"A core concept to Confucianism is (, \"benevolent love\"), which focuses on duty, action, and attitude in a relationship rather than love itself.",
"In Confucianism, one displays benevolent love by performing actions such as filial piety from children, kindness from parents, loyalty to the king and so forth.The concept of (Mandarin: ) was developed by the Chinese philosopher Mozi in in reaction to Confucianism's benevolent love.",
"Mozi tried to replace what he considered to be the long-entrenched Chinese over-attachment to family and clan structures with the concept of \"universal love\" (, ).",
"In this, he argued directly against Confucians who believed that it was natural and correct for people to care about different people in different degrees.",
"Mozi, by contrast, believed people in principle should care for all people equally.",
"Mohism stressed that rather than adopting different attitudes towards different people, love should be unconditional and offered to everyone without regard to reciprocation; not just to friends, family, and other Confucian relations.",
"Later in Chinese Buddhism, the term () was adopted to refer to a passionate, caring love and was considered a fundamental desire.",
"In Buddhism, was seen as capable of being either selfish or selfless, the latter being a key element towards enlightenment.In Mandarin Chinese, () is often used as the equivalent of the Western concept of love.",
"() is used as both a verb (e.g.",
", , or \"I love you\") and a noun (such as , or \"romantic love\").",
"However, due to the influence of Confucian (), the phrase (, I love you) carries with it a very specific sense of responsibility, commitment, and loyalty.",
"Instead of frequently saying \"I love you\" as in some Western societies, the Chinese are more likely to express feelings of affection in a more casual way.",
"Consequently, \"I like you\" (, ) is a more common way of expressing affection in Mandarin; it is more playful and less serious.",
"This is also true in Japanese (, ).===Japanese===The Japanese language uses three words to convey the English equivalent of \"love\".",
"Because \"love\" covers a wide range of emotions and behavioral phenomena, there are nuances distinguishing the three terms.",
"The term , which is often associated with maternal love or selfless love, originally referred to beauty and was often used in a religious context.",
"Following the Meiji Restoration of 1868, the term became associated with \"love\" in order to translate Western literature.Prior to Western influence, the term generally represented romantic love, and was often the subject of the popular Man'yōshū Japanese poetry collection.",
"describes a longing for a member of the opposite sex and is typically interpreted as selfish and wanting.",
"The term's origins come from the concept of lonely solitude as a result of separation from a loved one.",
"Though modern usage of focuses on sexual love and infatuation, the Manyō used the term to cover a wider range of situations, including tenderness, benevolence, and material desire.The third term, , is a more modern construction that combines the kanji characters for both and , though its usage more closely resembles that of in the form of romantic love., referring to the desire to be loved and cared for by an authority figure, is another important aspect of Japan's cultural perspective on love, and has been analysed in detail in Takeo Doi's ''The Anatomy of Dependence''===Indian===The love stories of the Hindu deities Krishna and Radha have influenced the Indian culture and arts.",
"Above: Radha Madhavam by Raja Ravi Varma.In contemporary literature, the Sanskrit words for love is .",
"Other terms include which refers to innocent love, refers to spiritual love, and refers usually to sexual desire.",
"However, the term also refers to any sensory enjoyment, emotional attraction and aesthetic pleasure such as from arts, dance, music, painting, sculpture and nature.The concept of is found in some of the earliest known verses in Vedas.",
"For example, Book 10 of Rig Veda describes the creation of the universe from nothing by the great heat.",
"In hymn 129, it states:===Persian===Rumi, Hafiz, and Sa'di are icons of the passion and love that the Persian culture and language present.",
"The Persian word for love is , which is derived from Arabic; however, it is considered by most to be too stalwart a term for interpersonal love and is more commonly substituted with \"\" (\"liking\").",
"In the Persian culture, everything is encompassed by love and all is for love, starting from loving friends and family, husbands and wives, and eventually reaching the divine love that is the ultimate goal in life."
],
[
"Religious views",
"===Abrahamic===Robert Indiana's 1977 ''Love'' sculpture spelling ====Judaism====In Hebrew, () is the most commonly used term for both interpersonal love and love between God and God's creations.",
", often translated as loving-kindness, is used to describe many forms of love between human beings.The commandment to love other people is given in the Torah, which states, \"Love your neighbor like yourself\" (Leviticus ).",
"The Torah's commandment to love God \"with all your heart, with all your soul and with all your might\" (Deuteronomy ) is taken by the Mishnah (a central text of the Jewish oral law) to refer to good deeds, willingness to sacrifice one's life rather than commit certain serious transgressions, willingness to sacrifice all of one's possessions, and being grateful to the Lord despite adversity ( tractate Berachoth 9:5).",
"Rabbinic literature differs as to how this love can be developed, e.g., by contemplating divine deeds or witnessing the marvels of nature.As for love between marital partners, this is deemed an essential ingredient to life: \"See life with the wife you love\" (Ecclesiastes ).",
"Rabbi David Wolpe writes that \"love is not only about the feelings of the lover...",
"It is when one person believes in another person and shows it.\"",
"He further states that \"love... is a feeling that expresses itself in action.",
"What we really feel is reflected in what we do.\"",
"The biblical book Song of Solomon is considered a romantically phrased metaphor of love between God and his people, but in its plain reading it reads like a love song.",
"The 20th-century rabbi Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler is frequently quoted as defining love from the Jewish point of view as \"giving without expecting to take\".====Christianity====Love and the One-way StreetThe Christian understanding is that love comes from God, who is himself love ().",
"The love of man and woman— in Greek—and the unselfish love of others (), are often contrasted as \"descending\" and \"ascending\" love, respectively, but are ultimately the same thing.There are several Greek words for \"love\" that are regularly referred to in Christian circles.",
"; : In the New Testament, is charitable, selfless, altruistic, and unconditional.",
"It is parental love, seen as creating goodness in the world; it is the way God is seen to love humanity, and it is seen as the kind of love that Christians aspire to have for one another.",
"; : Also used in the New Testament, is a human response to something that is found to be delightful.",
"Also known as \"brotherly love.",
"\"Two other words for love in the Greek language, (sexual love) and (child-to-parent love), were never used in the New Testament.Christians believe that to ''love God with all your heart, mind, and strength'' and ''love your neighbor as yourself'' are the two most important things in life (the greatest commandment of the Jewish Torah, according to Jesus; cf.",
"Gospel of Mark ).",
"Saint Augustine summarized this when he wrote \"Love God, and do as thou wilt.",
"\"The Apostle Paul glorified love as the most important virtue of all.",
"Describing love in the famous poetic interpretation in 1 Corinthians, he wrote, \"Love is patient, love is kind.",
"It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud.",
"It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs.",
"Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth.",
"It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, and always perseveres.\"",
"()The Apostle John wrote, \"For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life.",
"For God did not send his Son into the world to condemn the world, but to save the world through him.\"",
"(John ) John also wrote, \"Dear friends, let us love one another for love comes from God.",
"Everyone who loves has been born of God and knows God.",
"Whoever does not love does not know God, because God is love.\"",
"()Saint Augustine wrote that one must be able to decipher the difference between love and lust.",
"Lust, according to Saint Augustine, is an overindulgence, but to love and be loved is what he has sought for his entire life.",
"He even says, \"I was in love with love.\"",
"Finally, he does fall in love and is loved back, by God.",
"Saint Augustine says the only one who can love you truly and fully is God, because love with a human only allows for flaws such as \"jealousy, suspicion, fear, anger, and contention.\"",
"According to Saint Augustine, to love God is \"to attain the peace which is yours.",
"\"Augustine regards the duplex commandment of love in as the heart of Christian faith and the interpretation of the Bible.",
"After the review of Christian doctrine, Augustine treats the problem of love in terms of use and enjoyment until the end of Book I of ''De Doctrina Christiana'' (1.22.21–1.40.44).Christian theologians see God as the source of love, which is mirrored in humans and their own loving relationships.",
"Influential Christian theologian C. S. Lewis wrote a book called ''The Four Loves''.",
"Benedict XVI named his first encyclical ''God is love''.",
"He said that a human being, created in the image of God, who is love, is able to practice love; to give himself to God and others () and by receiving and experiencing God's love in contemplation ().",
"This life of love, according to him, is the life of the saints such as Teresa of Calcutta and Mary, the mother of Jesus and is the direction Christians take when they believe that God loves them.Jesus crucified) is the greatest meaning of the greatest love,\"Pope Francis asserts that the \"Cross (Jesus crucified) is the greatest meaning of the greatest love,\" and in the crucifixion is found everything, all knowledge and the entirety of God's love.",
"Pope Francis taught that \"True love is both loving and letting oneself be loved... what is important in love is not our loving, but allowing ourselves to be loved by God.\"",
"And so, in the analysis of a Catholic theologian, for Pope Francis, \"the key to love... is not our activity.",
"It is the activity of the greatest, and the source, of all the powers in the universe: God's.",
"\"In Christianity the practical definition of love is summarised by Thomas Aquinas, who defined love as \"to will the good of another,\" or to desire for another to succeed.",
"This is an explanation of the Christian need to love others, including their enemies.",
"Thomas Aquinas explains that Christian love is motivated by the need to see others succeed in life, to be good people.Regarding love for enemies, Jesus is quoted in the Gospel of Matthew:Tertullian wrote regarding love for enemies: \"Our individual, extraordinary, and perfect goodness consists in loving our enemies.",
"To love one's friends is common practice, to love one's enemies only among Christians.",
"\"====Islam====In Islam, one of the 99 names of God is , which means \"The Loving\"Love encompasses the Islamic view of life as universal brotherhood that applies to all who hold faith.",
"Among the 99 names of God (Allah) is the name ''Al-Wadud'', or \"the Loving One,\" which is found in Surah and .",
"God is also referenced at the beginning of every chapter in the Qur'an as ''Ar-Rahman'' and ''Ar-Rahim'', or the \"Most Compassionate\" and the \"Most Merciful\", indicating that nobody is more loving, compassionate, and benevolent than God.",
"The Qur'an refers to God as being \"full of loving kindness.",
"\"The Qur'an exhorts Muslim believers to treat , with or \"deep kindness\" as stated in Surah .",
"is also used by the Qur'an to describe the love and kindness that children must show to their parents., or divine love, is emphasized by Sufism in the Islamic tradition.",
"Practitioners of Sufism believe that love is a projection of the essence of God into the universe.",
"God desires to recognize beauty, and as if one looks at a mirror to see oneself, God \"looks\" at himself within the dynamics of nature.",
"Since everything is a reflection of God, the school of Sufism practices seeing the beauty inside the apparently ugly.",
"Sufism is often referred to as the religion of love.",
"God in Sufism is referred to in three main terms—Lover, Loved, and Beloved—with the last of these terms often seen in Sufi poetry.",
"A common viewpoint of Sufism is that through love, humankind can return to its inherent purity and grace.",
"The saints of Sufism are infamous for being \"drunk\" due to their love of God; hence, the constant reference to wine in Sufi poetry and music.====Bahá'í Faith====In his Paris Talks, `Abdu'l-Bahá described four types of love: the love that flows from God to human beings; the love that flows from human beings to God; the love of God towards the Self or Identity of God; and the love of human beings for human beings.===Dharmic=======Buddhism====In Buddhism, is sensuous, sexual love.",
"It is an obstacle on the path to enlightenment, since it is selfish.",
"is compassion and mercy, which reduces the suffering of others.",
"It is complementary to wisdom and is necessary for enlightenment.",
"and are benevolent love.",
"This love is unconditional and requires considerable self-acceptance.",
"This is quite different from ordinary love, which is usually about attachment and sex and which rarely occurs without self-interest.",
"Instead, in Buddhism love refers to detachment and unselfish interest in others' welfare.The Bodhisattva ideal in Mahayana Buddhism involves the complete renunciation of oneself in order to take on the burden of a suffering world.====Hinduism====Chennakesava Temple, BelurIn Hinduism, is pleasurable, sexual love, personified by the god Kamadeva.",
"For many Hindu schools, it is the third end () in life.",
"Kamadeva is often pictured holding a bow of sugar cane and an arrow of flowers; he may ride upon a great parrot.",
"He is usually accompanied by his consort Rati and his companion Vasanta, lord of the spring season.",
"Stone images of Kamadeva and Rati can be seen on the door of the Chennakeshava Temple, Belur, in Karnataka, India.",
"''Maara'' is another name for .In contrast to , —or efers to elevated love.",
"is compassion and mercy, which impels one to help reduce the suffering of others.",
"is a Sanskrit term meaning \"loving devotion to the supreme God.\"",
"A person who practices is called a .",
"Hindu writers, theologians, and philosophers have distinguished nine forms of , which can be found in the ''Bhagavata Purana'' and works by Tulsidas.",
"The philosophical work ''Narada Bhakti Sutra'', written by an unknown author (presumed to be Narada), distinguishes eleven forms of love.In certain Vaishnava sects within Hinduism, attaining unadulterated, unconditional, and incessant love for the Godhead is considered the foremost goal of life.",
"Gaudiya Vaishnavas who worship Krishna as the Supreme Personality of Godhead and the cause of all causes consider Love for Godhead () to act in two ways: and (union and separation)—two opposites.In the condition of separation, there is an acute yearning for being with the beloved and in the condition of union, there is supreme happiness and .",
"Gaudiya Vaishnavas consider that Krishna-prema (Love for Godhead) burns away one's material desires, pierces the heart, and washes away everything—one's pride, one's religious rules, and one's shyness.",
"Krishna-prema is considered to make one drown in the ocean of transcendental ecstasy and pleasure.",
"The love of Radha, a cowherd girl, for Krishna is often cited as the supreme example of love for Godhead by Gaudiya Vaishnavas.",
"Radha is considered to be the internal potency of Krishna, and is the supreme lover of Godhead.",
"Her example of love is considered to be beyond the understanding of material realm as it surpasses any form of selfish love or lust that is visible in the material world.",
"The reciprocal love between Radha (the supreme lover) and Krishna (God as the Supremely Loved) is the subject of many poetic compositions in India such as the ''Gita Govinda'' of Jayadeva and ''Hari Bhakti Shuddhodhaya.",
"''In the tradition within Hinduism, it is believed that execution of devotional service to God leads to the development of Love for God (), and as love for God increases in the heart, the more one becomes free from material contamination ().",
"Being perfectly in love with God or Krishna makes one perfectly free from material contamination, and this is the ultimate way of salvation or liberation.",
"In this tradition, salvation or liberation is considered inferior to love, and just an incidental by-product.",
"Being absorbed in Love for God is considered to be the perfection of life."
],
[
"Political views",
"===Free love===The term \"free love\" has been used to describe a social movement that rejects marriage, which is seen as a form of social bondage.",
"The free love movement's initial goal was to separate the state from sexual matters such as marriage, birth control, and adultery.",
"It claimed that such issues were the concern of the people involved, and no one else.Many people in the early 19th century believed that marriage was an important aspect of life to \"fulfill earthly human happiness.\"",
"Middle-class Americans wanted the home to be a place of stability in an uncertain world.",
"This mentality created a vision of strongly defined gender roles, which provoked the advancement of the free love movement as a contrast.Advocates of free love had two strong beliefs: opposition to the idea of forceful sexual activity in a relationship and advocacy for a woman to use her body in any way that she pleases.",
"These are also beliefs of feminism."
],
[
"Philosophical views",
"The philosophy of love is a field of social philosophy and ethics that attempts to explain the nature of love.",
"The philosophical investigation of love includes the tasks of distinguishing between the various kinds of personal love, asking if and how love is or can be justified, asking what the value of love is, and what impact love has on the autonomy of both the lover and the beloved."
],
[
"Literature depictions",
"''Romeo and Juliet'', depicted as they part on the balcony in Act III, 1867 by Ford Madox Brown"
],
[
"See also",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Traditional forms, Agape, Philia, Philautia, Storge, Eros: Greek terms for love"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Sources",
"* * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* History of Love, ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''* * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Forever Changes"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Forever Changes''''' is the third studio album by the American rock band Love, released by Elektra Records in November 1967.The album saw the group embrace a subtler folk-oriented sound, acoustic guitar, and orchestration, while primary songwriter Arthur Lee explored darker themes alluding to mortality and his creeping disillusionment with the 1960s counterculture.",
"It was the final album recorded by the original band lineup; after its completion, Bryan MacLean left the group acrimoniously and the other members were dismissed by leader Lee.",
"''Forever Changes'' had only moderate success in the album charts when it was first released in 1967; it peaked at No.",
"154 in the US, with a stronger showing in the United Kingdom, where it reached No.",
"24.In subsequent years, it became recognized as an influential document of 1960s psychedelia and was named among the greatest albums of all time by a variety of publications."
],
[
"Background",
"Love in 1966; one year before the beginning of the album's recording.In 1966, Love had released two albums in relatively rapid succession, including their second LP ''Da Capo'', which spawned their only Top 40 hit, \"7 and 7 Is\".",
"However, the group's opportunity for major national success dwindled as a consequence of frontman Arthur Lee's unwillingness to tour, his deteriorating relationship with Love's other songwriter Bryan MacLean, and the overshadowing presence of label-mates the Doors.",
"In a 1992 interview, MacLean spoke of him and Lee \"competing a bit like Lennon and McCartney to see who would come up with the better song.",
"It was part of our charm.",
"Everybody had different behaviour patterns.",
"Eventually, the others couldn't cut it\".",
"Throughout this period the band – reduced to a quintet with the departures of Alban \"Snoopy\" Pfisterer and Tjay Cantrelli – were known to retreat to a dilapidated mansion in Hollywood, nicknamed \"The Castle\", where the group became further stagnated by their use of heroin.",
"The band was allowed to live in this mansion as long as they did the maintenance and paid the taxes.",
"According to author John Einerson, the rumor of it being formerly lived in by Bela Lugosi is a myth.===Inspiration===Rather than base his writings on Los Angeles's burgeoning hippie scene, Lee's material for ''Forever Changes'' was drawn from his lifestyle and environment.",
"The songs reflected upon grim but blissful themes and Lee's skepticism of the flower power movement.Writer Andrew Hultkrans explained Lee's frame of mind at the time: \"Arthur Lee was one member of the '60s counterculture who didn't buy flower-power wholesale, who intuitively understood that letting the sunshine in wouldn't instantly vaporize the world's (or his own) dark stuff\".",
"Love's third studio album also brought about a sense of urgency for Lee.",
"With his band in disarray and growing concerns over his own mortality, Lee envisioned ''Forever Changes'' as a lament to his memory.Having already produced the group's first two albums, Bruce Botnick was enlisted in overseeing the production of the third album along with Lee.",
"Botnick, who had just finished working on Buffalo Springfield's ''Buffalo Springfield Again'', invited Neil Young to co-produce the upcoming Love album, but Young, after initially agreeing, excused himself from the project.",
"As Botnick recalled \"Neil really had the burning desire to go solo and realize his dream without being involved in another band\".",
"According to the liner notes in the compilation album ''Love Story'', Young was involved in ''Forever Changes'' long enough to arrange the track \"The Daily Planet\".",
"Young, however, has denied such involvement.The title of the album came from a story that Lee had heard about a friend-of-a-friend who had broken up with his girlfriend.",
"She exclaimed, \"You said you would love me forever!\"",
"and he replied, \"Well, forever changes.\"",
"Lee also noted that since the name of the band was Love, the full title was actually ''Love Forever Changes''."
],
[
"Recording",
"According to AllMusic, the band embraced \"a more gentle, contemplative, and organic sound on ''Forever Changes'',\" with much of the album \"built around interwoven acoustic guitar textures and subtle orchestrations, with strings and horns both reinforcing and punctuating the melodies.\"",
"Elektra Records founder Jac Holzman had suggested that Love \"advance backwards\" by embracing the more subtle approach of folk music, and Lee—while typically independent in his musical directions—accepted Holzman's suggestion, setting the foundational approach to the ''Forever Changes'' recording sessions.",
"''Pitchfork'' stated that Lee paired his \"dark, discomfiting lyrics\" with music that draws from rock, psychedelia, folk, pop, classical, and even mariachi music, but which is not reducible to these influences.Love started recording ''Forever Changes'' in June 1967 at Sunset Sound Recorders.",
"However, beginning with the early recording sessions, the band, except Lee, was plagued by internal conflicts and lack of preparation for Lee's intricate arrangements.",
"Through Holzman's perspective, Botnick was an \"album savior\", guiding and motivating Lee's bandmates out of their trying period.",
"To compel the band to participate, Botnick enlisted top session musicians, the Wrecking Crew's Billy Strange (guitar), Don Randi (piano), Hal Blaine (drums), and Carol Kaye (bass guitar) to work with Lee, completing the sessions for two songs in one day: \"Andmoreagain\" and \"The Daily Planet\".",
"Shocked by the implications of losing their role in the album's development, Botnick's plan succeeded in motivating the Love members in recording the other nine tracks appearing on ''Forever Changes''.Lee spent three weeks with David Angel, the arranger of the strings and horns, playing and singing the orchestral parts to him.",
"Lee envisioned the horns and strings from the beginning, and they were not added as an afterthought.",
"A September 25 recording session finished the album, adding the horns and strings, as well as some additional piano from Randi, who played all the keyboard parts on the album as the band now had no keyboard player."
],
[
"Release and reception",
"===Initial release===Upon its release in late 1967, ''Forever Changes'' was only moderately successful commercially.",
"It peaked at No.",
"154 in 1968, which was the lowest showing of Love's first three albums.",
"''Forever Changes'' had a much stronger showing in Great Britain, where it reached No.",
"24 on the UK album chart in 1968.Initial reviews were positive.",
"Writing for ''Rolling Stone'' in 1968, Jim Bickhart regarded ''Forever Changes'' as Love's \"most sophisticated album yet\", applauding the orchestral arrangements and recording quality.",
"In ''Esquire'', Robert Christgau said it is an elaboration on Love's original musical style and \"a vast improvement\" over their previous recordings, because \"Lee has stopped trying to imitate Mick Jagger with his soft voice, and the lyrics, while still obscure, now have an interesting surface as well.\"",
"Pete Johnson of the ''Los Angeles Times'' believed the album \"can survive endless listening with no diminishing either of power or of freshness\", adding that \"parts of the album are beautiful; others are disturbingly ugly, reflections of the pop movement towards realism\".",
"Gene Youngblood of ''LA Free Express'' also praised the album, calling it \"melancholy iconoclasm and tasteful romanticism.",
"\"===Retrospective acclaim===In a retrospective review, AllMusic stated that despite the album's initial muted reception, \"years later it became recognized as one of the finest and most haunting albums to come out of the Summer of Love,\" calling it \"an album that heralds the last days of a golden age and anticipates the growing ugliness that would dominate the counterculture in 1968 and 1969.\"",
"The 1979 edition of ''The Rolling Stone Record Guide'' gave the album a rating of five stars (out of five).",
"It also received five stars in the 1983 edition of the guide and in the 1992 guide four.",
"In a special issue of ''Mojo'' magazine, ''Forever Changes'' was ranked the second greatest psychedelic album of all time.",
"In the January 1996 issue, ''Mojo'' readers selected ''Forever Changes'' as number 11 on the \"100 Greatest Albums Ever Made\".",
"''Forever Changes'' was praised by a group of members of the British Parliament in 2002 as being one of the greatest albums of all time.===Reissues===''Forever Changes'' was included in its entirety on the 2-CD retrospective Love compilation ''Love Story 1966–1972'', released by Rhino Records in 1995.The album was re-released in an expanded single-CD version by Rhino in 2001, featuring alternate mixes, outtakes and the group's 1968 single, \"Your Mind and We Belong Together\"/\"Laughing Stock\", the final tracks ever to feature the ''Forever Changes'' line-up of Arthur Lee, Johnny Echols, Ken Forssi, Michael Stuart-Ware and Bryan MacLean (Forssi and MacLean both died in 1998).",
"''The Forever Changes Concert'' was released on DVD in 2003 and marked the first time many of the songs had been performed live.",
"The set features the entire album performed in its original running order, recorded in early 2003 during Lee's tour of England, in which he was backed by the band Baby Lemonade and members of the Stockholm Strings 'n' Horns ensemble.",
"The DVD features the album concert, five bonus performances, documentary footage and an interview with Lee.A double-CD \"Collector's Edition\" of the album was issued by Rhino Records on April 22, 2008.The first disc consists of a remastered version of the original 1967 album.",
"The second disc contains a previously unissued alternate stereo mix of the album, plus ten bonus tracks.A Super High Material CD (SHM-CD) version of ''Forever Changes'' was released by Warner Music Japan in 2009, and a 24 bit 192 kHz High Resolution version of the album was released by HDTracks in 2014, and in the same year a hybrid Super Audio CD (SACD) version of the album was released by Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab.A 50th anniversary deluxe edition box set was released by Rhino on April 6, 2018, featuring four CDs, a DVD and an LP.",
"It contains remastered versions of the stereo, mono and alternate stereo mixes of the album, a disc of demos, outtakes, alternate mixes and non-album tracks, a DVD containing a 24/96 stereo mix of the album and a bonus music video, and a new LP remaster of the album, remastered by Bruce Botnick and cut from high resolution audio by Bernie Grundman."
],
[
"Legacy",
"In 2008, the album was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame and in 2011, the album was added to the National Recording Registry.",
"''Rolling Stone'' ranked it number 180 on its 2020 list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time.",
"The album was also included in Robert Christgau's \"Basic Record Library\" of 1950s and 1960s recordings, published in ''Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies'' (1981).",
"It was voted number 12 in Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums 3rd Edition (2000).",
"In 2013, ''NME'' ranked the album number 37 on their list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time.",
"Publishers such as AllMusic and ''Slant Magazine'' have praised the album as well.",
"In a 2005 survey held by British television's Channel 4, the album was ranked 83rd in the 100 greatest albums of all time.",
"The album was included in the 2005 book ''1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die''.According to the ''New Musical Express'', the Stone Roses' relationship with their future producer John Leckie was settled when they all agreed that ''Forever Changes'' was the \"best record ever\".",
"Robert Plant is an admirer of the album."
],
[
"Track listing",
"All songs written by Arthur Lee, except \"Alone Again Or\" and \"Old Man\" which are written by Bryan MacLean.",
"Details are taken from the 50th Anniversary Edition.",
"'''2001 Rhino bonus tracks'''A single disc collection, presenting the original stereo album, remastered, plus the following bonus tracks:'''2008 Rhino \"Collector's Edition\" bonus tracks'''A two-disc collection.",
"Disc 1 presents the original stereo album, remastered, while disc 2 is a previously unreleased alternate stereo mix of the album, featuring the following bonus tracks:'''2018 \"50th Anniversary Edition\" bonus discs'''A box set comprising four CDs, one LP and one DVD: disc 2 presents the original mono album, remastered; disc 3 is the alternate stereo mix; disc 4 is outtakes, single versions, demos, session highlights and non album tracks from the era; disc 5 is the original stereo album on vinyl, remastered and cut from high resolution audio; and disc 6 is a 24/96 stereo mix on DVD, featuring a bonus music video."
],
[
"Personnel",
"According to the 2001 reissue CD booklet.",
"'''Love'''* Arthur Lee – guitar, vocal* Bryan MacLean – guitar, vocal* Johnny Echols – guitar* Ken Forssi – bass * Michael Stuart-Ware – drums, percussion'''Additional musicians'''* Carol Kaye – bass guitar on \"Andmoreagain\" and \"The Daily Planet\"* Don Randi – keyboards on \"Andmoreagain\" and \"The Daily Planet\"; piano on \"Old Man\" and \"Bummer in the Summer\"; harpsichord on \"The Red Telephone\"* Billy Strange – electric rhythm guitar on \"Andmoreagain\" and \"The Daily Planet\"* Hal Blaine – drums on \"Andmoreagain\" and \"The Daily Planet\"* Neil Young – arranger on \"The Daily Planet\"* David Angel – arranger, orchestrations* Strings – Robert Barene, Arnold Belnick, James Getzoff, Marshall Sosson, Darrel Terwilliger (violins); Norman Botnick (viola); Jesse Ehrlich (cello); Chuck Berghofer (string bass)* Horns – Bud Brisbois, Roy Caton, Ollie Mitchell (trumpets); Richard Leith (trombone)'''Production and design'''"
],
[
"See also",
"*Timeline of 1960s counterculture"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* Inside the National Recording Registry segment"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Kepler's laws of planetary motion"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Illustration of Kepler's laws with two planetary orbits.In astronomy, '''Kepler's laws of planetary motion''', published by Johannes Kepler between 1609 and 1619, describe the orbits of planets around the Sun.",
"The laws modified the heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus, replacing its circular orbits and epicycles with elliptical trajectories, and explaining how planetary velocities vary.",
"The three laws state that:# The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci.# A line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.# The square of a planet's orbital period is proportional to the cube of the length of the semi-major axis of its orbit.The elliptical orbits of planets were indicated by calculations of the orbit of Mars.",
"From this, Kepler inferred that other bodies in the Solar System, including those farther away from the Sun, also have elliptical orbits.",
"The second law helps to establish that when a planet is closer to the Sun, it travels faster.",
"The third law expresses that the farther a planet is from the Sun, the slower its orbital speed, and vice versa.Isaac Newton showed in 1687 that relationships like Kepler's would apply in the Solar System as a consequence of his own laws of motion and law of universal gravitation.A more precise historical approach is found in ''Astronomia nova'' and ''Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae''."
],
[
"Comparison to Copernicus",
"Johannes Kepler's laws improved the model of Copernicus.",
"According to Copernicus:# The planetary orbit is a circle with epicycles.# The Sun is approximately at the center of the orbit.# The speed of the planet in the main orbit is constant.Despite being correct in saying that the planets revolved around the Sun, Copernicus was incorrect in defining their orbits.",
"Introducing physical explanations for movement in space beyond just geometry, Kepler correctly defined the orbit of planets as follows:# The planetary orbit is ''not'' a circle with epicycles, but an ''ellipse''.# The Sun is ''not'' at the center but at a ''focal point'' of the elliptical orbit.# Neither the linear speed nor the angular speed of the planet in the orbit is constant, but the ''area speed'' (closely linked historically with the concept of angular momentum) is constant.The eccentricity of the orbit of the Earth makes the time from the March equinox to the September equinox, around 186 days, unequal to the time from the September equinox to the March equinox, around 179 days.",
"A diameter would cut the orbit into equal parts, but the plane through the Sun parallel to the equator of the Earth cuts the orbit into two parts with areas in a 186 to 179 ratio, so the eccentricity of the orbit of the Earth is approximately:which is close to the correct value (0.016710218).",
"The accuracy of this calculation requires that the two dates chosen be along the elliptical orbit's minor axis and that the midpoints of each half be along the major axis.",
"As the two dates chosen here are equinoxes, this will be correct when perihelion, the date the Earth is closest to the Sun, falls on a solstice.",
"The current perihelion, near January 4, is fairly close to the solstice of December 21 or 22."
],
[
"Nomenclature",
"It took nearly two centuries for the current formulation of Kepler's work to take on its settled form.",
"Voltaire's ''Eléments de la philosophie de Newton'' (''Elements of Newton's Philosophy'') of 1738 was the first publication to use the terminology of \"laws\".",
"The ''Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers'' in its article on Kepler (p. 620) states that the terminology of scientific laws for these discoveries was current at least from the time of Joseph de Lalande.",
"It was the exposition of Robert Small, in ''An account of the astronomical discoveries of Kepler'' (1814) that made up the set of three laws, by adding in the third.",
"Small also claimed, against the history, that these were empirical laws, based on inductive reasoning.Further, the current usage of \"Kepler's Second Law\" is something of a misnomer.",
"Kepler had two versions, related in a qualitative sense: the \"distance law\" and the \"area law\".",
"The \"area law\" is what became the Second Law in the set of three; but Kepler did himself not privilege it in that way."
],
[
"History",
"Kepler published his first two laws about planetary motion in 1609, having found them by analyzing the astronomical observations of Tycho Brahe.",
"Kepler's third law was published in 1619.Kepler had believed in the Copernican model of the Solar System, which called for circular orbits, but he could not reconcile Brahe's highly precise observations with a circular fit to Mars' orbit – Mars coincidentally having the highest eccentricity of all planets except Mercury.",
"His first law reflected this discovery.In 1621, Kepler noted that his third law applies to the four brightest moons of Jupiter.",
"Godefroy Wendelin also made this observation in 1643.The second law, in the \"area law\" form, was contested by Nicolaus Mercator in a book from 1664, but by 1670 his ''Philosophical Transactions'' were in its favour.",
"As the century proceeded it became more widely accepted.",
"The reception in Germany changed noticeably between 1688, the year in which Newton's ''Principia'' was published and was taken to be basically Copernican, and 1690, by which time work of Gottfried Leibniz on Kepler had been published.Newton was credited with understanding that the second law is not special to the inverse square law of gravitation, being a consequence just of the radial nature of that law, whereas the other laws do depend on the inverse square form of the attraction.",
"Carl Runge and Wilhelm Lenz much later identified a symmetry principle in the phase space of planetary motion (the orthogonal group O(4) acting) which accounts for the first and third laws in the case of Newtonian gravitation, as conservation of angular momentum does via rotational symmetry for the second law."
],
[
"Formulary",
"The mathematical model of the kinematics of a planet subject to the laws allows a large range of further calculations.===First law ===The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the sun at one of the two foci.Kepler's first law placing the Sun at the focus of an elliptical orbitfoci marked by large dots.",
"For , and for , .Mathematically, an ellipse can be represented by the formula::where is the semi-latus rectum, ''ε'' is the eccentricity of the ellipse, ''r'' is the distance from the Sun to the planet, and ''θ'' is the angle to the planet's current position from its closest approach, as seen from the Sun.",
"So (''r'', ''θ'') are polar coordinates.For an ellipse 0 min and ''r''max::The semi-minor axis ''b'' is the geometric mean between ''r''min and ''r''max::The semi-latus rectum ''p'' is the harmonic mean between ''r''min and ''r''max::The eccentricity ''ε'' is the coefficient of variation between ''r''min and ''r''max::The area of the ellipse is:The special case of a circle is ''ε'' = 0, resulting in ''r'' = ''p'' = ''r''min = ''r''max = ''a'' = ''b'' and ''A'' = ''πr''2.===Second law===A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.The same (blue) area is swept out in a fixed time period.",
"The green arrow is velocity.",
"The purple arrow directed towards the Sun is the acceleration.",
"The other two purple arrows are acceleration components parallel and perpendicular to the velocity.The orbital radius and angular velocity of the planet in the elliptical orbit will vary.",
"This is shown in the animation: the planet travels faster when closer to the Sun, then slower when farther from the Sun.",
"Kepler's second law states that the blue sector has constant area.In a small time the planet sweeps out a small triangle having base line and height and area , so the constant areal velocity is The area enclosed by the elliptical orbit is .",
"So the period satisfies:and the mean motion of the planet around the Sun:satisfies:And so, + Orbits of planets with varying eccentricities.",
"Low High center Planet orbiting the Sun in a circular orbit (e=0.0) center Planet orbiting the Sun in an orbit with e=0.5 center Planet orbiting the Sun in an orbit with e=0.2 center Planet orbiting the Sun in an orbit with e=0.8 The red ray rotates at a constant angular velocity and with the same orbital time period as the planet, .",
"S: Sun at the primary focus, C: Centre of ellipse, S': The secondary focus.",
"In each case, the area of all sectors depicted is identical.===Third law===The ratio of the square of an object's orbital period with the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit is the same for all objects orbiting the same primary.This captures the relationship between the distance of planets from the Sun, and their orbital periods.Kepler enunciated in 1619 this third law in a laborious attempt to determine what he viewed as the \"music of the spheres\" according to precise laws, and express it in terms of musical notation.",
"It was therefore known as the ''harmonic law''.Using Newton's law of gravitation (published 1687), this relation can be found in the case of a circular orbit by setting the centripetal force equal to the gravitational force:: Then, expressing the angular velocity ω in terms of the orbital period and then rearranging, results in Kepler's Third Law:: A more detailed derivation can be done with general elliptical orbits, instead of circles, as well as orbiting the center of mass, instead of just the large mass.",
"This results in replacing a circular radius, , with the semi-major axis, , of the elliptical relative motion of one mass relative to the other, as well as replacing the large mass with .",
"However, with planet masses being so much smaller than the Sun, this correction is often ignored.",
"The full corresponding formula is::where is the mass of the Sun, is the mass of the planet, is the gravitational constant, is the orbital period and is the elliptical semi-major axis, and is the astronomical unit, the average distance from earth to the sun.==== Table ====The following table shows the data used by Kepler to empirically derive his law:+ Data used by Kepler (1618) Planet Mean distance to sun (AU) Period (days) (10AU/day)Mercury0.38987.777.64Venus0.724224.707.52Earth1365.257.50Mars1.524686.957.50Jupiter5.204332.627.49Saturn9.51010759.27.43Upon finding this pattern Kepler wrote:For comparison, here are modern estimates:+ Modern data (Wolfram Alpha Knowledgebase 2018) Planet Semi-major axis (AU) Period (days) (10AU/day)Mercury0.3871087.96937.496Venus0.72333224.70087.496Earth1365.25647.496Mars1.52366686.97967.495Jupiter5.203364332.82017.504Saturn9.5370710775.5997.498Uranus19.191330687.1537.506Neptune30.069060190.037.504"
],
[
"Planetary acceleration",
"Isaac Newton computed in his ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica'' the acceleration of a planet moving according to Kepler's first and second laws.# The ''direction'' of the acceleration is towards the Sun.# The ''magnitude'' of the acceleration is inversely proportional to the square of the planet's distance from the Sun (the ''inverse square law'').This implies that the Sun may be the physical cause of the acceleration of planets.",
"However, Newton states in his ''Principia'' that he considers forces from a mathematical point of view, not a physical, thereby taking an instrumentalist view.",
"Moreover, he does not assign a cause to gravity.Newton defined the force acting on a planet to be the product of its mass and the acceleration (see Newton's laws of motion).",
"So:# Every planet is attracted towards the Sun.# The force acting on a planet is directly proportional to the mass of the planet and is inversely proportional to the square of its distance from the Sun.The Sun plays an unsymmetrical part, which is unjustified.",
"So he assumed, in Newton's law of universal gravitation:# All bodies in the Solar System attract one another.# The force between two bodies is in direct proportion to the product of their masses and in inverse proportion to the square of the distance between them.As the planets have small masses compared to that of the Sun, the orbits conform approximately to Kepler's laws.",
"Newton's model improves upon Kepler's model, and fits actual observations more accurately.",
"(See two-body problem.",
")Below comes the detailed calculation of the acceleration of a planet moving according to Kepler's first and second laws.===Acceleration vector===From the heliocentric point of view consider the vector to the planet where is the distance to the planet and is a unit vector pointing towards the planet.where is the unit vector whose direction is 90 degrees counterclockwise of , and is the polar angle, and where a dot on top of the variable signifies differentiation with respect to time.Differentiate the position vector twice to obtain the velocity vector and the acceleration vector:Sowhere the '''radial acceleration''' isand the '''transversal acceleration''' is===Inverse square law===Kepler's second law says that is constant.The transversal acceleration is zero:So the acceleration of a planet obeying Kepler's second law is directed towards the Sun.The radial acceleration isKepler's first law states that the orbit is described by the equation:Differentiating with respect to timeor Differentiating once moreThe radial acceleration satisfiesSubstituting the equation of the ellipse givesThe relation gives the simple final resultThis means that the acceleration vector of any planet obeying Kepler's first and second law satisfies the '''inverse square law'''whereis a constant, and is the unit vector pointing from the Sun towards the planet, and is the distance between the planet and the Sun.Since mean motion where is the period, according to Kepler's third law, has the same value for all the planets.",
"So the inverse square law for planetary accelerations applies throughout the entire Solar System.The inverse square law is a differential equation.",
"The solutions to this differential equation include the Keplerian motions, as shown, but they also include motions where the orbit is a hyperbola or parabola or a straight line.",
"(See Kepler orbit.",
")===Newton's law of gravitation===By Newton's second law, the gravitational force that acts on the planet is:where is the mass of the planet and has the same value for all planets in the Solar System.",
"According to Newton's third law, the Sun is attracted to the planet by a force of the same magnitude.",
"Since the force is proportional to the mass of the planet, under the symmetric consideration, it should also be proportional to the mass of the Sun, .",
"Sowhere is the gravitational constant.The acceleration of Solar System body number ''i'' is, according to Newton's laws:where is the mass of body ''j'', is the distance between body ''i'' and body ''j'', is the unit vector from body ''i'' towards body ''j'', and the vector summation is over all bodies in the Solar System, besides ''i'' itself.In the special case where there are only two bodies in the Solar System, Earth and Sun, the acceleration becomeswhich is the acceleration of the Kepler motion.",
"So this Earth moves around the Sun according to Kepler's laws.If the two bodies in the Solar System are Moon and Earth the acceleration of the Moon becomesSo in this approximation, the Moon moves around the Earth according to Kepler's laws.In the three-body case the accelerations areThese accelerations are not those of Kepler orbits, and the three-body problem is complicated.",
"But Keplerian approximation is the basis for perturbation calculations.",
"(See Lunar theory.)"
],
[
"Position as a function of time{{anchor|position_function_time}}",
"Kepler used his two first laws to compute the position of a planet as a function of time.",
"His method involves the solution of a transcendental equation called Kepler's equation.The procedure for calculating the heliocentric polar coordinates (''r'',''θ'') of a planet as a function of the time ''t'' since perihelion, is the following five steps:# Compute the mean motion , where ''P'' is the period.# Compute the mean anomaly , where ''t'' is the time since perihelion.# Compute the eccentric anomaly ''E'' by solving Kepler's equation: where is the eccentricity.# Compute the true anomaly ''θ'' by solving the equation: # Compute the heliocentric distance ''r'': where is the semimajor axis.The position polar coordinates (''r'',''θ'') can now be written as a Cartesian vector and the Cartesian velocity vector can then be calculated as , where is the standard gravitational parameter.The important special case of circular orbit, ''ε'' = 0, gives .",
"Because the uniform circular motion was considered to be ''normal'', a deviation from this motion was considered an anomaly.The proof of this procedure is shown below.===Mean anomaly, ''M''===Geometric construction for Kepler's calculation of θ.",
"The Sun (located at the focus) is labeled ''S'' and the planet ''P''.",
"The auxiliary circle is an aid to calculation.",
"Line ''xd'' is perpendicular to the base and through the planet ''P''.",
"The shaded sectors are arranged to have equal areas by positioning of point ''y''.The Keplerian problem assumes an elliptical orbit and the four points:* ''s'' the Sun (at one focus of ellipse);* ''z'' the perihelion* ''c'' the center of the ellipse* ''p'' the planetand* distance between center and perihelion, the semimajor axis,* the eccentricity,* the semiminor axis,* the distance between Sun and planet.",
"* the direction to the planet as seen from the Sun, the true anomaly.The problem is to compute the polar coordinates (''r'',''θ'') of the planet from the time since perihelion, ''t''.It is solved in steps.",
"Kepler considered the circle with the major axis as a diameter, and* the projection of the planet to the auxiliary circle* the point on the circle such that the sector areas |''zcy''| and |''zsx''| are equal,* the mean anomaly.The sector areas are related by The circular sector area The area swept since perihelion,is by Kepler's second law proportional to time since perihelion.",
"So the mean anomaly, ''M'', is proportional to time since perihelion, ''t''.where ''n'' is the mean motion.===Eccentric anomaly, ''E''===When the mean anomaly ''M'' is computed, the goal is to compute the true anomaly ''θ''.",
"The function ''θ'' = ''f''(''M'') is, however, not elementary.",
"Kepler's solution is to use ''x'' as seen from the centre, the eccentric anomalyas an intermediate variable, and first compute ''E'' as a function of ''M'' by solving Kepler's equation below, and then compute the true anomaly ''θ'' from the eccentric anomaly ''E''.",
"Here are the details.Division by ''a''2/2 gives Kepler's equationThis equation gives ''M'' as a function of ''E''.",
"Determining ''E'' for a given ''M'' is the inverse problem.",
"Iterative numerical algorithms are commonly used.Having computed the eccentric anomaly ''E'', the next step is to calculate the true anomaly ''θ''.But note: Cartesian position coordinates with reference to the center of ellipse are (''a'' cos ''E'', ''b'' sin ''E'')With reference to the Sun (with coordinates (''c'',0) = (''ae'',0) ), ''r'' = (''a'' cos ''E'' – ''ae'', ''b'' sin ''E'')True anomaly would be arctan(''r''''y''/''r''''x''), magnitude of ''r'' would be .===True anomaly, ''θ''===Note from the figure thatso thatDividing by and inserting from Kepler's first lawto getThe result is a usable relationship between the eccentric anomaly ''E'' and the true anomaly ''θ''.A computationally more convenient form follows by substituting into the trigonometric identity:GetMultiplying by 1 + ''ε'' gives the resultThis is the third step in the connection between time and position in the orbit.=== Distance, ''r'' ===The fourth step is to compute the heliocentric distance ''r'' from the true anomaly ''θ'' by Kepler's first law:Using the relation above between ''θ'' and ''E'' the final equation for the distance ''r'' is:"
],
[
"See also",
"* Circular motion* Free-fall time* Gravity* Kepler orbit* Kepler problem* Kepler's equation* Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector* Specific relative angular momentum, relatively easy derivation of Kepler's laws starting with conservation of angular momentum"
],
[
"Explanatory notes"
],
[
"Citations"
],
[
"General bibliography",
"* Kepler's life is summarized on pages 523–627 and Book Five of his ''magnum opus'', ''Harmonice Mundi'' (''harmonies of the world''), is reprinted on pages 635–732 of ''On the Shoulders of Giants'': The Great Works of Physics and Astronomy (works by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Newton, and Einstein).",
"Stephen Hawking, ed.",
"2002 * A derivation of Kepler's third law of planetary motion is a standard topic in engineering mechanics classes.",
"See, for example, pages 161–164 of .",
"* Murray and Dermott, Solar System Dynamics, Cambridge University Press 1999, * V. I. Arnold, ''Mathematical Methods of Classical Mechanics'', Chapter 2.Springer 1989,"
],
[
"External links",
"* B.Surendranath Reddy; animation of Kepler's laws: applet * \" Derivation of Kepler's Laws\" (from Newton's laws) at ''Physics Stack Exchange''.",
"* Crowell, Benjamin, '' Light and Matter'', an online book that gives a proof of the first law without the use of calculus (see section 15.7)* David McNamara and Gianfranco Vidali, \" Kepler's Second Law – Java Interactive Tutorial\", an interactive Java applet that aids in the understanding of Kepler's Second Law.",
"* Cain, Gay (May 10, 2010), ''Astronomy Cast'', \" Ep.",
"189: Johannes Kepler and His Laws of Planetary Motion\"* University of Tennessee's Dept.",
"Physics & Astronomy: Astronomy 161, \" Johannes Kepler: The Laws of Planetary Motion\"* Equant compared to Kepler: interactive model * Kepler's Third Law:interactive model * Solar System Simulator ( Interactive Applet) * \" Kepler and His Laws\" in ''From Stargazers to Starships'' by David P. Stern (10 October 2016)* by Jens Puhle (Dec 27, 2023) - a video explaining and visualizing Kepler's three laws of planetary motion"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Laser"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A telescope in the Very Large Telescope system producing four orange laser guide stars |alt=A telescope emitting four orange laser beams.A '''laser''' is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation.",
"The word ''laser'' is an anacronym that originated as an acronym for '''light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation'''.",
"The first laser was built in 1960 by Theodore Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories, based on theoretical work by Charles H. Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow.A laser differs from other sources of light in that it emits light that is ''coherent''.",
"Spatial coherence allows a laser to be focused to a tight spot, enabling applications such as laser cutting and lithography.",
"It also allows a laser beam to stay narrow over great distances (collimation), a feature used in applications such as laser pointers and lidar (light detection and ranging).",
"Lasers can also have high temporal coherence, which permits them to emit light with a very narrow frequency spectrum.",
"Alternatively, temporal coherence can be used to produce ultrashort pulses of light with a broad spectrum but durations as short as a femtosecond.Lasers are used in optical disc drives, laser printers, barcode scanners, DNA sequencing instruments, fiber-optic, and free-space optical communication, semiconducting chip manufacturing (photolithography), laser surgery and skin treatments, cutting and welding materials, military and law enforcement devices for marking targets and measuring range and speed, and in laser lighting displays for entertainment.",
"Semiconductor lasers in the blue to near-UV have also been used in place of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to excite fluorescence as a white light source; this permits a much smaller emitting area due to the much greater radiance of a laser and avoids the droop suffered by LEDs; such devices are already used in some car headlamps."
],
[
"Terminology",
"The first device using amplification by stimulated emission operated at microwave frequencies, and was called a ''maser'', for \"microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation\".",
"When similar optical devices were developed they were first known as ''optical masers'', until \"microwave\" was replaced by \"light\" in the acronym, to become ''laser''.Today, all such devices operating at frequencies higher than microwaves (approximately above 300 GHz) are called lasers (e.g.",
"''infrared lasers'', ''ultraviolet lasers'', ''X-ray lasers'', ''gamma-ray lasers''), whereas devices operating at microwave or lower radio frequencies are called masers.The back-formed verb \"to lase\" is frequently used in the field, meaning \"to give off coherent light,\" especially about the gain medium of a laser; when a laser is operating it is said to be \"lasing\".",
"The terms ''laser'' and ''maser'' are also used for naturally occurring coherent emissions, as in ''astrophysical maser'' and ''atom laser''.A laser that produces light by itself is technically an optical oscillator rather than an optical amplifier as suggested by the acronym.",
"It has been humorously noted that the acronym LOSER, for \"light oscillation by stimulated emission of radiation\", would have been more correct.",
"With the widespread use of the original acronym as a common noun, optical amplifiers have come to be referred to as ''laser amplifiers''."
],
[
"Fundamentals",
"A laser normally produces a very narrow beam of light in a single wavelength, in this case, green.Modern physics describes light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation as the group behavior of fundamental particles known as ''photons''.",
"Photons are released and absorbed through electromagnetic interactions with other fundamental particles that carry electric charge.",
"A common way to release photons is to heat an object; some of the thermal energy being applied to the object will cause the molecules and electrons within the object to gain energy, which is then lost through thermal radiation, that we see as light.",
"This is the process that causes a candle flame to give off light.Thermal radiation is a random process, and thus the photons emitted have a range of different wavelengths, travel in different directions, and are released at different times.",
"The energy within the object is not random, however: it is stored by atoms and molecules in \"excited states\", which release photons with distinct wavelengths.",
"This gives rise to the science of spectroscopy, which allows materials to be determined through the specific wavelengths that they emit.The underlying physical process creating photons in a laser is the same as in thermal radiation, but the actual emission is not the result of random thermal processes.",
"Instead, the release of a photon is triggered by the nearby passage of another photon.",
"This is called stimulated emission.",
"For this process to work, the passing photon must be similar in energy, and thus wavelength, to the one that could be released by the atom or molecule, and the atom or molecule must be in the suitable excited state.The photon that is emitted by stimulated emission is identical to the photon that triggered its emission, and both photons can go on to trigger stimulated emission in other atoms, creating the possibility of a chain reaction.",
"For this to happen, many of the atoms or molecules must be in the proper excited state so that the photons can trigger them.",
"In most materials, atoms or molecules drop out of excited states fairly rapidly, making it difficult or impossible to produce a chain reaction.",
"The materials chosen for lasers are the ones that have metastable states, which stay excited for a relatively long time.",
"In laser physics, such a material is called an active laser medium.",
"Combined with an energy source that continues to \"pump\" energy into the material, this makes it possible to have enough atoms or molecules in an excited state for a chain reaction to develop.Lasers are distinguished from other light sources by their coherence.",
"Spatial (or transverse) coherence is typically expressed through the output being a narrow beam, which is diffraction-limited.",
"Laser beams can be focused to very tiny spots, achieving a very high irradiance, or they can have a very low divergence to concentrate their power at a great distance.",
"Temporal (or longitudinal) coherence implies a polarized wave at a single frequency, whose phase is correlated over a relatively great distance (the coherence length) along the beam.",
"A beam produced by a thermal or other incoherent light source has an instantaneous amplitude and phase that vary randomly with respect to time and position, thus having a short coherence length.Lasers are characterized according to their wavelength in a vacuum.",
"Most \"single wavelength\" lasers produce radiation in several ''modes'' with slightly different wavelengths.",
"Although temporal coherence implies some degree of monochromaticity, some lasers emit a broad spectrum of light or emit different wavelengths of light simultaneously.",
"Certain lasers are not single spatial mode and have light beams that diverge more than is required by the diffraction limit.",
"All such devices are classified as \"lasers\" based on the method of producing light by stimulated emission.",
"Lasers are employed where light of the required spatial or temporal coherence can not be produced using simpler technologies."
],
[
"Design",
"Components of a typical laser: A laser consists of a gain medium, a mechanism to energize it, and something to provide optical feedback.",
"The gain medium is a material with properties that allow it to amplify light by way of stimulated emission.",
"Light of a specific wavelength that passes through the gain medium is amplified (power increases).",
"Feedback enables stimulated emission to amplify predominantly the optical frequency at the peak of the gain-frequency curve.",
"As stimulated emission grows, eventually one frequency dominates over all others, meaning that a coherent beam has been formed.",
"The process of stimulated emission is analogous to that of an audio oscillator with positive feedback which can occur, for example, when the speaker in a public-address system is placed in proximity to the microphone.",
"The screech one hears is audio oscillation at the peak of the gain-frequency curve for the amplifier.For the gain medium to amplify light, it needs to be supplied with energy in a process called pumping.",
"The energy is typically supplied as an electric current or as light at a different wavelength.",
"Pump light may be provided by a flash lamp or by another laser.The most common type of laser uses feedback from an optical cavitya pair of mirrors on either end of the gain medium.",
"Light bounces back and forth between the mirrors, passing through the gain medium and being amplified each time.",
"Typically one of the two mirrors, the output coupler, is partially transparent.",
"Some of the light escapes through this mirror.",
"Depending on the design of the cavity (whether the mirrors are flat or curved), the light coming out of the laser may spread out or form a narrow beam.",
"In analogy to electronic oscillators, this device is sometimes called a ''laser oscillator''.Most practical lasers contain additional elements that affect the properties of the emitted light, such as the polarization, wavelength, and shape of the beam."
],
[
"Laser physics",
"Electrons and how they interact with electromagnetic fields are important in our understanding of chemistry and physics.=== Stimulated emission ===Animation explaining stimulated emission and the laser principleIn the classical view, the energy of an electron orbiting an atomic nucleus is larger for orbits further from the nucleus of an atom.",
"However, quantum mechanical effects force electrons to take on discrete positions in orbitals.",
"Thus, electrons are found in specific energy levels of an atom, two of which are shown below:upright=2An electron in an atom can absorb energy from light (photons) or heat (phonons) only if there is a transition between energy levels that match the energy carried by the photon or phonon.",
"For light, this means that any given transition will only absorb one particular wavelength of light.",
"Photons with the correct wavelength can cause an electron to jump from the lower to the higher energy level.",
"The photon is consumed in this process.When an electron is excited from one state to that at a higher energy level with energy difference ΔE, it will not stay that way forever.",
"Eventually, a photon will be spontaneously created from the vacuum having energy ΔE.",
"Conserving energy, the electron transitions to a lower energy level that is not occupied, with transitions to different levels having different time constants.",
"This process is called spontaneous emission.",
"Spontaneous emission is a quantum-mechanical effect and a direct physical manifestation of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.",
"The emitted photon has a random direction, but its wavelength matches the absorption wavelength of the transition.",
"This is the mechanism of fluorescence and thermal emission.A photon with the correct wavelength to be absorbed by a transition can also cause an electron to drop from the higher to the lower level, emitting a new photon.",
"The emitted photon exactly matches the original photon in wavelength, phase, and direction.",
"This process is called stimulated emission.=== Gain medium and cavity ===A helium–neon laser demonstration.",
"The glow running through the center of the tube is an electric discharge.",
"This glowing plasma is the gain medium for the laser.",
"The laser produces a tiny, intense spot on the screen to the right.",
"The center of the spot appears white because the image is overexposed there.Spectrum of a helium–neon laser.",
"The actual bandwidth is much narrower than shown; the spectrum is limited by the measuring apparatus.The gain medium is put into an excited state by an external source of energy.",
"In most lasers, this medium consists of a population of atoms that have been excited into such a state using an outside light source, or an electrical field that supplies energy for atoms to absorb and be transformed into their excited states.The gain medium of a laser is normally a material of controlled purity, size, concentration, and shape, which amplifies the beam by the process of stimulated emission described above.",
"This material can be of any state: gas, liquid, solid, or plasma.",
"The gain medium absorbs pump energy, which raises some electrons into higher energy (\"excited\") quantum states.",
"Particles can interact with light by either absorbing or emitting photons.",
"Emission can be spontaneous or stimulated.",
"In the latter case, the photon is emitted in the same direction as the light that is passing by.",
"When the number of particles in one excited state exceeds the number of particles in some lower-energy state, population inversion is achieved.",
"In this state, the rate of stimulated emission is larger than the rate of absorption of light in the medium, and therefore the light is amplified.",
"A system with this property is called an optical amplifier.",
"When an optical amplifier is placed inside a resonant optical cavity, one obtains a laser.For lasing media with extremely high gain, so-called superluminescence, light can be sufficiently amplified in a single pass through the gain medium without requiring a resonator.",
"Although often referred to as a laser (see for example nitrogen laser), the light output from such a device lacks the spatial and temporal coherence achievable with lasers.",
"Such a device cannot be described as an oscillator but rather as a high-gain optical amplifier that amplifies its spontaneous emission.",
"The same mechanism describes so-called astrophysical masers/lasers.The optical resonator is sometimes referred to as an \"optical cavity\", but this is a misnomer: lasers use open resonators as opposed to the literal cavity that would be employed at microwave frequencies in a maser.The resonator typically consists of two mirrors between which a coherent beam of light travels in both directions, reflecting on itself so that an average photon will pass through the gain medium repeatedly before it is emitted from the output aperture or lost to diffraction or absorption.If the gain (amplification) in the medium is larger than the resonator losses, then the power of the recirculating light can rise exponentially.",
"But each stimulated emission event returns an atom from its excited state to the ground state, reducing the gain of the medium.",
"With increasing beam power the net gain (gain minus loss) reduces to unity and the gain medium is said to be saturated.",
"In a continuous wave (CW) laser, the balance of pump power against gain saturation and cavity losses produces an equilibrium value of the laser power inside the cavity; this equilibrium determines the operating point of the laser.",
"If the applied pump power is too small, the gain will never be sufficient to overcome the cavity losses, and laser light will not be produced.",
"The minimum pump power needed to begin laser action is called the ''lasing threshold''.",
"The gain medium will amplify any photons passing through it, regardless of direction; but only the photons in a spatial mode supported by the resonator will pass more than once through the medium and receive substantial amplification.=== The light emitted ===Red (660 & 635 nm), green (532 & 520 nm), and blue-violet (445 & 405 nm) lasersIn most lasers, lasing begins with spontaneous emission into the lasing mode.",
"This initial light is then amplified by stimulated emission in the gain medium.",
"Stimulated emission produces light that matches the input signal in direction, wavelength, and polarization, whereas the phase of the emitted light is 90 degrees in lead of the stimulating light.",
"This, combined with the filtering effect of the optical resonator gives laser light its characteristic coherence, and may give it uniform polarization and monochromaticity, depending on the resonator's design.",
"The fundamental laser linewidth of light emitted from the lasing resonator can be orders of magnitude narrower than the linewidth of light emitted from the passive resonator.",
"Some lasers use a separate injection seeder to start the process off with a beam that is already highly coherent.",
"This can produce beams with a narrower spectrum than would otherwise be possible.In 1963, Roy J. Glauber showed that coherent states are formed from combinations of photon number states, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics.",
"A coherent beam of light is formed by single-frequency quantum photon states distributed according to a Poisson distribution.",
"As a result, the arrival rate of photons in a laser beam is described by Poisson statistics.Many lasers produce a beam that can be approximated as a Gaussian beam; such beams have the minimum divergence possible for a given beam diameter.",
"Some lasers, particularly high-power ones, produce multimode beams, with the transverse modes often approximated using Hermite–Gaussian or Laguerre-Gaussian functions.",
"Some high-power lasers use a flat-topped profile known as a \"tophat beam\".",
"Unstable laser resonators (not used in most lasers) produce fractal-shaped beams.",
"Specialized optical systems can produce more complex beam geometries, such as Bessel beams and optical vortexes.Near the \"waist\" (or focal region) of a laser beam, it is highly ''collimated'': the wavefronts are planar, normal to the direction of propagation, with no beam divergence at that point.",
"However, due to diffraction, that can only remain true well within the Rayleigh range.",
"The beam of a single transverse mode (gaussian beam) laser eventually diverges at an angle that varies inversely with the beam diameter, as required by diffraction theory.",
"Thus, the \"pencil beam\" directly generated by a common helium–neon laser would spread out to a size of perhaps 500 kilometers when shone on the Moon (from the distance of the earth).",
"On the other hand, the light from a semiconductor laser typically exits the tiny crystal with a large divergence: up to 50°.",
"However even such a divergent beam can be transformed into a similarly collimated beam employing a lens system, as is always included, for instance, in a laser pointer whose light originates from a laser diode.",
"That is possible due to the light being of a single spatial mode.",
"This unique property of laser light, spatial coherence, cannot be replicated using standard light sources (except by discarding most of the light) as can be appreciated by comparing the beam from a flashlight (torch) or spotlight to that of almost any laser.A laser beam profiler is used to measure the intensity profile, width, and divergence of laser beams.Diffuse reflection of a laser beam from a matte surface produces a speckle pattern with interesting properties.=== Quantum vs. classical emission processes ===The mechanism of producing radiation in a laser relies on stimulated emission, where energy is extracted from a transition in an atom or molecule.",
"This is a quantum phenomenon that was predicted by Albert Einstein, who derived the relationship between the A coefficient describing spontaneous emission and the B coefficient which applies to absorption and stimulated emission.",
"However, in the case of the free electron laser, atomic energy levels are not involved; it appears that the operation of this rather exotic device can be explained without reference to quantum mechanics."
],
[
"Modes of operation",
"Lidar measurements of lunar topography made by Clementine missionpoint to point optical wireless networkMercury Laser Altimeter (MLA) of the MESSENGER spacecraftA laser can be classified as operating in either continuous or pulsed mode, depending on whether the power output is essentially continuous over time or whether its output takes the form of pulses of light on one or another time scale.",
"Of course, even a laser whose output is normally continuous can be intentionally turned on and off at some rate to create pulses of light.",
"When the modulation rate is on time scales much slower than the cavity lifetime and the period over which energy can be stored in the lasing medium or pumping mechanism, then it is still classified as a \"modulated\" or \"pulsed\" continuous wave laser.",
"Most laser diodes used in communication systems fall into that category.=== Continuous-wave operation ===Some applications of lasers depend on a beam whose output power is constant over time.",
"Such a laser is known as ''continuous-wave'' (''CW'') laser.",
"Many types of lasers can be made to operate in continuous-wave mode to satisfy such an application.",
"Many of these lasers lase in several longitudinal modes at the same time, and beats between the slightly different optical frequencies of those oscillations will produce amplitude variations on time scales shorter than the round-trip time (the reciprocal of the frequency spacing between modes), typically a few nanoseconds or less.",
"In most cases, these lasers are still termed \"continuous-wave\" as their output power is steady when averaged over longer periods, with the very high-frequency power variations having little or no impact on the intended application.",
"(However, the term is not applied to mode-locked lasers, where the ''intention'' is to create very short pulses at the rate of the round-trip time.",
")For continuous-wave operation, it is required for the population inversion of the gain medium to be continually replenished by a steady pump source.",
"In some lasing media, this is impossible.",
"In some other lasers, it would require pumping the laser at a very high continuous power level, which would be impractical, or destroying the laser by producing excessive heat.",
"Such lasers cannot be run in CW mode.=== Pulsed operation ===The pulsed operation of lasers refers to any laser not classified as a continuous wave so that the optical power appears in pulses of some duration at some repetition rate.",
"This encompasses a wide range of technologies addressing many different motivations.",
"Some lasers are pulsed simply because they cannot be run in continuous mode.In other cases, the application requires the production of pulses having as large an energy as possible.",
"Since the pulse energy is equal to the average power divided by the repetition rate, this goal can sometimes be satisfied by lowering the rate of pulses so that more energy can be built up between pulses.",
"In laser ablation, for example, a small volume of material at the surface of a workpiece can be evaporated if it is heated in a very short time, while supplying the energy gradually would allow for the heat to be absorbed into the bulk of the piece, never attaining a sufficiently high temperature at a particular point.Other applications rely on the peak pulse power (rather than the energy in the pulse), especially to obtain nonlinear optical effects.",
"For a given pulse energy, this requires creating pulses of the shortest possible duration utilizing techniques such as Q-switching.The optical bandwidth of a pulse cannot be narrower than the reciprocal of the pulse width.",
"In the case of extremely short pulses, that implies lasing over a considerable bandwidth, quite contrary to the very narrow bandwidths typical of CW lasers.",
"The lasing medium in some ''dye lasers'' and ''vibronic solid-state lasers'' produces optical gain over a wide bandwidth, making a laser possible that can thus generate pulses of light as short as a few femtoseconds (10−15 s).==== Q-switching ====In a Q-switched laser, the population inversion is allowed to build up by introducing loss inside the resonator which exceeds the gain of the medium; this can also be described as a reduction of the quality factor or 'Q' of the cavity.",
"Then, after the pump energy stored in the laser medium has approached the maximum possible level, the introduced loss mechanism (often an electro- or acousto-optical element) is rapidly removed (or that occurs by itself in a passive device), allowing lasing to begin which rapidly obtains the stored energy in the gain medium.",
"This results in a short pulse incorporating that energy, and thus a high peak power.==== Mode locking ====A mode-locked laser is capable of emitting extremely short pulses on the order of tens of picoseconds down to less than 10 femtoseconds.",
"These pulses repeat at the round-trip time, that is, the time that it takes light to complete one round trip between the mirrors comprising the resonator.",
"Due to the Fourier limit (also known as energy–time uncertainty), a pulse of such short temporal length has a spectrum spread over a considerable bandwidth.",
"Thus such a gain medium must have a gain bandwidth sufficiently broad to amplify those frequencies.",
"An example of a suitable material is titanium-doped, artificially grown sapphire (Ti:sapphire), which has a very wide gain bandwidth and can thus produce pulses of only a few femtoseconds duration.Such mode-locked lasers are a most versatile tool for researching processes occurring on extremely short time scales (known as femtosecond physics, femtosecond chemistry and ultrafast science), for maximizing the effect of nonlinearity in optical materials (e.g.",
"in second-harmonic generation, parametric down-conversion, optical parametric oscillators and the like).",
"Unlike the giant pulse of a Q-switched laser, consecutive pulses from a mode-locked laser are phase-coherent, that is, the pulses (and not just their envelopes) are identical and perfectly periodic.",
"For this reason, and the extremely large peak powers attained by such short pulses, such lasers are invaluable in certain areas of research.==== Pulsed pumping ====Another method of achieving pulsed laser operation is to pump the laser material with a source that is itself pulsed, either through electronic charging in the case of flash lamps, or another laser that is already pulsed.",
"Pulsed pumping was historically used with dye lasers where the inverted population lifetime of a dye molecule was so short that a high-energy, fast pump was needed.",
"The way to overcome this problem was to charge up large capacitors which are then switched to discharge through flashlamps, producing an intense flash.",
"Pulsed pumping is also required for three-level lasers in which the lower energy level rapidly becomes highly populated preventing further lasing until those atoms relax to the ground state.",
"These lasers, such as the excimer laser and the copper vapor laser, can never be operated in CW mode."
],
[
"History",
"=== Foundations ===In 1917, Albert Einstein established the theoretical foundations for the laser and the maser in the paper \"''Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung''\" (\"On the Quantum Theory of Radiation\") via a re-derivation of Max Planck's law of radiation, conceptually based upon probability coefficients (Einstein coefficients) for the absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation.",
"In 1928, Rudolf W. Ladenburg confirmed the existence of the phenomena of stimulated emission and negative absorption.",
"In 1939, Valentin A. Fabrikant predicted the use of stimulated emission to amplify \"short\" waves.",
"In 1947, Willis E. Lamb and R.C.Retherford found apparent stimulated emission in hydrogen spectra and effected the first demonstration of stimulated emission.",
"In 1950, Alfred Kastler (Nobel Prize for Physics 1966) proposed the method of optical pumping, which was experimentally demonstrated two years later by Brossel, Kastler, and Winter.=== Maser ===Aleksandr ProkhorovIn 1951, Joseph Weber submitted a paper on using stimulated emissions to make a microwave amplifier to the June 1952 Institute of Radio Engineers Vacuum Tube Research Conference at Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.",
"After this presentation, RCA asked Weber to give a seminar on this idea, and Charles H. Townes asked him for a copy of the paper.Charles H. TownesIn 1953, Charles H. Townes and graduate students James P. Gordon and Herbert J. Zeiger produced the first microwave amplifier, a device operating on similar principles to the laser, but amplifying microwave radiation rather than infrared or visible radiation.",
"Townes's maser was incapable of continuous output.",
"Meanwhile, in the Soviet Union, Nikolay Basov and Aleksandr Prokhorov were independently working on the quantum oscillator and solved the problem of continuous-output systems by using more than two energy levels.",
"These gain media could release stimulated emissions between an excited state and a lower excited state, not the ground state, facilitating the maintenance of a population inversion.",
"In 1955, Prokhorov and Basov suggested optical pumping of a multi-level system as a method for obtaining the population inversion, later a main method of laser pumping.Townes reports that several eminent physicistsamong them Niels Bohr, John von Neumann, and Llewellyn Thomasargued the maser violated Heisenberg's uncertainty principle and hence could not work.",
"Others such as Isidor Rabi and Polykarp Kusch expected that it would be impractical and not worth the effort.",
"In 1964 Charles H. Townes, Nikolay Basov, and Aleksandr Prokhorov shared the Nobel Prize in Physics, \"for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser–laser principle\".=== Laser ===In April 1957, Japanese engineer Jun-ichi Nishizawa proposed the concept of a \"semiconductor optical maser\" in a patent application.That same year, Charles H. Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow, then at Bell Labs, began a serious study of infrared \"optical masers\".",
"As ideas developed, they abandoned infrared radiation to instead concentrate on visible light.",
"In 1958, Bell Labs filed a patent application for their proposed optical maser; and Schawlow and Townes submitted a manuscript of their theoretical calculations to the ''Physical Review'', which was published in 1958.",
"'''LASER notebook:''' First page of the notebook wherein Gordon Gould coined the acronym LASER, and described the elements required to construct one.",
"Manuscript text: \"Some rough calculations on the feasibility / of a LASER: Light Amplification by Stimulated / Emission of Radiation.",
"/Conceive a tube terminated by optically flat / Sketch of a tube / partially reflecting parallel mirrors...\"Simultaneously, Columbia University graduate student Gordon Gould was working on a doctoral thesis about the energy levels of excited thallium.",
"When Gould and Townes met, they spoke of radiation emission, as a general subject; afterward, in November 1957, Gould noted his ideas for a \"laser\", including using an open resonator (later an essential laser-device component).",
"Moreover, in 1958, Prokhorov independently proposed using an open resonator, the first published appearance of this idea.",
"Meanwhile, Schawlow and Townes had decided on an open-resonator laser design – apparently unaware of Prokhorov's publications and Gould's unpublished laser work.At a conference in 1959, Gordon Gould first published the acronym \"LASER\" in the paper ''The LASER, Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation''.",
"Gould's intention was that different \"-ASER\" acronyms should be used for different parts of the spectrum: \"XASER\" for x-rays, \"UVASER\" for ultraviolet, etc.",
"\"LASER\" ended up becoming the generic term for non-microwave devices, although \"RASER\" was briefly popular for denoting radio-frequency-emitting devices.Gould's notes included possible applications for a laser, such as spectrometry, interferometry, radar, and nuclear fusion.",
"He continued developing the idea and filed a patent application in April 1959.The United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) denied his application, and awarded a patent to Bell Labs, in 1960.That provoked a twenty-eight-year lawsuit, featuring scientific prestige and money as the stakes.",
"Gould won his first minor patent in 1977, yet it was not until 1987 that he won the first significant patent lawsuit victory when a Federal judge ordered the USPTO to issue patents to Gould for the optically pumped and the gas discharge laser devices.",
"The question of just how to assign credit for inventing the laser remains unresolved by historians.On May 16, 1960, Theodore H. Maiman operated the first functioning laser at Hughes Research Laboratories, Malibu, California, ahead of several research teams, including those of Townes, at Columbia University, Arthur L. Schawlow, at Bell Labs, and Gould, at the TRG (Technical Research Group) company.",
"Maiman's functional laser used a flashlamp-pumped synthetic ruby crystal to produce red laser light at 694 nanometers wavelength.",
"The device was only capable of pulsed operation, due to its three-level pumping design scheme.",
"Later that year, the Iranian physicist Ali Javan, and William R. Bennett Jr., and Donald R. Herriott, constructed the first gas laser, using helium and neon that was capable of continuous operation in the infrared (U.S. Patent 3,149,290); later, Javan received the Albert Einstein World Award of Science in 1993.In 1962, Robert N. Hall demonstrated the first semiconductor laser, which was made of gallium arsenide and emitted in the near-infrared band of the spectrum at 850 nm.",
"Later that year, Nick Holonyak Jr. demonstrated the first semiconductor laser with a visible emission.",
"This first semiconductor laser could only be used in pulsed-beam operation, and when cooled to liquid nitrogen temperatures (77 K).",
"In 1970, Zhores Alferov, in the USSR, and Izuo Hayashi and Morton Panish of Bell Labs also independently developed room-temperature, continual-operation diode lasers, using the heterojunction structure.=== Recent innovations ===Graph showing the history of maximum laser pulse intensity since 1960Since the early period of laser history, laser research has produced a variety of improved and specialized laser types, optimized for different performance goals, including:* new wavelength bands* maximum average output power* maximum peak pulse energy* maximum peak pulse power* minimum output pulse duration* minimum linewidth* maximum power efficiency* minimum costand this research continues to this day.In 2015, researchers made a white laser, whose light is modulated by a synthetic nanosheet made out of zinc, cadmium, sulfur, and selenium that can emit red, green, and blue light in varying proportions, with each wavelength spanning 191 nm.In 2017, researchers at the Delft University of Technology demonstrated an AC Josephson junction microwave laser.",
"Since the laser operates in the superconducting regime, it is more stable than other semiconductor-based lasers.",
"The device has the potential for applications in quantum computing.",
"In 2017, researchers at the Technical University of Munich demonstrated the smallest mode locking laser capable of emitting pairs of phase-locked picosecond laser pulses with a repetition frequency up to 200 GHz.In 2017, researchers from the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), together with US researchers from JILA, a joint institute of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and the University of Colorado Boulder, established a new world record by developing an erbium-doped fiber laser with a linewidth of only 10millihertz."
],
[
"Types and operating principles",
"Wavelengths of commercially available lasers.",
"Laser types with distinct laser lines are shown above the wavelength bar, while below are shown lasers that can emit in a wavelength range.",
"The color codifies the type of laser material (see the figure description for more details).=== Gas lasers ===Following the invention of the HeNe gas laser, many other gas discharges have been found to amplify light coherently.Gas lasers using many different gases have been built and used for many purposes.",
"The helium–neon laser (HeNe) can operate at many different wavelengths, however, the vast majority are engineered to lase at 633 nm; these relatively low-cost but highly coherent lasers are extremely common in optical research and educational laboratories.",
"Commercial carbon dioxide (CO2) lasers can emit many hundreds of watts in a single spatial mode which can be concentrated into a tiny spot.",
"This emission is in the thermal infrared at 10.6 µm; such lasers are regularly used in industry for cutting and welding.",
"The efficiency of a CO2 laser is unusually high: over 30%.",
"Argon-ion lasers can operate at several lasing transitions between 351 and 528.7 nm.",
"Depending on the optical design one or more of these transitions can be lasing simultaneously; the most commonly used lines are 458 nm, 488 nm and 514.5 nm.",
"A nitrogen transverse electrical discharge in gas at atmospheric pressure (TEA) laser is an inexpensive gas laser, often home-built by hobbyists, which produces rather incoherent UV light at 337.1 nm.",
"Metal ion lasers are gas lasers that generate deep ultraviolet wavelengths.",
"Helium-silver (HeAg) 224 nm and neon-copper (NeCu) 248 nm are two examples.",
"Like all low-pressure gas lasers, the gain media of these lasers have quite narrow oscillation linewidths, less than 3 GHz (0.5 picometers), making them candidates for use in fluorescence suppressed Raman spectroscopy.Lasing without maintaining the medium excited into a population inversion was demonstrated in 1992 in sodium gas and again in 1995 in rubidium gas by various international teams.",
"This was accomplished by using an external maser to induce \"optical transparency\" in the medium by introducing and destructively interfering the ground electron transitions between two paths so that the likelihood for the ground electrons to absorb any energy has been canceled.==== Chemical lasers ====Chemical lasers are powered by a chemical reaction permitting a large amount of energy to be released quickly.",
"Such very high-power lasers are especially of interest to the military, however continuous wave chemical lasers at very high power levels, fed by streams of gasses, have been developed and have some industrial applications.",
"As examples, in the hydrogen fluoride laser (2700–2900 nm) and the deuterium fluoride laser (3800 nm) the reaction is the combination of hydrogen or deuterium gas with combustion products of ethylene in nitrogen trifluoride.==== Excimer lasers ====Excimer lasers are a special sort of gas laser powered by an electric discharge in which the lasing medium is an excimer, or more precisely an exciplex in existing designs.",
"These are molecules that can only exist with one atom in an excited electronic state.",
"Once the molecule transfers its excitation energy to a photon, its atoms are no longer bound to each other and the molecule disintegrates.",
"This drastically reduces the population of the lower energy state thus greatly facilitating a population inversion.",
"Excimers currently used are all noble gas compounds; noble gasses are chemically inert and can only form compounds while in an excited state.",
"Excimer lasers typically operate at ultraviolet wavelengths with major applications including semiconductor photolithography and LASIK eye surgery.",
"Commonly used excimer molecules include ArF (emission at 193 nm), KrCl (222 nm), KrF (248 nm), XeCl (308 nm), and XeF (351 nm).The molecular fluorine laser, emitting at 157 nm in the vacuum ultraviolet is sometimes referred to as an excimer laser, however, this appears to be a misnomer since F2 is a stable compound.=== Solid-state lasers ===FASOR, based on a Nd:YAG laser, used at the Starfire Optical RangeSolid-state lasers use a crystalline or glass rod that is \"doped\" with ions that provide the required energy states.",
"For example, the first working laser was a ruby laser, made from ruby (chromium-doped corundum).",
"The population inversion is maintained in the dopant.",
"These materials are pumped optically using a shorter wavelength than the lasing wavelength, often from a flash tube or another laser.",
"The usage of the term \"solid-state\" in laser physics is narrower than in typical use.",
"Semiconductor lasers (laser diodes) are typically ''not'' referred to as solid-state lasers.Neodymium is a common dopant in various solid-state laser crystals, including yttrium orthovanadate (Nd:YVO4), yttrium lithium fluoride (Nd:YLF) and yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG).",
"All these lasers can produce high powers in the infrared spectrum at 1064 nm.",
"They are used for cutting, welding, and marking of metals and other materials, and also in spectroscopy and for pumping dye lasers.",
"These lasers are also commonly doubled, tripled or quadrupled in frequency to produce 532 nm (green, visible), 355 nm and 266 nm (UV) beams, respectively.",
"Frequency-doubled diode-pumped solid-state (DPSS) lasers are used to make bright green laser pointers.Ytterbium, holmium, thulium, and erbium are other common \"dopants\" in solid-state lasers.",
"Ytterbium is used in crystals such as Yb:YAG, Yb:KGW, Yb:KYW, Yb:SYS, Yb:BOYS, Yb:CaF2, typically operating around 1020–1050 nm.",
"They are potentially very efficient and high-powered due to a small quantum defect.",
"Extremely high powers in ultrashort pulses can be achieved with Yb:YAG.",
"Holmium-doped YAG crystals emit at 2097 nm and form an efficient laser operating at infrared wavelengths strongly absorbed by water-bearing tissues.",
"The Ho-YAG is usually operated in a pulsed mode and passed through optical fiber surgical devices to resurface joints, remove rot from teeth, vaporize cancers, and pulverize kidney and gall stones.Titanium-doped sapphire (Ti:sapphire) produces a highly tunable infrared laser, commonly used for spectroscopy.",
"It is also notable for use as a mode-locked laser producing ultrashort pulses of extremely high peak power.Thermal limitations in solid-state lasers arise from unconverted pump power that heats the medium.",
"This heat, when coupled with a high thermo-optic coefficient (d''n''/d''T'') can cause thermal lensing and reduce the quantum efficiency.",
"Diode-pumped thin disk lasers overcome these issues by having a gain medium that is much thinner than the diameter of the pump beam.",
"This allows for a more uniform temperature in the material.",
"Thin disk lasers have been shown to produce beams of up to one kilowatt.=== Fiber lasers ===Solid-state lasers or laser amplifiers where the light is guided due to the total internal reflection in a single mode optical fiber are instead called fiber lasers.",
"Guiding of light allows extremely long gain regions providing good cooling conditions; fibers have a high surface area to volume ratio which allows efficient cooling.",
"In addition, the fiber's waveguiding properties tend to reduce the thermal distortion of the beam.",
"Erbium and ytterbium ions are common active species in such lasers.Quite often, the fiber laser is designed as a double-clad fiber.",
"This type of fiber consists of a fiber core, an inner cladding, and an outer cladding.",
"The index of the three concentric layers is chosen so that the fiber core acts as a single-mode fiber for the laser emission while the outer cladding acts as a highly multimode core for the pump laser.",
"This lets the pump propagate a large amount of power into and through the active inner core region, while still having a high numerical aperture (NA) to have easy launching conditions.Pump light can be used more efficiently by creating a fiber disk laser, or a stack of such lasers.Fiber lasers, like other optical media, can suffer from the effects of photodarkening when they are exposed to radiation of certain wavelengths.",
"In particular, this can lead to degradation of the material and loss in laser functionality over time.",
"The exact causes and effects of this phenomenon vary from material to material, although it often involves the formation of color centers.=== Photonic crystal lasers ===Photonic crystal lasers are lasers based on nano-structures that provide the mode confinement and the density of optical states (DOS) structure required for the feedback to take place.",
"They are typical micrometer-sized and tunable on the bands of the photonic crystals.=== Semiconductor lasers ===CD or DVD playerSemiconductor lasers are diodes that are electrically pumped.",
"Recombination of electrons and holes created by the applied current introduces optical gain.",
"Reflection from the ends of the crystal forms an optical resonator, although the resonator can be external to the semiconductor in some designs.Commercial laser diodes emit at wavelengths from 375 nm to 3500 nm.",
"Low to medium power laser diodes are used in laser pointers, laser printers and CD/DVD players.",
"Laser diodes are also frequently used to optically pump other lasers with high efficiency.",
"The highest-power industrial laser diodes, with power of up to 20 kW, are used in industry for cutting and welding.",
"External-cavity semiconductor lasers have a semiconductor active medium in a larger cavity.",
"These devices can generate high power outputs with good beam quality, wavelength-tunable narrow-linewidth radiation, or ultrashort laser pulses.In 2012, Nichia and OSRAM developed and manufactured commercial high-power green laser diodes (515/520 nm), which compete with traditional diode-pumped solid-state lasers.Vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) are semiconductor lasers whose emission direction is perpendicular to the surface of the wafer.",
"VCSEL devices typically have a more circular output beam than conventional laser diodes.",
"As of 2005, only 850 nm VCSELs are widely available, with 1300 nm VCSELs beginning to be commercialized, and 1550 nm devices an area of research.",
"VECSELs are external-cavity VCSELs.",
"Quantum cascade lasers are semiconductor lasers that have an active transition between energy ''sub-bands'' of an electron in a structure containing several quantum wells.The development of a silicon laser is important in the field of optical computing.",
"Silicon is the material of choice for integrated circuits, and so electronic and silicon photonic components (such as optical interconnects) could be fabricated on the same chip.",
"Unfortunately, silicon is a difficult lasing material to deal with, since it has certain properties which block lasing.",
"However, recently teams have produced silicon lasers through methods such as fabricating the lasing material from silicon and other semiconductor materials, such as indium(III) phosphide or gallium(III) arsenide, materials that allow coherent light to be produced from silicon.",
"These are called hybrid silicon laser.",
"Recent developments have also shown the use of monolithically integrated nanowire lasers directly on silicon for optical interconnects, paving the way for chip-level applications.",
"These heterostructure nanowire lasers capable of optical interconnects in silicon are also capable of emitting pairs of phase-locked picosecond pulses with a repetition frequency up to 200 GHz, allowing for on-chip optical signal processing.",
"Another type is a Raman laser, which takes advantage of Raman scattering to produce a laser from materials such as silicon.=== Dye lasers ===Close-up of a table-top dye laser based on Rhodamine 6GDye lasers use an organic dye as the gain medium.",
"The wide gain spectrum of available dyes, or mixtures of dyes, allows these lasers to be highly tunable, or to produce very short-duration pulses (on the order of a few femtoseconds).",
"Although these tunable lasers are mainly known in their liquid form, researchers have also demonstrated narrow-linewidth tunable emission in dispersive oscillator configurations incorporating solid-state dye gain media.",
"In their most prevalent form, these solid-state dye lasers use dye-doped polymers as laser media.=== Free-electron lasers ===The free-electron laser ''FELIX'' at the FOM Institute for Plasma Physics Rijnhuizen, NieuwegeinFree-electron lasers (FEL) generate coherent, high-power radiation that is widely tunable, currently ranging in wavelength from microwaves through terahertz radiation and infrared to the visible spectrum, to soft X-rays.",
"They have the widest frequency range of any laser type.",
"While FEL beams share the same optical traits as other lasers, such as coherent radiation, FEL operation is quite different.",
"Unlike gas, liquid, or solid-state lasers, which rely on bound atomic or molecular states, FELs use a relativistic electron beam as the lasing medium, hence the term ''free-electron''.=== Exotic media ===The pursuit of a high-quantum-energy laser using transitions between isomeric states of an atomic nucleus has been the subject of wide-ranging academic research since the early 1970s.",
"Much of this is summarized in three review articles.",
"This research has been international in scope but mainly based in the former Soviet Union and the United States.",
"While many scientists remain optimistic that a breakthrough is near, an operational gamma-ray laser is yet to be realized.Some of the early studies were directed toward short pulses of neutrons exciting the upper isomer state in a solid so the gamma-ray transition could benefit from the line-narrowing of Mössbauer effect.",
"In conjunction, several advantages were expected from two-stage pumping of a three-level system.",
"It was conjectured that the nucleus of an atom, embedded in the near field of a laser-driven coherently-oscillating electron cloud would experience a larger dipole field than that of the driving laser.",
"Furthermore, the nonlinearity of the oscillating cloud would produce both spatial and temporal harmonics, so nuclear transitions of higher multipolarity could also be driven at multiples of the laser frequency.In September 2007, the BBC News reported that there was speculation about the possibility of using positronium annihilation to drive a very powerful gamma ray laser.",
"David Cassidy of the University of California, Riverside proposed that a single such laser could be used to ignite a nuclear fusion reaction, replacing the banks of hundreds of lasers currently employed in inertial confinement fusion experiments.Space-based X-ray lasers pumped by a nuclear explosion have also been proposed as antimissile weapons.",
"Such devices would be one-shot weapons.Living cells have been used to produce laser light.",
"The cells were genetically engineered to produce green fluorescent protein, which served as the laser's gain medium.",
"The cells were then placed between two 20-micrometer-wide mirrors, which acted as the laser cavity.",
"When the cell was illuminated with blue light, it emitted intensely directed green laser light.=== Natural lasers ===Like astrophysical masers, irradiated planetary or stellar gases may amplify light producing a natural laser.",
"Mars, Venus and MWC 349 exhibit this phenomenon."
],
[
"Uses",
"Lasers range in size from microscopic diode lasers (''top'') with numerous applications, to football field sized neodymium glass lasers (bottom) used for inertial confinement fusion, nuclear weapons research and other high energy density physics experimentsWhen lasers were invented in 1960, they were called \"a solution looking for a problem\".",
"Since then, they have become ubiquitous, finding utility in thousands of highly varied applications in every section of modern society, including consumer electronics, information technology, science, medicine, industry, law enforcement, entertainment, and the military.",
"Fiber-optic communication using lasers is a key technology in modern communications, allowing services such as the Internet.The first widely noticeable use of lasers was the supermarket barcode scanner, introduced in 1974.The laserdisc player, introduced in 1978, was the first successful consumer product to include a laser but the compact disc player was the first laser-equipped device to become common, beginning in 1982 followed shortly by laser printers.Some other uses are:* Communications: besides fiber-optic communication, lasers are used for free-space optical communication, including laser communication in space* Medicine: see below* Industry: cutting including converting thin materials, welding, material heat treatment, marking parts (engraving and bonding), additive manufacturing or 3D printing processes such as selective laser sintering and selective laser melting, laser metal deposition, and non-contact measurement of parts and 3D scanning, and laser cleaning.",
"* Military: marking targets, guiding munitions, missile defense, electro-optical countermeasures (EOCM), lidar, blinding troops, firearms sight.",
"See below* Law enforcement: LIDAR traffic enforcement.",
"Lasers are used for latent fingerprint detection in the forensic identification field* Research: spectroscopy, laser ablation, laser annealing, laser scattering, laser interferometry, lidar, laser capture microdissection, fluorescence microscopy, metrology, laser cooling* Commercial products: laser printers, barcode scanners, thermometers, laser pointers, holograms, bubblegrams* Entertainment: optical discs, laser lighting displays, laser turntables.",
"* Informational markings: Laser lighting display technology can be used to project informational markings onto surfaces such as playing fields, roads, runways, or warehouse floors.In 2004, excluding diode lasers, approximately 131,000 lasers were sold with a value of billion.",
"In the same year, approximately 733 million diode lasers, valued at billion, were sold.=== In medicine ===Lasers have many uses in medicine, including laser surgery (particularly eye surgery), laser healing (photobiomodulation therapy), kidney stone treatment, ophthalmoscopy, and cosmetic skin treatments such as acne treatment, cellulite and striae reduction, and hair removal.Lasers are used to treat cancer by shrinking or destroying tumors or precancerous growths.",
"They are most commonly used to treat superficial cancers that are on the surface of the body or the lining of internal organs.",
"They are used to treat basal cell skin cancer and the very early stages of others like cervical, penile, vaginal, vulvar, and non-small cell lung cancer.",
"Laser therapy is often combined with other treatments, such as surgery, chemotherapy, or radiation therapy.",
"Laser-induced interstitial thermotherapy (LITT), or interstitial laser photocoagulation, uses lasers to treat some cancers using hyperthermia, which uses heat to shrink tumors by damaging or killing cancer cells.",
"Lasers are more precise than traditional surgery methods and cause less damage, pain, bleeding, swelling, and scarring.",
"A disadvantage is that surgeons must acquire specialized training and thus it will likely be more expensive than other treatments.=== As weapons ===A '''laser weapon''' is a laser that is used as a directed-energy weapon.Tactical High Energy weapon has been used to shoot down rockets and artillery shells=== Hobbies ===In recent years, some hobbyists have taken an interest in lasers.",
"Lasers used by hobbyists are generally of class IIIa or IIIb , although some have made their own class IV types.",
"However, compared to other hobbyists, laser hobbyists are far less common, due to the cost and potential dangers involved.",
"Due to the cost of lasers, some hobbyists use inexpensive means to obtain lasers, such as salvaging laser diodes from broken DVD players (red), Blu-ray players (violet), or even higher power laser diodes from CD or DVD burners.Hobbyists have also used surplus lasers taken from retired military applications and modified them for holography.",
"Pulsed ruby and YAG lasers work well for this application.=== Examples by power ===Laser application in astronomical adaptive optics imagingDifferent applications need lasers with different output powers.",
"Lasers that produce a continuous beam or a series of short pulses can be compared on the basis of their average power.",
"Lasers that produce pulses can also be characterized based on the ''peak'' power of each pulse.",
"The peak power of a pulsed laser is many orders of magnitude greater than its average power.",
"The average output power is always less than the power consumed.+ The continuous or average power required for some uses: Power Use Laser pointers CD-ROM drive DVD player or DVD-ROM drive High-speed CD-RW burner Consumer 16× DVD-R burner DVD 24× dual-layer recording Green laser in Holographic Versatile Disc prototype development Output of the majority of commercially available solid-state lasers used for micro machining Typical sealed CO2 surgical lasers Typical sealed CO2 lasers used in industrial laser cuttingExamples of pulsed systems with high peak power:* 700 TW (700×1012 W)National Ignition Facility, a 192-beam, 1.8-megajoule laser system adjoining a 10-meter-diameter target chamber* 10 PW (10×1015 W)world's most powerful laser as of 2019, located at the ELI-NP facility in Măgurele, Romania."
],
[
"Safety",
"Even the first laser was recognized as being potentially dangerous.",
"Theodore Maiman characterized the first laser as having the power of one \"Gillette\" as it could burn through one Gillette razor blade.",
"Today, it is accepted that even low-power lasers with only a few milliwatts of output power can be hazardous to human eyesight when the beam hits the eye directly or after reflection from a shiny surface.",
"At wavelengths which the cornea and the lens can focus well, the coherence and low divergence of laser light means that it can be focused by the eye into an extremely small spot on the retina, resulting in localized burning and permanent damage in seconds or even less time.Lasers are usually labeled with a safety class number, which identifies how dangerous the laser is:* Class 1 is inherently safe, usually because the light is contained in an enclosure, for example in CD players* Class 2 is safe during normal use; the blink reflex of the eye will prevent damage.",
"Usually up to 1 mW power, for example, laser pointers.",
"* Class 3R (formerly IIIa) lasers are usually up to 5 mW and involve a small risk of eye damage within the time of the blink reflex.",
"Staring into such a beam for several seconds is likely to cause damage to a spot on the retina.",
"* Class 3B lasers (5–499 mW) can cause immediate eye damage upon exposure.",
"* Class 4 lasers (≥ 500 mW) can burn skin, and in some cases, even scattered light from these lasers can cause eye and/or skin damage.",
"Many industrial and scientific lasers are in this class.The indicated powers are for visible-light, continuous-wave lasers.",
"For pulsed lasers and invisible wavelengths, other power limits apply.",
"People working with class 3B and class 4 lasers can protect their eyes with safety goggles which are designed to absorb light of a particular wavelength.Infrared lasers with wavelengths longer than about 1.4micrometers are often referred to as \"eye-safe\", because the cornea tends to absorb light at these wavelengths, protecting the retina from damage.",
"The label \"eye-safe\" can be misleading, however, as it applies only to relatively low-power continuous wave beams; a high-power or Q-switched laser at these wavelengths can burn the cornea, causing severe eye damage, and even moderate-power lasers can injure the eye.Lasers can be a hazard to both civil and military aviation, due to the potential to temporarily distract or blind pilots.",
"See Lasers and aviation safety for more on this topic.Cameras based on charge-coupled devices may be more sensitive to laser damage than biological eyes."
],
[
"See also",
"* Coherent perfect absorber* Homogeneous broadening* Laser linewidth* List of laser articles* List of light sources* Nanolaser* Sound amplification by stimulated emission of radiation* Spaser* Fabry–Pérot interferometer"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"=== Books ===* Bertolotti, Mario (1999, trans.",
"2004).",
"''The History of the Laser''.",
"Institute of Physics.",
".",
"* Bromberg, Joan Lisa (1991).",
"''The Laser in America, 1950–1970''.",
"MIT Press.",
".",
"* Csele, Mark (2004).",
"''Fundamentals of Light Sources and Lasers''.",
"Wiley.",
".",
"* Koechner, Walter (1992).",
"''Solid-State Laser Engineering''.",
"3rd ed.",
"Springer-Verlag.",
".",
"* Siegman, Anthony E. (1986).",
"''Lasers''.",
"University Science Books.",
".",
"* Silfvast, William T. (1996).",
"''Laser Fundamentals''.",
"Cambridge University Press.",
".",
"* Svelto, Orazio (1998).",
"''Principles of Lasers''.",
"4th ed.",
"Trans.",
"David Hanna.",
"Springer.",
".",
"* * Wilson, J.",
"& Hawkes, J.F.B.",
"(1987).",
"''Lasers: Principles and Applications''.",
"Prentice Hall International Series in Optoelectronics, Prentice Hall.",
".",
"* Yariv, Amnon (1989).",
"''Quantum Electronics''.",
"3rd ed.",
"Wiley.",
".=== Periodicals ===* ''Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics'' ()* ''IEEE Journal of Lightwave Technology'' ()* ''IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics'' ()* ''IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics'' ()* ''IEEE Photonics Technology Letters'' ()* ''Journal of the Optical Society of America B: Optical Physics'' ()* ''Laser Focus World'' ()* ''Optics Letters'' ()* ''Photonics Spectra'' ()"
],
[
"External links",
"* Encyclopedia of laser physics and technology by Rüdiger Paschotta* A Practical Guide to Lasers for Experimenters and Hobbyists by Samuel M. Goldwasser* Homebuilt Lasers Page by Professor Mark Csele * Powerful laser is 'brightest light in the universe'The world's most powerful laser as of 2008 might create supernova-like shock waves and possibly even antimatter* \" Laser Fundamentals\" an online course by F. Balembois and S.",
"Forget.",
"* Northrop Grumman's Press Release on the Firestrike 15 kW tactical laser product* Website on Lasers 50th anniversary by APS, OSA, SPIE* Advancing the Laser anniversary site by SPIE: Video interviews, open-access articles, posters, DVDs * Bright Idea: The First Lasers history of the invention, with audio interview clips.",
"* Free software for Simulation of random laser dynamics* Video Demonstrations in Lasers and Optics Produced by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).",
"Real-time effects are demonstrated in a way that would be difficult to see in a classroom setting.",
"* MIT Video Lecture: Understanding Lasers and Fiberoptics* Virtual Museum of Laser History, from the touring exhibit by SPIE* website with animations, applications and research about laser and other quantum based phenomena Universite Paris Sud"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Live action role-playing game"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Players dressed in character for a LARP eventA '''live action role-playing game''' ('''LARP''') is a form of role-playing game where the participants physically portray their characters.",
"The players pursue goals within a fictional setting represented by real-world environments while interacting with each other in character.",
"The outcome of player actions may be mediated by game rules or determined by consensus among players.",
"Event arrangers called gamemasters decide the setting and rules to be used and facilitate play.The first LARPs were run in the late 1970s, inspired by tabletop role-playing games and genre fiction.",
"The activity spread internationally during the 1980s and has diversified into a wide variety of styles.",
"Play may be very game-like or may be more concerned with dramatic or artistic expression.",
"Events can also be designed to achieve educational or political goals.",
"The fictional genres used vary greatly, from realistic modern or historical settings to fantastic or futuristic eras.",
"Production values are sometimes minimal, but can involve elaborate venues and costumes.",
"LARPs range in size from small private events lasting a few hours, to large public events with thousands of players lasting for days."
],
[
"Terminology",
"LARP has also been referred to as ''live role-playing'' (''LRP''), ''interactive literature'', and ''free form role-playing''.",
"Some of these terms are still in common use; however, LARP has become the most commonly accepted term.",
"It is sometimes written in lowercase, as ''larp''.",
"The ''live action'' in LARP is analogous to the term ''live action'' used in film and video to differentiate works with human actors from animation.",
"Playing a LARP is often called ''larping'', and one who does it is a ''larper''."
],
[
"Play overview",
"The participants in a LARP physically portray characters in a fictional setting, improvising their characters' speech and movements somewhat like actors in improvisational theatre.",
"This is distinct from tabletop role-playing games, where character actions are described verbally.",
"LARPs may be played in a public or private area and may last for hours or days.",
"There is usually no audience.",
"Players may dress as their character and carry appropriate equipment, and the environment is sometimes decorated to resemble the setting.",
"LARPs can be one-off events or a series of events in the same setting, and events can vary in size from a handful of players to several thousand.Events are put on for the benefit of the ''players'', who take on roles called ''player characters'' (''PCs'') that the players may create themselves or be given by the gamemasters.",
"Players sometimes play the same character repeatedly at separate events, progressively developing the character and its relations with other characters and the setting.Arrangers called ''gamemasters'' (''GMs'') determine the rules and setting of a LARP, and may also influence an event and act as referees while it is taking place.",
"The GMs may also do the logistical work, or there may be other arrangers who handle details such as advertising the event, booking a venue, and financial management.",
"Unlike the GM in a tabletop role-playing game, a LARP GM seldom has an overview of everything that is happening during play because numerous participants may be interacting at once.",
"For this reason, a LARP GM's role is often less concerned with tightly maintaining a narrative or directly entertaining the players, and more with arranging the structure of the LARP before play begins and facilitating the players and crew to maintain the fictional environment during play.Participants sometimes known as the ''crew'' may help the GMs to set up and maintain the environment of the LARP during play by acting as stagehands or playing ''non-player characters'' (''NPCs'') who fill out the setting.",
"Crew typically receive more information about the setting and more direction from the GMs than players do.",
"In a tabletop role-playing game, a GM usually plays all the NPCs, whereas in a LARP, each NPC is typically played by a separate crew member.",
"Sometimes players are asked to play NPCs for periods of an event.Much of play consists of interactions between characters.",
"Some LARP scenarios primarily feature interaction between PCs.",
"Other scenarios focus on interaction between PCs and aspects of the setting, including NPCs, that are under the direction of the GMs."
],
[
"History",
"LARP does not have a single point of origin, but was invented independently by groups in North America, Europe, and Australia.",
"These groups shared an experience with genre fiction or tabletop role-playing games, and a desire to physically experience such settings.",
"In addition to tabletop role-playing, LARP is rooted in childhood games of make believe, play fighting, costume parties, roleplay simulations, Commedia dell'arte, improvisational theatre, psychodrama, military simulations, and historical reenactment groups such as the Society for Creative Anachronism.Two Dagorhir fighters use foam weapons to duelThe earliest recorded LARP group is ''Dagorhir'', which was founded in 1977 in the United States and focuses on fantasy battles.",
"Soon after the release of the movie ''Logan's Run'' in 1976, rudimentary live role-playing games based on the movie were run at US science fiction conventions.",
"In 1981, the ''International Fantasy Gaming Society'' (IFGS) started, with rules influenced by ''Dungeons & Dragons''.",
"IFGS was named after a fictional group in the 1981 novel ''Dream Park'', which described futuristic LARPs.",
"In 1982, the ''Society for Interactive Literature'', a predecessor of the ''Live Action Roleplayers Association'' (LARPA), formed as the first recorded theatre-style LARP group in the US.",
"''Treasure Trap'', formed in 1982 at Peckforton Castle, was the first recorded LARP game in the UK and influenced the fantasy LARPs that followed there.",
"The first recorded LARP in Australia was run in 1983, using the science fiction ''Traveller'' setting.",
"In 1993, White Wolf Publishing released ''Mind's Eye Theatre,'' which is still played internationally and is probably the most commercially successful published LARP.",
"The first German events were in the early 1990s, with fantasy LARP in particular growing quickly there, so that since 2001, two major German events have been run annually that have between 3000 and 7000 players each and attract players from around Europe.Today, LARP is a widespread activity internationally.",
"Games with thousands of participants are run by for-profit companies, and a small industry exists to sell costume, armour and foam weapons intended primarily for LARP.",
"In 2023, ''Dicebreaker'' reported that \"China has developed its own LARP phenomenon in recent years.",
"Jubensha is far more commercially successful and influential than anything we have seen before even in Nordic countries – and there is a good chance it might change our perception of what live-action roleplaying games are capable of in the future\"."
],
[
"Purpose",
"Most LARPs are intended as games for entertainment.",
"Enjoyable aspects can include the collaborative creation of a story, the attempt to overcome challenges in pursuit of a character's objectives, and a sense of immersion in a fictional setting.",
"LARPs may also include other game-like aspects such as intellectual puzzles, and sport-like aspects such as fighting with simulated weapons.Some LARPs stress artistic considerations such as dramatic interaction or challenging subject matter.",
"Avant-garde or ''arthaus'' events have especially experimental approaches and high culture aspirations and are occasionally held in fine art contexts such as festivals or art museums.",
"The themes of avant-garde events often include politics, culture, religion, sexuality and the human condition.",
"Such LARPs are common in the Nordic countries but also present elsewhere.In addition to entertainment and artistic merit, LARP events may be designed for educational or political purposes.",
"For example, the Danish secondary school uses LARP to teach most of its classes.",
"Language classes can be taught by immersing students in a role-playing scenario in which they are forced to improvise speech or writing in the language they are learning.",
"Politically-themed LARP events may attempt to awaken or shape political thinking within a culture.Because LARP involves a controlled artificial environment within which people interact, it has sometimes been used as a research tool to test theories in social fields such as economics or law.",
"For example, LARP has been used to study the application of game theory to the development of criminal law."
],
[
"Fiction and reality",
"A medieval LARP venue, the Duchy of BicollineDuring a LARP, player actions in the real world represent character actions in an imaginary setting.",
"Game rules, physical symbols and theatrical improvisation are used to bridge differences between the real world and the setting.",
"For example, a rope could signify an imaginary wall.",
"Realistic-looking weapon props and risky physical activity are sometimes discouraged or forbidden for safety reasons.",
"While the fictional timeline in a tabletop RPG often progresses in ''game-time'', which may be much faster or slower than the time passing for players, LARPs are different in that they usually run in real-time, with game-time only being used in special circumstances.There is a distinction between when a player is ''in character'', meaning they are actively representing their character, and when the player is ''out-of-character'', meaning they are being themselves.",
"Some LARPs encourage players to stay consistently in character except in emergencies, while others accept players being out-of-character at times.",
"In a LARP, it is usually assumed that players are speaking and acting in character unless otherwise noted, which is the opposite of normal practice in tabletop role-playing games.",
"Character knowledge is usually considered to be separate from player knowledge, and acting upon information a character would not know may be viewed as cheating.While most LARPs maintain a clear distinction between the real world and the fictional setting, ''pervasive'' LARPs mingle fiction with modern reality in a fashion similar to alternate reality games.",
"Bystanders who are unaware that a game is taking place may be treated as part of the fictional setting, and in-character materials may be incorporated into the real world."
],
[
"Rules",
"Foam weapons are sometimes used for combatMany LARPs have game rules that determine how characters can affect each other and the setting.",
"The rules may be defined in a publication or created by the gamemasters.",
"These rules may define characters' capabilities, what can be done with various objects that exist in the setting, and what characters can do during the ''downtime'' between LARP events.",
"Because referees are often not available to mediate all character actions, players are relied upon to be honest in their application of the rules.Some LARP rules call for the use of simulated weapons such as foam weapons or airsoft guns to determine whether characters succeed in hitting one another in combat situations.",
"In Russian LARP events, weapons made of hard plastic, metal or wood are used.",
"The alternative to using simulated weapons is to pause role-play and determine the outcome of an action symbolically, for example by rolling dice, playing rock paper scissors or comparing character attributes.There are also LARPs that do without rules, instead relying on players to use their common sense or feel for dramatic appropriateness to cooperatively decide what the outcome of their actions will be."
],
[
"Genres",
"LARPs can have any genre, although many use themes and settings derived from genre fiction.",
"Some LARPs borrow a setting from an established work in another medium (e.g., ''The Lord of the Rings'' or the ''World of Darkness''), while others use settings based on the real world or designed specifically for the LARP.",
"Proprietary campaign settings, together with rulesets, are often the principal creative asset of LARP groups and LARP publishers.LARP with a Victorian settingLARPs set in the modern day may explore everyday concerns, or special interests such as espionage or military activity.",
"Such LARPs sometimes resemble an Alternate Reality Game, an ''Assassin'' game, or a military simulation using live combat with airsoft, laser tag, or paintball markers.",
"LARPs can also be set in historical eras or have semi-historical settings with mythological or fantastical aspects incorporated.Fantasy LARPFantasy is one of the most common LARP genres internationally and is the genre that the largest events use.",
"Fantasy LARPs are set in pseudo-historical worlds inspired by fantasy literature and fantasy role-playing games such as ''Dungeons & Dragons''.",
"These settings typically have magic, fantasy races, and limited technology.",
"Many fantasy LARPs focus on adventure or on conflict between character factions.",
"In contrast, science fiction LARPs take place in futuristic settings with high technology and sometimes with extraterrestrial life.",
"This describes a broad array of LARPs, including politically themed LARPs depicting dystopian or utopian societies and settings inspired by cyberpunk, space opera and post-apocalyptic fiction.Horror LARPs are inspired by horror fiction.",
"Popular subgenres include zombie apocalypse and Cthulhu Mythos, sometimes using the published ''Cthulhu Live'' rules.",
"The World of Darkness, published by White Wolf Publishing, is a widely used goth–punk horror setting in which players usually portray secretive supernatural creatures such as vampires and werewolves.",
"This setting can be played using ''Mind's Eye Theatre'', which is a set of LARP rules also published by White Wolf.",
"World of Darkness LARPs are usually played in a ''chronicle'', a series of short events held at regular intervals, and are also popular at conventions.",
"An international chronicle is run by White Wolf's official fan club, the ''Camarilla''."
],
[
"Styles",
"LARP events have a wide variety of styles that often overlap.",
"Simple distinctions can be made regarding the genre used, the presence of simulated weapons or abstract rules, and whether players create their own characters or have them assigned by gamemasters.",
"There is also a distinction between scenarios that are only run once and those that are designed to be repeatable.",
"While some LARPs are open to participants of all ages, others have a minimum age requirement.",
"There are also youth LARPs, specifically intended for children and young people.",
"Some are run through institutions such as schools, churches, or the Scouts.",
"Denmark has an especially high number of youth LARPs.=== Theatre-style ===A theatre-style LARP in a decorated room at COSI Columbus (2007)Theatre-style, or freeform, LARP is characterised by a focus on interaction between characters that are written by the gamemasters, not using simulated weapons for combat, and an eclectic approach to genre and setting.",
"Events in this style typically only last a few hours and require relatively little preparation by players and are sometimes played at gaming conventions.",
"Some murder mystery games where players are assigned characters and encouraged to roleplay freely also resemble theatre-style LARP.=== Fests ===A battle with 2000 participants at Bicolline, Quebec (2005)Some very large events known as fests (short for ''festival'') have hundreds or thousands of participants who are usually split into competing character factions camped separately around a large venue.",
"There are only a few fests in the world, all based in Europe and Canada; however, their size means that they have a significant influence on local LARP culture and design.",
"At the other end of the size scale, some small events known as ''linear'' or ''line-course'' LARPs feature a small group of PCs facing a series of challenges from NPCs and are often more tightly planned and controlled by GMs than other styles of LARP.=== Nordic LARP ===Nordic larp emphasises a collaborative \"play to lose\" strategy, keeping rules unobtrusive, and often explores emotionally complex issues.",
"The style emerged in Finland and Scandinavia during the 1990s with a focus on \"collaborative storytelling around intense human experiences\".",
"''Wired'' commented that this style adds \"distinct challenges, including the possibility of real emotional harm.",
"To work out issues of how to keep players safe and push the limits of the form, the community gathers at Knutepunkt, an annual meeting that is as much hardcore game jam as academic conference\".=== Script murder games ===Script murder games, also known as ''jubensha'' (), are murder mystery LARP games that emerged in China.",
"Typically, script murder games can be experienced in a tabletop game format or a format which combines larping and escape rooms.",
"Players are given different script options and are assigned characters to play through the murder mystery; these games often occur at dedicated gaming stores where players pay to participate.",
"The style become popularized in 2015 \"when reality shows with names like 'Lying Man,' 'Dinner Party Seduction,' and later 'Who's The Murderer,' showed celebrities playing whodunits\" which led to the development of jubensha clubs that run games in this style."
],
[
"Cultural significance",
"Roleplaying may be seen as part of a movement in Western culture towards participatory arts, as opposed to traditional spectator arts.",
"Participants in a LARP cast off the role of passive observer and take on new roles that are often outside of their daily life and contrary to their culture.",
"The arrangers of a LARP and the other participants act as co-creators of the game.",
"This collaborative process of creating shared fictional worlds may be associated with a broader burgeoning \"geek\" culture in developed societies that is in turn associated with prolonged education, high uptake of information technology and increased leisure time.",
"In comparison to the mainstream video-game industry, which is highly commercialized and often marketed towards a male audience, LARP is less commoditized, and women actively contribute as authors and participants.LARP is not well known in most countries and is sometimes confused with other role-playing, reenactment, costuming, or dramatic activities.",
"While fan and gamer culture in general has become increasingly mainstream in developed countries, LARP has often not achieved the same degree of cultural acceptability.",
"This may be due to intolerance of the resemblance to childhood games of pretend, a perceived risk of over-identification with the characters, and the absence of mass marketing.",
"In US films such as the 2006 documentary ''Darkon'', the 2007 documentary ''Monster Camp'', and the 2008 comedy ''Role Models'', fantasy LARP is depicted as somewhat ridiculous and escapist, but also treated affectionately as a \"constructive social outlet\".",
"In the Nordic countries, LARP has achieved a high level of public recognition and popularity.",
"It is often shown in a positive light in mainstream media, with an emphasis on the dramatic and creative aspects.",
"However, even in Norway, where LARP has greater recognition than in most other countries, it has still not achieved full recognition as a cultural activity by government bodies.Communities have formed around the creation, play and discussion of LARP.",
"These communities have developed a subculture that crosses over with role-playing, fan, reenactment, and drama subcultures.",
"Early LARP subculture focused on Tolkien-like fantasy, but it later broadened to include appreciation of other genres, especially the horror genre with the rapid uptake of the ''World of Darkness'' setting in the 1990s.",
"Like many subcultures, LARP groups often have a common context of shared experience, language, humour, and clothing that can be regarded by some as a lifestyle.LARP has been a subject of academic research and theory.",
"Much of this research originates from role-players, especially from the publications of the Nordic Knutepunkt role-playing conventions.",
"The broader academic community has recently begun to study LARP as well, both to compare it to other media and other varieties of interactive gaming, and also to evaluate it in its own right.",
"In 2010, William Bainbridge speculated that LARP may one day evolve into a major industry in the form of location-based games using ubiquitous computing.In Denmark, Østerskov Efterskole uses LARP as an educational method of teaching subjects to high school boarding students through interactivity and simulation.",
"LARP groups are also using simulations of current and historical events and topics like refugees and the AIDS crisis to roleplay and explore these subjects.In China, the script murder game industry (jubensha) has continued to grow since 2015.",
"''The New York Times'' reported that in 2021 \"the number of scripted murder enterprises registered in China totaled about 6,500, a more than 60 percent increase from the prior year, according to state-run media\".",
"The ''Agence France-Presse'' reported that \"the live action murder mystery market appears to have captured the imagination of China's urban youth before the Covid-19 pandemic emerged\".",
"During the COVID-19 pandemic, \"Murder Mystery Game\" (MMG) apps allowed people to play jubensha digitally and were \"available to millions of people across\" China.",
"''Dicebreaker'' reported that following the easing of pandemic restrictions in China, \"more than 45,000 jubensha shops\" opened with \"nearly 10 million active players.",
"It is estimated that soon the Jubensha market will reach 23.89 billion Chinese Yuan\".",
"Voice of America commented that, per the Chinese market research firm iResearch, script murder games are \"the third most popular form of entertainment for Chinese people, after watching movies and participating in sports\".The popularization of script murder games and industry growth in China has led to both national and governmental attention with the Chinese government considering formal regulation of the industry.",
"In September 2020, the ''Agence France-Presse'' commented that \"a report on China National Radio last month voiced fears that too many of the scripts relied on murders, violent plots and sexual content, but others see the games as a way to get young people off their smartphones and back interacting with each other in real life\".",
"In October 2021, the ''South China Morning Post'' reported that \"advertisements for script-killing are prominent in China.",
"...",
"The fact that it is a new industry is precisely the problem in the eyes of the authorities.",
"Since the Covid-19 case that brought 'script-killing' to national attention, the game has been getting mainstream traction, inviting official concerns and possible future regulations\".",
"In October 2022, ''Polygon'' commented that Chinese \"regulators are beginning to take notice of the genre's mature content.",
"A story published Wednesday indicates that municipal and provincial authorities have now begun regulating content and demanding that some retailers remove certain materials from sale.",
"... As a result, some store owners are now curating their selection to fall in line with government regulation\".",
"''China Daily'', a publication owned by the Chinese Communist Party, reported in April 2023 that China's Ministry of Culture and Tourism was beginning to draft regulations for script murder games and \"soliciting public opinions\".",
"The draft regulations state that \"the contents of such games must not smear the traditional Chinese culture or contain inappropriate materials involving obscenity, gambling, drugs, and other elements that could go against moral standards\".",
"The regulations also include additional rules for minors such as not allowing \"underage customers on school days\" and that \"children under the age of 14 must be accompanied by their parents or other guardians\"."
],
[
"See also",
"* Cosplay* List of live action role-playing groups"
],
[
"References",
"=== Citations ====== General and cited references ===* * * ** * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* The Nordic Larp Wiki has extensive documentation of this style of playing, and of specific larps."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lithium"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lithium''' () is a chemical element; it has symbol '''Li''' and atomic number 3.It is a soft, silvery-white alkali metal.",
"Under standard conditions, it is the least dense metal and the least dense solid element.",
"Like all alkali metals, lithium is highly reactive and flammable, and must be stored in vacuum, inert atmosphere, or inert liquid such as purified kerosene or mineral oil.",
"It exhibits a metallic luster.",
"It corrodes quickly in air to a dull silvery gray, then black tarnish.",
"It does not occur freely in nature, but occurs mainly as pegmatitic minerals, which were once the main source of lithium.",
"Due to its solubility as an ion, it is present in ocean water and is commonly obtained from brines.",
"Lithium metal is isolated electrolytically from a mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride.",
"The nucleus of the lithium atom verges on instability, since the two stable lithium isotopes found in nature have among the lowest binding energies per nucleon of all stable nuclides.",
"Because of its relative nuclear instability, lithium is less common in the solar system than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements even though its nuclei are very light: it is an exception to the trend that heavier nuclei are less common.",
"For related reasons, lithium has important uses in nuclear physics.",
"The transmutation of lithium atoms to helium in 1932 was the first fully human-made nuclear reaction, and lithium deuteride serves as a fusion fuel in staged thermonuclear weapons.",
"Lithium and its compounds have several industrial applications, including heat-resistant glass and ceramics, lithium grease lubricants, flux additives for iron, steel and aluminium production, lithium metal batteries, and lithium-ion batteries.",
"These uses consume more than three-quarters of lithium production.",
"Lithium is present in biological systems in trace amounts.",
"It has no established metabolic function.",
"Lithium-based drugs are useful as a mood stabilizer and antidepressant in the treatment of mental illness such as bipolar disorder."
],
[
"Properties",
"===Atomic and physical===Lithium ingots with a thin layer of black nitride tarnishThe alkali metals are also called the lithium family, after its leading element.",
"Like the other alkali metals (which are sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs), and francium (Fr)), lithium has a single valence electron that, in the presence of solvents, is easily released to form Li+.",
"Because of this, lithium is a good conductor of heat and electricity as well as a highly reactive element, though it is the least reactive of the alkali metals.",
"Lithium's lower reactivity is due to the proximity of its valence electron to its nucleus (the remaining two electrons are in the 1s orbital, much lower in energy, and do not participate in chemical bonds).",
"Molten lithium is significantly more reactive than its solid form.",
"Lithium metal is soft enough to be cut with a knife.",
"It is silvery-white.",
"In air it oxidizes to lithium oxide.",
"Its melting point of and its boiling point of are each the highest of all the alkali metals while its density of 0.534 g/cm3 is the lowest.",
"Lithium has a very low density (0.534 g/cm3), comparable with pine wood.",
"It is the least dense of all elements that are solids at room temperature; the next lightest solid element (potassium, at 0.862 g/cm3) is more than 60% denser.",
"Apart from helium and hydrogen, as a solid it is less dense than any other element as a liquid, being only two-thirds as dense as liquid nitrogen (0.808 g/cm3).",
"Lithium can float on the lightest hydrocarbon oils and is one of only three metals that can float on water, the other two being sodium and potassium.Lithium floating in oilLithium's coefficient of thermal expansion is twice that of aluminium and almost four times that of iron.",
"Lithium is superconductive below 400 μK at standard pressure and at higher temperatures (more than 9 K) at very high pressures (>20 GPa).",
"At temperatures below 70 K, lithium, like sodium, undergoes diffusionless phase change transformations.",
"At 4.2 K it has a rhombohedral crystal system (with a nine-layer repeat spacing); at higher temperatures it transforms to face-centered cubic and then body-centered cubic.",
"At liquid-helium temperatures (4 K) the rhombohedral structure is prevalent.",
"Multiple allotropic forms have been identified for lithium at high pressures.",
"Lithium has a mass specific heat capacity of 3.58 kilojoules per kilogram-kelvin, the highest of all solids.",
"Because of this, lithium metal is often used in coolants for heat transfer applications.=== Isotopes ===Naturally occurring lithium is composed of two stable isotopes, 6Li and 7Li, the latter being the more abundant (95.15% natural abundance).",
"Both natural isotopes have anomalously low nuclear binding energy per nucleon (compared to the neighboring elements on the periodic table, helium and beryllium); lithium is the only low numbered element that can produce net energy through nuclear fission.",
"The two lithium nuclei have lower binding energies per nucleon than any other stable nuclides other than hydrogen-1, deuterium and helium-3.As a result of this, though very light in atomic weight, lithium is less common in the Solar System than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements.",
"Seven radioisotopes have been characterized, the most stable being 8Li with a half-life of 838 ms and 9Li with a half-life of 178 ms. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are shorter than 8.6 ms.",
"The shortest-lived isotope of lithium is 4Li, which decays through proton emission and has a half-life of 7.6 × 10−23 s. The 6Li isotope is one of only five stable nuclides to have both an odd number of protons and an odd number of neutrons, the other four stable odd-odd nuclides being hydrogen-2, boron-10, nitrogen-14, and tantalum-180m.",
"7Li is one of the primordial elements (or, more properly, primordial nuclides) produced in Big Bang nucleosynthesis.",
"A small amount of both 6Li and 7Li are produced in stars during stellar nucleosynthesis, but it is further \"burned\" as fast as produced.",
"7Li can also be generated in carbon stars.",
"Additional small amounts of both 6Li and 7Li may be generated from solar wind, cosmic rays hitting heavier atoms, and from early solar system 7Be radioactive decay.",
"Lithium isotopes fractionate substantially during a wide variety of natural processes, including mineral formation (chemical precipitation), metabolism, and ion exchange.",
"Lithium ions substitute for magnesium and iron in octahedral sites in clay minerals, where 6Li is preferred to 7Li, resulting in enrichment of the light isotope in processes of hyperfiltration and rock alteration.",
"The exotic 11Li is known to exhibit a neutron halo, with 2 neutrons orbiting around its nucleus of 3 protons and 6 neutrons.",
"The process known as laser isotope separation can be used to separate lithium isotopes, in particular 7Li from 6Li.",
"Nuclear weapons manufacture and other nuclear physics applications are a major source of artificial lithium fractionation, with the light isotope 6Li being retained by industry and military stockpiles to such an extent that it has caused slight but measurable change in the 6Li to 7Li ratios in natural sources, such as rivers.",
"This has led to unusual uncertainty in the standardized atomic weight of lithium, since this quantity depends on the natural abundance ratios of these naturally-occurring stable lithium isotopes, as they are available in commercial lithium mineral sources.",
"Both stable isotopes of lithium can be laser cooled and were used to produce the first quantum degenerate Bose-Fermi mixture."
],
[
"Occurrence",
"Lithium is about as common as chlorine in the Earth's upper continental crust, on a per-atom basis.",
"===Astronomical===Although it was synthesized in the Big Bang, lithium (together with beryllium and boron) is markedly less abundant in the universe than other elements.",
"This is a result of the comparatively low stellar temperatures necessary to destroy lithium, along with a lack of common processes to produce it.",
"According to modern cosmological theory, lithium—in both stable isotopes (lithium-6 and lithium-7)—was one of the three elements synthesized in the Big Bang.",
"Though the amount of lithium generated in Big Bang nucleosynthesis is dependent upon the number of photons per baryon, for accepted values the lithium abundance can be calculated, and there is a \"cosmological lithium discrepancy\" in the universe: older stars seem to have less lithium than they should, and some younger stars have much more.",
"The lack of lithium in older stars is apparently caused by the \"mixing\" of lithium into the interior of stars, where it is destroyed, while lithium is produced in younger stars.",
"Although it transmutes into two atoms of helium due to collision with a proton at temperatures above 2.4 million degrees Celsius (most stars easily attain this temperature in their interiors), lithium is more abundant than computations would predict in later-generation stars.Nova Centauri 2013 is the first in which evidence of lithium has been found.",
"Lithium is also found in brown dwarf substellar objects and certain anomalous orange stars.",
"Because lithium is present in cooler, less-massive brown dwarfs, but is destroyed in hotter red dwarf stars, its presence in the stars' spectra can be used in the \"lithium test\" to differentiate the two, as both are smaller than the Sun.",
"Certain orange stars can also contain a high concentration of lithium.",
"Those orange stars found to have a higher than usual concentration of lithium (such as Centaurus X-4) orbit massive objects—neutron stars or black holes—whose gravity evidently pulls heavier lithium to the surface of a hydrogen-helium star, causing more lithium to be observed.",
"On 27 May 2020, astronomers reported that classical nova explosions are galactic producers of lithium-7.===Terrestrial===Although lithium is widely distributed on Earth, it does not naturally occur in elemental form due to its high reactivity.",
"The total lithium content of seawater is very large and is estimated as 230 billion tonnes, where the element exists at a relatively constant concentration of 0.14 to 0.25 parts per million (ppm), or 25 micromolar; higher concentrations approaching 7 ppm are found near hydrothermal vents.",
"Estimates for the Earth's crustal content range from 20 to 70 ppm by weight.",
"Lithium constitutes about 0.002 percent of Earth's crust.",
"In keeping with its name, lithium forms a minor part of igneous rocks, with the largest concentrations in granites.",
"Granitic pegmatites also provide the greatest abundance of lithium-containing minerals, with spodumene and petalite being the most commercially viable sources.",
"Another significant mineral of lithium is lepidolite which is now an obsolete name for a series formed by polylithionite and trilithionite.",
"Another source for lithium is hectorite clay, the only active development of which is through the Western Lithium Corporation in the United States.",
"At 20 mg lithium per kg of Earth's crust, lithium is the 25th most abundant element.",
"According to the ''Handbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium'', \"Lithium is a comparatively rare element, although it is found in many rocks and some brines, but always in very low concentrations.",
"There are a fairly large number of both lithium mineral and brine deposits but only comparatively few of them are of actual or potential commercial value.",
"Many are very small, others are too low in grade.\"",
"Chile is estimated (2020) to have the largest reserves by far (9.2 million tonnes), and Australia the highest annual production (40,000 tonnes).",
"One of the largest ''reserve bases'' of lithium is in the Salar de Uyuni area of Bolivia, which has 5.4 million tonnes.",
"Other major suppliers include Australia, Argentina and China.",
"As of 2015, the Czech Geological Survey considered the entire Ore Mountains in the Czech Republic as lithium province.",
"Five deposits are registered, one near is considered as a potentially economical deposit, with 160 000 tonnes of lithium.",
"In December 2019, Finnish mining company Keliber Oy reported its Rapasaari lithium deposit has estimated proven and probable ore reserves of 5.280 million tonnes.",
"In June 2010, ''The New York Times'' reported that American geologists were conducting ground surveys on dry salt lakes in western Afghanistan believing that large deposits of lithium are located there.",
"These estimates are \"based principally on old data, which was gathered mainly by the Soviets during their occupation of Afghanistan from 1979–1989\".",
"The Department of Defense estimated the lithium reserves in Afghanistan to amount to the ones in Bolivia and dubbed it as a potential \"Saudi-Arabia of lithium\".",
"In Cornwall, England, the presence of brine rich in lithium was well known due to the region's historic mining industry, and private investors have conducted tests to investigate potential lithium extraction in this area.",
"===Biological===Lithium is found in trace amount in numerous plants, plankton, and invertebrates, at concentrations of 69 to 5,760 parts per billion (ppb).",
"In vertebrates the concentration is slightly lower, and nearly all vertebrate tissue and body fluids contain lithium ranging from 21 to 763 ppb.",
"Marine organisms tend to bioaccumulate lithium more than terrestrial organisms.",
"Whether lithium has a physiological role in any of these organisms is unknown.Lithium concentrations in human tissue averages about 24 ppb (4 ppb in blood, and 1.3 ppm in bone).",
"Lithium is easily absorbed by plants and lithium concentration in plant tissue is typically around 1 ppm.",
"Some plant families bioaccumulate more lithium than others.",
"Dry weight lithium concentrations for members of the family Solanaceae (which includes potatoes and tomatoes), for instance, can be as high as 30 ppm while this can be as low as 0.05 ppb for corn grains.Studies of lithium concentrations in mineral-rich soil give ranges between around 0.1 and 50−100 ppm, with some concentrations as high as 100−400 ppm, although it is unlikely that all of it is available for uptake by plants.Lithium accumulation does not appear to affect the essential nutrient composition of plants.",
"Tolerance to lithium varies by plant species and typically parallels sodium tolerance; maize and Rhodes grass, for example, are highly tolerant to lithium injury while avocado and soybean are very sensitive.",
"Similarly, lithium at concentrations of 5 ppm reduces seed germination in some species (e.g.",
"Asian rice and chickpea) but not in others (e.g.",
"barley and wheat).",
"Many of lithium's major biological effects can be explained by its competition with other ions.The monovalent lithium ion competes with other ions such as sodium (immediately below lithium on the periodic table), which like lithium is also a monovalent alkali metal.Lithium also competes with bivalent magnesium ions, whose ionic radius (86 pm) is approximately that of the lithium ion (90 pm).Mechanisms that transport sodium across cellular membranes also transport lithium.For instance, sodium channels (both voltage-gated and epithelial) are particularly major pathways of entry for lithium.Lithium ions can also permeate through ligand-gated ion channels as well as cross both nuclear and mitochondrial membranes.Like sodium, lithium can enter and partially block (although not permeate) potassium channels and calcium channels.The biological effects of lithium are many and varied but its mechanisms of action are only partially understood.For instance, studies of lithium-treated patients with bipolar disorder show that, among many other effects, lithium partially reverses telomere shortening in these patients and also increases mitochondrial function, although how lithium produces these pharmacological effects is not understood.Even the exact mechanisms involved in lithium toxicity are not fully understood."
],
[
"History",
"Johan August Arfwedson is credited with the discovery of lithium in 1817Petalite (LiAlSi4O10) was discovered in 1800 by the Brazilian chemist and statesman José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva in a mine on the island of Utö, Sweden.",
"However, it was not until 1817 that Johan August Arfwedson, then working in the laboratory of the chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius, detected the presence of a new element while analyzing petalite ore.",
"This element formed compounds similar to those of sodium and potassium, though its carbonate and hydroxide were less soluble in water and less alkaline.",
"Berzelius gave the alkaline material the name \"''lithion''/''lithina''\", from the Greek word ''λιθoς'' (transliterated as ''lithos'', meaning \"stone\"), to reflect its discovery in a solid mineral, as opposed to potassium, which had been discovered in plant ashes, and sodium, which was known partly for its high abundance in animal blood.",
"He named the metal inside the material \"lithium\".",
"Arfwedson later showed that this same element was present in the minerals spodumene and lepidolite.",
"In 1818, Christian Gmelin was the first to observe that lithium salts give a bright red color to flame.",
"However, both Arfwedson and Gmelin tried and failed to isolate the pure element from its salts.",
"It was not isolated until 1821, when William Thomas Brande obtained it by electrolysis of lithium oxide, a process that had previously been employed by the chemist Sir Humphry Davy to isolate the alkali metals potassium and sodium.",
"Brande also described some pure salts of lithium, such as the chloride, and, estimating that lithia (lithium oxide) contained about 55% metal, estimated the atomic weight of lithium to be around 9.8 g/mol (modern value ~6.94 g/mol).",
"In 1855, larger quantities of lithium were produced through the electrolysis of lithium chloride by Robert Bunsen and Augustus Matthiessen.",
"The discovery of this procedure led to commercial production of lithium in 1923 by the German company Metallgesellschaft AG, which performed an electrolysis of a liquid mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride.",
"Australian psychiatrist John Cade is credited with reintroducing and popularizing the use of lithium to treat mania in 1949.Shortly after, throughout the mid 20th century, lithium's mood stabilizing applicability for mania and depression took off in Europe and the United States.",
"The production and use of lithium underwent several drastic changes in history.",
"The first major application of lithium was in high-temperature lithium greases for aircraft engines and similar applications in World War II and shortly after.",
"This use was supported by the fact that lithium-based soaps have a higher melting point than other alkali soaps, and are less corrosive than calcium based soaps.",
"The small demand for lithium soaps and lubricating greases was supported by several small mining operations, mostly in the US.",
"The demand for lithium increased dramatically during the Cold War with the production of nuclear fusion weapons.",
"Both lithium-6 and lithium-7 produce tritium when irradiated by neutrons, and are thus useful for the production of tritium by itself, as well as a form of solid fusion fuel used inside hydrogen bombs in the form of lithium deuteride.",
"The US became the prime producer of lithium between the late 1950s and the mid-1980s.",
"At the end, the stockpile of lithium was roughly 42,000 tonnes of lithium hydroxide.",
"The stockpiled lithium was depleted in lithium-6 by 75%, which was enough to affect the measured atomic weight of lithium in many standardized chemicals, and even the atomic weight of lithium in some \"natural sources\" of lithium ion which had been \"contaminated\" by lithium salts discharged from isotope separation facilities, which had found its way into ground water.",
"Lithium is used to decrease the melting temperature of glass and to improve the melting behavior of aluminium oxide in the Hall-Héroult process.",
"These two uses dominated the market until the middle of the 1990s.",
"After the end of the nuclear arms race, the demand for lithium decreased and the sale of department of energy stockpiles on the open market further reduced prices.",
"In the mid-1990s, several companies started to isolate lithium from brine which proved to be a less expensive option than underground or open-pit mining.",
"Most of the mines closed or shifted their focus to other materials because only the ore from zoned pegmatites could be mined for a competitive price.",
"For example, the US mines near Kings Mountain, North Carolina, closed before the beginning of the 21st century.",
"The development of lithium ion batteries increased the demand for lithium and became the dominant use in 2007.With the surge of lithium demand in batteries in the 2000s, new companies have expanded brine isolation efforts to meet the rising demand.",
"It has been argued that lithium will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy and dependent on batteries, but this perspective has also been criticised for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production."
],
[
"Chemistry",
"===Of lithium metal===Lithium reacts with water easily, but with noticeably less vigor than other alkali metals.",
"The reaction forms hydrogen gas and lithium hydroxide.",
"When placed over a flame, lithium compounds give off a striking crimson color, but when the metal burns strongly, the flame becomes a brilliant silver.",
"Lithium will ignite and burn in oxygen when exposed to water or water vapor.",
"In moist air, lithium rapidly tarnishes to form a black coating of lithium hydroxide (LiOH and LiOH·H2O), lithium nitride (Li3N) and lithium carbonate (Li2CO3, the result of a secondary reaction between LiOH and CO2).",
"Lithium is one of the few metals that react with nitrogen gas.",
"Because of its reactivity with water, and especially nitrogen, lithium metal is usually stored in a hydrocarbon sealant, often petroleum jelly.",
"Although the heavier alkali metals can be stored under mineral oil, lithium is not dense enough to fully submerge itself in these liquids.",
"Lithium has a diagonal relationship with magnesium, an element of similar atomic and ionic radius.",
"Chemical resemblances between the two metals include the formation of a nitride by reaction with N2, the formation of an oxide () and peroxide () when burnt in O2, salts with similar solubilities, and thermal instability of the carbonates and nitrides.",
"The metal reacts with hydrogen gas at high temperatures to produce lithium hydride (LiH).",
"Lithium forms a variety of binary and ternary materials by direct reaction with the main group elements.",
"These Zintl phases, although highly covalent, can be viewed as salts of polyatomic anions such as Si44-, P73-, and Te52-.",
"With graphite, lithium forms a variety of intercalation compounds.",
"It dissolves in ammonia (and amines) to give Li(NH3)4+ and the solvated electron.",
"===Inorganic compounds===Lithium forms salt-like derivatives with all halides and pseudohalides.",
"Some examples include the halides LiF, LiCl, LiBr, LiI, as well as the pseudohalides and related anions.",
"Lithium carbonate has been described as the most important compound of lithium.",
"This white solid is the principal product of beneficiation of lithium ores.",
"It is a precursor to other salts including ceramics and materials for lithium batteries.",
"The compounds and are useful reagents.",
"These salts and many other lithium salts exhibit distinctively high solubility in ethers, in contrast with salts of heavier alkali metals.",
"In aqueous solution, the coordination complex Li(H2O)4+ predominates for many lithium salts.",
"Related complexes are known with amines and ethers.",
"===Organic chemistry===''n''-butyllithium fragment in a crystalOrganolithium compounds are numerous and useful.",
"They are defined by the presence of a bond between carbon and lithium.",
"They serve as metal-stabilized carbanions, although their solution and solid-state structures are more complex than this simplistic view.",
"Thus, these are extremely powerful bases and nucleophiles.",
"They have also been applied in asymmetric synthesis in the pharmaceutical industry.",
"For laboratory organic synthesis, many organolithium reagents are commercially available in solution form.",
"These reagents are highly reactive, and are sometimes pyrophoric.",
"Like its inorganic compounds, almost all organic compounds of lithium formally follow the duet rule (e.g., BuLi, MeLi).",
"However, it is important to note that in the absence of coordinating solvents or ligands, organolithium compounds form dimeric, tetrameric, and hexameric clusters (e.g., BuLi is actually BuLi6 and MeLi is actually MeLi4) which feature multi-center bonding and increase the coordination number around lithium.",
"These clusters are broken down into smaller or monomeric units in the presence of solvents like dimethoxyethane (DME) or ligands like tetramethylethylenediamine (TMEDA).",
"As an exception to the duet rule, a two-coordinate lithate complex with four electrons around lithium, Li(thf)4+((Me3Si)3C)2Li–, has been characterized crystallographically."
],
[
"Production",
"+Lithium mine production (2022), reserves and resources in tonnes according to USGS Country Production Reserves Resources Argentina 6,200 2,700,000 20,000,000 Australia 61,000 6,200,000 7,900,000 Austria - - 60,000 Bolivia - - 21,000,000 Brazil 2,200 250,000 730,000 Canada 500 930,000 2,900,000 Chile 39,000 9,300,000 11,000,000 China 19,000 2,000,000 6,800,000 Czech Republic - - 1,300,000 DR Congo - - 3,000,000 Finland - - 68,000 Germany - - 3,200,000 Ghana - - 180,000 India - - 5,900,000 Kazakhstan - - 50,000 Mali - - 840,000 Mexico - - 1,700,000 Namibia - - 230,000 Peru - - 880,000 Portugal 600 60,000 270,000 Russia - - 1,000,000 Serbia - - 1,200,000 Spain - - 320,000 United States 870 1,000,000 12,000,000 Zimbabwe 800 310,000 690,000 '''World total''' '''130,000''' '''26,000,000''' '''98,000,000+''' Lithium production has greatly increased since the end of World War II.",
"The main sources of lithium are brines and ores.",
"Lithium metal is produced through electrolysis applied to a mixture of fused 55% lithium chloride and 45% potassium chloride at about 450 °C.",
"=== Reserves and occurrence ===Scatter plots of lithium grade and tonnage for selected world deposits, as of 2017The small ionic size makes it difficult for lithium to be included in early stages of mineral crystallization.",
"As a result, lithium remains in the molten phases, where it gets enriched, until it gets solidified in the final stages.",
"Such lithium enrichment is responsible for all commercially promising lithium ore deposits.",
"Brines (and dry salt) is another important source of Li+.",
"Although the number of known lithium-containing deposits and brines is large, most of them are either small or have too low Li+ concentrations.",
"Thus, only a few appear to be of commercial value.",
"The US Geological Survey (USGS) estimated worldwide identified lithium reserves in 2020 and 2021 to be 17 million and 21 million tonnes, respectively.",
"An accurate estimate of world lithium reserves is difficult.",
"One reason for this is that most lithium classification schemes are developed for solid ore deposits, whereas brine is a fluid that is problematic to treat with the same classification scheme due to varying concentrations and pumping effects.In 2019, world production of lithium from spodumene was around 80,000t per annum, primarily from the Greenbushes pegmatite and from some Chinese and Chilean sources.",
"The Talison mine in Greenbushes is reported to be the largest and to have the highest grade of ore at 2.4% Li2O (2012 figures).",
"==== Lithium triangle and other brine sources====The world's top four lithium-producing countries from 2019, as reported by the US Geological Survey, are Australia, Chile, China and Argentina.",
"The three countries of Chile, Bolivia, and Argentina contain a region known as the Lithium Triangle.",
"The Lithium Triangle is known for its high-quality salt flats, which include Bolivia's Salar de Uyuni, Chile's Salar de Atacama, and Argentina's Salar de Arizaro.",
"The Lithium Triangle is believed to contain over 75% of existing known lithium reserves.",
"Deposits are also found in South America throughout the Andes mountain chain.",
"Chile is the leading producer, followed by Argentina.",
"Both countries recover lithium from brine pools.",
"According to USGS, Bolivia's Uyuni Desert has 5.4 million tonnes of lithium.",
"Half the world's known reserves are located in Bolivia along the central eastern slope of the Andes.",
"The Bolivian government has invested US$900 million in lithium production and in 2021 successfully produced 540 tons.",
"The brines in the salt pans of the Lithium Triangle vary widely in lithium content.",
"Concentrations can also vary in time as brines are fluids that are changeable and mobile.In the US, lithium is recovered from brine pools in Nevada.",
"Projects are also under development in Lithium Valley in California.====Hard-rock deposits==== Since 2018 the Democratic Republic of Congo is known to have the largest lithium spodumene hard-rock deposit in the world.",
"The deposit located in Manono, DRC, may hold up to 1.5 billion tons of lithium spodumene hard-rock.",
"The two largest pegmatites (known as the Carriere de l'Este Pegmatite and the Roche Dure Pegmatite) are each of similar size or larger than the famous Greenbushes Pegmatite in Western Australia.",
"Thus, the Democratic Republic of Congo is expected to be a significant supplier of lithium to the world with its high grade and low impurities.",
"On 16 July 2018 2.5 million tonnes of high-grade lithium resources and 124 million pounds of uranium resources were found in the Falchani hard rock deposit in the region Puno, Peru.In 2020, Australia granted Major Project Status (MPS) to the Finniss Lithium Project for a strategically important lithium deposit: an estimated 3.45 million tonnes (Mt) of mineral resource at 1.4 percent lithium oxide.",
"Operational mining began in 2022.A deposit discovered in 2013 in Wyoming's Rock Springs Uplift is estimated to contain 228,000 tons.",
"Additional deposits in the same formation were estimated to be as much as 18 million tons.",
"Similarly in Nevada, the McDermitt Caldera hosts lithium-bearing volcanic muds that consist of the largest known deposits of lithium within the United States.",
"The Pampean Pegmatite Province in Argentina is known to have a total of at least 200,000 tons of spodumene with lithium oxide (Li2O) grades varying between 5 and 8 wt %.In Russia the largest lithium deposit Kolmozerskoye is located in Murmansk region.",
"In 2023, Polar Lithium, a joint venture between Nornickel and Rosatom, has been granted the right to develop the deposit.",
"The project aims to produce 45,000 tonnes of lithium carbonate and hydroxide per year and plans to reach full design capacity by 2030.=== Sources ===Another potential source of lithium was identified as the leachates of geothermal wells, which are carried to the surface.",
"Recovery of this type of lithium has been demonstrated in the field; the lithium is separated by simple filtration.",
"Reserves are more limited than those of brine reservoirs and hard rock.",
"=== Pricing ===Lithium pricesIn 1998, the price of lithium metal was about (or US$43/lb).",
"After the 2007 financial crisis, major suppliers, such as Sociedad Química y Minera (SQM), dropped lithium carbonate pricing by 20%.",
"Prices rose in 2012.A 2012 Business Week article outlined an oligopoly in the lithium space: \"SQM, controlled by billionaire Julio Ponce, is the second-largest, followed by Rockwood, which is backed by Henry Kravis's KKR & Co., and Philadelphia-based FMC\", with Talison mentioned as the biggest producer.",
"Global consumption may jump to 300,000 metric tons a year by 2020 from about 150,000 tons in 2012, to match the demand for lithium batteries that has been growing at about 25% a year, outpacing the 4% to 5% overall gain in lithium production.",
"The price information service ISE - Institute of Rare Earths Elements and Strategic Metals - gives for various lithium substances in the average of March to August 2022 the following kilo prices stable in the course: Lithium carbonate, purity 99.5% min, from various producers between 63 and 72 EUR/kg.",
"Lithium hydroxide monohydrate LiOH 56.5% min, China, at 66 to 72 EUR/kg; delivered South Korea - 73 EUR/kg.",
"Lithium metal 99.9% min, delivered China - 42 EUR/kg.=== Extraction ===Analyses of the extraction of lithium from seawater, published in 1975Lithium and its compounds were historically isolated and extracted from hard rock but by the 1990s mineral springs, brine pools, and brine deposits had become the dominant source.",
"Most of these were in Chile, Argentina and Bolivia.",
"Large lithium-clay deposits under development in the McDermitt caldera (Nevada, United States) require concentrated sulfuric acid to leach lithium from the clay ore. By early 2021, much of the lithium mined globally comes from either \"spodumene, the mineral contained in hard rocks found in places such as Australia and North Carolina\" or from the salty brine pumped directly out of the ground, as it is in locations in Chile.",
"In Chile's Salar de Atacama, the lithium concentration in the brine is raised by solar evaporation in a system of ponds.",
"The enrichment by evaporation process may require up to one-and-a-half years, when the brine reaches a lithium content of 6%.",
"The final processing in this example is done near the city of Antofagasta on the coast where pure lithium carbonate, lithium hydroxide, and lithium chloride are produced from the brine.",
"Low-cobalt cathodes for lithium batteries are expected to require lithium hydroxide rather than lithium carbonate as a feedstock, and this trend favors rock as a source.",
"One method for lithium extraction, as well as other valuable minerals, is to process geothermal brine water through an electrolytic cell, located within a membrane.",
"The use of electrodialysis and electrochemical intercalation has been proposed to extract lithium compounds from seawater (which contains lithium at 0.2 parts per million).",
"Ion-selective cells within a membrane in principle could collect lithium either by use of electric field or a concentration difference.",
"=== Environmental issues ===The manufacturing processes of lithium, including the solvent and mining waste, presents significant environmental and health hazards.Lithium extraction can be fatal to aquatic life due to water pollution.",
"It is known to cause surface water contamination, drinking water contamination, respiratory problems, ecosystem degradation and landscape damage.",
"It also leads to unsustainable water consumption in arid regions (1.9 million liters per ton of lithium).",
"Massive byproduct generation of lithium extraction also presents unsolved problems, such as large amounts of magnesium and lime waste.",
"In the United States, open-pit mining and mountaintop removal mining compete with brine extraction mining.",
"Environmental concerns include wildlife habitat degradation, potable water pollution including arsenic and antimony contamination, unsustainable water table reduction, and massive mining waste, including radioactive uranium byproduct and sulfuric acid discharge.=== Human rights issues ===A study of relationships between lithium extraction companies and indigenous peoples in Argentina indicated that the state may not have protected indigenous peoples' right to free prior and informed consent, and that extraction companies generally controlled community access to information and set the terms for discussion of the projects and benefit sharing.",
"Development of the Thacker Pass lithium mine in Nevada, United States, has met with protests and lawsuits from several indigenous tribes who have said they were not provided free prior and informed consent and that the project threatens cultural and sacred sites.",
"They have also expressed concerns that development of the project will create risks to indigenous women, because resource extraction is linked to missing and murdered indigenous women.",
"Protestors have been occupying the site of the proposed mine since January 2021."
],
[
"Applications",
"Pie chart of how much lithium was used and in what way globally in 2020.===Batteries===In 2021, most lithium is used to make lithium-ion batteries for electric cars and mobile devices.",
"===Ceramics and glass===Lithium oxide is widely used as a flux for processing silica, reducing the melting point and viscosity of the material and leading to glazes with improved physical properties including low coefficients of thermal expansion.",
"Worldwide, this is one of the largest use for lithium compounds.",
"Glazes containing lithium oxides are used for ovenware.",
"Lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) is generally used in this application because it converts to the oxide upon heating.",
"===Electrical and electronic===Late in the 20th century, lithium became an important component of battery electrolytes and electrodes, because of its high electrode potential.",
"Because of its low atomic mass, it has a high charge- and power-to-weight ratio.",
"A typical lithium-ion battery can generate approximately 3 volts per cell, compared with 2.1 volts for lead-acid and 1.5 volts for zinc-carbon.",
"Lithium-ion batteries, which are rechargeable and have a high energy density, differ from lithium metal batteries, which are disposable (primary) batteries with lithium or its compounds as the anode.",
"Other rechargeable batteries that use lithium include the lithium-ion polymer battery, lithium iron phosphate battery, and the nanowire battery.",
"Over the years opinions have been differing about potential growth.",
"A 2008 study concluded that \"realistically achievable lithium carbonate production would be sufficient for only a small fraction of future PHEV and EV global market requirements\", that \"demand from the portable electronics sector will absorb much of the planned production increases in the next decade\", and that \"mass production of lithium carbonate is not environmentally sound, it will cause irreparable ecological damage to ecosystems that should be protected and that LiIon propulsion is incompatible with the notion of the 'Green Car'\".",
"===Lubricating greases===The third most common use of lithium is in greases.",
"Lithium hydroxide is a strong base, and when heated with a fat produces a soap, such as lithium stearate from stearic acid.",
"Lithium soap has the ability to thicken oils, and it is used to manufacture all-purpose, high-temperature lubricating greases.===Metallurgy===Lithium (e.g.",
"as lithium carbonate) is used as an additive to continuous casting mould flux slags where it increases fluidity, a use which accounts for 5% of global lithium use (2011).",
"Lithium compounds are also used as additives (fluxes) to foundry sand for iron casting to reduce veining.",
"Lithium (as lithium fluoride) is used as an additive to aluminium smelters (Hall–Héroult process), reducing melting temperature and increasing electrical resistance, a use which accounts for 3% of production (2011).",
"When used as a flux for welding or soldering, metallic lithium promotes the fusing of metals during the process and eliminates the forming of oxides by absorbing impurities.",
"Alloys of the metal with aluminium, cadmium, copper and manganese are used to make high-performance, low density aircraft parts (see also Lithium-aluminium alloys).",
"=== Silicon nano-welding ===Lithium has been found effective in assisting the perfection of silicon nano-welds in electronic components for electric batteries and other devices.",
"Lithium use in flares and pyrotechnics is due to its rose-red flame.",
"===Pyrotechnics===Lithium compounds are used as pyrotechnic colorants and oxidizers in red fireworks and flares.",
"===Air purification===Lithium chloride and lithium bromide are hygroscopic and are used as desiccants for gas streams.",
"Lithium hydroxide and lithium peroxide are the salts most used in confined areas, such as aboard spacecraft and submarines, for carbon dioxide removal and air purification.",
"Lithium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide from the air by forming lithium carbonate, and is preferred over other alkaline hydroxides for its low weight.",
"Lithium peroxide (Li2O2) in presence of moisture not only reacts with carbon dioxide to form lithium carbonate, but also releases oxygen.",
"The reaction is as follows::2 Li2O2 + 2 CO2 → 2 Li2CO3 + O2Some of the aforementioned compounds, as well as lithium perchlorate, are used in oxygen candles that supply submarines with oxygen.",
"These can also include small amounts of boron, magnesium, aluminium, silicon, titanium, manganese, and iron.===Optics===Lithium fluoride, artificially grown as crystal, is clear and transparent and often used in specialist optics for IR, UV and VUV (vacuum UV) applications.",
"It has one of the lowest refractive indices and the furthest transmission range in the deep UV of most common materials.",
"Finely divided lithium fluoride powder has been used for thermoluminescent radiation dosimetry (TLD): when a sample of such is exposed to radiation, it accumulates crystal defects which, when heated, resolve via a release of bluish light whose intensity is proportional to the absorbed dose, thus allowing this to be quantified.",
"Lithium fluoride is sometimes used in focal lenses of telescopes.",
"The high non-linearity of lithium niobate also makes it useful in non-linear optics applications.",
"It is used extensively in telecommunication products such as mobile phones and optical modulators, for such components as resonant crystals.",
"Lithium applications are used in more than 60% of mobile phones.",
"===Organic and polymer chemistry===Organolithium compounds are widely used in the production of polymer and fine-chemicals.",
"In the polymer industry, which is the dominant consumer of these reagents, alkyl lithium compounds are catalysts/initiators in anionic polymerization of unfunctionalized olefins.",
"For the production of fine chemicals, organolithium compounds function as strong bases and as reagents for the formation of carbon-carbon bonds.",
"Organolithium compounds are prepared from lithium metal and alkyl halides.",
"Many other lithium compounds are used as reagents to prepare organic compounds.",
"Some popular compounds include lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4), lithium triethylborohydride, ''n''-butyllithium and ''tert''-butyllithium.",
"The launch of a torpedo using lithium as fuel===Military===Metallic lithium and its complex hydrides, such as lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4), are used as high-energy additives to rocket propellants.",
"LiAlH4 can also be used by itself as a solid fuel.",
"The Mark 50 torpedo stored chemical energy propulsion system (SCEPS) uses a small tank of sulfur hexafluoride, which is sprayed over a block of solid lithium.",
"The reaction generates heat, creating steam to propel the torpedo in a closed Rankine cycle.",
"Lithium hydride containing lithium-6 is used in thermonuclear weapons, where it serves as fuel for the fusion stage of the bomb.===Nuclear===Lithium-6 is valued as a source material for tritium production and as a neutron absorber in nuclear fusion.",
"Natural lithium contains about 7.5% lithium-6 from which large amounts of lithium-6 have been produced by isotope separation for use in nuclear weapons.",
"Lithium-7 gained interest for use in nuclear reactor coolants.",
"Lithium deuteride was used as fuel in the Castle Bravo nuclear device.Lithium deuteride was the fusion fuel of choice in early versions of the hydrogen bomb.",
"When bombarded by neutrons, both 6Li and 7Li produce tritium — this reaction, which was not fully understood when hydrogen bombs were first tested, was responsible for the runaway yield of the Castle Bravo nuclear test.",
"Tritium fuses with deuterium in a fusion reaction that is relatively easy to achieve.",
"Although details remain secret, lithium-6 deuteride apparently still plays a role in modern nuclear weapons as a fusion material.",
"Lithium fluoride, when highly enriched in the lithium-7 isotope, forms the basic constituent of the fluoride salt mixture LiF-BeF2 used in liquid fluoride nuclear reactors.",
"Lithium fluoride is exceptionally chemically stable and LiF-BeF2 mixtures have low melting points.",
"In addition, 7Li, Be, and F are among the few nuclides with low enough thermal neutron capture cross-sections not to poison the fission reactions inside a nuclear fission reactor.",
"In conceptualized (hypothetical) nuclear fusion power plants, lithium will be used to produce tritium in magnetically confined reactors using deuterium and tritium as the fuel.",
"Naturally occurring tritium is extremely rare, and must be synthetically produced by surrounding the reacting plasma with a 'blanket' containing lithium where neutrons from the deuterium-tritium reaction in the plasma will fission the lithium to produce more tritium::6Li + n → 4He + 3H.",
"Lithium is also used as a source for alpha particles, or helium nuclei.",
"When 7Li is bombarded by accelerated protons 8Be is formed, which almost immediately undergoes fission to form two alpha particles.",
"This feat, called \"splitting the atom\" at the time, was the first fully human-made nuclear reaction.",
"It was produced by Cockroft and Walton in 1932.Injection of lithium powders is used in fusion reactors to manipulate plasma-material interactions and dissipate energy in the hot thermo-nuclear fusion plasma boundary.",
"In 2013, the US Government Accountability Office said a shortage of lithium-7 critical to the operation of 65 out of 100 American nuclear reactors \"places their ability to continue to provide electricity at some risk\".",
"Castle Bravo first used lithium-7, in the ''Shrimp'', its first device, which weighed only 10 tons, and generated massive nuclear atmospheric contamination of Bikini Atoll.",
"This perhaps accounts for the decline of US nuclear infrastructure.",
"The equipment needed to separate lithium-6 from lithium-7 is mostly a cold war leftover.",
"The US shut down most of this machinery in 1963, when it had a huge surplus of separated lithium, mostly consumed during the twentieth century.",
"The report said it would take five years and $10 million to $12 million to reestablish the ability to separate lithium-6 from lithium-7.Reactors that use lithium-7 heat water under high pressure and transfer heat through heat exchangers that are prone to corrosion.",
"The reactors use lithium to counteract the corrosive effects of boric acid, which is added to the water to absorb excess neutrons.===Medicine===Lithium is useful in the treatment of bipolar disorder.",
"Lithium salts may also be helpful for related diagnoses, such as schizoaffective disorder and cyclic major depression.",
"The active part of these salts is the lithium ion Li+.",
"Lithium may increase the risk of developing Ebstein's cardiac anomaly in infants born to women who take lithium during the first trimester of pregnancy."
],
[
"Precautions",
" Lithium metal is corrosive and requires special handling to avoid skin contact.",
"Breathing lithium dust or lithium compounds (which are often alkaline) initially irritate the nose and throat, while higher exposure can cause a buildup of fluid in the lungs, leading to pulmonary edema.",
"The metal itself is a handling hazard because contact with moisture produces the caustic lithium hydroxide.",
"Lithium is safely stored in non-reactive compounds such as naphtha."
],
[
"See also",
"* Cosmological lithium problem* Dilithium* Halo nucleus* Isotopes of lithium* List of countries by lithium production* Lithia water* Lithium–air battery* Lithium burning* Lithium compounds (category)* Lithium-ion battery* Lithium Tokamak Experiment"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* McKinsey review of 2018 (PDF)* Lithium at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)* International Lithium Alliance (archived 17 August 2009)* USGS: Lithium Statistics and Information* Lithium Supply & Markets 2009 IM Conference 2009 Sustainable lithium supplies through 2020 in the face of sustainable market growth* University of Southampton, Mountbatten Centre for International Studies, Nuclear History Working Paper No5.",
"(PDF) (archived 26 February 2008)* Lithium preserves by Country at investingnews.com"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Leni Riefenstahl"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Helene Bertha Amalie Riefenstahl''' (; 22 August 1902 – 8 September 2003) was a German director, producer, screenwriter, editor, photographer and actress known for producing Nazi propaganda.A talented swimmer and an artist, Riefenstahl became interested in dancing during her childhood, taking lessons and performing across Europe.",
"After seeing a promotional poster for the 1924 film ''Mountain of Destiny'', she was inspired to move into acting and between 1925 and 1929 starred in five successful motion pictures.",
"Riefenstahl became one of the few women in Germany to direct a film during the Weimar era when, in 1932, she decided to try directing with her own film, ''Das Blaue Licht'' (\"The Blue Light\").In the 1930s, she directed the Nazi propaganda films ''Triumph of the Will'' (1935) and ''Olympia'' (1938), resulting in worldwide attention and acclaim.",
"The films are widely considered two of the most effective and technically innovative propaganda films ever made.",
"Her involvement in ''Triumph of the Will'', however, significantly damaged her career and reputation after World War II.",
"Adolf Hitler closely collaborated with Riefenstahl during the production of at least three important Nazi films, and they formed a friendly relationship.",
"After the war, Riefenstahl was arrested and found to be a Nazi \"fellow traveller\" but was not charged with war crimes.",
"Throughout her later life, she denied having known about the Holocaust, and was criticized as the \"voice of the 'how could we have known?'",
"defense.\"",
"Riefenstahl's postwar work included an autobiography and two photography books on the Nuba people."
],
[
"Early life",
"Helene Bertha Amalie Riefenstahl was born in Berlin on 22 August 1902.Her father, Alfred Theodor Paul Riefenstahl, owned a successful heating and ventilation company and wanted his daughter to follow him into the business world.",
"Since Riefenstahl was the only child for several years, Alfred wanted her to carry on the family name and secure the family fortune.",
"However, her mother, Bertha Ida (Scherlach), who had been a part-time seamstress before her marriage, had faith in Riefenstahl and believed that her daughter's future was in show business.",
"Riefenstahl had a younger brother, Heinz, who was killed at the age of 39 on the Eastern Front in Nazi Germany's war against the Soviet Union.Riefenstahl fell in love with the arts in her childhood.",
"She began to paint and write poetry at the age of four.",
"She was also athletic, and at the age of twelve joined a gymnastics and swimming club.",
"Her mother was confident her daughter would grow up to be successful in the field of art and therefore gave her full support, unlike Riefenstahl's father, who was not interested in his daughter's artistic inclinations.",
"In 1918, when she was 16, Riefenstahl attended a presentation of Snow White which interested her deeply; it led her to want to be a dancer.",
"Her father instead wanted to provide his daughter with an education that could lead to a more dignified occupation.",
"His wife, however, continued to support her daughter's passion.",
"Without her husband's knowledge, she enrolled Riefenstahl in dance and ballet classes at the Grimm-Reiter Dance School in Berlin, where she quickly became a star pupil."
],
[
"Dancing and acting careers",
"Riefenstahl attended dancing academies and became well known for her self-styled interpretive dancing skills, traveling across Europe with Max Reinhardt in a show funded by Jewish producer Harry Sokal.",
"Riefenstahl often made almost for each performance and was so dedicated to dancing that she gave filmmaking no thought.",
"She began to suffer a series of foot injuries that led to knee surgery that threatened her dancing career.",
"It was while going to a doctor's appointment that she first saw a poster for the 1924 film ''Mountain of Destiny''.",
"She became inspired to go into movie making, and began visiting the cinema to see films and also attended film shows.On one of her adventures, Riefenstahl met Luis Trenker, an actor who had appeared in ''Mountain of Destiny''.",
"At a meeting arranged by her friend Gunther Rahn, she met Arnold Fanck, the director of ''Mountain of Destiny'' and a pioneer of the mountain film genre.",
"Fanck was working on a film in Berlin.",
"After Riefenstahl told him how much she admired his work, she also convinced him of her acting skill.",
"She persuaded him to feature her in one of his films.",
"Riefenstahl later received a package from Fanck containing the script of the 1926 film ''The Holy Mountain''.",
"She made a series of films for Fanck, where she learned from him acting and film editing techniques.",
"One of Fanck's films that brought Riefenstahl into the limelight was ''The White Hell of Pitz Palu'' of 1929, co-directed by G. W. Pabst.",
"She had to undergo many physical challenges that would probably be deemed unethical in today’s standards.",
"Some of the torments included: being engulfed in small avalanches, jumping into mountain lakes and icy streams, climbing rocky pinnacles barefoot, letting herself be pulled up a rock face as she was pelted by snow and ice, balancing on a ladder above a deep glacial crevasse, and enduring obscene jokes from her exclusively male colleagues.",
"Her fame spread to countries outside Germany.Riefenstahl produced and directed her own work called ''Das Blaue Licht'' (\"The Blue Light\") in 1932, co-written by Carl Mayer and Béla Balázs.",
"This film won the silver medal at the Venice Film Festival, but was not universally well-received, for which Riefenstahl blamed the critics, many of whom were Jewish.",
"Upon its 1938 re-release, the names of Balázs and Sokal, both Jewish, were removed from the credits; some reports say this was at Riefenstahl's behest.",
"In the film, Riefenstahl played an innocent peasant girl who is hated by the villagers because they think she is diabolic and cast out.",
"She is protected by a glowing mountain grotto.",
"According to herself, Riefenstahl received invitations to travel to Hollywood to create films, but she refused them in favour of remaining in Germany with a boyfriend.",
"Hitler was a fan of the film, and thought Riefenstahl epitomized the perfect German female.",
"He saw talent in Riefenstahl and arranged a meeting.In 1933, Riefenstahl appeared in the U.S.-German co-productions of the Arnold Fanck-directed, German-language ''SOS Eisberg'' and the Tay Garnett-directed, English-language ''S.O.S.",
"Iceberg''.",
"The films were filmed simultaneously in English and German and produced and distributed by Universal Studios.",
"Her role as an actress in ''S.O.S.",
"Iceberg'' was her only English language role in film."
],
[
"Directing career",
"Riefenstahl stands near Heinrich Himmler while instructing her camera crew at Nuremberg, 1934.===Propaganda films===Riefenstahl heard Nazi Party (NSDAP) leader Adolf Hitler speak at a rally in 1932 and was mesmerized by his talent as a public speaker.",
"Describing the experience in her memoir, Riefenstahl wrote, \"I had an almost apocalyptic vision that I was never able to forget.",
"It seemed as if the Earth's surface were spreading out in front of me, like a hemisphere that suddenly splits apart in the middle, spewing out an enormous jet of water, so powerful that it touched the sky and shook the earth\".Hitler was immediately captivated by Riefenstahl's work.",
"She is described as fitting in with Hitler's ideal of Aryan womanhood, a feature he had noted when he saw her starring performance in ''Das Blaue Licht''.",
"After meeting Hitler, Riefenstahl was offered the opportunity to direct ''Der Sieg des Glaubens'', an hour-long propaganda film about the fifth Nuremberg Rally in 1933.The opportunity that was offered was a huge surprise to Riefenstahl.",
"Hitler had ordered Joseph Goebbels's Propaganda Ministry to give the film commission to Riefenstahl, but the Ministry had never informed her.",
"Riefenstahl agreed to direct the movie even though she was only given a few days before the rally to prepare.",
"She and Hitler got on well, forming a friendly relationship.",
"The propaganda film was funded entirely by the NSDAP.During the filming of ''Der Sieg des Glaubens'', Hitler had stood side by side with the leader of the ''Sturmabteilung'' (SA), Ernst Röhm, a man with whom he clearly had a close working relationship.",
"Röhm was murdered on Hitler's orders a short time later, during the purge of the SA referred to as the Night of the Long Knives.",
"It has gone on record that, immediately following the killings, Hitler ordered all copies of the film to be destroyed, although Riefenstahl disputed that this ever happened.Riefenstahl and a camera crew stand in front of Hitler's car during the 1934 rally in Nuremberg.Still impressed with Riefenstahl's work, Hitler asked her to film ''Triumph des Willens'' (\"Triumph of the Will\"), a new propaganda film about the 1934 party rally in Nuremberg.",
"More than one million Germans participated in the rally.",
"The film is sometimes considered the greatest propaganda film ever made.",
"Initially, according to Riefenstahl, she resisted and did not want to create further Nazi Party films, instead wanting to direct a feature film based on Eugen d'Albert's ''Tiefland'' (\"Lowlands\"), an opera that was extremely popular in Berlin in the 1920s.",
"Riefenstahl received private funding for the production of ''Tiefland'', but the filming in Spain was derailed and the project was cancelled.",
"(When ''Tiefland'' was eventually shot, between 1940 and 1944, it was done in black and white, and was the third most expensive film produced in Nazi Germany.",
"During the filming of ''Tiefland,'' Riefenstahl utilized Romani from internment camps for extras, who were severely mistreated on set, and when the filming completed they were sent to the death camp Auschwitz.)",
"Hitler was able to convince her to film ''Triumph des Willens'' on the condition that she would not be required to make further films for the party, according to Riefenstahl.",
"The motion picture was generally recognized as an epic, innovative work of propaganda filmmaking.",
"The film took Riefenstahl's career to a new level and gave her further international recognition.In interviews for the 1993 documentary ''The Wonderful Horrible Life of Leni Riefenstahl'', Riefenstahl adamantly denied any deliberate attempt to create Nazi propaganda and said she was disgusted that ''Triumph des Willens'' was used in such a way.Despite allegedly vowing not to make any more films about the Nazi Party, Riefenstahl made the 28-minute ''Tag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht'' (\"Day of Freedom: Our Armed Forces\") about the German Army in 1935.Like ''Der Sieg des Glaubens'' and ''Triumph des Willens'', this was filmed at the annual Nazi Party rally at Nuremberg.",
"Riefenstahl said this film was a sub-set of ''Der Sieg des Glaubens'', added to mollify the German Army which felt it was not represented well in ''Triumph des Willens''.Hitler invited Riefenstahl to film the 1936 Summer Olympics scheduled to be held in Berlin, a film which Riefenstahl said had been commissioned by the International Olympic Committee.",
"She visited Greece to take footage of the route of the inaugural torch relay and the games' original site at Olympia, where she was aided by Greek photographer Nelly's.",
"This material became ''Olympia'', a hugely successful film which has since been widely noted for its technical and aesthetic achievements.",
"''Olympia'' was secretly funded by the Nazis.",
"She was one of the first filmmakers to use tracking shots in a documentary, placing a camera on rails to follow the athletes' movement.",
"The film is also noted for its slow motion shots.",
"Riefenstahl played with the idea of slow motion, underwater diving shots, extremely high and low shooting angles, panoramic aerial shots, and tracking system shots for allowing fast action.",
"Many of these shots were relatively unheard of at the time, but Riefenstahl's use and augmentation of them set a standard, and is the reason they are still used to this day.",
"Riefenstahl's work on ''Olympia'' has been cited as a major influence in modern sports photography.",
"Riefenstahl filmed competitors of all races, including African-American Jesse Owens in what later became famous footage.Riefenstahl in conversation with Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels, 1937''Olympia'' premiered for Hitler's 49th birthday in 1938.Its international debut led Riefenstahl to embark on an American publicity tour in an attempt to secure commercial release.",
"In February 1937, Riefenstahl enthusiastically told a reporter for the ''Detroit News'', \"To me, Hitler is the greatest man who ever lived.",
"He truly is without fault, so simple and at the same time possessed of masculine strength\".",
"She arrived in New York City on 4 November 1938, five days before ''Kristallnacht'' (the \"Night of the Broken Glass\").",
"When news of the event reached the United States, Riefenstahl publicly defended Hitler.",
"On 18 November, she was received by Henry Ford in Detroit.",
"''Olympia'' was shown at the Chicago Engineers Club two days later.",
"Avery Brundage, President of the International Olympic Committee, praised the film and held Riefenstahl in the highest regard.",
"She negotiated with Louis B. Mayer, and on 8 December, Walt Disney brought her on a three-hour tour showing her the ongoing production of ''Fantasia''.From the ''Goebbels Diaries'', researchers learned that Riefenstahl had been friendly with Joseph Goebbels and his wife Magda, attending the opera with them and going to his parties.",
"Riefenstahl maintained that Goebbels was upset when she rejected his advances and was jealous of her influence on Hitler, seeing her as an internal threat.",
"She therefore insisted his diary entries could not be trusted.",
"By later accounts, Goebbels thought highly of Riefenstahl's filmmaking but was angered with what he saw as her overspending on the Nazi-provided filmmaking budgets.===Iconography===In ''Triumph of the Will'', Tom Saunders argues that Hitler serves as the object of the camera's gaze.",
"Saunders writes, \"Without denying that \"rampant masculinity\" (the \"sexiness\" of Hitler and the SS) serves as the object of the gaze, I would suggest that desire is also directed toward the feminine.",
"This occurs not in the familiar sequences of adoring women greeting Hitler's arrival and cavalcade through Nuremberg.",
"In these Hitler clearly remains the focus of attraction, as more generally in the visual treatment of his mass following.",
"Rather, it is encoded in representation of flags and banners, which were shot in such a way as to make them visually desirable as well as potent political symbols\".",
"The flag serves as a symbol of masculinity, equated with national pride and dominance, that supposedly channels men's sexual and masculine energy.",
"Riefenstahl's cinematic framing of the flags encapsulated its iconography.",
"Saunders continues, \"The effect is a significant double transformation: the images mechanize human beings and breathe life into flags.",
"Even when the carriers are not mostly submerged under the sea of colored cloth, and when facial features are visible in profile, they attain neither character nor distinctiveness.",
"The men remain ants in a vast enterprise.",
"By contrast and paradoxically, the flags, whether a few or hundreds peopling the frame, assume distinct identities\".===Use of music===Riefenstahl distorts the diegetic sound in ''Triumph of the Will''.",
"Her distortion of sound suggests she was influenced by German art cinema.",
"Influenced by Classical Hollywood cinema's style, German art film employed music to enhance the narrative, establish a sense of grandeur, and to heighten the emotions in a scene.",
"In ''Triumph of the Will'', Riefenstahl used traditional folk music to accompany and intensify her shots.",
"Ben Morgan comments on Riefenstahl's distortion of sound: \"In ''Triumph of the Will'', the material world leaves no aural impression beyond the music.",
"Where the film does combine diegetic noise with the music, the effects used are human (laughter or cheering) and offer a rhythmic extension to the music rather than a contrast to it.",
"By replacing diegetic sound, Riefenstahl's film employs music to combine the documentary with the fantastic.",
"\"===World War II===When Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, Riefenstahl was photographed in Poland wearing a military uniform and a pistol on her belt in the company of German soldiers; she had gone to Poland as a war correspondent.",
"On 12 September, she was in the town of Końskie when 30 civilians were executed in retaliation for an alleged attack on German soldiers.",
"According to her memoir, Riefenstahl tried to intervene but a furious German soldier held her at gunpoint and threatened to shoot her on the spot.",
"She said she did not realize the victims were Jews.",
"Photographs of a potentially distraught Riefenstahl survive from that day.",
"Nevertheless, by 5 October 1939, Riefenstahl was back in occupied Poland filming Hitler's victory parade in Warsaw.",
"Afterwards, she left Poland and chose not to make any more Nazi-related films.Riefenstahl as a war correspondent in Poland, 1939On 14 June 1940, the day Paris was declared an open city by the French and occupied by German troops, Riefenstahl wrote to Hitler in a telegram, \"With indescribable joy, deeply moved and filled with burning gratitude, we share with you, my Führer, your and Germany's greatest victory, the entry of German troops into Paris.",
"You exceed anything human imagination has the power to conceive, achieving deeds without parallel in the history of mankind.",
"How can we ever thank you?\"",
"She later explained, \"Everyone thought the war was over, and in that spirit I sent the cable to Hitler\".",
"Riefenstahl was friends with Hitler for 12 years.",
"However, her relationship with Hitler severely declined in 1944 after her brother died on the Russian Front.After the Nuremberg rallies trilogy and ''Olympia'', Riefenstahl began work on the movie she had tried and failed to direct once before, namely ''Tiefland''.",
"On Hitler's direct order, the German government paid her in compensation.",
"From 23 September until 13 November 1940, she filmed in Krün near Mittenwald.",
"The extras playing Spanish women and farmers were drawn from Romani detained in a camp at Salzburg-Maxglan who were forced to work with her.",
"Filming at the Babelsberg Studios near Berlin began 18 months later in April 1942.This time Sinti and Roma people from the Marzahn detention camp near Berlin were compelled to work as extras.",
"Almost to the end of her life, despite overwhelming evidence that the concentration camp occupants had been forced to work on the movie were later sent to the Auschwitz death camp, Riefenstahl continued to maintain that all the film extras survived.",
"Riefenstahl sued filmmaker Nina Gladitz, who said Riefenstahl personally chose the extras at their holding camp; Gladitz had found one of the Romani survivors and matched his memory with stills of the movie for a documentary Gladitz was filming.",
"The German court ruled largely in favour of Gladitz, declaring that Riefenstahl had known the extras were from a concentration camp, but they also agreed that Riefenstahl had not been informed the Romani would be sent to Auschwitz after filming was completed.Riefenstahl instructing her film crew in Poland, 1939This issue came up again in 2002, when Riefenstahl was 100 years old and she was taken to court by a Roma group for denying the Nazis had exterminated Romani.",
"Riefenstahl apologized and said, \"I regret that Sinti and Roma people had to suffer during the period of National Socialism.",
"It is known today that many of them were murdered in concentration camps\".In October 1944 the production of ''Tiefland'' moved to Barrandov Studios in Prague for interior filming.",
"Lavish sets made these shots some of the most costly of the film.",
"The film was not edited and released until almost ten years later.The last time Riefenstahl saw Hitler was when she married Peter Jacob on 21 March 1944.Riefenstahl and Jacob divorced in 1946.As Germany's military situation became impossible by early 1945, Riefenstahl left Berlin and was hitchhiking with a group of men, trying to reach her mother, when she was taken into custody by American troops.",
"She walked out of a holding camp, beginning a series of escapes and arrests across the chaotic landscape.",
"At last making it back home on a bicycle, she found that American troops had seized her house.",
"She was surprised by how kindly they treated her.===Thwarted film projects===Most of Riefenstahl's unfinished projects were lost towards the end of the war.",
"The French government confiscated all of her editing equipment, along with the production reels of ''Tiefland''.",
"After years of legal wrangling, these were returned to her, but the French government had reportedly damaged some of the film stock whilst trying to develop and edit it, with a few key scenes being missing (although Riefenstahl was surprised to find the original negatives for ''Olympia'' in the same shipment).",
"During the filming of ''Olympia'', Riefenstahl was funded by the state to create her own production company in her own name, Riefenstahl-Film GmbH, which was uninvolved with her most influential works.",
"She edited and dubbed the remaining material and ''Tiefland'' premiered on 11 February 1954 in Stuttgart.",
"However, it was denied entry into the Cannes Film Festival.",
"Although Riefenstahl lived for almost another half century, ''Tiefland'' was her last feature film.Riefenstahl filming a difficult scene with the help of two assistants, 1936Riefenstahl tried many times to make more films during the 1950s and 1960s, but was met with resistance, public protests and sharp criticism.",
"Many of her filmmaking peers in Hollywood had fled Nazi Germany and were unsympathetic to her.",
"Although both film professionals and investors were willing to support her work, most of the projects she attempted were stopped owing to ever-renewed and highly negative publicity about her past work in Nazi Germany.In 1954, Jean Cocteau, who greatly admired the film, insisted on ''Tiefland'' being shown at the Cannes Film Festival, which he was running that year.",
"In 1960, Riefenstahl attempted to prevent filmmaker Erwin Leiser from juxtaposing scenes from ''Triumph des Willens'' with footage from concentration camps in his film ''Mein Kampf''.",
"Riefenstahl had high hopes for a collaboration with Cocteau called ''Friedrich und Voltaire'' (\"Friedrich and Voltaire\"), wherein Cocteau was to play two roles.",
"They thought the film might symbolize the love-hate relationship between Germany and France.",
"Cocteau's illness and 1963 death put an end to the project.",
"A musical remake of ''Das Blaue Licht'' (\"The Blue Light\") with an English production company also fell apart.In the 1960s, Riefenstahl became interested in Africa from Ernest Hemingway's ''Green Hills of Africa'' and from the photographs of George Rodger.",
"She visited Kenya for the first time in 1956 and later Sudan, where she photographed Nuba tribes with whom she sporadically lived, learning about their culture so she could photograph them more easily.",
"Even though her film project about modern slavery entitled ''Die Schwarze Fracht'' (\"The Black Cargo\") was never completed, Riefenstahl was able to sell the stills from the expedition to magazines in various parts of the world.",
"While scouting shooting locations, she almost died from injuries received in a truck accident.",
"After waking up from a coma in a Nairobi hospital, she finished writing the script, but was soon thoroughly thwarted by uncooperative locals, the Suez Canal crisis and bad weather.",
"In the end, the film project was called off.",
"Even so, Riefenstahl was granted Sudanese citizenship for her services to the country, becoming the first foreigner to receive a Sudanese passport."
],
[
"Detention and trials",
"Novelist and sports writer Budd Schulberg, assigned by the U.S. Navy to the OSS for intelligence work while attached to John Ford's documentary unit, was ordered to arrest Riefenstahl at her chalet in Kitzbühel, ostensibly to have her identify Nazi war criminals in German film footage captured by the Allied troops shortly after the war.",
"Riefenstahl said she was not aware of the nature of the internment camps.",
"According to Schulberg, \"She gave me the usual song and dance.",
"She said, 'Of course, you know, I'm really so misunderstood.",
"I'm not political'\".Riefenstahl said she was fascinated by the Nazis, but also politically naive, remaining ignorant about war crimes.",
"Throughout 1945 to 1948, she was held by various Allied-controlled prison camps across Germany.",
"She was also under house arrest for a period of time.",
"She was tried four times by postwar authorities for denazification and eventually found to be a \"fellow traveller\" (''Mitläufer'') who sympathised with the Nazis.",
"While never an official member of the Nazi party, she was always seen in association due to the propaganda films she made in Nazi Germany.",
"Over the years, she filed and won over fifty libel cases against people who had accused her of complicity with Nazi crimes.Riefenstahl said that her biggest regret in life was meeting Hitler, declaring, \"It was the biggest catastrophe of my life.",
"Until the day I die people will keep saying, 'Leni is a Nazi', and I'll keep saying, 'But what did she do?'\"",
"Even though she went on to win up to fifty libel cases, details about her relation to the Nazi party generally remain unclear.Shortly before she died, Riefenstahl voiced her final words on the subject of her connection to Hitler in a BBC interview: \"I was one of millions who thought Hitler had all the answers.",
"We saw only the good things; we didn't know bad things were to come.\""
],
[
"Africa, photography, books and final film",
"Riefenstahl began a lifelong companionship with her cameraman , who was 40 years her junior and assisted her with the photographs; they were together from the time she was 60 and he was 20.Riefenstahl traveled to Africa, inspired by the works of George Rodger that celebrated the ceremonial wrestling matches of the Nuba.",
"Riefenstahl's books with photographs of the Nuba tribes were published in 1974 and republished in 1976 as ''Die Nuba'' (translated as \"The Last of the Nuba\") and ''Die Nuba von Kau'' (\"The Nuba People of Kau\").",
"They were harshly criticized by American writer and philosopher Susan Sontag, who wrote in ''The New York Review of Books'' that they were evidence of Riefenstahl's continued adherence to \"fascist aesthetics\".",
"In this review, which art critic Hilton Kramer described as \"one of the most important inquiries into the relation of esthetics to ideology we have had in many years\", Sontag argued that:Although the Nuba are black, not Aryan, Riefenstahl's portrait of them is consistent with some of the larger themes of Nazi ideology: the contrast between the clean and the impure, the incorruptible and the defiled, the physical and the mental, the joyful and the critical.",
"... What is distinctive about the fascist version of the old idea of the Noble Savage is its contempt for all that is reflective, critical, and pluralistic.",
"...",
"In celebrating a society where the exhibition of physical skill and courage and the victory of the stronger man over the weaker have, at least as she sees it, become the unifying symbol of the communal culture—where success in fighting is the \"main aspiration of a man's life\"—Riefenstahl seems only to have modified the ideas of her Nazi films.In December 1974, American writer and photographer Eudora Welty reviewed ''Die Nuba'' positively for the ''New York Times'', giving an impressionistic account of the aesthetics of Riefenstahl's book:She uses the light purposefully: the full, blinding brightness to make us see the all‐absorbing blackness of the skin; the ray of light slanting down from the single hole, high in the wall, that is the doorway of the circular house, which tells us how secret and safe it has been made; the first dawn light streaking the face of a calf in the sleeping camp where the young men go to live, which suggests their world apart.",
"All the pictures bring us the physical beauty of the people: a young girl, shy and mischievous of face, with a bead sewn into her lower lip like a permanent cinnamon drop; a wrestler prepared for his match, with his shaven head turned to look over the massive shoulder, all skin color taken away by a coating of ashes.Art Director's Club of Germany awarded Riefenstahl a gold medal for the best photographic achievement of 1975.She also sold some of the pictures to German magazines.Riefenstahl photographed the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich, and rock star Mick Jagger along with his wife Bianca for ''The Sunday Times''.",
"Years later, Riefenstahl photographed Las Vegas entertainers Siegfried & Roy.",
"She was guest of honour at the 1976 Olympic Games in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.In 1978, Riefenstahl published a book of her sub-aquatic photographs called ''Korallengärten'' (\"Coral Gardens\"), followed by the 1990 book ''Wunder unter Wasser'' (\"Wonder under Water\").",
"On 22 August 2002, her 100th birthday, she released the film ''Impressionen unter Wasser'' (\"Underwater Impressions\"), an idealized documentary of life in the oceans and her first film in over 25 years.",
"Riefenstahl was a member of Greenpeace for eight years.",
"When filming ''Impressionen unter Wasser'', Riefenstahl lied about her age in order to be certified for scuba diving.Riefenstahl survived a helicopter crash in Sudan in 2000 while trying to learn the fates of her Nuba friends during the Second Sudanese Civil War, and was airlifted to a Munich hospital, where she received treatment for two broken ribs."
],
[
"Death",
"Riefenstahl's grave in Munich WaldfriedhofRiefenstahl celebrated her 101st birthday on 22 August 2003 at a hotel in Feldafing, on Lake Starnberg, Bavaria, near her home.",
"The day after her birthday celebration, she became ill.Riefenstahl had been suffering from cancer for some time, and her health rapidly deteriorated during the last weeks of her life.",
"Kettner said in an interview in 2002, \"Ms. Riefenstahl is in great pain and she has become very weak and is taking painkillers\".",
"Riefenstahl died in her sleep at around 10:00 pm on 8 September 2003 at her home in Pöcking, Germany.",
"After cremation, her ashes were buried in Munich Waldfriedhof.After her death, there was a varied response in the obituary pages of leading publications, although most recognized her technical breakthroughs in filmmaking.Gisela Jahn, Leni Riefenstahl's former secretary and sole heir, donated the estate bequeathed to her to the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation.",
"Items included photographs, films, manuscripts, letters, files, and documents dating back to the 1920s."
],
[
"Reception",
"According to Taylor Downing, Riefenstahl's Nazi-era work \"made it acceptable, even desirable, for millions of Germans to go along with Hitler.",
"And in promoting the Nazi leadership, there is a direct line from her infamous Nazi party films to Auschwitz and Belsen.\"",
"Similarly, Abraham Cooper argues that Riefenstahl's work was essential to the carrying out of the mission of the Holocaust and describes her as an \"unindicted co-conspirator.",
"\"Film scholar Mark Cousins notes in his book ''The Story of Film'' that, \"Next to Orson Welles and Alfred Hitchcock, Leni Riefenstahl was the most technically talented Western film maker of her era.",
"\"When traveling to Hollywood to showcase her film ''Olympia'' shortly after the coordinated attack of German Jews known as ''Kristallnacht'', Riefenstahl was criticized by the Anti-Nazi League and others.Reviewer Gary Morris called Riefenstahl, \"An artist of unparalleled gifts, a woman in an industry dominated by men, one of the great formalists of the cinema on a par with Eisenstein or Welles.",
"\"Time'', 1936Film critic Hal Erickson of ''The New York Times'' states that the \"Jewish Question\" is mainly unmentioned in ''Triumph des Willens''; \"filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl prefers to concentrate on cheering crowds, precision marching, military bands, and Hitler's climactic speech, all orchestrated, choreographed and illuminated on a scale that makes Griffith and DeMille look like poverty-row directors.",
"\"Charles Moore of ''The Daily Telegraph'' wrote, \"She was perhaps the most talented female cinema director of the 20th century; her celebration of Nazi Germany in film ensured that she was certainly the most infamous.",
"\"Film journalist Sandra Smith from ''The Independent'' remarked, \"Opinions will be divided between those who see her as a young, talented and ambitious woman caught up in the tide of events which she did not fully understand, and those who believe her to be a cold and opportunist propagandist and a Nazi by association.",
"\"Critic Judith Thurman said in ''The New Yorker'' that, \"Riefenstahl's genius has rarely been questioned, even by critics who despise the service to which she lent it.",
"Riefenstahl was a consummate stylist obsessed with bodies in motion, particularly those of dancers and athletes.",
"Riefenstahl relies heavily for her transitions on portentous cutaways to butts, mist, statuary, foliage, and rooftops.",
"Her reaction shots have a tedious sameness: shining, ecstatic faces—nearly all young and Aryan, except for Hitler's.",
"\"Pauline Kael, also a film reviewer employed for ''The New Yorker'', called ''Triumph des Willens'' and ''Olympia'', \"the two greatest films ever directed by a woman\".Writer Richard Corliss wrote in ''Time'' that he was \"impressed by Riefenstahl's standing as a total auteur: producer, writer, director, editor and, in the fiction films, actress.",
"The issues her films and her career raise are as complex and they are important, and her vilifiers tend to reduce the argument to one of a director's complicity in atrocity or her criminal ignorance.",
"\"In 2002, Steven Bach wrote that \"Riefenstahl disturbs because she remains the adamant, fierce, glib voice of the 'how could we have known?'",
"defense, an argument fewer and fewer Germans, and almost none of the current generation, still feel comfortable making.\""
],
[
"Film biographies",
"In 1993, Riefenstahl was the subject of the award-winning German documentary film ''The Wonderful, Horrible Life of Leni Riefenstahl'', directed by Ray Müller.",
"Riefenstahl appeared in the film and answered several questions and detailed the production of her films.",
"The biofilm was nominated for seven Emmy Awards, winning in one category.",
"Riefenstahl, who for some time had been working on her memoirs, decided to cooperate in the production of this documentary to tell her life story about the struggles she had gone through in her personal life, her film-making career and what people thought of her.",
"She was also the subject of Müller's 2000 documentary film ''Leni Riefenstahl: Her Dream of Africa'', about her return to Sudan to visit the Nuba people.In 2000, Jodie Foster was planning a biographical drama on Riefenstahl, then seen as the last surviving member of Hitler's \"inner circle\", causing protests, with the Simon Wiesenthal Centre's dean Marvin Hier warning against a revisionist view that glorified the director, observing that Riefenstahl had seemed \"quite infatuated\" with Hitler.",
"In 2007, British screenwriter Rupert Walters was reported to be writing a script for the movie.",
"The project did not receive Riefenstahl's approval prior to her death, as Riefenstahl asked for a veto on any scenes to which she did not agree.",
"Riefenstahl reportedly wanted Sharon Stone to play her rather than Foster.In 2011, director Steven Soderbergh revealed that he had also been working on a biopic of Riefenstahl for about six months.",
"He eventually abandoned the project over concerns of its commercial prospects."
],
[
"In popular culture",
"Riefenstahl was portrayed by Zdena Studenková in ''Leni'', a 2014 Slovak drama play about her fictional participation in ''The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson''.",
"She was portrayed by Dutch actress Carice van Houten in ''Race'', a sports drama film directed by Stephen Hopkins about Jesse Owens.",
"It was released in North America on 19 February 2016.In the 2016 short film ''Leni.",
"Leni.",
"'', based on the play by Tom McNab and directed by Adrian Vitoria, Hildegard Neil portrays Riefenstahl.",
"In 2021, she was the subject of Nigel Farndale's novel ''The Dictator's Muse''."
],
[
"Filmography",
"Riefenstahl (right) in ''Ways to Strength and Beauty'' (1925)Tiefland'' in 1940===Filmography=== Year Title Director Writer Producer Editor Notes 1932 ''The Blue Light'' | Narrative feature film 1933 ''The Victory of Faith'' |Propagandistic documentary film for the Nazi Party1935 ''Triumph of the Will'' |''Day of Freedom: Our Armed Forces''|Propagandistic documentary medium-length film for the Nazi Party that was lost until 1970 1938 ''Olympia Part One: Festival of the Nations''|Documentary film about the 1936 Olympic Games ''Olympia Part Two: Beauty of the Festival''| 1954 ''Tiefland''| Narrative feature film 2002 ''Impressions Under Water'' Documentary medium-length film about the bottom of the seaAlso co-cinematographer and final film.===Acting roles===*1925: ''Wege zu Kraft und Schönheit'' (\"Ways to Strength and Beauty\") as Dancer*1926: ''Der heilige Berg'' (\"The Holy Mountain\") as Diotima*1927: ''Der große Sprung'' (\"The Great Leap\") as Gita*1928: ''Das Schicksal derer von Habsburg'' (\"Fate of the House of Habsburg\") as Maria Vetsera*1929: ''Die weiße Hölle vom Piz Palü'' (\"The White Hell of Pitz Palu\") as Maria Maioni*1930: ''Stürme über dem Mont Blanc'' (\"Storm Over Mont Blanc\") as Hella Armstrong*1931: ''Der weiße Rausch'' (\"The White Ecstasy\") as Leni*1932: ''Das blaue Licht'' (\"The Blue Light\") as Junta*1933: ''S.O.S.",
"Eisberg'' (\"S.O.S.",
"Iceberg\") as Hella, seine Frau*1954: ''Tiefland'' (\"Lowlands\") as Martha, a Spanish dancer (final film role)"
],
[
"Books",
"* * * * * * * (reviewed by bell hooks)* *"
],
[
"References",
"'''Notes''''''Bibliography'''::'''Printed'''* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ::'''Online'''* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ****** * * * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Leni Riefenstahl at Jewish Virtual Library* * * Leni Riefenstahl's ''Triumph of the Will'' on MoMA Learning"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Labatt Brewing Company"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Labatt Brewing Company Limited''' () is a Anheuser-Busch InBev-owned brewery headquartered in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.",
"Founded in 1847, Labatt is the largest brewer in Canada.In 1995, it was purchased by Belgian brewer Interbrew.",
"In 2004, Interbrew merged with Brazilian brewer AmBev to form InBev.",
"In 2008, InBev merged with American brewer Anheuser-Busch to form Anheuser-Busch InBev (abbreviated as AB InBev), making Labatt part of Anheuser-Busch InBev.",
"On October 10, 2016, an over $100 billion merger between Anheuser-Busch InBev and SABMiller closed.",
"Labatt is now part of the new company, Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV, which is trading as BUD on the New York Stock Exchange (ABI:BB in Brussels).In the United States, Labatt brand beers are sold under license by Labatt USA.",
"Since 2009, it has been fully independent of the Canadian firm; it is a subsidiary of the privately held FIFCO USA of Rochester, New York."
],
[
"History",
"Early advertisementLabatt Breweries was founded by John Kinder Labatt in 1847 in London, Canada West (now Ontario).",
"Kinder had immigrated to Canada from Ireland in the 1830s and initially established himself as a farmer near London.",
"In 1847, he invested in a brewery with a partner, Samuel Eccles, launching \"Labatt and Eccles\".",
"When Eccles retired in 1854, Labatt acquired his interest and renamed the firm the \"London Brewery\".",
"He was assisted by his sons Ephraim, Robert and John.When John Kinder Labatt died in 1866, his son John assumed control of the company.",
"Under his supervision, it grew to be the largest brewery in Canada.",
"Following his death in 1915, the company was controlled by a trust operated by his nine children, although his sons John Sackville Labatt and Hugh Francis Labatt assumed managerial control.In 1901, Prohibition in Canada began through provincial legislation in Prince Edward Island.",
"In 1916, prohibition was instituted in Ontario as well, affecting all 64 breweries in the province.",
"Although some provinces totally banned alcohol manufacture, some permitted production for export to the United States.",
"Labatt survived by producing full strength beer for export south of the border and by introducing two \"temperance ales\" with less than two per cent alcohol for sale in Ontario.",
"However, the Canadian beer industry suffered a second blow when Prohibition in the United States began in 1919.When Prohibition was repealed in Ontario in 1926, just 15 breweries remained, and only Labatt retained its original management.",
"This resulted in a strengthened industry position.",
"In 1945, Labatt became a publicly traded company with the issuance of 900,000 shares.John and Hugh Labatt, grandsons of founder John K. Labatt, launched Labatt 50 in 1950 to commemorate 50 years of partnership.",
"The first light ale introduced in Canada, Labatt 50 was Canada's best-selling beer until 1979.In 1951, Labatt launched its Pilsener Lager; when it was introduced in Manitoba, the beer was nicknamed \"Blue\" for the colour of its label and the company's support of Winnipeg's Canadian Football League (CFL) franchise, the Blue Bombers.",
"The brew-master at the time was Robert Frank Lewarne (b.",
"1921 Toronto; R. F. Lewarne also headed the team that produced the famous Labatt 50, mainly for the Quebec market).",
"The nickname \"Blue\" stuck and in 1979, Labatt Blue claimed the top spot in the Canadian beer market.",
"It lost this status in the late eighties to Molson Canadian, but over the next decade, it periodically regained the top spot as consumer preferences fluctuated.",
"In 2004, Budweiser took the top spot, pushing Blue to third for the first time in twenty-five years.",
"However, since Labatt has brewed Budweiser (and other Anheuser-Busch products) in Canada under licence since the 1980s, Labatt likely did not suffer from this shift.",
"Moreover, Labatt Blue remains the best selling Canadian beer in the world, based upon worldwide sales.Labatt was also the majority owner of the Toronto Blue Jays from their inception in 1976 until 1995, when Interbrew purchased Labatt.",
"In 2000, Rogers Communications purchased an 80% stake in the team and Interbrew retained the other 20%; Rogers later acquired full ownership of the team.Labatt's innovations include the introduction of the first twist-off cap on a refillable bottle in 1984.In 1989, Labatt had the opportunity to hire Canadian model Pamela Anderson as a Labatt's Blue Zone Girl after she was picked out of the crowd by a TV camera man at a BC Lions football game wearing a Blue Zone crop-top.",
"Photographer and boyfriend Dann Ilicic produced the Blue Zone Girl poster on his own after Labatt's refused to have anything to do with it.",
"Later, Labatt's did buy 1000 posters to deal with consumer demand.In 1995, Labatt was acquired by the large Belgian multinational brewer Interbrew (now InBev), the world market leader.",
"Labatt is part-owner of Brewers Retail Inc., operator of The Beer Store retail chain, which—protected by legislation—has over 90% market share of Ontario off-premises beer sales.",
"In early 2007, Labatt also acquired Lakeport Brewing Company of Hamilton, Ontario.In 2009, the company sold Labatt USA, including the American rights to its core Labatt products (such as Blue, Blue Light, and Labatt 50) to FIFCO USA, and agreed to brew those brands on Labatt USA's behalf until 2012.This sale was mandated by the U.S. Department of Justice for competitive reasons following InBev's merger with Anheuser-Busch, since Budweiser and Labatt Blue were both among the top brands in upstate New York, despite the latter having less than 1% market share in the U.S. overall.The sale did not include U.S. rights to Labatt products not carrying the \"Labatt\" label, such as Kokanee or Alexander Keith's, which are now distributed in the U.S. by Anheuser-Busch.",
"Moreover, the underlying intellectual property (such as the Labatt trademarks) remains the property of the Canadian firm.",
"Finally, the sale did not affect Labatt's Canadian operations in any way, however Anheuser-Busch InBev retains full control of the Labatt brand portfolio within Canada.In 2020, Labatt acquired Canadian distiller Goodridge & Williams, a company known for creating Nütrl Vodka Soda and other ready-to-drink (RTD) canned cocktails."
],
[
"Operations",
"''Canada''* London, Ontario* St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador* Montreal, Quebec (in the LaSalle borough)* Halifax, Nova Scotia* Creston, British Columbia* Edmonton, Alberta''United States'' (previous to sale)* Buffalo, New York (original and current United States Headquarters)* Norwalk, Connecticut (former US headquarters)Labatt's US headquarters were originally located in Buffalo for some years.",
"Labatt then decided to relocate their headquarters to Norwalk, Connecticut, for a time.",
"In 2007 Labatt decided to relocate their US operations back to Buffalo due to strong sales in the city and closer proximity to their Ontario operations.",
"Labatt USA is now owned by FIFCO USA of Rochester, New York.Labatt's Toronto (Rexdale) brewery was built in 1970.It ceased operations in 2005 and was demolished by 2007, thus ending the brewery's ties to the city."
],
[
"Brands",
"A case of Labatt Blue sold in the United States.",
"Note the 'Imported' label.",
"''Labatt 50'' is a 5% abv ale launched in 1950 to commemorate 50 years of partnership between the grandsons of the brewer's founder.",
"The first light-tasting ale introduced in Canada, Labatt 50 was Canada's best-selling beer until 1979, when, with the increasing popularity of lagers, it was surpassed by ''Labatt Blue''.",
"Labatt 50 is fermented using a special ale yeast, in use at Labatt since 1933.",
"''Labatt Blue'' is a 5% abv pale lager.",
"There are of beer in a bottle of ''Labatt Blue''.",
"There are 355 mL of beer in a standard can of Labatt Blue/Bleue in Canada with other volumes available in specific regions of the country.In Quebec, Labatt also produces a stronger lager, ''Labatt Bleue Dry'', at 6.1%.Blue, the company's flagship brand, has entered a number of international beer ratings competitions and has always performed notably well.",
"In 2003, ''Labatt Blue'' received a Gold Quality Award at the World Quality Selections, organized yearly by Monde Selection.Labatt had patented a specific method for making ice beer in 1997, 1998 and 2000: \"A process for chill-treating, which is exemplified by a process for preparing a fermented malt beverage wherein brewing materials are mashed with water and the resulting mash is heated and wort separated therefrom.",
"The wort is boiled cooled and fermented and the beer is subjected to a finishing stage, which includes aging, to produce the final beverage.",
"The improvement comprises subjecting the beer to a cold stage comprising rapidly cooling the beer to a temperature of about its freezing point in such a manner that ice crystals are formed therein in only minimal amounts.",
"The resulting cooled beer is then mixed for a short period of time with a beer slurry containing ice crystals, without any appreciable collateral increase in the amount of ice crystals in the resulting mixture.",
"Finally, the so-treated beer is extracted from the mixture.\"",
"The company provides the following explanation about ''Labatt Ice'' and ''Maximum Ice'' for the layman: \"During this unique process, the temperature is reduced until fine ice crystals form in the beer.",
"Then using an exclusive process, the crystals are removed.",
"The result is a full flavoured balanced beer.\""
],
[
"Corporate activities",
"Labatt Blue Pond Hockey tournament at Buffalo RiverWorks, 2014Labatt has sponsored the construction of many buildings in London, including Labatt Park, the John Labatt Centre, and the John Labatt Visual Arts Centre at the University of Western Ontario (UWO).",
"Bessie Labatt's son Arthur Labatt was the 19th chancellor of UWO (2004–2008).",
"In 1998 Labatt announced a 20-year sponsorship agreement with the now defunct Montreal Expos (now the Washington Nationals), which included naming rights for a downtown Montreal ballpark that was never built.They sponsored the English football team Nottingham Forest F.C.",
"from 1992 (interchanging with Shipstones Brewery until 1994) to 1997.They also are the official beer and corporate sponsor of the OHL hockey franchise Plymouth Whalers.",
"In the 1950s, the company sponsored a PGA Tour golf tournament, the Labatt Open.Labatt sponsored Gilles Villeneuve as well as being the main sponsor of the Formula One Canadian Grand Prix from 1972 to 1986, as well as Williams F1 racing team from 1991 to 1994.In 1983–1986, Labatt sponsored Ken Westerfield, Canadian Frisbee champion and world record holder, to perform Frisbee shows throughout Ontario, as well as sponsor the World Guts (Frisbee) Championships on Toronto Islands in 1986.Labatt sponsors the annual Labatt Blue Buffalo Pond Hockey Tournament at Buffalo RiverWorks.",
"The outdoor amateur hockey tournament features more than 800 players.In May 2009, Labatt gave their support to a seventh NHL team in Canada, which was pursued by Jim Balsillie.In November 2018, Labatt USA opened Labatt Brew House, a innovation brewery and tasting room in Buffalo, New York.",
"Visitors may sample experimental beers or choose from a variety of established brews."
],
[
"Marketing",
"Labatt Blue is sold in all provinces of Canada; however, in Quebec it is sold under the French name Labatt Bleue, with a fleur-de-lis logo.",
"Aside from the name, and containing 4.9% alcohol/volume instead of 5.0%, the red maple leaf on the logo has also been changed to a stylized red sheaf of wheat, which Labatt calls its symbol of \"brewing quality.",
"\"Labatt Blue is sold in most of the United States, with sales particularly strong in the Midwest and Northeast along the Canada–United States border."
],
[
"Honours",
"=== Coat of arms ===In 2017, the Canadian Heraldic Authority granted arms, banner and badge to Labatt."
],
[
"In media",
"*"
],
[
"See also",
"* Beer in Canada* The Beer Store, beer retailer in Ontario* Brewers' Distributor, beer distributor in Western Canada* Ice beer"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"External links",
"* * 1970s Labatt's Beer Commercial - From the Internet Archive.",
"* Article on the streamliner trucks===Multimedia===* CBC Archives CBC Radio reports on Interbrew's takeover of Labatt (From 1995)."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Local color"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Local color/colour''' may refer to:*''Local Color'' (book), a 1950 note and sketch study by Truman Capote*''Local Color'' (Mose Allison album), 1958*''Local Color'' (University of Northern Iowa Jazz Band One album), 2015*''Local Color'' (film), a 2006 film starring Trevor Morgan*Local color (visual art), the natural color of an object*''Local Colour: Travels in the Other Australia'', a 1994 book by Bill Bachman and Tim Winton*''Local Color'', a short-story collection by John Andrew Rice*Local Color, an art exhibition by Tullio DeSantis*American literary regionalism, also called local color, a style or genre of writing"
],
[
"See also",
"*Regionalism (disambiguation)"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Linear equation"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Two graphs of linear equations in two variablesIn mathematics, a '''linear equation''' is an equation that may be put in the form where are the variables (or unknowns), and are the coefficients, which are often real numbers.",
"The coefficients may be considered as parameters of the equation and may be arbitrary expressions, provided they do not contain any of the variables.",
"To yield a meaningful equation, the coefficients are required to not all be zero.Alternatively, a linear equation can be obtained by equating to zero a linear polynomial over some field, from which the coefficients are taken.The solutions of such an equation are the values that, when substituted for the unknowns, make the equality true.In the case of just one variable, there is exactly one solution (provided that ).",
"Often, the term ''linear equation'' refers implicitly to this particular case, in which the variable is sensibly called the ''unknown''.In the case of two variables, each solution may be interpreted as the Cartesian coordinates of a point of the Euclidean plane.",
"The solutions of a linear equation form a line in the Euclidean plane, and, conversely, every line can be viewed as the set of all solutions of a linear equation in two variables.",
"This is the origin of the term ''linear'' for describing this type of equation.",
"More generally, the solutions of a linear equation in variables form a hyperplane (a subspace of dimension ) in the Euclidean space of dimension .Linear equations occur frequently in all mathematics and their applications in physics and engineering, partly because non-linear systems are often well approximated by linear equations.",
"This article considers the case of a single equation with coefficients from the field of real numbers, for which one studies the real solutions.",
"All of its content applies to complex solutions and, more generally, to linear equations with coefficients and solutions in any field.",
"For the case of several simultaneous linear equations, see system of linear equations."
],
[
"One variable",
"A linear equation in one variable can be written as with .",
"The solution is ."
],
[
"Two variables",
"A linear equation in two variables and can be written as with and not both .If and are real numbers, it has infinitely many solutions.===Linear function===If , the equation :is a linear equation in the single variable for every value of .",
"It has therefore a unique solution for , which is given by :This defines a function.",
"The graph of this function is a line with slope and -intercept The functions whose graph is a line are generally called ''linear functions'' in the context of calculus.",
"However, in linear algebra, a linear function is a function that maps a sum to the sum of the images of the summands.",
"So, for this definition, the above function is linear only when , that is when the line passes through the origin.",
"To avoid confusion, the functions whose graph is an arbitrary line are often called ''affine functions'', and the linear functions such that are often called ''linear maps''.===Geometric interpretation===Vertical line of equation Horizontal line of equation Each solution of a linear equation: may be viewed as the Cartesian coordinates of a point in the Euclidean plane.",
"With this interpretation, all solutions of the equation form a line, provided that and are not both zero.",
"Conversely, every line is the set of all solutions of a linear equation.The phrase \"linear equation\" takes its origin in this correspondence between lines and equations: a ''linear equation'' in two variables is an equation whose solutions form a line.If , the line is the graph of the function of that has been defined in the preceding section.",
"If , the line is a ''vertical line'' (that is a line parallel to the -axis) of equation which is not the graph of a function of .Similarly, if , the line is the graph of a function of , and, if , one has a horizontal line of equation ===Equation of a line===There are various ways of defining a line.",
"In the following subsections, a linear equation of the line is given in each case.",
"====Slope–intercept form or Gradient-intercept form ====A non-vertical line can be defined by its slope , and its -intercept (the coordinate of its intersection with the -axis).",
"In this case, its ''linear equation'' can be written :If, moreover, the line is not horizontal, it can be defined by its slope and its -intercept .",
"In this case, its equation can be written:or, equivalently,:These forms rely on the habit of considering a nonvertical line as the graph of a function.",
"For a line given by an equation :these forms can be easily deduced from the relations :====Point–slope form or Point-gradient form====A non-vertical line can be defined by its slope , and the coordinates of any point of the line.",
"In this case, a linear equation of the line is:or :This equation can also be written:for emphasizing that the slope of a line can be computed from the coordinates of any two points.====Intercept form====A line that is not parallel to an axis and does not pass through the origin cuts the axes into two different points.",
"The intercept values and of these two points are nonzero, and an equation of the line is:(It is easy to verify that the line defined by this equation has and as intercept values).====Two-point form====Given two different points and , there is exactly one line that passes through them.",
"There are several ways to write a linear equation of this line.If , the slope of the line is Thus, a point-slope form is:By clearing denominators, one gets the equation :which is valid also when (for verifying this, it suffices to verify that the two given points satisfy the equation).This form is not symmetric in the two given points, but a symmetric form can be obtained by regrouping the constant terms::(exchanging the two points changes the sign of the left-hand side of the equation).====Determinant form====The two-point form of the equation of a line can be expressed simply in terms of a determinant.",
"There are two common ways for that.The equation is the result of expanding the determinant in the equation:The equation can be obtained by expanding with respect to its first row the determinant in the equation:Besides being very simple and mnemonic, this form has the advantage of being a special case of the more general equation of a hyperplane passing through points in a space of dimension .",
"These equations rely on the condition of linear dependence of points in a projective space."
],
[
"More than two variables",
"A linear equation with more than two variables may always be assumed to have the form:The coefficient , often denoted is called the ''constant term'' (sometimes the ''absolute term'' in old books).",
"Depending on the context, the term ''coefficient'' can be reserved for the with .When dealing with variables, it is common to use and instead of indexed variables.A solution of such an equation is a -tuple such that substituting each element of the tuple for the corresponding variable transforms the equation into a true equality.For an equation to be meaningful, the coefficient of at least one variable must be non-zero.",
"If every variable has a zero coefficient, then, as mentioned for one variable, the equation is either ''inconsistent'' (for ) as having no solution, or all are solutions.The -tuples that are solutions of a linear equation in are the Cartesian coordinates of the points of an -dimensional hyperplane in an Euclidean space (or affine space if the coefficients are complex numbers or belong to any field).",
"In the case of three variables, this hyperplane is a plane.If a linear equation is given with , then the equation can be solved for , yielding :If the coefficients are real numbers, this defines a real-valued function of real variables."
],
[
"See also",
"* Linear equation over a ring* Algebraic equation* Linear inequality* Nonlinear equation"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"* * *"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"LMS"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''LMS''' may refer to:"
],
[
"Science and technology",
"* Labeled magnitude scale, a scaling technique* Learning management system, education software* Least mean squares filter, producing least mean square error* Leiomyosarcoma, a rare form of cancer* Lenz microphthalmia syndrome* Computerised Library management system* Licentiate in Medicine and Surgery, a degree in India* LMS color space* Laboratory information management system (but usually LIMS)"
],
[
"Organisations",
"* Latin Mass Society of England and Wales* List of Marjan Šarec, a Slovenian political party* London Mathematical Society* London, Midland and Scottish Railway* London Missionary Society* ''League of Legends'' Master Series* Loving Municipal Schools"
],
[
"Entertainment",
"* Last man standing (gaming), a type of video game* LMS, family band of Denroy Morgan"
],
[
"Other uses",
"* Leamington Spa railway station code, England* Local Mitigation Strategy* Local Management of Schools, in the Education Reform Act 1988* Logitech Media Server* Loïc Mbe Soh, French footballer"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Limousine liberal"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Limousine liberal''' and '''latte liberal''' are pejorative U.S. political terms used to illustrate hypocritical behavior by political liberals of upper class or upper middle class status.",
"The label stems primarily from unwillingness of ''limousine liberals'' to practice the views they purport to uphold, e.g.",
"calling for the use of public transportation while frequently using privately-owned luxury transportation, especially by limousines or private jets in the case of the extremely affluent, claiming environmental consciousness but driving fuel inefficient vehicles, or ostensibly supporting public education while sending their children to exclusive private schools with high tuition fees."
],
[
"Formation and early use",
"===Procaccino campaign===Democratic New York City mayoral hopeful Mario Procaccino coined the term \"limousine liberal\" to describe incumbent Mayor John Lindsay and his wealthy Manhattan backers during a heated 1969 campaign.",
"Historian David Callahan says that Procaccino:It was a populist and producerist epithet, carrying an implicit accusation that the people it described were insulated from all negative consequences of their programs purported to benefit the poor and that the costs and consequences of such programs would be borne in the main by working class or lower middle class people who were not so poor as to be beneficiaries themselves.",
"In particular, Procaccino criticized Lindsay for favoring unemployed minorities, ex.",
"blacks and Hispanics, over working-class white ethnics.One Procaccino campaign memo attacked \"rich super-assimilated people who live on Fifth Avenue and maintain some choice mansions outside the city and have no feeling for the small middle class shopkeeper, home owner, etc.",
"They preach the politics of confrontation and condone violent upheaval in society because they are not touched by it and are protected by their courtiers\".",
"''The Independent'' later stated that \"Lindsay came across as all style and no substance, a 'limousine liberal' who knew nothing of the concerns of the same 'silent majority' that was carrying Richard Nixon to the White House at the very same time.\""
],
[
"Later use",
"In the 1970s, the term was applied to wealthy liberal supporters of open-housing and forced school busing who did not make use of either of these themselves.",
"In Boston, Massachusetts, supporters of busing, such as Senator Ted Kennedy, sent their children to private schools and lived in affluent suburbs.",
"To some South Boston residents, Kennedy's support of a plan that \"integrated\" their children with blacks and his apparent unwillingness to do the same with his own children, was hypocrisy.",
"President Carter was suspected of this in the later 1970s when he promised better conditions for people in New York City's South Bronx and Los Angeles's Watts when he visited these cities in respective 1977 and 1978 and none of these improvements happened.By the late 1990s and early 21st century, the term has also come to be applied to those who support environmentalist or \"green\" goals, such as mass transit, yet drive large SUVs or literally have a limousine and driver.",
"Sam Dealey, writing in ''The Weekly Standard'', applied the term to Sheila Jackson-Lee for being \"routinely chauffeured the one short block to work—in a government car, by a member of her staff, at the taxpayers' expense.\"",
"The term was also used disparagingly in a 2004 episode of ''Law & Order'' by Fred Thompson's character, Arthur Branch, to criticize the politics and beliefs of his more liberal colleague, Serena Southerlyn.",
"''South Park'''s creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone poked fun at the tendency of some liberals to be more concerned with image than actually helping the earth in the episode \"Smug Alert!\".",
"''The New York Observer'' applied the term to 2008 Democratic presidential candidate John Edwards for paying $400 () for a haircut and, according to the newspaper, \"lectures about poverty while living in gated opulence\".In 2009, the term was applied by some commentators to former Senate Majority Leader and then-Barack Obama cabinet appointee Tom Daschle for failing to pay back taxes and interest on the use of a limousine service.Civil rights leader Al Sharpton used the term ''latte liberal'' to criticize (mostly white and high-income) left-leaning people \"siting around the Hamptons\" who advocated for the defund the police movement and ignored the concerns of African-Americans that suffer under high crime rates and rely on a strong police force."
],
[
"See also",
"*Boba liberal*Bobo (socio-economic group)*''Bobos in Paradise''*Champagne socialist *Chattering class*Gauche caviar*Liberal elite*Luxury belief*Radical chic"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Francia, Peter L., et al.",
"\"Limousine liberals and corporate conservatives: The financial constituencies of the democratic and republican parties.\"",
"''Social Science Quarterly'' 86.4 (2005): 761–778.",
"* Fraser, Steve.",
"''The Limousine Liberal: How an Incendiary Image United the Right and Fractured America'' (Basic, 2016).",
"viii, 291 pp.",
"* Stark, Andrew.",
"\"Limousine liberals, welfare conservatives: On belief, interest, and inconsistency in democratic discourse.\"",
"''Political Theory'' 25.4 (1997): 475–501."
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lewis and Clark Expedition"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Lewis and Clark Expedition''', also known as the '''Corps of Discovery Expedition''', was the United States expedition to cross the newly acquired western portion of the country after the Louisiana Purchase.",
"The Corps of Discovery was a select group of U.S. Army and civilian volunteers under the command of Captain Meriwether Lewis and his close friend Second Lieutenant William Clark.",
"Clark and 30 members set out from Camp Dubois (Camp Wood), Illinois, on May 14, 1804, met Lewis and ten other members of the group in St. Charles, Missouri, then went up the Missouri River.",
"The expedition crossed the Continental Divide of the Americas near the Lemhi Pass, eventually coming to the Columbia River, and the Pacific Ocean in 1805.The return voyage began on March 23, 1806, at Fort Clatsop, Oregon, and ended on September 23 of the same year.President Thomas Jefferson commissioned the expedition shortly after the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 to explore and to map the newly acquired territory, to find a practical route across the western half of the continent, and to establish an American presence in this territory before European powers attempted to establish claims in the region.",
"The campaign's secondary objectives were scientific and economic: to study the area's plants, animal life, and geography, and to establish trade with local Native American tribes.",
"The expedition returned to St. Louis to report its findings to Jefferson, with maps, sketches, and journals in hand."
],
[
"Overview",
"One of Thomas Jefferson's goals was to find \"the most direct and practicable water communication across this continent, for the purposes of commerce.\"",
"He also placed special importance on declaring US sovereignty over the land occupied by the many different Native American tribes along the Missouri River, and getting an accurate sense of the resources in the recently completed Louisiana Purchase.",
"The expedition made notable contributions to science, but scientific research was not the main goal of the mission."
],
[
"Preparations",
"For years, Thomas Jefferson read accounts about the ventures of various explorers in the western frontier, and consequently had a long-held interest in further exploring this mostly unknown region of the continent.",
"In the 1780s, while Minister to France, Jefferson met John Ledyard in Paris and they discussed a possible trip to the Pacific Northwest.",
"Jefferson had also read Captain James Cook's ''A Voyage to the Pacific Ocean'' (London, 1784), an account of Cook's third voyage, and Le Page du Pratz's ''The History of Louisiana'' (London, 1763), all of which greatly influenced his decision to send an expedition.",
"Like Captain Cook, he wished to discover a practical route through the Northwest to the Pacific coast.",
"Alexander Mackenzie had already charted a route in his quest for the Pacific, following Canada's Mackenzie River to the Arctic Ocean in 1789.Mackenzie and his party were the first non-indigenous to cross America north of Mexico, reaching the Pacific coast in British Columbia in 1793–a dozen years before Lewis and Clark.",
"Mackenzie's accounts in ''Voyages from Montreal'' (1801) informed Jefferson of Britain's intent to establish control over the lucrative fur trade of the Columbia River and convinced him of the importance of securing the territory as soon as possible.",
"At Philadelphia, Israel Whelan, the purveyor of public supplies, purchased supplies for the expedition after a list provided by Lewis.",
"Among the purchased items were found 193 pounds of portable soup, 130 rolls of pigtail tobacco, 30 gallons of strong spirit of wine, a wide assortment of Native American presents, medical and surgical supplies, mosquito netting and oilskin bags.Two years into his presidency, Jefferson asked Congress to fund an expedition through the Louisiana territory to the Pacific Ocean.",
"He did not attempt to make a secret of the Lewis and Clark expedition from Spanish, French, and British officials, but rather claimed different reasons for the venture.",
"He used a secret message to ask for funding due to poor relations with the opposition Federalist Party in Congress.",
"Congress subsequently appropriated $2,324 for supplies and food, the appropriation of which was left in Lewis's charge.In 1803, Jefferson commissioned the Corps of Discovery and named Army Captain Meriwether Lewis its leader, who then invited William Clark to co-lead the expedition with him.",
"Lewis demonstrated remarkable skills and potential as a frontiersman, and Jefferson made efforts to prepare him for the long journey ahead as the expedition was gaining approval and funding.",
"Jefferson explained his choice of Lewis:It was impossible to find a character who to a complete science in botany, natural history, mineralogy & astronomy, joined the firmness of constitution & character, prudence, habits adapted to the woods & a familiarity with the Indian manners and character, requisite for this undertaking.",
"All the latter qualifications Capt.",
"Lewis has.In 1803, Jefferson sent Lewis to Philadelphia to study medicinal cures under Benjamin Rush, a physician and former leader in the American Revolution.",
"He also arranged for Lewis to be further educated by Andrew Ellicott, an astronomer who instructed him in the use of the sextant and other navigational instruments.",
"From Benjamin Smith Barton, Lewis learned how to describe and preserve plant and animal specimens, from Robert Patterson refinements in computing latitude and longitude, while Caspar Wistar covered fossils, and the search for possible living remnants.",
"Lewis, however, was not ignorant of science and had demonstrated a marked capacity to learn, especially with Jefferson as his teacher.",
"At Monticello, Jefferson possessed an enormous library on the subject of the North American continent's geography, to which Lewis had full access.",
"He spent time consulting maps and books and conferring with Jefferson.The keelboat used for the first year of the journey was built near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in the summer of 1803 at Lewis's specifications.",
"The boat was completed on August 31 and was immediately loaded with equipment and provisions.",
"While in Pittsburgh, Lewis bought a Newfoundland dog, Seaman, to accompany them.",
"Newfoundlands are working dogs and good swimmers; commonly found on fishing boats, as they can assist in water rescues.",
"Seaman proved a valuable member of the party, helping with hunting and protection from bears and other wildlife.",
"He was the only animal to complete the entire trip.Lewis and his crew set sail that afternoon, traveling down the Ohio River to meet up with Clark near Louisville, Kentucky in October 1803 at the Falls of the Ohio.",
"Their goals were to explore the vast territory acquired by the Louisiana Purchase and to establish trade and US sovereignty over the Native Americans along the Missouri River.",
"Jefferson also wanted to establish a US claim of \"discovery\" to the Pacific Northwest and Oregon territory by documenting an American presence there before European nations could claim the land.",
"According to some historians, Jefferson understood that he would have a better claim of ownership to the Pacific Northwest if the team gathered scientific data on animals and plants.",
"However, his main objectives were centered around finding an all-water route to the Pacific coast and commerce.",
"His instructions to the expedition stated:Camp Dubois (Camp Wood) reconstruction, where the Corps of Discovery mustered on the east side of the Mississippi River, through the winter of 1803–1804, to await the transfer of the Louisiana Purchase to the United StatesThe US mint prepared special silver medals with a portrait of Jefferson and inscribed with a message of friendship and peace, called Indian Peace Medals.",
"The soldiers were to distribute them to the tribes that they met.",
"The expedition also prepared advanced weapons to display their military firepower.",
"Among these was an Austrian-made .46 caliber Girandoni air rifle, a repeating rifle with a 20-round tubular magazine that was powerful enough to kill a deer.",
"The expedition was prepared with flintlock firearms, knives, blacksmithing supplies, and cartography equipment.",
"They also carried flags, gift bundles, medicine, and other items that they would need for their journey.The route of Lewis and Clark's expedition took them up the Missouri River to its headwaters, then on to the Pacific Ocean via the Columbia River, and it may have been influenced by the purported transcontinental journey of Moncacht-Apé by the same route about a century before.",
"Jefferson had a copy of Le Page's book in his library detailing Moncacht-Apé's itinerary, and Lewis carried a copy with him during the expedition.",
"Le Page's description of Moncacht-Apé's route across the continent neglects to mention the need to cross the Rocky Mountains, and it might be the source of Lewis and Clark's mistaken belief that they could easily carry boats from the Missouri's headwaters to the westward-flowing Columbia."
],
[
"Journey",
"=== Departure ===Corps of Discovery meet Chinooks on the Lower Columbia, October 1805 (''Lewis and Clark on the Lower Columbia'' painted by Charles Marion Russel, 1905)The Corps of Discovery departed from Camp Dubois (Camp Wood) at 4pm on May 14, 1804.Under Clark's command, they traveled up the Missouri River in their keelboat and two pirogues to St. Charles, Missouri where Lewis joined them six days later.",
"The expedition set out the next afternoon, May 21.While accounts vary, it is believed the Corps had as many as 45 members, including the officers, enlisted military personnel, civilian volunteers, and Clark's African-American slave York.From St. Charles, the expedition followed the Missouri through what is now Kansas City, Missouri, and Omaha, Nebraska.",
"On August 20, 1804, Sergeant Charles Floyd died, apparently from acute appendicitis.",
"He had been among the first to sign up with the Corps of Discovery and was the only member to die during the expedition.",
"He was buried at a bluff by the river, now named after him, in what is now Sioux City, Iowa.",
"His burial site was marked with a cedar post on which was inscribed his name and day of death.",
"up the river, the expedition camped at a small river which they named Floyd's River.",
"During the final week of August, Lewis and Clark reached the edge of the Great Plains, a place abounding with elk, deer, bison, and beavers.The Lewis and Clark Expedition established relations with two dozen Native American nations, without whose help the expedition would have risked starvation during the harsh winters or become hopelessly lost in the vast ranges of the Rocky Mountains.The Americans and the Lakota nation (whom the Americans called Sioux or \"Teton-wan Sioux\") had problems when they met, and there was a concern the two sides might fight.",
"According to Harry W. Fritz, \"All earlier Missouri River travelers had warned of this powerful and aggressive tribe, determined to block free trade on the river.",
"...",
"The Sioux were also expecting a retaliatory raid from the Omaha tribe, to the south.",
"A recent Sioux raid had killed 75 Omaha men, burned 40 lodges, and taken four dozen prisoners.\"",
"The expedition held talks with the Lakota near the confluence of the Missouri and Bad Rivers in what is now Fort Pierre, South Dakota.Reconstruction of Fort Mandan, Lewis and Clark Memorial Park, North DakotaOne of their horses disappeared, and they believed the Sioux were responsible.",
"Afterward, the two sides met and there was a disagreement, and the Sioux asked the men to stay or to give more gifts instead before being allowed to pass through their territory.",
"Clark wrote they were \"warlike\" and were the \"vilest miscreants of the savage race\".",
"They came close to fighting several times, and both sides finally backed down and the expedition continued on to Arikara territory.In the winter of 180405, the party built Fort Mandan, near present-day Washburn, North Dakota.",
"Just before departing on April 7, 1805, the expedition sent the keelboat back to St. Louis with a sample of specimens, some never seen before east of the Mississippi.",
"One chief asked Lewis and Clark to provide a boat for passage through their national territory.",
"As tensions increased, Lewis and Clark prepared to fight, but the two sides fell back in the end.",
"The Americans quickly continued westward (upriver), and camped for the winter in the Mandan nation's territory.After the expedition had set up camp, nearby Native Americans came to visit in fair numbers, some staying all night.",
"For several days, Lewis and Clark met in council with Mandan chiefs.",
"Here they met a French-Canadian fur trapper named Toussaint Charbonneau, and his young Shoshone wife Sacagawea.",
"Charbonneau at this time began to serve as the expedition's translator.",
"Peace was established between the expedition and the Mandan chiefs with the sharing of a Mandan ceremonial pipe.",
"By April 25, Captain Lewis wrote his progress report of the expedition's activities and observations of the Native American nations they have encountered to date: ''A Statistical view of the Indian nations inhabiting the Territory of Louisiana'', which outlined the names of various tribes, their locations, trading practices, and water routes used, among other things.",
"President Jefferson would later present this report to Congress.Lewis and Clark Meeting the Salish in Ross Hole, September 4, 1805.They followed the Missouri to its headwaters, and over the Continental Divide at Lemhi Pass, then north to Traveler's Rest, and crossed the Bitteroots at Lolo Pass.",
"They descended on foot, then proceeded in canoes down the Clearwater, Snake, and Columbia rivers, past Celilo Falls and present-day Portland, at the confluence of the Willamette and Columbia rivers.",
"Lewis and Clark used William Robert Broughton's 1792 notes and maps to orient themselves once they reached the lower Columbia River.",
"The sighting of Mount Hood and other stratovolcanos confirmed that the expedition had almost reached the Pacific Ocean.=== Pacific Ocean ===Fort Clatsop reconstruction on the Columbia River near the Pacific OceanThe expedition sighted the Pacific Ocean for the first time on November 7, 1805, arriving two weeks later.",
"The expedition faced its second bitter winter camped on the north side of the Columbia River, in a storm-wracked area.",
"Lack of food was a major factor.",
"The elk, the party's main source of food, had retreated from their usual haunts into the mountains, and the party was now too poor to purchase enough food from neighboring tribes.",
"On November 24, 1805, the party voted to move their camp to the south side of the Columbia River near modern Astoria, Oregon.",
"Sacagawea, and Clark's slave York, were both allowed to participate in the vote.On the south side of the Columbia River, upstream on the west side of the Netul River (now Lewis and Clark River), they constructed Fort Clatsop.",
"They did this not just for shelter and protection, but also to officially establish the American presence there, with the American flag flying over the fort.",
"During the winter at Fort Clatsop, Lewis committed himself to writing.",
"He filled many pages of his journals with valuable knowledge, mostly about botany, because of the abundant growth and forests that covered that part of the continent.",
"The health of the men also became a problem, with many suffering from colds and influenza.Knowing that maritime fur traders sometimes visited the lower Columbia River, Lewis and Clark repeatedly asked the local Chinooks about trading ships.",
"They learned that Captain Samuel Hill had been there in early 1805.Miscommunication caused Clark to record the name as \"Haley\".",
"Captain Hill returned in November 1805, and anchored about from Fort Clatsop.",
"The Chinook told Hill about Lewis and Clark, but no direct contact was made.A Russian maritime expedition under statesman Nikolai Rezanov arrived at the mouth of the Columbia River while Lewis and Clark were still there.",
"Neither Rezanov nor Lewis and Clark knew about each other.",
"Rezanov had come from ''Novo-Arkhangelsk'' (today Sitka, Alaska), intending to establish a Russian agricultural colony to help with the perennial food shortages in Russian America, and made plans for a relocation of the capital of Russian America from Sitka to the lower Columbia River.",
"But his ship, ''Juno'', was unable to cross the Columbia Bar.",
"So Rezanov went to California instead, setting in motion a process that eventually led to the founding of Fort Ross, California.=== Return trip ===Lewis was determined to remain at the fort until April 1, but was still anxious to move out at the earliest opportunity.",
"By March 22, the stormy weather had subsided and the following morning, on March 23, 1806, the journey home began.",
"The Corps began their journey homeward using canoes to ascend the Columbia River, and later by trekking over land.Before leaving, Clark gave the Chinook a letter to give to the next ship captain to visit, which was the same Captain Hill who had been nearby during the winter.",
"Hill took the letter to Canton and had it forwarded to Thomas Jefferson, who thus received it before Lewis and Clark returned.They made their way to Camp Chopunnish in Idaho, along the north bank of the Clearwater River, where the members of the expedition collected 65 horses in preparation to cross the Bitterroot Mountains, lying between modern-day Idaho and western Montana.",
"However, the range was still covered in snow, which prevented the expedition from making the crossing.",
"On April 11, while the Corps was waiting for the snow to diminish, Lewis's dog, Seaman, was stolen by Native Americans, but was retrieved shortly.",
"Worried that other such acts might follow, Lewis warned the chief that any other wrongdoing or mischievous acts would result in instant death.On July 3, before crossing the Continental Divide, the Corps split into two teams so Lewis could explore the Marias River.",
"Lewis's group of four met some men from the Blackfeet nation.",
"During the night, the Blackfeet tried to steal their weapons.",
"In the struggle, the soldiers killed two Blackfeet men.",
"Lewis, George Drouillard, and the Field brothers fled over in a day before they camped again.Meanwhile, Clark had entered the Crow tribe's territory.",
"In the night, half of Clark's horses disappeared, but not a single Crow had been seen.",
"Lewis and Clark stayed separated until they reached the confluence of the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers on August 11.As the groups reunited, one of Clark's hunters, Pierre Cruzatte, mistook Lewis for an elk and fired, injuring Lewis in the thigh.",
"Once together, the Corps was able to return home quickly via the Missouri River.",
"They reached St. Louis on September 23, 1806.=== Spanish interference ===In March 1804, before the expedition began in May, the Spanish in New Mexico learned from General James Wilkinson that the Americans were encroaching on territory claimed by Spain.",
"After the Lewis and Clark expedition set off in May, the Spanish sent four armed expeditions of 52 soldiers, mercenaries , and Native Americans on August 1, 1804, from Santa Fe, New Mexico northward under Pedro Vial and José Jarvet to intercept Lewis and Clark and imprison the entire expedition.",
"They reached the Pawnee settlement on the Platte River in central Nebraska and learned that the expedition had been there many days before.",
"The expedition was covering a day and Vial's attempt to intercept them was unsuccessful."
],
[
"Geography and science",
"Map of Lewis and Clark's expedition: It changed mapping of northwest America by providing the first accurate depiction of the relationship of the sources of the Columbia and Missouri Rivers, and the Rocky Mountains around 1814The Lewis and Clark Expedition gained an understanding of the geography of the Northwest and produced the first accurate maps of the area.",
"During the journey, Lewis and Clark drew about 140 maps.",
"Stephen Ambrose says the expedition \"filled in the main outlines\" of the area.The expedition documented natural resources and plants that had been previously unknown to Euro-Americans, though not to the indigenous peoples.",
"Lewis and Clark were the first Americans to cross the Continental Divide, and the first Americans to see Yellowstone, enter into Montana, and produce an official description of these different regions.",
"Their visit to the Pacific Northwest, maps, and proclamations of sovereignty with medals and flags were legal steps needed to claim title to each indigenous nation's lands under the Doctrine of Discovery.The expedition was sponsored by the American Philosophical Society (APS).",
"Lewis and Clark received some instruction in astronomy, botany, climatology, ethnology, geography, meteorology, mineralogy, ornithology, and zoology.",
"During the expedition, they made contact with over 70 Native American tribes and described more than 200 new plant and animal species.Jefferson had the expedition declare \"sovereignty\" and demonstrate their military strength to ensure native tribes would be subordinate to the U.S., as European colonizers did elsewhere.",
"After the expedition, the maps that were produced allowed the further discovery and settlement of this vast territory in the years that followed.In 1807, Patrick Gass, a private in the U.S. Army, published an account of the journey.",
"He was promoted to sergeant during the course of the expedition.",
"Paul Allen edited a two-volume history of the Lewis and Clark expedition that was published in 1814, in Philadelphia, but without mention of the actual author, banker Nicholas Biddle.",
"Even then, the complete report was not made public until more recently.",
"The earliest authorized edition of the Lewis and Clark journals resides in the Maureen and Mike Mansfield Library at the University of Montana."
],
[
"Encounters with Native Americans",
"One of the expedition's primary objectives as directed by President Jefferson was to be a surveillance mission that would report back the whereabouts, military strength, lives, activities, and cultures of the various Native American tribes that inhabited the territory newly acquired by the United States as part of the Louisiana Purchase and the northwest in general.",
"The expedition was to make native people understand that their lands now belonged to the United States and that \"their great father\" in Washington was now their sovereign.",
"The expedition encountered many different native nations and tribes along the way, many of whom offered their assistance, providing the expedition with their knowledge of the wilderness and with the acquisition of food.",
"The expedition had blank leather-bound journals and ink for the purpose of recording such encounters, as well as for scientific and geological information.",
"They were also provided with various gifts of medals, ribbons, needles, mirrors, and other articles which were intended to ease any tensions when negotiating their passage with the various Native American chiefs whom they would encounter along their way.Many of the tribes had friendly experiences with British and French fur traders in various isolated encounters along the Missouri and Columbia Rivers, and for the most part the expedition did not encounter hostilities.",
"However, there was a tense confrontation on September 25, 1804, with the Teton-Sioux tribe (also known as the Lakota people, one of the three tribes that comprise the Great Sioux Nation), under chiefs that included Black Buffalo and the Partisan.",
"These chiefs confronted the expedition and demanded tribute from the expedition for their passage over the river.",
"The seven native tribes that comprised the Lakota people controlled a vast inland empire and expected gifts from strangers who wished to navigate their rivers or to pass through their lands.",
"According to Harry W. Fritz, \"All earlier Missouri River travelers had warned of this powerful and aggressive tribe, determined to block free trade on the river.",
"...",
"The Sioux were also expecting a retaliatory raid from the Omaha tribe, to the south.",
"A recent Sioux raid had killed 75 Omaha men, burned 40 lodges, and taken four dozen prisoners.",
"\"Captain Lewis made his first mistake by offering the Sioux chief gifts first, which insulted and angered the Partisan chief.",
"Communication was difficult, since the expedition's only Sioux language interpreter was Pierre Dorion who had stayed behind with the other party and was also involved with diplomatic affairs with another tribe.",
"Consequently, both chiefs were offered a few gifts, but neither was satisfied and they wanted some gifts for their warriors and tribe.",
"At that point, some of the warriors from the Partisan tribe took hold of their boat and one of the oars.",
"Lewis took a firm stand, ordering a display of force and presenting arms; Captain Clark brandished his sword and threatened violent reprisal.",
"Just before the situation erupted into a violent confrontation, Black Buffalo ordered his warriors to back off.The captains were able to negotiate their passage without further incident with the aid of better gifts and a bottle of whiskey.",
"During the next two days, the expedition made camp not far from Black Buffalo's tribe.",
"Similar incidents occurred when they tried to leave, but trouble was averted with gifts of tobacco.=== Observations ===As the expedition encountered the various Native American tribes during the course of their journey, they observed and recorded information regarding their lifestyles, customs and the social codes they lived by, as directed by President Jefferson.",
"By European standards, the Native American way of life seemed harsh and unforgiving as witnessed by members of the expedition.",
"After many encounters and camping in close proximity to the Native American nations for extended periods of time during the winter months, they soon learned first hand of their customs and social orders.One of the primary customs that distinguished Native American cultures from those of the West was that it was customary for the men to take on two or more wives if they were able to provide for them and often took on a wife or wives who were members of the immediate family circle, e.g.",
"men in the Minnetaree and Mandan tribes would often take on a sister for a wife.",
"Chastity among women was not held in high regard.",
"Infant daughters were often sold by the father to men who were grown, usually for horses or mules.",
"Women in Sioux nations were often bartered away for horses or other supplies; yet this was not practiced among the Shoshone nation, who held their women in higher regard.They witnessed that many of the Native American nations were constantly at war with other tribes, especially the Sioux, who, while remaining generally friendly to the white fur traders, had proudly boasted of and justified the almost complete destruction of the once great Cahokia nation, along with the Missouris, Illinois, Kaskaskia, and Piorias tribes that lived about the countryside adjacent to the upper Mississippi and Missouri rivers.=== Sacagawea ===Statue of Sacagawea, a Shoshone woman who accompanied the Lewis and Clark ExpeditionSacagawea, sometimes spelled Sakajawea or Sakagawea ( 1788December 20, 1812), was a Shoshone Native American woman who arrived with her husband and owner Toussaint Charbonneau on the expedition to the Pacific Ocean.On February 11, 1805, a few weeks after her first contact with the expedition, Sacagawea went into labor which was slow and painful, so the Frenchman Charbonneau suggested she be given a potion of rattlesnake's rattle to aid in her delivery.",
"Lewis happened to have some snake's rattle with him.",
"A short time after administering the potion, she delivered a healthy boy who was given the name Jean Baptiste Charbonneau.When the expedition reached Marias River, on June 16, 1805, Sacagawea became dangerously ill. She was able to find some relief by drinking mineral water from the sulphur spring that fed into the river.Though she has been discussed in literature frequently, much of the information is exaggeration or fiction.",
"Scholars say she did notice some geographical features, but \"Sacagawea ... was not the guide for the Expedition, she was important to them as an interpreter and in other ways.\"",
"The sight of a woman and her infant son would have been reassuring to some indigenous nations, and she played an important role in diplomatic relations by talking to chiefs, easing tensions, and giving the impression of a peaceful mission.In his writings, Meriwether Lewis presented a somewhat negative view of her, though Clark had a higher regard for her, and provided some support for her children in subsequent years.",
"In the journals, they used the terms \"squar\" (squaw) and \"savages\" to refer to Sacagawea and other indigenous peoples."
],
[
"York",
"An enslaved Black man known only as York took part in the expedition as personal servant to William Clark, his owner.",
"York did much to help the expedition succeed.",
"He proved popular with the Native Americans, who had never seen a Black man.",
"He also helped with hunting and the heavy labor of pulling boats upstream.",
"Despite his contributions to the Corps of Discovery, Clark refused to release York from bondage upon returning east.",
"While all the other explorers enjoyed rewards of double pay and hundreds of acres of land, York received nothing.",
"After the end of the expedition, Clark allowed York only a brief visit to Kentucky to see his wife before forcing him to return to Missouri.",
"It is unlikely that he ever saw his wife again: \"ten years after the expedition’s end, York was still enslaved, working as a wagoner for the Clark family\".",
"The last years of York's life are disputed.",
"In the 1830s, a Black man who said he had first come with Lewis and Clark was living as a chief with Native Americans they met on the expedition, in modern Wyoming."
],
[
"Accomplishments",
"The Corps met their objective of reaching the Pacific, mapping and establishing their presence for a legal claim to the land.",
"They established diplomatic relations and trade with at least two dozen indigenous nations.",
"They did not find a continuous waterway to the Pacific Ocean but located a Native American trail that led from the upper end of the Missouri River to the Columbia River which ran to the Pacific Ocean.",
"They gained information about the natural habitat, flora and fauna, bringing back various plant, seed and mineral specimens.",
"They mapped the topography of the land, designating the location of mountain ranges, rivers and the many Native American tribes during the course of their journey.",
"They also learned and recorded much about the language and customs of the Native American tribes they encountered, and brought back many of their artifacts, including bows, clothing and ceremonial robes."
],
[
"Aftermath",
"Painting of Mandan Chief Big White, who accompanied Lewis and Clark on their return from the expeditionTwo months passed after the expedition's end before Jefferson made his first public statement to Congress and others, giving a one-sentence summary about the success of the expedition before getting into the justification for the expenses involved.",
"In the course of their journey, they acquired a knowledge of numerous tribes of Native Americans hitherto unknown; they informed themselves of the trade which may be carried on with them, the best channels and positions for it, and they are enabled to give with accuracy the geography of the line they pursued.",
"Back east, the botanical and zoological discoveries drew the intense interest of the American Philosophical Society who requested specimens, various artifacts traded with the Native Americans, and reports on plants and wildlife along with various seeds obtained.",
"Jefferson used seeds from \"Missouri hominy corn\" along with a number of other unidentified seeds to plant at Monticello which he cultivated and studied.",
"He later reported on the \"Indian corn\" he had grown as being an \"excellent\" food source.",
"The expedition helped establish the U.S. presence in the newly acquired territory and beyond and opened the door to further exploration, trade and scientific discoveries.Lewis and Clark returned from their expedition, bringing with them the Mandan Native American Chief Shehaka from the Upper Missouri to visit the \"Great Father\" in Washington.",
"After Chief Shehaka's visit, it required multiple attempts and multiple military expeditions to safely return Shehaka to his nation.Upon the return from their expedition, Lewis and Clark struggled to prepare their manuscripts for publication.",
"Clark managed to persuade Nicholas Biddle to edit the journals, which were then published in 1814 as the ''History of the Expedition Under the Commands of Captains Lewis and Clark''.",
"However, Biddle's narrative account omitted much of the material related to their discoveries in flora and fauna.",
"Since Biddle's account was the only printed account of the original journals for the next 90 years, many of Lewis and Clark's discoveries were later unknowingly rediscovered and given new names.",
"It wasn't until 1904–1905, through the publication of ''Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition'' by Reuben Gold Thwaites, that the general public became aware of the full extent of the scientific discoveries made by the expedition.During the 19th century, references to Lewis and Clark \"scarcely appeared\" in history books, even during the United States Centennial in 1876, and the expedition was largely forgotten.",
"Lewis and Clark began to gain attention around the start of the 20th century.",
"Both the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis and the 1905 Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition in Portland, Oregon, showcased them as American pioneers.",
"However, the story remained relatively shallow until mid-century as a celebration of US conquest and personal adventures, but more recently the expedition has been more thoroughly researched.As of 1984, no US exploration party was more famous, and no American expedition leaders are more recognizable by name.In 2004, a complete and reliable set of the expedition's journals was compiled by Gary E. Moulton.",
"Circa 2004, the bicentennial of the expedition further elevated popular interest in Lewis and Clark."
],
[
"Legacy and honors",
"In the 1970s, the federal government memorialized the winter assembly encampment, Camp Dubois, as the start of the Lewis and Clark voyage of discovery and in 2019 it recognized Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania as the start of the expedition.Since the expedition, Lewis and Clark have been commemorated and honored over the years on various coins, currency, and commemorative postage stamps, as well as in a number of other capacities.",
"In 2004, the American elm cultivar ''Ulmus americana'' 'Lewis & Clark' (selling name ) was released by North Dakota State University Research Foundation in commemoration of the expedition's bicentenary; the tree has a resistance to Dutch elm disease.The Lewis and Clark Public School District in North Dakota is named after the pair.Campsite Lewis and Clark in Camp Sandy Beach at Yawgoog Scout Reservation in Rockville, Rhode Island also honors both explorers.File:Lewis & Clark stamp 2004.jpg|Lewis and Clark Expedition, 2004200th Anniversary issue U.S. postage stamp commemorating the 200th anniversary of the ExpeditionFile:Lewis and Clark 1954 Issue-3c.jpg|Lewis and Clark Expedition150th anniversary issue, 1954File:US-$10-LT-1901-Fr.114.jpg|Lewis and Clark were honored (along with the American bison) on the Series of 1901 $10 Legal TenderFile:Lewis and Clark Interpretive Center Cape Disappointment.jpg|Lewis and Clark Interpretive Center in Cape Disappointment State ParkFile:Amer0145 (9715909375).jpg|Lewis and Clark statue (with Seaman (dog)) in St. Charles, MissouriFile:Lewis & Clark Mosaic image.png|Lewis and Clark Mosaic image in MissouriFile:Sergeant Floyd Monument, sunset.jpg|Sergeant Floyd Monument in Sioux City, Iowa is the first of 2,600 National Historic Landmarks in the United States"
],
[
"Prior discoveries",
"In 1682, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle traveled down the Mississippi from the Great Lakes to the Gulf.",
"The French then established a chain of posts along the Mississippi from New Orleans to the Great Lakes.",
"There followed a number of French explorers including Pedro Vial and Pierre Antoine and Paul Mallet, among others.",
"Vial may have preceded Lewis and Clark to Montana.",
"In 1787, he gave a map of the upper Missouri River and locations of \"territories transited by Pedro Vial\" to Spanish authorities.Early in 1792, the American explorer Robert Gray, sailing in the ''Columbia Rediviva'', discovered the yet to be named Columbia River, named it after his ship and claimed it for the United States.",
"Later in 1792, the Vancouver Expedition had learned of Gray's discovery and used his maps.",
"Vancouver's expedition explored over up the Columbia, into the Columbia River Gorge.",
"Lewis and Clark used the maps produced by these expeditions when they descended the lower Columbia to the Pacific coast.From 1792 to 1793, Alexander Mackenzie had crossed North America from Quebec to the Pacific."
],
[
"See also",
"* ''The Far Horizons'', a 1955 film about the expedition* Gateway Arch National Park* Lewis and Clark Pass (Montana) – the only non-motorized pass on the expedition's route* Lewis and Clark's Keelboat* The Red River Expedition (1806) and the Pike Expedition were also commissioned by Jefferson* James Kendall Hosmer, American history professor and librarian who edited and published Nicholas Biddle's account of Lewis and Clark's journal* Timeline of the Lewis and Clark Expedition"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* * * * * * * * Cutright, Paul Russel (1969).",
"''Lewis and Clark: Pioneering Naturalists.''",
"University of Nebraska Press.",
"* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * === Primary sources ===* E'books, Full view * * * ** * * * * * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * * * * * * * * * *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Full text of the Lewis and Clark journals online – edited by Gary E. Moulton, University of Nebraska–Lincoln* * Travel the Lewis and Clark Expedition, a National Park Service ''Discover Our Shared Heritage'' Travel Itinerary* \"History of the Expedition Under the Command of Captains Lewis and Clark: To the Sources of the Missouri, thence Across the Rocky Mountains and down the River Columbia to the Pacific Ocean\" published in 1814; from the World Digital Library* Lewis & Clark Fort Mandan Foundation: Discovering Lewis & Clark* Corps of Discovery Online Atlas, created by Watzek Library, Lewis & Clark College* Lewis and Clark Expedition Maps and Receipt.",
"Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.",
"* William Clark Field Notes.",
"Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.",
"* Louis Starr Collection Concerning the Field Notes of William Clark.",
"Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Latitude"
],
[
"Introduction",
"''graticule''.",
"The vertical lines from pole to pole are lines of constant longitude, or ''meridians''.",
"The circles parallel to the equator are lines of constant latitude, or ''parallels''.",
"The graticule shows the latitude and longitude of points on the surface.",
"In this example meridians are spaced at 6° intervals and parallels at 4° intervals.In geography, '''latitude''' is a coordinate that specifies the north–south position of a point on the surface of the Earth or another celestial body.",
"Latitude is given as an angle that ranges from −90° at the south pole to 90° at the north pole, with 0° at the Equator.",
"Lines of constant latitude, or ''parallels'', run east–west as circles parallel to the equator.",
"Latitude and longitude are used together as a coordinate pair to specify a location on the surface of the Earth.On its own, the term \"latitude\" normally refers to the ''geodetic latitude'' as defined below.",
"Briefly, the geodetic latitude of a point is the angle formed between the vector perpendicular (or ''normal'') to the ellipsoidal surface from the point, and the plane of the equator."
],
[
"Background",
"Two levels of abstraction are employed in the definitions of latitude and longitude.",
"In the first step the physical surface is modeled by the geoid, a surface which approximates the mean sea level over the oceans and its continuation under the land masses.",
"The second step is to approximate the geoid by a mathematically simpler reference surface.",
"The simplest choice for the reference surface is a sphere, but the geoid is more accurately modeled by an ellipsoid of revolution.",
"The definitions of latitude and longitude on such reference surfaces are detailed in the following sections.",
"Lines of constant latitude and longitude together constitute a graticule on the reference surface.",
"The latitude of a point on the ''actual'' surface is that of the corresponding point on the reference surface, the correspondence being along the normal to the reference surface, which passes through the point on the physical surface.",
"Latitude and longitude together with some specification of height constitute a geographic coordinate system as defined in the specification of the ISO 19111 standard.Since there are many different reference ellipsoids, the precise latitude of a feature on the surface is not unique: this is stressed in the ISO standard which states that \"without the full specification of the coordinate reference system, coordinates (that is latitude and longitude) are ambiguous at best and meaningless at worst\".",
"This is of great importance in accurate applications, such as a Global Positioning System (GPS), but in common usage, where high accuracy is not required, the reference ellipsoid is not usually stated.In English texts, the latitude angle, defined below, is usually denoted by the Greek lower-case letter phi ( or ).",
"It is measured in degrees, minutes and seconds or decimal degrees, north or south of the equator.",
"For navigational purposes positions are given in degrees and decimal minutes.",
"For instance, The Needles lighthouse is at 50°39.734′ N 001°35.500′ W.This article relates to coordinate systems for the Earth: it may be adapted to cover the Moon, planets and other celestial objects (planetographic latitude).For a brief history, see History of latitude.===Determination===In celestial navigation, latitude is determined with the meridian altitude method.More precise measurement of latitude requires an understanding of the gravitational field of the Earth, either to set up theodolites or to determine GPS satellite orbits.",
"The study of the figure of the Earth together with its gravitational field is the science of geodesy."
],
[
"Latitude on the sphere",
"A perspective view of the Earth showing how latitude () and longitude () are defined on a spherical model.",
"The graticule spacing is 10 degrees.===The graticule on the sphere===The graticule is formed by the lines of constant latitude and constant longitude, which are constructed with reference to the rotation axis of the Earth.",
"The primary reference points are the poles where the axis of rotation of the Earth intersects the reference surface.",
"Planes which contain the rotation axis intersect the surface at the meridians; and the angle between any one meridian plane and that through Greenwich (the Prime Meridian) defines the longitude: meridians are lines of constant longitude.",
"The plane through the centre of the Earth and perpendicular to the rotation axis intersects the surface at a great circle called the Equator.",
"Planes parallel to the equatorial plane intersect the surface in circles of constant latitude; these are the parallels.",
"The Equator has a latitude of 0°, the North Pole has a latitude of 90° North (written 90° N or +90°), and the South Pole has a latitude of 90° South (written 90° S or −90°).",
"The latitude of an arbitrary point is the angle between the equatorial plane and the normal to the surface at that point: the normal to the surface of the sphere is along the radial vector.The latitude, as defined in this way for the sphere, is often termed the spherical latitude, to avoid ambiguity with the geodetic latitude and the auxiliary latitudes defined in subsequent sections of this article.===Named latitudes on the Earth===The orientation of the Earth at the December solstice.Besides the equator, four other parallels are of significance:: Arctic Circle 66° 34′ (66.57°) N Tropic of Cancer 23° 26′ (23.43°) N Tropic of Capricorn 23° 26′ (23.43°) S Antarctic Circle 66° 34′ (66.57°) SThe plane of the Earth's orbit about the Sun is called the ecliptic, and the plane perpendicular to the rotation axis of the Earth is the equatorial plane.",
"The angle between the ecliptic and the equatorial plane is called variously the axial tilt, the obliquity, or the inclination of the ecliptic, and it is conventionally denoted by .",
"The latitude of the tropical circles is equal to and the latitude of the polar circles is its complement (90° - ''i'').",
"The axis of rotation varies slowly over time and the values given here are those for the current epoch.",
"The time variation is discussed more fully in the article on axial tilt.The figure shows the geometry of a cross-section of the plane perpendicular to the ecliptic and through the centres of the Earth and the Sun at the December solstice when the Sun is overhead at some point of the Tropic of Capricorn.",
"The south polar latitudes below the Antarctic Circle are in daylight, whilst the north polar latitudes above the Arctic Circle are in night.",
"The situation is reversed at the June solstice, when the Sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer.",
"Only at latitudes in between the two tropics is it possible for the Sun to be directly overhead (at the zenith).On map projections there is no universal rule as to how meridians and parallels should appear.",
"The examples below show the named parallels (as red lines) on the commonly used Mercator projection and the Transverse Mercator projection.",
"On the former the parallels are horizontal and the meridians are vertical, whereas on the latter there is no exact relationship of parallels and meridians with horizontal and vertical: both are complicated curves.Normal MercatorTransverse Mercator 200px\\ 200px"
],
[
"Latitude on the ellipsoid",
"===Ellipsoids===In 1687 Isaac Newton published the ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica'', in which he proved that a rotating self-gravitating fluid body in equilibrium takes the form of an oblate ellipsoid.",
"(This article uses the term ''ellipsoid'' in preference to the older term ''spheroid''.)",
"Newton's result was confirmed by geodetic measurements in the 18th century.",
"(See Meridian arc.)",
"An oblate ellipsoid is the three-dimensional surface generated by the rotation of an ellipse about its shorter axis (minor axis).",
"\"Oblate ellipsoid of revolution\" is abbreviated to 'ellipsoid' in the remainder of this article.",
"(Ellipsoids which do not have an axis of symmetry are termed triaxial.",
")Many different reference ellipsoids have been used in the history of geodesy.",
"In pre-satellite days they were devised to give a good fit to the geoid over the limited area of a survey but, with the advent of GPS, it has become natural to use reference ellipsoids (such as WGS84) with centre at the centre of mass of the Earth and minor axis aligned to the rotation axis of the Earth.",
"These geocentric ellipsoids are usually within of the geoid.",
"Since latitude is defined with respect to an ellipsoid, the position of a given point is different on each ellipsoid: one cannot exactly specify the latitude and longitude of a geographical feature without specifying the ellipsoid used.",
"Many maps maintained by national agencies are based on older ellipsoids, so one must know how the latitude and longitude values are transformed from one ellipsoid to another.",
"GPS handsets include software to carry out datum transformations which link WGS84 to the local reference ellipsoid with its associated grid.===The geometry of the ellipsoid===A sphere of radius ''a'' compressed along the ''z'' axis to form an oblate ellipsoid of revolution.The shape of an ellipsoid of revolution is determined by the shape of the ellipse which is rotated about its minor (shorter) axis.",
"Two parameters are required.",
"One is invariably the equatorial radius, which is the semi-major axis, .",
"The other parameter is usually (1) the polar radius or semi-minor axis, ; or (2) the (first) flattening, ; or (3) the eccentricity, .",
"These parameters are not independent: they are related by:Many other parameters (see ellipse, ellipsoid) appear in the study of geodesy, geophysics and map projections but they can all be expressed in terms of one or two members of the set , , and .",
"Both and are small and often appear in series expansions in calculations; they are of the order and 0.0818 respectively.",
"Values for a number of ellipsoids are given in Figure of the Earth.",
"Reference ellipsoids are usually defined by the semi-major axis and the ''inverse'' flattening, .",
"For example, the defining values for the WGS84 ellipsoid, used by all GPS devices, are* (equatorial radius): exactly* (inverse flattening): exactlyfrom which are derived* (polar radius): * (eccentricity squared): The difference between the semi-major and semi-minor axes is about and as fraction of the semi-major axis it equals the flattening; on a computer monitor the ellipsoid could be sized as 300 by 299 pixels.",
"This would barely be distinguishable from a 300-by-300-pixel sphere, so illustrations usually exaggerate the flattening.===Geodetic and geocentric latitudes===The definition of geodetic latitude () and longitude () on an ellipsoid.",
"The normal to the surface does not pass through the centre, except at the equator and at the poles.The graticule on the ellipsoid is constructed in exactly the same way as on the sphere.",
"The normal at a point on the surface of an ellipsoid does not pass through the centre, except for points on the equator or at the poles, but the definition of latitude remains unchanged as the angle between the normal and the equatorial plane.",
"The terminology for latitude must be made more precise by distinguishing:*''Geodetic latitude'': the angle between the normal and the equatorial plane.",
"The standard notation in English publications is .",
"This is the definition assumed when the word latitude is used without qualification.",
"The definition must be accompanied with a specification of the ellipsoid.",
"*''Geocentric latitude'' (also known as ''spherical latitude'', after the 3D polar angle): the angle between the radius (from centre to the point on the surface) and the equatorial plane.",
"(Figure below).",
"There is no standard notation: examples from various texts include , , , , , .",
"This article uses .",
"'''Geographic latitude''' must be used with care, as some authors use it as a synonym for geodetic latitude whilst others use it as an alternative to the astronomical latitude.",
"\"Latitude\" (unqualified) should normally refer to the geodetic latitude.The importance of specifying the reference datum may be illustrated by a simple example.",
"On the reference ellipsoid for WGS84, the centre of the Eiffel Tower has a geodetic latitude of 48° 51′ 29″ N, or 48.8583° N and longitude of 2° 17′ 40″ E or 2.2944°E.",
"The same coordinates on the datum ED50 define a point on the ground which is distant from the tower.",
"A web search may produce several different values for the latitude of the tower; the reference ellipsoid is rarely specified."
],
[
"Meridian distance{{anchor|Length of a degree of latitude}}",
"The length of a degree of latitude depends on the figure of the Earth assumed.===Meridian distance on the sphere===On the sphere the normal passes through the centre and the latitude () istherefore equal to the angle subtended at the centre by the meridian arc from the equator to the point concerned.",
"If the meridian distance is denoted by then:where denotes the mean radius of the Earth.",
"is equal to .",
"No higher accuracy is appropriate for since higher-precision results necessitate an ellipsoid model.",
"With this value for the meridian length of 1 degree of latitude on the sphere is (60.0 nautical miles).",
"The length of 1 minute of latitude is (1.00 nautical miles), while the length of 1 second of latitude is (see nautical mile).===Meridian distance on the ellipsoid===In Meridian arc and standard texts it is shown that the distance along a meridian from latitude to the equator is given by ( in radians):where is the meridional radius of curvature.The ''quarter meridian'' distance from the equator to the pole is:For WGS84 this distance is .The evaluation of the meridian distance integral is central to many studies in geodesy and map projection.",
"It can be evaluated by expanding the integral by the binomial series and integrating term by term: see Meridian arc for details.",
"The length of the meridian arc between two given latitudes is given by replacing the limits of the integral by the latitudes concerned.",
"The length of a ''small'' meridian arc is given by: 0° 110.574 km 111.320 km 15° 110.649 km 107.550 km 30° 110.852 km 96.486 km 45° 111.132 km 78.847 km 60° 111.412 km 55.800 km 75° 111.618 km 28.902 km 90° 111.694 km 0.000 kmWhen the latitude difference is 1 degree, corresponding to radians, the arc distance is about:The distance in metres (correct to 0.01 metre) between latitudes − 0.5 degrees and + 0.5 degrees on the WGS84 spheroid is:The variation of this distance with latitude (on WGS84) is shown in the table along with the length of a degree of longitude (east–west distance)::A calculator for any latitude is provided by the U.S. Government's National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA).The following graph illustrates the variation of both a degree of latitude and a degree of longitude with latitude.The definition of geodetic latitude () and geocentric latitude ()."
],
[
"Auxiliary latitudes",
"There are six '''auxiliary latitudes''' that have applications to special problems in geodesy, geophysics and the theory of map projections:* Geocentric latitude* Parametric (or reduced) latitude* Rectifying latitude* Authalic latitude* Conformal latitude* Isometric latitudeThe definitions given in this section all relate to locations on the reference ellipsoid but the first two auxiliary latitudes, like the geodetic latitude, can be extended to define a three-dimensional geographic coordinate system as discussed below.",
"The remaining latitudes are not used in this way; they are used ''only'' as intermediate constructs in map projections of the reference ellipsoid to the plane or in calculations of geodesics on the ellipsoid.",
"Their numerical values are not of interest.",
"For example, no one would need to calculate the authalic latitude of the Eiffel Tower.The expressions below give the auxiliary latitudes in terms of the geodetic latitude, the semi-major axis, , and the eccentricity, .",
"(For inverses see below.)",
"The forms given are, apart from notational variants, those in the standard reference for map projections, namely \"Map projections: a working manual\" by J. P. Snyder.",
"Derivations of these expressions may be found in Adams and online publications by Osborne and Rapp.===Geocentric latitude===The definition of geodetic latitude () and geocentric latitude ().The '''geocentric latitude''' is the angle between the equatorial plane and the radius from the centre to a point of interest.When the point is on the surface of the ellipsoid, the relation between the geocentric latitude () and the geodetic latitude () is::For points not on the surface of the ellipsoid, the relationship involves additionally the ellipsoidal height ''h'':: where is the prime vertical radius of curvature.",
"The geodetic and geocentric latitudes are equal at the equator and at the poles but at other latitudes they differ by a few minutes of arc.",
"Taking the value of the squared eccentricity as 0.0067 (it depends on the choice of ellipsoid) the maximum difference of may be shown to be about 11.5 minutes of arc at a geodetic latitude of approximately 45° 6′.===Parametric latitude (or reduced latitude)===Definition of the parametric latitude () on the ellipsoid.",
"The '''parametric latitude''' or '''reduced latitude''', , is defined by the radius drawn from the centre of the ellipsoid to that point on the surrounding sphere (of radius ) which is the projection parallel to the Earth's axis of a point on the ellipsoid at latitude .",
"It was introduced by Legendre and Bessel who solved problems for geodesics on the ellipsoid by transforming them to an equivalent problem for spherical geodesics by using this smaller latitude.",
"Bessel's notation, , is also used in the current literature.",
"The parametric latitude is related to the geodetic latitude by::The alternative name arises from the parameterization of the equation of the ellipse describing a meridian section.",
"In terms of Cartesian coordinates , the distance from the minor axis, and , the distance above the equatorial plane, the equation of the ellipse is::The Cartesian coordinates of the point are parameterized by:Cayley suggested the term ''parametric latitude'' because of the form of these equations.The parametric latitude is not used in the theory of map projections.",
"Its most important application is in the theory of ellipsoid geodesics, (Vincenty, Karney).===Rectifying latitude===The '''rectifying latitude''', , is the meridian distance scaled so that its value at the poles is equal to 90 degrees or radians::where the meridian distance from the equator to a latitude is (see Meridian arc):and the length of the meridian quadrant from the equator to the pole (the polar distance) is:Using the rectifying latitude to define a latitude on a sphere of radius:defines a projection from the ellipsoid to the sphere such that all meridians have true length and uniform scale.",
"The sphere may then be projected to the plane with an equirectangular projection to give a double projection from the ellipsoid to the plane such that all meridians have true length and uniform meridian scale.",
"An example of the use of the rectifying latitude is the equidistant conic projection.",
"(Snyder, Section 16).",
"The rectifying latitude is also of great importance in the construction of the Transverse Mercator projection.===Authalic latitude===The '''authalic latitude''' (after the Greek for \"same area\"), , gives an equal-area projection to a sphere.",
":where:and:and the radius of the sphere is taken as:An example of the use of the authalic latitude is the Albers equal-area conic projection.===Conformal latitude===The '''conformal latitude''', , gives an angle-preserving (conformal) transformation to the sphere.",
":where is the Gudermannian function.",
"(See also Mercator projection.",
")The conformal latitude defines a transformation from the ellipsoid to a sphere of ''arbitrary'' radius such that the angle of intersection between any two lines on the ellipsoid is the same as the corresponding angle on the sphere (so that the shape of ''small'' elements is well preserved).",
"A further conformal transformation from the sphere to the plane gives a conformal double projection from the ellipsoid to the plane.",
"This is not the only way of generating such a conformal projection.",
"For example, the 'exact' version of the Transverse Mercator projection on the ellipsoid is not a double projection.",
"(It does, however, involve a generalisation of the conformal latitude to the complex plane).===Isometric latitude===The '''isometric latitude''', , is used in the development of the ellipsoidal versions of the normal Mercator projection and the Transverse Mercator projection.",
"The name \"isometric\" arises from the fact that at any point on the ellipsoid equal increments of and longitude give rise to equal distance displacements along the meridians and parallels respectively.",
"The graticule defined by the lines of constant and constant , divides the surface of the ellipsoid into a mesh of squares (of varying size).",
"The isometric latitude is zero at the equator but rapidly diverges from the geodetic latitude, tending to infinity at the poles.",
"The conventional notation is given in Snyder (page 15)::For the ''normal'' Mercator projection (on the ellipsoid) this function defines the spacing of the parallels: if the length of the equator on the projection is (units of length or pixels) then the distance, , of a parallel of latitude from the equator is:The isometric latitude is closely related to the conformal latitude ::===Inverse formulae and series===The formulae in the previous sections give the auxiliary latitude in terms of the geodetic latitude.",
"The expressions for the geocentric and parametric latitudes may be inverted directly but this is impossible in the four remaining cases: the rectifying, authalic, conformal, and isometric latitudes.",
"There are two methods of proceeding.",
"* The first is a numerical inversion of the defining equation for each and every particular value of the auxiliary latitude.",
"The methods available are fixed-point iteration and Newton–Raphson root finding.",
"** When converting from isometric or conformal to geodetic, two iterations of Newton-Raphson gives double precision accuracy.",
"* The other, more useful, approach is to express the auxiliary latitude as a series in terms of the geodetic latitude and then invert the series by the method of Lagrange reversion.",
"Such series are presented by Adams who uses Taylor series expansions and gives coefficients in terms of the eccentricity.",
"Orihuela gives series for the conversions between all pairs of auxiliary latitudes in terms of the third flattening, .",
"Karney establishes that the truncation errors for such series are consistently smaller that the equivalent series in terms of the eccentricity.",
"The series method is not applicable to the isometric latitude and one must find the conformal latitude in an intermediate step.===Numerical comparison of auxiliary latitudes===rightThe plot to the right shows the difference between the geodetic latitude and the auxiliary latitudes other than the isometric latitude (which diverges to infinity at the poles) for the case of the WGS84 ellipsoid.",
"The differences shown on the plot are in arc minutes.",
"In the Northern hemisphere (positive latitudes), ''θ'' ≤ ''χ'' ≤ ''μ'' ≤ ''ξ'' ≤ ''β'' ≤ ''ϕ''; in the Southern hemisphere (negative latitudes), the inequalities are reversed, with equality at the equator and the poles.",
"Although the graph appears symmetric about 45°, the minima of the curves actually lie between 45° 2′ and 45° 6′.",
"Some representative data points are given in the table below.",
"The conformal and geocentric latitudes are nearly indistinguishable, a fact that was exploited in the days of hand calculators to expedite the construction of map projections.To first order in the flattening ''f'', the auxiliary latitudes can be expressed as''ζ'' = ''ϕ'' − ''Cf'' sin 2''ϕ''where the constant ''C'' takes on the values, , , 1, 1for''ζ'' = ''β'', ''ξ'', ''μ'', ''χ'', ''θ''.+ Approximate difference from geodetic latitude () Parametric Authalic Rectifying Conformal Geocentric 0° 0.00′ 0.00′ 0.00′ 0.00′ 0.00′ 15° −2.88′ −3.84′ −4.32′ −5.76′ −5.76′ 30° −5.00′ −6.66′ −7.49′ −9.98′ −9.98′ 45° −5.77′ −7.70′ −8.66′ −11.54′ −11.55′ 60° −5.00′ −6.67′ −7.51′ −10.01′ −10.02′ 75° −2.89′ −3.86′ −4.34′ −5.78′ −5.79′ 90° 0.00′ 0.00′ 0.00′ 0.00′ 0.00′"
],
[
"Latitude and coordinate systems",
"The geodetic latitude, or any of the auxiliary latitudes defined on the reference ellipsoid, constitutes with longitude a two-dimensional coordinate system on that ellipsoid.",
"To define the position of an arbitrary point it is necessary to extend such a coordinate system into three dimensions.",
"Three latitudes are used in this way: the geodetic, geocentric and parametric latitudes are used in geodetic coordinates, spherical polar coordinates and ellipsoidal coordinates respectively.===Geodetic coordinates=== Geodetic coordinates At an arbitrary point consider the line which is normal to the reference ellipsoid.",
"The geodetic coordinates are the latitude and longitude of the point on the ellipsoid and the distance .",
"This height differs from the height above the geoid or a reference height such as that above mean sea level at a specified location.",
"The direction of will also differ from the direction of a vertical plumb line.",
"The relation of these different heights requires knowledge of the shape of the geoid and also the gravity field of the Earth.===Spherical polar coordinates=== Geocentric coordinate related to spherical polar coordinates The geocentric latitude is the complement of the ''polar angle'' or ''colatitude'' in conventional spherical polar coordinates in which the coordinates of a point are where is the distance of from the centre , is the angle between the radius vector and the polar axis and is longitude.",
"Since the normal at a general point on the ellipsoid does not pass through the centre it is clear that points on the normal, which all have the same geodetic latitude, will have differing geocentric latitudes.",
"Spherical polar coordinate systems are used in the analysis of the gravity field.===Ellipsoidal-harmonic coordinates===Ellipsoidal coordinates The parametric latitude can also be extended to a three-dimensional coordinate system.",
"For a point not on the reference ellipsoid (semi-axes and ) construct an auxiliary ellipsoid which is confocal (same foci , ) with the reference ellipsoid: the necessary condition is that the product of semi-major axis and eccentricity is the same for both ellipsoids.",
"Let be the semi-minor axis () of the auxiliary ellipsoid.",
"Further let be the parametric latitude of on the auxiliary ellipsoid.",
"The set define the '''ellipsoidal-harmonic coordinates''' or simply ''ellipsoidal coordinates'' (although that term is also used to refer to geodetic coordinate).",
"These coordinates are the natural choice in models of the gravity field for a rotating ellipsoidal body.The above applies to a biaxial ellipsoid (a spheroid, as in oblate spheroidal coordinates); for a generalization, see triaxial ellipsoidal coordinates.===Coordinate conversions===The relations between the above coordinate systems, and also Cartesian coordinates are not presented here.",
"The transformation between geodetic and Cartesian coordinates may be found in geographic coordinate conversion.",
"The relation of Cartesian and spherical polars is given in spherical coordinate system.",
"The relation of Cartesian and ellipsoidal coordinates is discussed in Torge."
],
[
"Astronomical latitude",
"'''Astronomical latitude''' () is the angle between the equatorial plane and the true vertical direction at a point on the surface.",
"The true vertical, the direction of a plumb line, is also the gravity direction (the resultant of the gravitational acceleration (mass-based) and the centrifugal acceleration) at that latitude.",
"Astronomic latitude is calculated from angles measured between the zenith and stars whose declination is accurately known.In general the true vertical at a point on the surface does not exactly coincide with either the normal to the reference ellipsoid or the normal to the geoid.",
"The geoid is an idealized, theoretical shape \"at mean sea level\".",
"Points on land do not lie precisely on the geoid, and the vertical at a point at a specific time is influenced by tidal forces which the theoretical geoid averages out.",
"The angle between the astronomic and geodetic normals is called ''vertical deflection'' and is usually a few seconds of arc but it is important in geodesy.Astronomical latitude is not to be confused with declination, the coordinate astronomers use in a similar way to specify the angular position of stars north–south of the celestial equator (see equatorial coordinates), nor with ecliptic latitude, the coordinate that astronomers use to specify the angular position of stars north–south of the ecliptic (see ecliptic coordinates)."
],
[
"See also",
"*Altitude (mean sea level)*Bowditch's American Practical Navigator*Cardinal direction*Circle of latitude*Colatitude*Declination on celestial sphere*Degree Confluence Project*Geodesy*Geodetic datum*Geographic coordinate system*Geographical distance*Geomagnetic latitude*Geotagging*Great-circle distance*History of latitude*Horse latitudes*International Latitude Service*List of countries by latitude*Longitude*Natural Area Code*Navigation*Orders of magnitude (length)*World Geodetic System"
],
[
"References",
"===Footnotes======Citations==="
],
[
"External links",
"* GEONets Names Server.",
".",
"access to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency's (NGA) database of foreign geographic feature names.",
"* Resources for determining your latitude and longitude * Convert decimal degrees into degrees, minutes, seconds.",
"– info about decimal to sexagesimal conversion.",
"* Convert decimal degrees into degrees, minutes, seconds* Distance calculation based on latitude and longitude – JavaScript version* 16th Century Latitude Survey* Determination of Latitude by Francis Drake on the Coast of California in 1579"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Longitude"
],
[
"Introduction",
" graticule on the Earth as a sphere or an ellipsoid.",
"The lines from pole to pole are lines of constant longitude, or meridians.",
"The circles parallel to the Equator are circles of constant latitude, or parallels.",
"The graticule shows the latitude and longitude of points on the surface.",
"In this example, meridians are spaced at 6° intervals and parallels at 4° intervals.",
"'''Longitude''' (, ) is a geographic coordinate that specifies the east–west position of a point on the surface of the Earth, or another celestial body.",
"It is an angular measurement, usually expressed in degrees and denoted by the Greek letter lambda (λ).",
"Meridians are imaginary semicircular lines running from pole to pole that connect points with the same longitude.",
"The prime meridian defines 0° longitude; by convention the International Reference Meridian for the Earth passes near the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, south-east London on the island of Great Britain.",
"Positive longitudes are east of the prime meridian, and negative ones are west.Because of the Earth's rotation, there is a close connection between longitude and time measurement.",
"Scientifically precise local time varies with longitude: a difference of 15° longitude corresponds to a one-hour difference in local time, due to the differing position in relation to the Sun.",
"Comparing local time to an absolute measure of time allows longitude to be determined.",
"Depending on the era, the absolute time might be obtained from a celestial event visible from both locations, such as a lunar eclipse, or from a time signal transmitted by telegraph or radio.",
"The principle is straightforward, but in practice finding a reliable method of determining longitude took centuries and required the effort of some of the greatest scientific minds.A location's north–south position along a meridian is given by its ''latitude'', which is approximately the angle between the equatorial plane and the normal from the ground at that location.Longitude is generally given using the geodetic normal or the gravity direction.",
"The '''astronomical longitude''' can differ slightly from the ordinary longitude because of ''vertical deflection'', small variations in Earth's gravitational field (see astronomical latitude)."
],
[
"History",
"The concept of longitude was first developed by ancient Greek astronomers.",
"Hipparchus (2nd century BCE) used a coordinate system that assumed a spherical Earth, and divided it into 360° as we still do today.",
"His prime meridian passed through Alexandria.",
"He also proposed a method of determining longitude by comparing the local time of a lunar eclipse at two different places, thus demonstrating an understanding of the relationship between longitude and time.",
"Claudius Ptolemy (2nd century CE) developed a mapping system using curved parallels that reduced distortion.",
"He also collected data for many locations, from Britain to the Middle East.",
"He used a prime meridian through the Canary Islands, so that all longitude values would be positive.",
"While Ptolemy's system was sound, the data he used were often poor, leading to a gross over-estimate (by about 70%) of the length of the Mediterranean.After the fall of the Roman Empire, interest in geography greatly declined in Europe.",
"Hindu and Muslim astronomers continued to develop these ideas, adding many new locations and often improving on Ptolemy's data.",
"For example al-Battānī used simultaneous observations of two lunar eclipses to determine the difference in longitude between Antakya and Raqqa with an error of less than 1°.",
"This is considered to be the best that can be achieved with the methods then available: observation of the eclipse with the naked eye, and determination of local time using an astrolabe to measure the altitude of a suitable \"clock star\".In the later Middle Ages, interest in geography revived in the west, as travel increased, and Arab scholarship began to be known through contact with Spain and North Africa.",
"In the 12th century, astronomical tables were prepared for a number of European cities, based on the work of al-Zarqālī in Toledo.",
"The lunar eclipse of September 12, 1178 was used to establish the longitude differences between Toledo, Marseilles, and Hereford.Christopher Columbus made two attempts to use lunar eclipses to discover his longitude, the first in Saona Island, on 14 September 1494 (second voyage), and the second in Jamaica on 29 February 1504 (fourth voyage).",
"It is assumed that he used astronomical tables for reference.",
"His determinations of longitude showed large errors of 13° and 38° W respectively.",
"Randles (1985) documents longitude measurement by the Portuguese and Spanish between 1514 and 1627 both in the Americas and Asia.",
"Errors ranged from 2° to 25°.The telescope was invented in the early 17th century.",
"Initially an observation device, developments over the next half century transformed it into an accurate measurement tool.",
"The pendulum clock was patented by Christiaan Huygens in 1657 and gave an increase in accuracy of about 30 fold over previous mechanical clocks.",
"These two inventions would revolutionise observational astronomy and cartography.On land, the period from the development of telescopes and pendulum clocks until the mid-18th century saw a steady increase in the number of places whose longitude had been determined with reasonable accuracy, often with errors of less than a degree, and nearly always within 2° to 3°.",
"By the 1720s errors were consistently less than 1°.",
"At sea during the same period, the situation was very different.",
"Two problems proved intractable.",
"The first was the need of a navigator for immediate results.",
"The second was the marine environment.",
"Making accurate observations in an ocean swell is much harder than on land, and pendulum clocks do not work well in these conditions.===The chronometer===In response to the problems of navigation, a number of European maritime powers offered prizes for a method to determine longitude at sea.",
"The best-known of these is the Longitude Act passed by the British parliament in 1714.It offered two levels of rewards, for solutions within 1° and 0.5°.",
"Rewards were given for two solutions: lunar distances, made practicable by the tables of Tobias Mayer developed into an nautical almanac by the Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne; and for the chronometers developed by the Yorkshire carpenter and clock-maker John Harrison.",
"Harrison built five chronometers over more than three decades.",
"This work was supported and rewarded with thousands of pounds from the Board of Longitude, but he fought to receive money up to the top reward of £20,000, finally receiving an additional payment in 1773 after the intervention of parliament.",
"It was some while before either method became widely used in navigation.",
"In the early years, chronometers were very expensive, and the calculations required for lunar distances were still complex and time-consuming.",
"Lunar distances came into general use after 1790.Chronometers had the advantages that both the observations and the calculations were simpler, and as they became cheaper in the early 19th century they started to replace lunars, which were seldom used after 1850.The first working telegraphs were established in Britain by Wheatstone and Cooke in 1839, and in the US by Morse in 1844.It was quickly realised that the telegraph could be used to transmit a time signal for longitude determination.",
"The method was soon in practical use for longitude determination, especially in North America, and over longer and longer distances as the telegraph network expanded, including western Europe with the completion of transatlantic cables.",
"The United States Coast Survey, renamed the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1878, was particularly active in this development, and not just in the United States.",
"The Survey established chains of mapped locations through Central and South America, and the West Indies, and as far as Japan and China in the years 1874–90.This contributed greatly to the accurate mapping of these areas.While mariners benefited from the accurate charts, they could not receive telegraph signals while under way, and so could not use the method for navigation.",
"This changed when wireless telegraphy (radio) became available in the early 20th century.",
"Wireless time signals for the use of ships were transmitted from Halifax, Nova Scotia, starting in 1907 and from the Eiffel Tower in Paris from 1910.These signals allowed navigators to check and adjust their chronometers frequently.Radio navigation systems came into general use after World War II.",
"The systems all depended on transmissions from fixed navigational beacons.",
"A ship-board receiver calculated the vessel's position from these transmissions.",
"They allowed accurate navigation when poor visibility prevented astronomical observations, and became the established method for commercial shipping until replaced by GPS in the early 1990s."
],
[
"Determination",
"The main methods for determining longitude are listed below.",
"With one exception (magnetic declination) they all depend on a common principle, which was to determine an absolute time from an event or measurement and to compare the corresponding local time at two different locations.",
"* Lunar distances.",
"In its orbit around the Earth, the Moon moves relative to the stars at a rate of just over 0.5°/hour.",
"The angle between the Moon and a suitable star is measured with a sextant, and (after consulting tables and lengthy calculations) gives a value for absolute time.",
"*Satellites of Jupiter.",
"Galileo proposed that with sufficiently accurate knowledge of the orbits of the satellites, their positions could provide a measure of absolute time.",
"The method requires a telescope, as the moons are not visible to the naked eye.",
"*Appulses, occultations, and eclipses.",
"An appulse is the least apparent distance between two objects (the Moon, a star or a planet); an occultation occurs when a star or planet passes behind the Moon — essentially a type of eclipse.",
"Lunar eclipses continued to be used.",
"The times of any of these events can be used as the measure of absolute time.*Chronometers.",
"A clock is set to the local time of a starting point whose longitude is known, and the longitude of any other place can be determined by comparing its local time with the clock time.",
"*Magnetic declination.",
"A compass needle does not in general point exactly north.",
"The variation from true north varies with location, and it was suggested that this could provide a basis for determination of longitude.With the exception of magnetic declination, all proved practicable methods.",
"Developments on land and sea, however, were very different.Longitude at a point may be determined by calculating the time difference between that at its location and Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).",
"Since there are 24 hours in a day and 360 degrees in a circle, the sun moves across the sky at a rate of 15 degrees per hour (360° ÷ 24 hours = 15° per hour).",
"So if a location's time zone is three hours ahead of UTC then that location is near 45° longitude (3 hours × 15° per hour = 45°).",
"The word ''near'' is used because the point might not be at the centre of the time zone; also the time zones are defined politically, so their centres and boundaries often do not lie on meridians at multiples of 15°.",
"In order to perform this calculation, however, one needs a chronometer (watch) set to UTC and needs to determine local time by solar or astronomical observation.",
"The details are more complex than described here: see the articles on Universal Time and on the equation of time for more details."
],
[
"Values",
"Longitude is given as an angular measurement with 0° at the Prime Meridian, ranging from −180° westward to +180° eastward.",
"The Greek letter λ (lambda)John P. Snyder, '' Map Projections, A Working Manual '', USGS Professional Paper 1395, page ix is used to denote the location of a place on Earth east or west of the Prime Meridian.Each degree of longitude is sub-divided into 60 minutes, each of which is divided into 60 seconds.",
"A longitude is thus specified in sexagesimal notation as, for example, 23° 27′ 30″ E. For higher precision, the seconds are specified with a decimal fraction.",
"An alternative representation uses degrees and minutes, and parts of a minute are expressed in decimal notation, thus: 23° 27.5′ E. Degrees may also be expressed as a decimal fraction: 23.45833° E. For calculations, the angular measure may be converted to radians, so longitude may also be expressed in this manner as a signed fraction of (pi), or an unsigned fraction of 2.For calculations, the West/East suffix is replaced by a negative sign in the western hemisphere.",
"The international standard convention (ISO 6709)—that East is positive—is consistent with a right-handed Cartesian coordinate system, with the North Pole up.",
"A specific longitude may then be combined with a specific latitude (positive in the northern hemisphere) to give a precise position on the Earth's surface.",
"Confusingly, the convention of negative for East is also sometimes seen, most commonly in the United States; the Earth System Research Laboratory used it on an older version of one of their pages, in order \"to make coordinate entry less awkward\" for applications confined to the Western Hemisphere.",
"They have since shifted to the standard approach.The longitude is singular at the Poles and calculations that are sufficiently accurate for other positions may be inaccurate at or near the Poles.",
"Also the discontinuity at the ±180° meridian must be handled with care in calculations.",
"An example is a calculation of east displacement by subtracting two longitudes, which gives the wrong answer if the two positions are on either side of this meridian.",
"To avoid these complexities, some applications use another horizontal position representation."
],
[
"Length of a degree of longitude",
"The length of a degree of longitude (east–west distance) depends only on the radius of a circle of latitude.",
"For a sphere of radius that radius at latitude is , and the length of a one-degree (or radian) arc along a circle of latitude is: 0° 110.574 km 111.320 km 15° 110.649 km 107.551 km 30° 110.852 km 96.486 km 45° 111.133 km 78.847 km 60° 111.412 km 55.800 km 75° 111.618 km 28.902 km 90° 111.694 km 0.000 kmWhen the Earth is modelled by an ellipsoid this arc length becomes:where , the eccentricity of the ellipsoid, is related to the major and minor axes (the equatorial and polar radii respectively) by:An alternative formula is:; here is the so-called '''parametric''' or '''reduced''' latitude.cos decreases from 1 at the equator to 0 at the poles, which measures how circles of latitude shrink from the equator to a point at the pole, so the length of a degree of longitude decreases likewise.",
"This contrasts with the small (1%) increase in the length of a degree of latitude (north–south distance), equator to pole.",
"The table shows both for the WGS84 ellipsoid with = and = .",
"The distance between two points 1 degree apart on the same circle of latitude, measured along that circle of latitude, is slightly more than the shortest (geodesic) distance between those points (unless on the equator, where these are equal); the difference is less than .A geographical mile is defined to be the length of one minute of arc along the equator (one equatorial minute of longitude) therefore a degree of longitude along the equator is exactly 60 geographical miles or 111.3 kilometers, as there are 60 minutes in a degree.",
"The length of 1 minute of longitude along the equator is 1 geographical mile or , while the length of 1 second of it is 0.016 geographical mile or ."
],
[
"See also",
"* American Practical Navigator* Cardinal direction* Dead reckoning* Ecliptic longitude* Geodesy* Geodetic system* Geographic coordinate system* Geographical distance* Geotagging* Great-circle distance* History of longitude* ''The Island of the Day Before''* Latitude* Meridian arc* Natural Area Code* Navigation* Orders of magnitude* Planetary coordinate system#Longitude* Right ascension on celestial sphere* World Geodetic System"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* *"
],
[
"External links",
"* Resources for determining your latitude and longitude * IAU/IAG Working Group On Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements of the Planets and Satellites * \"Longitude forged\": an essay exposing a hoax solution to the problem of calculating longitude, undetected in Dava Sobel's Longitude, from TLS, November 12, 2008.",
"* Board of Longitude Collection, Cambridge Digital Library – complete digital version of the Board's archive* Longitude And Latitude Of Points of Interest* Length Of A Degree Of Latitude And Longitude Calculator* Esame critico intorno alla scoperta di Vespucci ...* A land beyond the stars - Museo Galileo"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Linus Torvalds"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Linus Benedict Torvalds''' ( , ; born 28 December 1969) is a Finnish-American software engineer who is the creator and lead developer of the Linux kernel.",
"He also created the distributed version control system Git.He was honored, along with Shinya Yamanaka, with the 2012 Millennium Technology Prize by the Technology Academy Finland \"in recognition of his creation of a new open source operating system for computers leading to the widely used Linux kernel.\"",
"He is also the recipient of the 2014 IEEE Computer Society Computer Pioneer Award and the 2018 IEEE Masaru Ibuka Consumer Electronics Award."
],
[
"Life and career",
"=== Early years ===Torvalds was born in Helsinki, Finland, the son of journalists Anna and Nils Torvalds, the grandson of statistician Leo Törnqvist and of poet Ole Torvalds, and the great-grandson of journalist and soldier Toivo Karanko.",
"His parents were campus radicals at the University of Helsinki in the 1960s.",
"His family belongs to the Swedish-speaking minority in Finland.",
"He was named after Linus Pauling, the Nobel Prize–winning American chemist, although in the book ''Rebel Code: Linux and the Open Source Revolution'', he is quoted as saying, \"I think I was named equally for Linus the Peanuts cartoon character\", noting that this made him \"half Nobel Prize–winning chemist and half blanket-carrying cartoon character\".His interest in computers began with a VIC-20 at the age of 11 in 1981.He started programming for it in BASIC, then later by directly accessing the 6502 CPU in machine code (he did not utilize assembly language).",
"He then purchased a Sinclair QL, which he modified extensively, especially its operating system.",
"\"Because it was so hard to get software for it in Finland\", he wrote his own assembler and editor \"(in addition to Pac-Man graphics libraries)\" for the QL, and a few games.",
"He wrote a ''Pac-Man'' clone, ''Cool Man''.",
"Torvalds attended the University of Helsinki from 1988 to 1996, graduating with a master's degree in computer science from the NODES research group.",
"His Textbooks included: ''Programming the 80386'' by John H. Crawford and Patrick P. Gelsinger, SYBEX, 1987 and ''The Design of the UNIX Operating System'' by Maurice J. Bach, Prentice-Hall, 1986 .On 5 January 1991 he purchased an Intel 80386-based clone of IBM PC before receiving his MINIX copy, which in turn enabled him to begin work on Linux.His academic career was interrupted after his first year of study when he joined the Finnish Navy Nyland Brigade in the summer of 1989, selecting the 11-month officer training program to fulfill the mandatory military service of Finland.",
"He gained the rank of second lieutenant, with the role of an artillery observer.",
"He bought computer science professor Andrew Tanenbaum's book ''Operating Systems: Design and Implementation'', in which Tanenbaum describes MINIX, an educational stripped-down version of Unix.",
"In 1990, Torvalds resumed his university studies, and was exposed to Unix for the first time in the form of a DEC MicroVAX running ULTRIX.",
"His MSc thesis was titled ''Linux: A Portable Operating System''.=== Linux ===The first Linux prototypes were publicly released in late 1991.Version 1.0 was released on 14 March 1994.Torvalds first encountered the GNU Project in fall of 1991 when another Swedish-speaking computer science student, Lars Wirzenius, took him to the University of Technology to listen to free software guru Richard Stallman's speech.",
"Torvalds would ultimately switch his original license (which forbade commercial use) to Stallman's GNU General Public License version 2 (GPLv2) for his Linux kernel after complaints of distributors being unable to recoup their costs due to a non-commercial clause.After a visit to Transmeta in late 1996, Torvalds accepted a position at the company in California, where he worked from February 1997 to June 2003.He then moved to the Open Source Development Labs, which has since merged with the Free Standards Group to become the Linux Foundation, under whose auspices he continues to work.",
"In June 2004, Torvalds and his family moved to Dunthorpe, Oregon to be closer to the OSDL's headquarters in Beaverton.From 1997 to 1999, he was involved in 86open, helping select the standard binary format for Linux and Unix.",
"In 1999, he was named by the ''MIT Technology Review'' TR100 as one of the world's top 100 innovators under age 35.In 1999, Red Hat and VA Linux, both leading developers of Linux-based software, presented Torvalds with stock options in gratitude for his creation.",
"That year both companies went public and Torvalds's share value briefly shot up to about US$20 million.His personal mascot is a penguin nicknamed Tux, which has been widely adopted by the Linux community as the Linux kernel's mascot.Although Torvalds believes \"open source is the only right way to do software\", he also has said that he uses the \"best tool for the job\", even if that includes proprietary software.",
"He was criticized for his use and alleged advocacy of the proprietary BitKeeper software for version control in the Linux kernel.",
"He subsequently wrote a free-software replacement for it called Git.In 2008, Torvalds stated that he used the Fedora Linux distribution because it had fairly good support for the PowerPC processor architecture, which he favored at the time.",
"He confirmed this in a 2012 interview.",
"Torvalds abandoned GNOME for a while after the release of GNOME 3.0, saying, \"The developers have apparently decided that it's 'too complicated' to actually do real work on your desktop, and have decided to make it really annoying to do\".",
"He then switched to Xfce.",
"In 2013, Torvalds resumed using GNOME, noting that \"they have extensions now that are still much too hard to find; but with extensions you can make your desktop look almost as good as it used to look two years ago\".The Linux Foundation currently sponsors Torvalds so he can work full-time on improving Linux.Torvalds is known for vocally disagreeing with other developers on the Linux kernel mailing list.",
"Calling himself a \"really unpleasant person\", he explained, \"I'd like to be a nice person and curse less and encourage people to grow rather than telling them they are idiots.",
"I'm sorry—I tried, it's just not in me.\"",
"His attitude, which he considers necessary for making his points clear, has drawn criticism from Intel programmer Sage Sharp and systemd developer Lennart Poettering, among others.On Sunday, 16 September 2018, the Linux kernel ''Code of Conflict'' was suddenly replaced by a new ''Code of Conduct'' based on the Contributor Covenant.",
"Shortly thereafter, in the release notes for Linux 4.19-rc4, Torvalds apologized for his behavior, calling his personal attacks of the past \"unprofessional and uncalled for\" and announced a period of \"time off\" to \"get some assistance on how to understand people's emotions and respond appropriately\".",
"It soon transpired that these events followed ''The New Yorker'' approaching Torvalds with a series of questions critical of his conduct.",
"Following the release of Linux 4.19 on 22 October 2018, Torvalds returned to maintaining the kernel.==== The Linus/Linux connection ====Initially, Torvalds wanted to call the kernel he developed ''Freax'' (a combination of \"free\", \"freak\", and the letter X to indicate that it was a Unix-like system), but his friend Ari Lemmke, who administered the FTP server where the kernel was first hosted, named Torvalds' directory ''linux''."
],
[
"Authority and trademark",
"As of 2006, approximately 2% of the Linux kernel was written by Torvalds himself.",
"Despite the thousands who have contributed to it, his percentage is still one of the largest.",
"However, he said in 2012 that his own personal contribution is now mostly merging code written by others, with little programming.",
"He retains the highest authority to decide which new code is incorporated into the standard Linux kernel.Torvalds holds the ''Linux'' trademark and monitors its use, chiefly through the Linux Mark Institute."
],
[
"Other software",
";GitOn 3 April 2005, Torvalds began development on Git, version control software that later became widely used.",
"On 26 July 2005, he turned over Git's maintenance to Junio Hamano, a major project contributor.",
";SubsurfaceSubsurface is software for logging and planning scuba dives, which Torvalds began developing in late 2011.It is free and open-source software distributed under the terms of the GNU General Public License version 2.Dirk Hohndel became its head maintainer in late 2012."
],
[
"Personal life",
"Torvalds in 2002Torvalds is married to Tove Torvalds (née Monni), a six-time Finnish national karate champion, whom he met in late 1993.He was running introductory computer laboratory exercises for students and instructed the course attendees to send him an e-mail as a test, to which Tove responded with an e-mail asking for a date.",
"They were later married and have three daughters, two of whom were born in the United States.",
"The Linux kernel's ''reboot'' system call accepts their dates of birth (written in hexadecimal) as magic values.Torvalds has described himself as \"completely a-religious—atheist\", adding, \"I find that people seem to think religion brings morals and appreciation of nature.",
"I actually think it detracts from both.",
"It gives people the excuse to say, 'Oh, nature was just created,' and so the act of creation is seen to be something miraculous.",
"I appreciate the fact that, 'Wow, it's incredible that something like this could have happened in the first place.",
"He later added that while in Europe religion is mostly a personal issue, in the United States it has become very politicized.",
"When discussing the issue of church and state separation, he said, \"Yeah, it's kind of ironic that in many European countries, there is actually a kind of legal binding between the state and the state religion.\"",
"In \"Linus the Liberator\", a story about the March LinuxWorld Conference, Torvalds says: \"There are like two golden rules in life.",
"One is 'Do unto others as you would want them to do unto you.'",
"For some reason, people associate this with Christianity.",
"I'm not a Christian.",
"I'm agnostic.",
"The other rule is 'Be proud of what you do.In 2004, Torvalds moved with his family from Silicon Valley to Portland, Oregon.In 2010, Torvalds became a United States citizen and registered to vote in the United States.",
"As of that year, he was unaffiliated with any U.S. political party, saying, \"I have way too much personal pride to want to be associated with any of them, quite frankly.",
"\"Linus developed an interest in scuba diving in the early 2000s and has achieved numerous certifications, leading him to create the Subsurface project."
],
[
"Awards and achievements",
"Saraju P. Mohanty and IEEE President James A. Jefferies at ICCE 2018 on 12 January 2018 in Las Vegas Awards and achievements Year Award Notes2018IEEE Masaru Ibuka Consumer Electronics AwardIEEE Masaru Ibuka Consumer Electronics Award is conferred by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers for outstanding contributions to consumer electronics technology has been named in honor of the co-founder and honorary chairman of Sony Corporation, Masaru Ibuka.",
"2018 Ibuka award was conferred to Linus Torvalds \"For his leadership of the development and proliferation of Linux.",
"\"2014IEEE Computer Pioneer AwardOn 23 April 2014, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers named Torvalds as the 2014 recipient of the IEEE Computer Society's Computer Pioneer Award.",
"The Computer Pioneer Award was established in 1981 by the IEEE Computer Society Board of Governors to recognize and honor the vision of those whose efforts resulted in the creation and continued vitality of the computer industry.",
"The award is presented to outstanding individuals whose main contribution to the concepts and development of the computer field was made at least 15 years earlier.2012Internet Hall of FameOn 23 April 2012, at Internet Society's Global INET conference in Geneva, Switzerland, Torvalds was one of the inaugural inductees into the Internet Hall of Fame, one of ten in the Innovators category and thirty-three overall inductees.2012Millennium Technology PrizeOn 20 April 2012, Torvalds was declared one of two winners of that year's Millennium Technology Prize, along with Shinya Yamanaka.",
"The honor is widely described as technology's equivalent of the Nobel Prize.2010C&C PrizeHe was awarded the C&C Prize by the NEC Corporation in 2010 for \"contributions to the advancement of the information technology industry, education, research, and the improvement of our lives\".2008Hall of Fellows In 2008, he was inducted into the Hall of Fellows of the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California, \"for the creation of the Linux kernel and the management of open source development of the widely used Linux operating system.",
"\"2005Vollum AwardIn August 2005, Torvalds received the Vollum Award from Reed College.2003Linus (Moon)In 2003, the naming of the asteroid moon Linus was motivated in part by the fact that the discoverer was an enthusiastic Linux user.",
"Although the naming proposal referred to the mythological Linus, son of the muse Calliope and the inventor of melody and rhythm, the name was also meant to honor Linus Torvalds, and Linus van Pelt, a character in the Peanuts comic strip.2001Takeda Award In 2001, he shared the Takeda Award for Social/Economic Well-Being with Richard Stallman and Ken Sakamura.2000Lovelace MedalIn 2000, he was awarded the Lovelace Medal from the British Computer Society.1998EFF Pioneer AwardIn 1998, Torvalds received an EFF Pioneer Award.1997Academic HonorsIn 1997, Torvalds received his master's degree (Laudatur Grade) from the Department of Computer Science at the University of Helsinki.",
"Two years later he received honorary doctor status at Stockholm University, and in 2000, he received the same honor from his ''alma mater''.University of Helsinki has named an auditorium after Torvalds and his computer is on display at the Department of Computer Science.19969793 Torvalds (Asteroid)In 1996, the asteroid 9793 Torvalds was named after him."
],
[
"Media recognition",
"''Time'' magazine has recognized Torvalds multiple times:* In 2000, he was 17th in their Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century poll.",
"* In 2004, he was named one of the most influential people in the world by ''Time'' magazine.",
"* In 2006, the magazine's Europe edition named him one of the revolutionary heroes of the past 60 years.",
"''InfoWorld'' presented him with the 2000 Award for Industry Achievement.",
"In 2005, Torvalds appeared as one of \"the best managers\" in a survey by ''BusinessWeek''.",
"In 2006, ''Business 2.0'' magazine named him one of \"10 people who don't matter\" because the growth of Linux has shrunk Torvalds's individual impact.In summer 2004, viewers of YLE (the Finnish Broadcasting Company) placed Torvalds 16th in the network's 100 Greatest Finns.",
"In 2010, as part of a series called ''The Britannica Guide to the World's Most Influential People'', Torvalds was listed among ''The 100 Most Influential Inventors of All Time'' ().On 11 October 2017, the Linux company SUSE made a song titled \"Linus Said\"."
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* * * Moody, Glyn: Rebel Code.",
"Engl.",
"the beginning of work: Rebel Code.",
"Eng.",
"Riikka Toivanen and Heikki Karjalainen.",
"In January 2001..* Nikkanen, Tuula: The Linux story.",
"Satku, 2000.."
],
[
"See also",
"* Linus's law* Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate* List of computer pioneers"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Linus' blog at Blogger (last post in 2011)* Linus Torvalds and His Five Entrepreneurial Lessons at AllBusiness.com* * NPR Fresh Air episode* Ten years of NODES* Linus Torvalds: Linux succeeded thanks to selfishness and trust* No highs, no lows: Linus Torvalds on 25 years of Linux*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Trade union"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A '''trade union''' (British English) or '''labor union''' (American English), often simply referred to as a '''union''', is an organization of workers whose purpose is to maintain or improve the conditions of their employment, such as attaining better wages and benefits, improving working conditions, improving safety standards, establishing complaint procedures, developing rules governing status of employees (rules governing promotions, just-cause conditions for termination) and protecting and increasing the bargaining power of workers.Trade unions typically fund their head office and legal team functions through regularly imposed fees called ''union dues''.",
"The union representatives in the workforce are usually made up of workplace volunteers who are often appointed by members through internal democratic elections.",
"The trade union, through an elected leadership and bargaining committee, bargains with the employer on behalf of its members, known as the rank and file, and negotiates labour contracts (collective bargaining agreements) with employers.Unions may organize a particular section of skilled or unskilled workers (craft unionism), a cross-section of workers from various trades (general unionism), or an attempt to organize all workers within a particular industry (industrial unionism).",
"The agreements negotiated by a union are binding on the rank-and-file members and the employer, and in some cases on other non-member workers.",
"Trade unions traditionally have a constitution which details the governance of their bargaining unit and also have governance at various levels of government depending on the industry that binds them legally to their negotiations and functioning.Originating in Great Britain, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution.",
"Trade unions may be composed of individual workers, professionals, past workers, students, apprentices or the unemployed.",
"Trade union density, or the percentage of workers belonging to a trade union, is highest in the Nordic countries."
],
[
"Definition",
"Garment workers on strike, New York City, Since the publication of the ''History of Trade Unionism'' (1894) by Sidney and Beatrice Webb, the predominant historical view is that a trade union \"is a continuous association of wage earners for the purpose of maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment\".",
"Karl Marx described trade unions thus: \"The value of labour-power constitutes the conscious and explicit foundation of the trade unions, whose importance for the ... working class can scarcely be overestimated.",
"The trade unions aim at nothing less than to prevent the reduction of wages below the level that is traditionally maintained in the various branches of industry.",
"That is to say, they wish to prevent the price of labour-power from falling below its value\" (''Capital'' V1, 1867, p. 1069).",
"Early socialists also saw trade unions as a way to democratize the workplace, in order to obtain political power.A modern definition by the Australian Bureau of Statistics states that a trade union is \"an organisation consisting predominantly of employees, the principal activities of which include the negotiation of rates of pay and conditions of employment for its members\".Recent historical research by Bob James puts forward the view that trade unions are part of a broader movement of benefit societies, which includes medieval guilds, Freemasons, Oddfellows, friendly societies, and other fraternal organizations."
],
[
"History",
"=== Trade guilds ===Following the unification of the city-states in Assyria and Sumer by Sargon of Akkad into a single empire , common Mesopotamian standards for length, area, volume, weight, and time used by artisan guilds in each city was promulgated by Naram-Sin of Akkad (–2218 BC), Sargon's grandson, including for shekels.",
"''Codex Hammurabi'' Law 234 () stipulated a 2-shekel prevailing wage for each 60-gur (300-bushel) vessel constructed in an employment contract between a shipbuilder and a ship-owner.",
"Law 275 stipulated a ferry rate of 3-gerah per day on a charterparty between a ship charterer and a shipmaster.",
"Law 276 stipulated a 2-gerah per day freight rate on a contract of affreightment between a charterer and shipmaster, while Law 277 stipulated a -shekel per day freight rate for a 60-gur vessel.",
"In 1816, an archaeological excavation in Minya, Egypt (under an Eyalet of the Ottoman Empire) produced a Nerva–Antonine dynasty-era tablet from the ruins of the Temple of Antinous in Antinoöpolis, that prescribed the rules and membership dues of a burial society ''collegium'' established in Lanuvium, in approximately 133 AD during the reign of Hadrian (117–138) of the Roman Empire.A ''collegium'' was any association in ancient Rome that acted as a legal entity.",
"Following the passage of the ''Lex Julia'' during the reign of Julius Caesar (49–44 BC), and their reaffirmation during the reign of Caesar Augustus (27 BC–14 AD), ''collegia'' required the approval of the Roman Senate or the Roman emperor in order to be authorized as legal bodies.",
"Ruins at Lambaesis date the formation of burial societies among Roman Army soldiers and Roman Navy mariners to the reign of Septimius Severus (193–211) in 198 AD.",
"In September 2011, archaeological investigations done at the site of the artificial harbor Portus in Rome revealed inscriptions in a shipyard constructed during the reign of Trajan (98–117) indicating the existence of a shipbuilders guild.",
"Rome's La Ostia port was home to a guildhall for a ''corpus naviculariorum'', a ''collegium'' of merchant mariners.",
"''Collegium'' also included fraternities of Roman priests overseeing ritual sacrifices, practising augury, keeping scriptures, arranging festivals, and maintaining specific religious cults.=== Modern trade unions ===While a commonly held mistaken view holds modern trade unionism to be a product of Marxism, the earliest modern trade unions predate Marx's ''Communist Manifesto'' (1848) by almost a century (and Marx's writings themselves frequently address the prior existence of the workers' movements of his time.)",
"The first recorded labour strike in the United States was by Philadelphia printers in 1786, who opposed a wage reduction and demanded $6 per week in wages.",
"The origins of modern trade unions can be traced back to 18th-century Britain, where the Industrial Revolution drew masses of people, including dependents, peasants and immigrants, into cities.",
"Britain had ended the practice of serfdom in 1574, but the vast majority of people remained as tenant-farmers on estates owned by the landed aristocracy.",
"This transition was not merely one of relocation from rural to urban environs; rather, the nature of industrial work created a new class of \"worker\".",
"A farmer worked the land, raised animals and grew crops, and either owned the land or paid rent, but ultimately sold a ''product'' and had control over his life and work.",
"As industrial workers, however, the workers sold their work as labour and took directions from employers, giving up part of their freedom and self-agency in the service of a master.",
"The critics of the new arrangement would call this \"wage slavery\", but the term that persisted was a new form of human relations: employment.",
"Unlike farmers, workers often had less control over their jobs; without job security or a promise of an on-going relationship with their employers, they lacked some control over the work they performed or how it impacted their health and life.",
"It is in this context that modern trade unions emerge.In the cities, trade unions encountered much hostility from employers and government groups.",
"In the United States, unions and unionists were regularly prosecuted under various restraint of trade and conspiracy laws, such as the Sherman Antitrust Act.",
"This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour spontaneously organized in fits and starts throughout its beginnings, and would later be an important arena for the development of trade unions.",
"Trade unions have sometimes been seen as successors to the guilds of medieval Europe, though the relationship between the two is disputed, as the masters of the guilds employed workers (apprentices and journeymen) who were not allowed to organize.Trade unions and collective bargaining were outlawed from no later than the middle of the 14th century, when the Ordinance of Labourers was enacted in the Kingdom of England, but their way of thinking was the one that endured down the centuries, inspiring evolutions and advances in thinking which eventually gave workers more power.",
"As collective bargaining and early worker unions grew with the onset of the Industrial Revolution, the government began to clamp down on what it saw as the danger of popular unrest at the time of the Napoleonic Wars.",
"In 1799, the ''Combination Act'' was passed, which banned trade unions and collective bargaining by British workers.",
"Although the unions were subject to often severe repression until 1824, they were already widespread in cities such as London.",
"Workplace militancy had also manifested itself as Luddism and had been prominent in struggles such as the 1820 Rising in Scotland, in which 60,000 workers went on a general strike, which was soon crushed.",
"Sympathy for the plight of the workers brought repeal of the acts in 1824, although the Combination Act 1825 severely restricted their activity.By the 1810s, the first labour organizations to bring together workers of divergent occupations were formed.",
"Possibly the first such union was the General Union of Trades, also known as the Philanthropic Society, founded in 1818 in Manchester.",
"The latter name was to hide the organization's real purpose in a time when trade unions were still illegal.===National general unions===Poster issued by the London Trades Council, advertising a demonstration held on 2 June 1873The first attempts at forming a national general union in the United Kingdom were made in the 1820s and 30s.",
"The National Association for the Protection of Labour was established in 1830 by John Doherty, after an apparently unsuccessful attempt to create a similar national presence with the National Union of Cotton-spinners.",
"The Association quickly enrolled approximately 150 unions, consisting mostly of textile related unions, but also including mechanics, blacksmiths, and various others.",
"Membership rose to between 10,000 and 20,000 individuals spread across the five counties of Lancashire, Cheshire, Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire and Leicestershire within a year.",
"To establish awareness and legitimacy, the union started the weekly ''Voice of the People'' publication, having the declared intention \"to unite the productive classes of the community in one common bond of union.",
"\"In 1834, the Welsh socialist Robert Owen established the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union.",
"The organization attracted a range of socialists from Owenites to revolutionaries and played a part in the protests after the Tolpuddle Martyrs' case, but soon collapsed.More permanent trade unions were established from the 1850s, better resourced but often less radical.",
"The London Trades Council was founded in 1860, and the Sheffield Outrages spurred the establishment of the Trades Union Congress in 1868, the first long-lived national trade union center.",
"By this time, the existence and the demands of the trade unions were becoming accepted by liberal middle-class opinion.",
"In ''Principles of Political Economy'' (1871) John Stuart Mill wrote:If it were possible for the working classes, by combining among themselves, to raise or keep up the general rate of wages, it needs hardly be said that this would be a thing not to be punished, but to be welcomed and rejoiced at.",
"Unfortunately the effect is quite beyond attainment by such means.",
"The multitudes who compose the working class are too numerous and too widely scattered to combine at all, much more to combine effectually.",
"If they could do so, they might doubtless succeed in diminishing the hours of labour, and obtaining the same wages for less work.",
"They would also have a limited power of obtaining, by combination, an increase of general wages at the expense of profits.Beyond this claim, Mill also argued that, because individual workers had no basis for assessing the wages for a particular task, labour unions would lead to greater efficiency of the market system.===Legalization, expansion and recognition===Trade union demonstrators held at bay by soldiers during the 1912 Lawrence textile strike in Lawrence, MassachusettsBritish trade unions were finally legalized in 1872, after a ''Royal Commission on Trade Unions'' in 1867 agreed that the establishment of the organizations was to the advantage of both employers and employees.This period also saw the growth of trade unions in other industrializing countries, especially the United States, Germany and France.In the United States, the first effective nationwide labour organization was the Knights of Labor, in 1869, which began to grow after 1880.Legalization occurred slowly as a result of a series of court decisions.",
"The Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions began in 1881 as a federation of different unions that did not directly enrol workers.",
"In 1886, it became known as the American Federation of Labor or AFL.In Germany, the Free Association of German Trade Unions was formed in 1897 after the conservative Anti-Socialist Laws of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck were repealed.In France, labour organization was illegal until 1884.The Bourse du Travail was founded in 1887 and merged with the Fédération nationale des syndicats (National Federation of Trade Unions) in 1895 to form the General Confederation of Labour.In a number of countries during the 20th century, including in Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom, legislation was passed to provide for the voluntary or statutory recognition of a union by an employer."
],
[
"Prevalence worldwide",
"World map with countries shaded according to their trade union density rate with statistics provided by the International Labour Organization Department of StatisticsLabor union membership by countryHours Worked Compared to Earnings Per WeekUnion density has been steadily declining from the OECD average of 35.9% in 1998 to 27.9% in the year 2018.The main reasons for these developments are a decline in manufacturing, increased globalization, and governmental policies.The decline in manufacturing is the most direct influence, as unions were historically beneficial and prevalent in the sector; for this reason, there may be an increase in developing nations as OECD nations continue to export manufacturing industries to these markets.",
"The second reason is globalization, which makes it harder for unions to maintain standards across countries.",
"The last reason is governmental policies.",
"These come from both sides of the political spectrum.",
"In the UK and US, it has been mostly right-wing proposals that make it harder for unions to form or that limit their power.",
"On the other side, there are many social policies such as minimum wage, paid vacation, parental leave, etc., that decrease the need to be in a union.The prevalence of labour unions can be measured by \"union density\", which is expressed as a percentage of the total number of workers in a given location who are trade union members.",
"The table below shows the percentage across OECD members.+Union density across OECD members (in %)Country20182017201620152000Australia13.714.7....24.9Austria26.326.726.927.436.9Belgium50.351.952.854.256.6Canada25.926.326.329.428.2Chile16.617.017.716.111.2Czech Republic11.511.712.012.027.2Denmark66.566.165.567.174.5Estonia4.34.34.44.714.0Finland60.362.264.966.474.2France8.88.99.09.010.8Germany16.516.717.017.624.6Greece....19.0....Hungary7.98.18.59.423.8Iceland91.891.089.890.089.1Ireland24.124.323.425.435.9Israel..25.0....37.7Italy34.434.334.435.734.8Japan17.017.117.317.421.5Korea..10.510.010.011.4Latvia11.912.212.312.6..Lithuania7.17.77.77.9..Luxembourg31.832.132.333.3..Mexico12.012.512.713.116.7Netherlands16.416.817.317.722.3New Zealand..17.317.717.922.4Norway49.249.349.349.353.6Poland....12.7..23.5Portugal....15.316.1..Slovak Republic....10.711.734.2Slovenia....20.420.944.2Spain13.614.214.815.217.5Sweden65.565.666.967.881.0Switzerland14.414.915.315.720.7Turkey9.28.68.28.012.5United Kingdom23.423.223.724.229.8United States10.110.310.310.612.9Source: OECD"
],
[
"Structure and politics",
"Cesar Chavez speaking at a 1974 United Farm Workers rally in Delano, California.",
"The UFW during Chavez's tenure was committed to restricting immigration.Unions may organize a particular section of skilled workers (craft unionism, traditionally found in Australia, Canada, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK and the US), a cross-section of workers from various trades (general unionism, traditionally found in Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Netherlands, the UK and the US), or attempt to organize all workers within a particular industry (industrial unionism, found in Australia, Canada, Germany, Finland, Norway, South Korea, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK and the US).",
"These unions are often divided into \"locals\", and united in national federations.",
"These federations themselves will affiliate with Internationals, such as the International Trade Union Confederation.",
"However, in Japan, union organisation is slightly different due to the presence of enterprise unions, i.e.",
"unions that are specific to a plant or company.",
"These enterprise unions, however, join industry-wide federations which in turn are members of Rengo, the Japanese national trade union confederation.In Western Europe, professional associations often carry out the functions of a trade union.",
"In these cases, they may be negotiating for white-collar or professional workers, such as physicians, engineers or teachers.",
"In Sweden the white-collar unions have a strong position in collective bargaining where they cooperate with blue-colar unions in setting the \"mark\" (the industry norm) in negotiations with the employers' association in manufacturing industry.A union may acquire the status of a \"juristic person\" (an artificial legal entity), with a mandate to negotiate with employers for the workers it represents.",
"In such cases, unions have certain legal rights, most importantly the right to engage in collective bargaining with the employer (or employers) over wages, working hours, and other terms and conditions of employment.",
"The inability of the parties to reach an agreement may lead to industrial action, culminating in either strike action or management lockout, or binding arbitration.",
"In extreme cases, violent or illegal activities may develop around these events.The Great Southwest Railroad Strike of 1886 was a trade union strike involving more than 200,000 workers.In other circumstances, unions may not have the legal right to represent workers, or the right may be in question.",
"This lack of status can range from non-recognition of a union to political or criminal prosecution of union activists and members, with many cases of violence and deaths having been recorded historically.Unions may also engage in broader political or social struggle.",
"Social Unionism encompasses many unions that use their organizational strength to advocate for social policies and legislation favourable to their members or to workers in general.",
"As well, unions in some countries are closely aligned with political parties.",
"Many Labour parties were founded as the electoral arms of trade unions.Unions are also delineated by the service model and the organizing model.",
"The service model union focuses more on maintaining worker rights, providing services, and resolving disputes.",
"Alternately, the organizing model typically involves full-time union organizers, who work by building up confidence, strong networks, and leaders within the workforce; and confrontational campaigns involving large numbers of union members.",
"Many unions are a blend of these two philosophies, and the definitions of the models themselves are still debated.In Britain, the perceived left-leaning nature of trade unions (and their historical close alignment with the Labour Party) has resulted in the formation of a reactionary right-wing trade union called Solidarity which is supported by the far-right BNP.",
"In Denmark, there are some newer apolitical \"discount\" unions who offer a very basic level of services, as opposed to the dominating Danish pattern of extensive services and organizing.A rally of the trade union UNISON in Oxford during a strike on 28 March 2006In contrast, in several European countries (e.g.",
"Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands and Switzerland), religious unions have existed for decades.",
"These unions typically distanced themselves from some of the doctrines of orthodox Marxism, such as the preference of atheism and from rhetoric suggesting that employees' interests always are in conflict with those of employers.",
"Some of these Christian unions have had some ties to centrist or conservative political movements, and some do not regard strikes as acceptable political means for achieving employees' goals.",
"In Poland, the biggest trade union Solidarity emerged as an anti-communist movement with religious nationalist overtones and today it supports the right-wing Law and Justice party.Although their political structure and autonomy varies widely, union leaderships are usually formed through democratic elections.",
"Some research, such as that conducted by the Australian Centre for Industrial Relations Research and Training, argues that unionized workers enjoy better conditions and wages than those who are not unionized.=== International unions ===The oldest global trade union organizations include the World Federation of Trade Unions created in 1945.The largest trade union federation in the world is the Brussels-based International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC), created in 2006, which has approximately 309 affiliated organizations in 156 countries and territories, with a combined membership of 166 million.",
"National and regional trade unions organizing in specific industry sectors or occupational groups also form global union federations, such as UNI Global, IndustriALL, the International Transport Workers Federation, the International Federation of Journalists, the International Arts and Entertainment Alliance and Public Services International."
],
[
"Labour law",
"Union law varies from country to country, as does the function of unions.",
"For example, German and Dutch unions have played a greater role in management decisions through participation in supervisory boards and co-determination than other countries.",
"Moreover, in the United States, collective bargaining is most commonly undertaken by unions directly with employers, whereas in Austria, Denmark, Germany or Sweden, unions most often negotiate with employers associations, a form of sectoral bargaining.Concerning labour market regulation in the EU, Gold (1993) and Hall (1994) have identified three distinct systems of labour market regulation, which also influence the role that unions play:* \"In the Continental European System of labour market regulation, the government plays an important role as there is a strong legislative core of employee rights, which provides the basis for agreements as well as a framework for discord between unions on one side and employers or employers' associations on the other.",
"This model was said to be found in EU core countries such as Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands and Italy, and it is also mirrored and emulated to some extent in the institutions of the EU, due to the relative weight that these countries had in the EU until the EU expansion by the inclusion of 10 new Eastern European member states in 2004.",
"* In the Anglo-Saxon System of labour market regulation, the government's legislative role is much more limited, which allows for more issues to be decided between employers and employees and any union or employers' associations which might represent these parties in the decision-making process.",
"However, in these countries, collective agreements are not widespread; only a few businesses and a few sectors of the economy have a strong tradition of finding collective solutions in labour relations.",
"Ireland and the UK belong to this category, and in contrast to the EU core countries above, these countries first joined the EU in 1973.",
"* In the Nordic System of labour market regulation, the government's legislative role is limited in the same way as in the Anglo-Saxon system.",
"However, in contrast to the countries in the Anglo-Saxon system category, this is a much more widespread network of collective agreements, which covers most industries and most firms.",
"This model was said to encompass Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden.",
"Here, Denmark joined the EU in 1973, whereas Finland and Sweden joined in 1995.",
"\"The United States takes a more laissez-faire approach, setting some minimum standards but leaving most workers' wages and benefits to collective bargaining and market forces.",
"Thus, it comes closest to the above Anglo-Saxon model.",
"Also, the Eastern European countries that have recently entered into the EU come closest to the Anglo-Saxon model.In contrast, in Germany, the relation between individual employees and employers is considered to be asymmetrical.",
"In consequence, many working conditions are not negotiable due to a strong legal protection of individuals.",
"However, the German flavor or works legislation has as its main objective to create a balance of power between employees organized in unions and employers organized in employers' associations.",
"This allows much wider legal boundaries for collective bargaining, compared to the narrow boundaries for individual negotiations.",
"As a condition to obtain the legal status of a trade union, employee associations need to prove that their leverage is strong enough to serve as a counterforce in negotiations with employers.",
"If such an employee's association is competing against another union, its leverage may be questioned by unions and then evaluated in labour court.",
"In Germany, only very few professional associations obtained the right to negotiate salaries and working conditions for their members, notably the medical doctor's association and the pilots association .",
"The engineer's association Verein Deutscher Ingenieure does not strive to act as a union, as it also represents the interests of engineering businesses.Beyond the classification listed above, unions' relations with political parties vary.",
"In many countries unions are tightly bonded, or even share leadership, with a political party intended to represent the interests of the working class.",
"Typically, this is a left-wing, socialist, or social democratic party, but many exceptions exist, including some of the aforementioned Christian unions.",
"In the United States, trade unions are almost always aligned with the Democratic Party with a few exceptions.",
"For example, the International Brotherhood of Teamsters has supported Republican Party candidates on a number of occasions and the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO) endorsed Ronald Reagan in 1980.In Britain trade union movement's relationship with the Labour Party frayed as party leadership embarked on privatization plans at odds with what unions see as the worker's interests.",
"However, it has strengthened once more after the Labour party's election of Ed Miliband, who beat his brother David Miliband to become leader of the party after Ed secured the trade union votes.",
"Additionally, in the past, there was a group known as the Conservative Trade Unionists, or CTU, formed of people who sympathized with right wing Tory policy but were Trade Unionists.Historically, the Republic of Korea has regulated collective bargaining by requiring employers to participate, but collective bargaining has only been legal if held in sessions before the lunar new year.=== Shop types ===Companies that employ workers with a union generally operate on one of several models:* A closed shop (US) or a \"pre-entry closed shop\" (UK) employs only people who are already union members.",
"The compulsory hiring hall is an example of a closed shop—in this case the employer must recruit directly from the union, as well as the employee working strictly for unionized employers.",
"* A union shop (US) or a \"post-entry closed shop\" (UK) employs non-union workers as well but sets a time limit within which new employees must join a union.",
"* An agency shop requires non-union workers to pay a fee to the union for its services in negotiating their contract.",
"This is sometimes called the Rand formula.",
"* An open shop does not require union membership in employing or keeping workers.",
"Where a union is active, workers who do not contribute to a union may include those who approve of the union contract (free riders) and those who do not.",
"In the United States, state level right-to-work laws mandate the open shop in some states.",
"In Germany only open shops are legal; that is, all discrimination based on union membership is forbidden.",
"This affects the function and services of the union.An EU case concerning Italy stated that, \"The principle of trade union freedom in the Italian system implies recognition of the right of the individual not to belong to any trade union (\"negative\" freedom of association/trade union freedom), and the unlawfulness of discrimination liable to cause harm to non-unionized employees.",
"\"In Britain, previous to this EU jurisprudence, a series of laws introduced during the 1980s by Margaret Thatcher's government restricted closed and union shops.",
"All agreements requiring a worker to join a union are now illegal.",
"In the United States, the Taft–Hartley Act of 1947 outlawed the closed shop.In 2006, the European Court of Human Rights found Danish closed-shop agreements to be in breach of Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms.",
"It was stressed that Denmark and Iceland were among a limited number of contracting states that continue to permit the conclusion of closed-shop agreements."
],
[
"Impact",
"=== Economics ===Income inequality and union participation have had a distinctly inverse relationship, with the disparity increasing since the 1980s.The academic literature shows substantial evidence that trade unions reduce economic inequality.",
"The economist Joseph Stiglitz has asserted that, \"Strong unions have helped to reduce inequality, whereas weaker unions have made it easier for CEOs, sometimes working with market forces that they have helped shape, to increase it.\"",
"Evidence indicates that those who are ''not'' members of unions also see higher wages.",
"Researchers suggest that unions set industrial norms as firms try to stop further unionization or losing workers to better-paying competitors.",
"The decline in unionization since the Second World War in the United States has been associated with a pronounced rise in income and wealth inequality and, since 1967, with loss of middle class income.",
"Right-to-work laws have been linked to greater economic inequality in the United States.The Hoover Institution think tank has asserted that the economic inequality argument made in favor of trade unions \"misfires on several fronts.",
"Those high union wages could not survive in the face of foreign competition or new nonunionized firms.",
"The only way a union can provide gains for its members is to extract some fraction of the profits that firms enjoy when they hold monopoly positions.\"",
"The think tank has also asserted that the decline of trade unions in the United States \"cannot drive widespread inequality for the entire population, which is also affected by a rise in the knowledge economy as well as a general aging of the population.",
"\"Research from Norway has found that high unionization rates lead to substantial increases in firm productivity, as well as increases in workers' wages.",
"Research from Belgium also found productivity gains, although smaller.",
"However, other research in the United States has found that unions can harm profitability, employment and business growth rates.",
"UK research on employment, wages, productivity, and investment found union density improved all metrics - but only until a limit.",
"Forming U-shaped curves, after an optimal density, more unionisation ''worsened'' employment, wages, etc.",
"Research from the Anglosphere indicates that unions can provide wage premiums and reduce inequality while reducing employment growth and restricting employment flexibility.In the United States, the outsourcing of labour to Asia, Latin America, and Africa has been partially driven by increasing costs of union partnership, which gives other countries a comparative advantage in labour, making it more efficient to perform labour-intensive work there.",
"Trade unions have been accused of benefiting insider workers and those with secure jobs at the cost of outsider workers, consumers of the goods or services produced, and the shareholders of the unionized business.",
"Economist Milton Friedman sought to show that unionization produces higher wages (for the union members) at the expense of fewer jobs, and that, if some industries are unionized while others are not, wages will tend to decline in non-unionized industries.",
"Friedrich Hayek criticized unions in chapter 18 of his publication ''The Constitution of Liberty''.=== Politics ===In the United States, the weakening of unions has been linked to more favourable electoral outcomes for the Republican Party.",
"Legislators in areas with high unionization rates are more responsive to the interests of the poor, whereas areas with lower unionization rates are more responsive to the interests of the rich.",
"Higher unionization rates increase the likelihood of parental leave policies being adopted.",
"Republican-controlled states are less likely to adopt more restrictive labour policies when unions are strong in the state.Research in the United States found that American congressional representatives were more responsive to the interests of the poor in districts with higher unionization rates.",
"Another 2020 American study found an association between US state level adoption of parental leave legislation and trade union strength.In the United States, unions have been linked to lower racial resentment among whites.",
"Membership in unions increases political knowledge, in particular among those with less formal education.According to American socialist magazine ''Jacobin'', \"Labor unions have long occupied a paradoxical position within Marxist theory.",
"They are an essential expression of the working class taking shape as a collective actor and an essential vehicle for working-class action.",
"... At the same time, unions are an imperfect and incomplete vehicle for the working class to achieve one of Marxist theory's central goals: overthrowing capitalism.",
"Unions by their very existence affirm and reinforce capitalist class society.",
"As organizations which primarily negotiate wages, benefits, and working conditions with employers, unions only exist in relation to capitalists.",
"\"=== Health ===In the United States, higher union density has been associated with lower suicide/overdose deaths.",
"Decreased unionization rates in the United States have been linked to an increase in occupational fatalities."
],
[
"See also",
"* Critique of work* Digital Product Passport* Labor federation competition in the United States* Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act* Labour inspectorate* List of trade unions* Progressive Librarians Guild* Project Labor Agreement* Salt (union organizing)* Smart contract: can be used in employment contracts* Union busting* Workplace politics"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* * * * * *"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* * * ''St.",
"James Encyclopedia of Labor History Worldwide : Major Events in Labor History and Their Impact'' ed by Neil Schlager (2 vol.",
"2004)===Britain===* Aldcroft, D. H. and Oliver, M. J., eds.",
"''Trade Unions and the Economy, 1870–2000.''",
"(2000).",
"* Campbell, A., Fishman, N., and McIlroy, J. eds.",
"''British Trade Unions and Industrial Politics: The Post-War Compromise 1945–64'' (1999).",
"* * * * * * * * Wrigley, Chris, ed.",
"''British Trade Unions, 1945–1995'' (Manchester University Press, 1997)* * ===Europe===* Berghahn, Volker R., and Detlev Karsten.",
"''Industrial Relations in West Germany'' (Bloomsbury Academic, 1988).",
"* European Commission, Directorate General for Employment, Social Affairs & Inclusion: ''Industrial Relations in Europe 2010.",
"''* Gumbrell-McCormick, Rebecca, and Richard Hyman.",
"''Trade unions in western Europe: Hard times, hard choices'' (Oxford UP, 2013).",
"* Kjellberg, Anders.",
"\"The Decline in Swedish Union Density since 2007\", ''Nordic Journal of Working Life Studies'' (NJWLS) Vol.",
"1.No 1 (August 2011), pp. 67–93.",
"* Kjellberg, Anders (2017) ''The Membership Development of Swedish Trade Unions and Union Confederations Since the End of the Nineteenth Century'' (Studies in Social Policy, Industrial Relations, Working Life and Mobility).",
"Research Reports 2017:2.Lund: Department of Sociology, Lund University.",
"* Markovits, Andrei.",
"''The Politics of West German Trade Unions: Strategies of Class and Interest Representation in Growth and Crisis'' (Routledge, 2016).",
"* McGaughey, Ewan, 'Democracy or Oligarchy?",
"Models of Union Governance in the UK, Germany and US' (2017) ssrn.com* Misner, Paul.",
"''Catholic Labor Movements in Europe.",
"Social Thought and Action, 1914–1965'' (2015).",
"online review* Mommsen, Wolfgang J., and Hans-Gerhard Husung, eds.",
"''The development of trade unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880–1914'' (Taylor & Francis, 1985).",
"* Ribeiro, Ana Teresa.",
"\"Recent Trends in Collective Bargaining in Europe.\"",
"''E-Journal of International and Comparative Labour Studies'' 5.1 (2016).",
"online * Upchurch, Martin, and Graham Taylor.",
"''The Crisis of Social Democratic Trade Unionism in Western Europe: The Search for Alternatives'' (Routledge, 2016).===United States===* Arnesen, Eric, ed.",
"''Encyclopedia of U.S. Labor and Working-Class History'' (2006), 3 vol; 2064pp; 650 articles by experts excerpt and text search* Beik, Millie, ed.",
"''Labor Relations: Major Issues in American History'' (2005) over 100 annotated primary documents excerpt and text search* Boris, Eileen, and Nelson Lichtenstein, eds.",
"''Major Problems In The History Of American Workers: Documents and Essays'' (2002)* Brody, David.",
"''In Labor's Cause: Main Themes on the History of the American Worker'' (1993) excerpt and text search* Guild, C. M. (2021).",
"Union Library Workers Blog: The Years 2019–2020 in Review.",
"''Progressive Librarian'', 48, 110–165.",
"* Dubofsky, Melvyn, and Foster Rhea Dulles.",
"''Labor in America: A History'' (2004), textbook, based on earlier textbooks by Dulles.",
"* Osnos, Evan, \"Ruling-Class Rules: How to thrive in the power elite – while declaring it your enemy\", ''The New Yorker'', 29 January 2024* Taylor, Paul F. ''The ABC-CLIO Companion to the American Labor Movement'' (1993) 237pp; short encyclopedia* Zieger, Robert H., and Gilbert J. Gall, ''American Workers, American Unions: The Twentieth Century''(3rd ed.",
"2002) excerpt and text search===Other===* Alexander, Robert Jackson, and Eldon M. Parker.",
"''A history of organized labor in Brazil'' (Greenwood, 2003).",
"* Dean, Adam.",
"2022.''",
"Opening Up By Cracking Down: Labor Repression and Trade Liberalization in Democratic Developing Countries''.",
"Cambridge University Press.",
"* Hodder, A. and L. Kretsos, eds.",
"''Young Workers and Trade Unions: A Global View'' (Palgrave-Macmillan, 2015).",
"Review: * Kester, Gérard.",
"''Trade unions and workplace democracy in Africa'' (Routledge, 2016).",
"* Lenti, Joseph U.",
"''Redeeming the Revolution: The State and Organized Labor in Post-Tlatelolco Mexico'' (University of Nebraska Press, 2017).",
"* Levitsky, Steven, and Scott Mainwaring.",
"\"Organized labor and democracy in Latin America\".",
"''Comparative Politics'' (2006): 21–42, , .",
"* Lipton, Charles (1967).",
"''The Trade Union Movement of Canada: 1827–1959''.",
"(3rd ed.",
"Toronto, Ont.",
": New Canada Publications, 1973).",
"* Orr, Charles A.",
"\"Trade Unionism in Colonial Africa\" ''Journal of Modern African Studies'', 4 (1966), pp.",
"65–81* Panitch, Leo & Swartz, Donald (2003).",
"''From consent to coercion: The assault on trade union freedoms'' (third edition.",
"Ontario: Garamound Press).",
"* Taylor, Andrew.",
"''Trade Unions and Politics: A Comparative Introduction'' (Macmillan, 1989).",
"* Visser, Jelle.",
"\"Union membership statistics in 24 countries.\"",
"''Monthly Labor Review''.",
"129 (2006): 38+ online* Visser, Jelle.",
"\"ICTWSS: Database on institutional characteristics of trade unions, wage setting, state intervention and social pacts in 34 countries between 1960 and 2007\".",
"Institute for Advanced Labour Studies, AIAS, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam (2011).",
"online"
],
[
"External links",
"* Australian Council of Trade Unions* LabourStart international trade union news service* RadioLabour* New Unionism Network * Trade union membership 1993–2003 – European Industrial Relations Observatory report on membership trends in 26 European countries* Trade union membership 2003–2008 – European Industrial Relations Observatory report on membership trends in 28 European countries* Trade Union Ancestors – Listing of 5,000 UK trade unions with histories of main organisations, trade union \"family trees\" and details of union membership and strikes since 1900.",
"* TUC History online – History of the British union movement* Short history of the UGT in Catalonia* Younionize Global Union Directory* \" Retaliation for Union Activity and Collection Action Rights\", Workplace Fairness* ''Labor Notes'' magazine* ''A History of Labor Unions from Colonial Times to 2009'', from the Mises Institute"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Liberal"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Liberal''' or '''liberalism''' may refer to:"
],
[
"Politics",
"* Generally, a supporter of the political philosophy liberalism.",
"Liberals may be politically left or right but tend to be centrist.",
"* Alternatively, in the United States, the term \"liberal\" normally refers to a left-leaning individual.",
"* Both meanings are carried in Canada* An adherent of a Liberal Party (See also Liberal parties by country)* Liberalism (international relations)* Sexually liberal feminism* Social liberalism"
],
[
"Arts, entertainment and media",
"* ''El Liberal'', a Spanish newspaper published 1879–1936* ''The Liberal'', a British political magazine published 2004–2012* ''Liberalism'' (book), a 1927 book by Ludwig von Mises* \"Liberal\", a song by Band-Maid from the 2019 album ''Conqueror''"
],
[
"Places in the United States",
"* Liberal, Indiana* Liberal, Kansas* Liberal, Missouri* Liberal, Oregon"
],
[
"Religion",
"* Religious liberalism* Liberal Christianity* Liberalism and progressivism within Islam* Liberal Judaism (disambiguation)"
],
[
"See also",
"* * * Liberal arts (disambiguation)* Neoliberalism, a political-economic philosophy* The Liberal Wars, a civil war in Portugal in the early 19th century"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Louisiana Purchase"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Louisiana Purchase''' () was the acquisition of the territory of Louisiana by the United States from the French First Republic in 1803.This consisted of most of the land in the Mississippi River's drainage basin west of the river.",
"In return for fifteen million dollars, or approximately eighteen dollars per square mile, the United States nominally acquired a total of in Middle America.",
"However, France only controlled a small fraction of this area, most of which was inhabited by Native Americans; effectively, for the majority of the area, the United States bought the preemptive right to obtain Indian lands by treaty or by conquest, to the exclusion of other colonial powers.The Kingdom of France had controlled the Louisiana territory from 1682 until it was ceded to Spain in 1762.In 1800, Napoleon, the First Consul of the French Republic, regained ownership of Louisiana in exchange for Tuscany as part of a broader effort to re-establish a French colonial empire in North America.",
"However, France's failure to suppress a revolt in Saint-Domingue, coupled with the prospect of renewed warfare with the United Kingdom, prompted Napoleon to consider selling Louisiana to the United States.",
"Acquisition of Louisiana was a long-term goal of President Thomas Jefferson, who was especially eager to gain control of the crucial Mississippi River port of New Orleans.",
"Jefferson tasked James Monroe and Robert R. Livingston with purchasing New Orleans.",
"Negotiating with French Treasury Minister François Barbé-Marbois, the U.S. representatives quickly agreed to purchase the entire territory of Louisiana after it was offered.",
"Overcoming the opposition of the Federalist Party, Jefferson and Secretary of State James Madison persuaded Congress to ratify and fund the Louisiana Purchase.The Louisiana Purchase extended United States sovereignty across the Mississippi River, nearly doubling the nominal size of the country.",
"The purchase included land from fifteen present U.S. states and two Canadian provinces, including the entirety of Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska; large portions of North Dakota and South Dakota; the area of Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado east of the Continental Divide; the portion of Minnesota west of the Mississippi River; the northeastern section of New Mexico; northern portions of Texas; New Orleans and the portions of the present state of Louisiana west of the Mississippi River; and small portions of land within Alberta and Saskatchewan.",
"At the time of the purchase, the territory of Louisiana's non-native population was around 60,000 inhabitants, of whom half were enslaved Africans.",
"The western borders of the purchase were later settled by the 1819 Adams–Onís Treaty with Spain, while the northern borders of the purchase were adjusted by the Treaty of 1818 with the British."
],
[
"Background",
"Louisiana\", bounded on the west by the Rocky MountainsThroughout the second half of the 18th century, the French colony of Louisiana became a pawn for European political intrigue.",
"The colony was the most substantial presence of France's overseas empire, with other possessions consisting of a few small settlements along the Mississippi and other main rivers.",
"France ceded the territory to Spain in 1762 in the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau.",
"Following French defeat in the Seven Years' War, Spain gained control of the territory west of the Mississippi, and the British received the territory to the east of the river.Following the establishment of the United States, the Americans controlled the area east of the Mississippi and north of New Orleans.",
"The main issue for the Americans was free transit of the Mississippi out to sea.",
"As the lands were being gradually settled by American migrants, many Americans, including Jefferson, assumed that the territory would be acquired \"piece by piece.\"",
"The risk of another power taking it from a weakened Spain made a \"profound reconsideration\" of this policy necessary.",
"New Orleans was already important for shipping agricultural goods to and from the areas of the United States west of the Appalachian Mountains.",
"Pinckney's Treaty, signed with Spain on October 27, 1795, gave American merchants \"right of deposit\" in New Orleans, granting them use of the port to store goods for export.",
"The treaty also recognized American rights to navigate the entire Mississippi, which had become vital to the growing trade of the western territories.In 1798, Spain revoked the treaty allowing American use of New Orleans, greatly upsetting Americans.",
"In 1801, Spanish Governor Don Juan Manuel de Salcedo took over from the Marquess of Casa Calvo, and restored the American right to deposit goods.",
"However, in 1800, Spain had ceded the Louisiana territory back to France as part of Napoleon's secret Third Treaty of San Ildefonso.",
"The subsequent 1801 Treaty of Aranjuez established that Spain's cession of Louisiana was a \"restoration\" of the territory to France, not a retrocession.",
"The territory nominally remained under Spanish control, until a transfer of power to France on November 30, 1803, just three weeks before the formal cession of the territory to the United States on December 20, 1803."
],
[
"Negotiation",
"The future president James Monroe as envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to France helped Robert R. Livingston in negotiating the Louisiana PurchaseWhile the treaty between Spain and France went largely unnoticed in 1800, fear of an eventual French invasion spread across America when, in 1801, Napoleon sent a military force to nearby Saint-Domingue.",
"Though Jefferson urged moderation, Federalists sought to use this against Jefferson and called for hostilities against France.",
"Undercutting them, Jefferson threatened an alliance with Britain, although relations were uneasy in that direction.",
"In 1801, Jefferson supported France in its plan to take back Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti), which was then under control of Toussaint Louverture after a slave rebellion.",
"However, there was a growing concern in the U.S. that Napoleon would send troops to New Orleans after quelling the rebellion.",
"In hopes of securing control of the mouth of the Mississippi, Jefferson sent Livingston to Paris in 1801 with the authorization to purchase New Orleans.In January 1802, France sent General Charles Leclerc, Napoleon's brother-in-law, on an expedition to Saint-Domingue to reassert French control over the colony, which had become essentially autonomous under Louverture.",
"Louverture, as a French general, had fended off incursions from other European powers, but had also begun to consolidate power for himself on the island.",
"Before the revolution, France had derived enormous wealth from Saint-Domingue at the cost of the lives and freedom of the enslaved.",
"Napoleon wanted the territory's revenues and productivity for France restored.",
"Alarmed over the French actions and its intention to re-establish an empire in North America, Jefferson declared neutrality in relation to the Caribbean, refusing credit and other assistance to the French, but allowing war contraband to get through to the rebels to prevent France from regaining a foothold.In 1803, Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours, a French nobleman, began to help negotiate with France at the request of Jefferson.",
"Du Pont was living in the United States at the time and had close ties to Jefferson as well as the prominent politicians in France.",
"He engaged in back-channel diplomacy with Napoleon on Jefferson's behalf during a visit to France and originated the idea of the much larger Louisiana Purchase as a way to defuse potential conflict between the United States and Napoleon over North America.Throughout this time, Jefferson had up-to-date intelligence on Napoleon's military activities and intentions in North America.",
"Part of his evolving strategy involved giving du Pont some information that was withheld from Livingston.",
"Intent on avoiding possible war with France, Jefferson sent James Monroe to Paris in 1803 to negotiate a settlement, with instructions to go to London to negotiate an alliance if the talks in Paris failed.",
"Spain procrastinated until late 1802 in executing the treaty to transfer Louisiana to France, which allowed American hostility to build.",
"Also, Spain's refusal to cede Florida to France meant that Louisiana would be indefensible.Napoleon needed peace with Britain to take possession of Louisiana.",
"Otherwise, Louisiana would be an easy prey for a potential invasion from Britain or the U.S.",
"But in early 1803, continuing war between France and Britain seemed unavoidable.",
"On March 11, 1803, Napoleon began preparing to invade Great Britain.In Saint-Domingue, Leclerc's forces took Louverture prisoner, but their expedition soon faltered in the face of fierce resistance and disease.",
"By early 1803, Napoleon decided to abandon his plans to rebuild France's New World empire.",
"Without sufficient revenues from sugar colonies in the Caribbean, Louisiana had little value to him.",
"Spain had not yet completed the transfer of Louisiana to France, and war between France and the UK was imminent.",
"Out of anger towards Spain and the unique opportunity to sell something that was useless and not truly his yet, Napoleon decided to sell the entire territory.Although the foreign minister Talleyrand opposed the plan, on April 10, 1803, Napoleon told the Treasury Minister François Barbé-Marbois that he was considering selling the Louisiana Territory to the United States.",
"On April 11, 1803, just days before Monroe's arrival, Barbé-Marbois offered Livingston all of Louisiana for $15 million, which averages to less than three cents per acre (7¢/ha).",
"The total of $15 million is equivalent to about $ million in dollars, or cents per acre.",
"The American representatives were prepared to pay up to $10 million for New Orleans and its environs but were dumbfounded when the vastly larger territory was offered for $15 million.",
"Jefferson had authorized Livingston only to purchase New Orleans.",
"However, Livingston was certain that the United States would accept the offer.The Americans thought that Napoleon might withdraw the offer at any time, preventing the United States from acquiring New Orleans, so they agreed and signed the Louisiana Purchase Treaty on April 30, 1803 (10 Floréal XI in the French Republican calendar) at the Hôtel Tubeuf in Paris.",
"The signers were Robert Livingston, James Monroe, and François Barbé-Marbois.",
"After the signing Livingston famously stated, \"We have lived long, but this is the noblest work of our whole lives ... From this day the United States take their place among the powers of the first rank.\"",
"On July 4, 1803, the treaty was announced, but the documents did not arrive in Washington, D.C. until July 14.The Louisiana Territory was vast, stretching from the Gulf of Mexico in the south to Rupert's Land in the north, and from the Mississippi River in the east to the Rocky Mountains in the west.",
"Acquiring the territory nearly doubled the size of the United States.In November 1803, France withdrew its 7,000 surviving troops from Saint-Domingue (more than two-thirds of its troops died there) and gave up its ambitions in the Western Hemisphere.",
"In 1804, Haiti declared its independence; but fearing a slave revolt at home, Jefferson and the rest of Congress refused to recognize the new republic, the second in the Western Hemisphere, and imposed a trade embargo against it.",
"This, together with the successful French demand for an indemnity of 150 million francs in 1825, severely hampered Haiti's ability to repair its economy after decades of war."
],
[
"Domestic opposition and constitutionality",
"The original treaty of the Louisiana Purchase''Transfer of Louisiana'' by Ford P. Kaiser for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition (1904)Place d'Armes of New Orleans, marking the transfer of sovereignty over French Louisiana to the United States, December 20, 1803, as depicted by Thure de ThulstrupAfter Monroe and Livingston had returned from France with news of the purchase, an official announcement of the purchase was made on July 4, 1803.This gave Jefferson and his cabinet until October, when the treaty had to be ratified, to discuss the constitutionality of the purchase.",
"Jefferson considered a constitutional amendment to justify the purchase; however, his cabinet convinced him otherwise.",
"Jefferson justified the purchase by rationalizing, \"it is the case of a guardian, investing the money of his ward in purchasing an important adjacent territory; & saying to him when of age, I did this for your good.\"",
"Jefferson ultimately came to the conclusion before the ratification of the treaty that the purchase was to protect the citizens of the United States therefore making it constitutional.Henry Adams and other historians have argued that Jefferson acted hypocritically with the Louisiana Purchase, because of his position as a strict constructionist regarding the Constitution, by stretching the intent of that document to justify his purchase.",
"The American purchase of the Louisiana territory was not accomplished without domestic opposition.",
"Jefferson's philosophical consistency was in question and many people believed he and others, including James Madison, were doing something they surely would have argued against with Alexander Hamilton.",
"The Federalists strongly opposed the purchase, because of the cost involved, their belief that France would not have been able to resist U.S. and British encroachment into Louisiana, and Jefferson's perceived hypocrisy.Both Federalists and Jeffersonians were concerned over the purchase's constitutionality.",
"Many members of the House of Representatives opposed the purchase.",
"Majority Leader John Randolph led the opposition.",
"The House called for a vote to deny the request for the purchase, but it failed by two votes, 59–57.The Federalists even tried to prove the land belonged to Spain, not France, but available records proved otherwise.",
"The Federalists also feared that the power of the Atlantic seaboard states would be threatened by the new citizens in the West, whose political and economic priorities were bound to conflict with those of the merchants and bankers of New England.",
"There was also concern that an increase in the number of slave-holding states created out of the new territory would exacerbate divisions between North and South.",
"A group of Northern Federalists led by Senator Timothy Pickering of Massachusetts went so far as to explore the idea of a separate northern confederacy.The opposition of New England Federalists to the Louisiana Purchase was primarily economic self-interest, not any legitimate concern over constitutionality or whether France indeed owned Louisiana or was required to sell it back to Spain should it desire to dispose of the territory.",
"The Northerners were not enthusiastic about Western farmers gaining another outlet for their crops that did not require the use of New England ports.",
"Also, many Federalists were speculators in lands in upstate New York and New England and were hoping to sell these lands to farmers, who might go west instead if the Louisiana Purchase went through.",
"They also feared that this would lead to Western states being formed, which would likely be Republican, and dilute the political power of New England Federalists.Another concern was whether it was proper to grant citizenship to the French, Spanish, and free black people living in New Orleans, as the treaty would dictate.",
"Critics in Congress worried whether these \"foreigners\", unacquainted with democracy, could or should become citizens.Spain protested the transfer on two grounds: First, France had previously promised in a note not to alienate Louisiana to a third party and, second, France had not fulfilled the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso by having the King of Etruria recognized by all European powers.",
"The French government replied that these objections were baseless as the promise not to alienate Louisiana was not in the treaty of San Ildefonso itself and therefore had no legal force, and the Spanish government had ordered Louisiana to be transferred in October 1802 despite knowing for months that Britain had not recognized the King of Etruria in the Treaty of Amiens.",
"Madison, in response to Spain's objections, noted that the United States had first approached Spain about purchasing the property, but had been told by Spain itself that the U.S. would have to deal with France for the territory.Issue of 1953, commemorating the 150th Anniversary of signingHenry Adams claimed \"The sale of Louisiana to the United States was trebly invalid; if it were French property, Bonaparte could not constitutionally alienate it without the consent of the French Chambers; if it were Spanish property, he could not alienate it at all; if Spain had a right of reclamation, his sale was worthless.\"",
"The sale, of course, was not \"worthless\"—the U.S. actually did take possession.",
"Furthermore, the Spanish prime minister had authorized the U.S. to negotiate with the French government regarding \"the acquisition of territories which may suit their interests.\"",
"Spain turned the territory over to France in a ceremony in New Orleans on November 30, a month before France turned the city over to American officials.Other historians counter the above arguments regarding Jefferson's alleged hypocrisy by asserting that countries change their borders in two ways: (1) conquest, or (2) an agreement between nations, otherwise known as a treaty.",
"The Louisiana Purchase was the latter, a treaty.",
"Article II, Section 2, of the Constitution specifically grants the president the power to negotiate treaties, which is what Jefferson did.Madison (the \"Father of the Constitution\") assured Jefferson that the Louisiana Purchase was well within even the strictest interpretation of the Constitution.",
"Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin added that because the power to negotiate treaties was specifically granted to the president, the only way extending the country's territory by treaty could ''not'' be a presidential power would be if it were specifically excluded by the Constitution (which it was not).",
"Jefferson, as a strict constructionist, was right to be concerned about staying within the bounds of the Constitution, but felt the power of these arguments and was willing to \"acquiesce with satisfaction\" if the Congress approved the treaty.",
"The Senate quickly ratified the treaty, and the House, with equal readiness, authorized the required funding.",
"The fledgling United States did not have $15 million in its treasury; instead, it borrowed the sum from British and Dutch banks, at an annual interest rate of six percent.",
"(See below.",
")The United States Senate consented to ratification of the treaty with a vote of 24 to seven on October 20.On the following day, October 21, 1803, the Senate authorized Jefferson to take possession of the territory and establish a temporary military government.",
"In legislation enacted on October 31, Congress made temporary provisions for local civil government to continue as it had under French and Spanish rule and authorized the president to use military forces to maintain order.",
"Plans were also set forth for several missions to explore and chart the territory, the most famous being the Lewis and Clark Expedition."
],
[
"Formal transfers and initial organization",
"France turned over New Orleans, the historic colonial capital, on December 20, 1803, at the Cabildo, with a flag-raising ceremony in the Plaza de Armas, now Jackson Square.",
"Just three weeks earlier, on November 30, 1803, Spanish officials had formally conveyed the colonial lands and their administration to France.On March 9 and 10, 1804, another ceremony, commemorated as Three Flags Day, was conducted in St. Louis, to transfer ownership of Upper Louisiana from Spain to France, and then from France to the United States.",
"From March 10 to September 30, 1804, Upper Louisiana was supervised as a military district, under its first civil commandant, Amos Stoddard, who was appointed by the War Department.Effective October 1, 1804, the purchased territory was organized into the Territory of Orleans (most of which would become the state of Louisiana) and the District of Louisiana, which was temporarily under control of the governor and judicial system of the Indiana Territory.",
"The following year, the District of Louisiana was renamed the Territory of Louisiana.",
"New Orleans was the administrative capital of the Orleans Territory, and St. Louis was the capital of the Louisiana Territory."
],
[
"Financing",
"''Share issued by Hope & Co. in 1804 to finance the Louisiana Purchase''.To pay for the land, the American government used a mix of sovereign bonds and the assumption of French debts.",
"Earlier in 1803, Francis Baring and Company of London had become the U.S. government's official banking agent in London following the failure of Bird, Savage & Bird.",
"Because of this favored position, the U.S. asked Barings to handle the transaction.",
"Barings had a close relationship with Hope & Co. of Amsterdam, and the two banking houses worked together to facilitate and underwrite the purchase.",
"Hopes brought to the transaction experience with issuing sovereign bonds and Barings brought its American connections.Francis Baring son Alexander and Pierre Labouchère from Hopes arrived in Paris in April 1803 to assist with the negotiations.",
"With the bankers' help, the French and American negotiators settled on a price of 80 million francs ($15 million), down from an initial price of 100 million francs, a sum the Americans could not afford and the financers could not provide.",
"In the final agreement, the value of the U.S. currency was set at francs per U.S. dollar.",
"In dollars, the $15 million purchase price is equivalent to about $ million.As part of the deal, the U.S. assumed responsibility for up to 20 million francs ($3.75 million) of French debts owed to U.S. citizens.",
"The remaining 60 million francs ($11.25 million) were financed through U.S. government bonds carrying 6% interest, redeemable between 1819 and 1822.In October 1803, the U.S. Treasury had some $5.86 million in specie on hand, $2 million of which would be used to pay a portion of the debts assumed from France as part of the purchase.Because Napoleon wanted to receive his money as quickly as possible, Barings and Hopes purchased the bonds for 52 million francs, agreeing to an initial 6 million franc payment upon issuance of the bonds followed by 23 monthly payments of 2 million francs each.",
"The first group of bonds were issued on January 16, 1804, but the banks had already provided a 10 million franc advance to France in July 1803.In need of funds, Napoleon pressed the banks to complete their purchase of the bonds as quickly as possible, and by April 1804 the banks transferred an additional 40.35 million francs to fully discharge their obligations to France.",
"In the end, Barings and Hopes acquired the $11.25 million in bonds for just $9.44 million.",
"The last of the bonds were paid off by the United States Treasury in 1823; with interest, the total cost of the Louisiana Purchase bonds amounted to $23,313,567.73.Although the War of the Third Coalition, which brought France into a war with the United Kingdom, began before the purchase was completed, the British government initially allowed the deal to proceed as it was better for the neutral Americans to own the territory than the hostile French.",
"However, by December 1803, the British directed Barings to halt future payments to France.",
"Barings relayed the order to Hopes, which declined to comply, allowing the final payments to be made to France in April 1804."
],
[
"Boundaries",
"A dispute soon arose between Spain and the United States regarding the extent of Louisiana.",
"The territory's boundaries had not been defined in the 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau that ceded it from France to Spain, nor in the 1801 Third Treaty of San Ildefonso ceding it back to France, nor the 1803 Louisiana Purchase agreement ceding it to the United States.The Purchase was one of several territorial additions to the U.S.The U.S. claimed that Louisiana included the entire western portion of the Mississippi River drainage basin to the crest of the Rocky Mountains and land extending to the Rio Grande and West Florida.",
"Spain insisted that Louisiana comprised no more than the western bank of the Mississippi River and the cities of New Orleans and St. Louis.",
"The dispute was ultimately resolved by the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819, with the United States gaining most of what it had claimed in the west.The relatively narrow Louisiana of New Spain had been a special province under the jurisdiction of the Captaincy General of Cuba, while the vast region to the west was in 1803 still considered part of the Commandancy General of the Provincias Internas.",
"Louisiana had never been considered one of New Spain's internal provinces.",
"If the territory included all the tributaries of the Mississippi on its western bank, the northern reaches of the purchase extended into the equally ill-defined British possession—Rupert's Land of British North America, now part of Canada.",
"The purchase originally extended just beyond the 50th parallel.",
"However, the territory north of the 49th parallel (including the Milk River and Poplar River watersheds) was ceded to the UK in exchange for parts of the Red River Basin south of 49th parallel in the Anglo-American Convention of 1818.The eastern boundary of the Louisiana purchase was the Mississippi River, from its source to the 31st parallel, though the source of the Mississippi was, at the time, unknown.",
"The eastern boundary below the 31st parallel was unclear.",
"The U.S. claimed the land as far as the Perdido River, and Spain claimed that the border of its Florida Colony remained the Mississippi River.",
"The Adams–Onís Treaty with Spain resolved the issue upon ratification in 1821.Today, the 31st parallel is the northern boundary of the western half of the Florida Panhandle, and the Perdido is the western boundary of Florida.Because the western boundary was contested at the time of the purchase, President Jefferson immediately began to organize four missions to explore and map the new territory.",
"All four started from the Mississippi River.",
"The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804) traveled up the Missouri River; the Red River Expedition (1806) explored the Red River basin; the Pike Expedition (1806) also started up the Missouri but turned south to explore the Arkansas River watershed.",
"In addition, the Dunbar–Hunter Expedition (1804–1805) explored the Ouachita River watershed.",
"The maps and journals of the explorers helped to define the boundaries during the negotiations leading to the Adams–Onís Treaty, which set the western boundary as follows: north up the Sabine River from the Gulf of Mexico to its intersection with the 32nd parallel, due north to the Red River, up the Red River to the 100th meridian, north to the Arkansas River, up the Arkansas River to its headwaters, due north to the 42nd parallel and due west to its previous boundary."
],
[
"Slavery",
"Governing the Louisiana Territory was more difficult than acquiring it.",
"Its European peoples primarily of ethnic French, Spanish and Mexican descent were largely Catholic; in addition, there was a large population of enslaved Africans, as Spain had continued the transatlantic slave trade.",
"This was particularly true in the area of the present-day state of Louisiana, which also contained a large number of free people of color.",
"Both present-day Arkansas and Missouri already had some slaveholders in the 18th and early 19th century.During this period, south Louisiana received a large influx of French-speaking refugees fleeing the large slave revolt in Saint-Domingue, including planters who brought their slaves with them.",
"Many Southern slaveholders feared that acquisition of the new territory might inspire American-held slaves to follow the example of those in Saint-Domingue and revolt.",
"They wanted the U.S. government to establish laws allowing slavery in the newly acquired territory so they could be supported in taking their slaves there to undertake new agricultural enterprises, as well as to reduce the threat of future slave rebellions.The Louisiana Territory was broken into smaller portions for administration, and the territories passed slavery laws similar to those in the southern states but incorporating provisions from the preceding French and Spanish rule (for instance, Spain had prohibited slavery of Native Americans in 1769, but some slaves of mixed African–Native American descent were still being held in St. Louis in Upper Louisiana when the U.S. took over).",
"In a freedom suit that went from Missouri to the U.S. Supreme Court, slavery of Native Americans was finally ended in 1836.The institutionalization of slavery under U.S. law in the Louisiana Territory contributed to the American Civil War a half century later.",
"As states organized within the territory, the status of slavery in each state became a matter of contention in Congress, as southern states wanted slavery extended to the west, and northern states just as strongly opposed new states being admitted as \"slave states.\"",
"The Missouri Compromise of 1820 was a temporary solution."
],
[
"Asserting U.S. possession",
"Plan of Fort Madison, built in 1808 to establish U.S. control over the northern part of the Louisiana Purchase, drawn 1810After the early explorations, the U.S. government sought to establish control of the region, since trade along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers was still dominated by British and French traders from Canada and allied Indians, especially the Sauk and Fox.",
"The U.S. adapted the former Spanish facility at Fort Bellefontaine as a fur trading post near St. Louis in 1804 for business with the Sauk and Fox.",
"In 1808, two military forts with trading factories were built, Fort Osage along the Missouri River in western present-day Missouri and Fort Madison along the Upper Mississippi River in eastern present-day Iowa.",
"With tensions increasing with Great Britain, in 1809 Fort Bellefontaine was converted to a U.S. military fort and was used for that purpose until 1826.During the War of 1812, aided by their Indian allies, the British defeated U.S. forces in the Upper Mississippi; the U.S. abandoned Forts Osage and Madison, as well as several other U.S. forts built during the war, including Fort Johnson and Fort Shelby.",
"U.S. ownership of the whole Louisiana Purchase region was confirmed in the Treaty of Ghent (ratified in February 1815).",
"The U.S. later built or expanded forts along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, including adding to Fort Bellefontaine, and constructing Fort Armstrong (1816) and Fort Edwards (1816) in Illinois, Fort Crawford (1816) in Wisconsin, Fort Snelling (1819) in Minnesota, and Fort Atkinson (1819) in Nebraska."
],
[
"Impact on Native Americans",
"American Indian land in Gratiot's map of the defenses of the western & north-western frontier, 1837.The Louisiana Purchase was negotiated between France and the United States, without consulting the various Indian tribes who lived on the land and who had not ceded the land to any colonial power.",
"The four decades following the Louisiana Purchase was an era of court decisions removing many tribes from their lands east of the Mississippi for resettlement in the new territory, culminating in the Trail of Tears.The purchase of the Louisiana Territory led to debates over the idea of indigenous land rights that persisted into the mid 20th century.",
"The many court cases and tribal suits in the 1930s for historical damages flowing from the Louisiana Purchase led to the Indian Claims Commission Act (ICCA) in 1946.Felix S. Cohen, Interior Department lawyer who helped pass ICCA, is often quoted as saying, \"practically all of the real estate acquired by the United States since 1776 was purchased not from Napoleon or any other emperor or czar but from its original Indian owners\".",
"More recently, the total cost to the U.S. government of all subsequent treaties and financial settlements up to the year 2012 for the land acquired in the Louisiana Purchase has been estimated to be around $2.6 billion, or $ billion in dollars.",
"This is equivalent to $418 million in 1803 dollars, so the $15 million originally paid to France was roughly 3.5 percent of the total amount paid for this land (to both France and the Indians)."
],
[
"See also",
"*Alaska Purchase*Corps of Discovery*Florida Purchase*Foreign affairs of the Jefferson administration*Franco-American alliance*Historic regions of the United States*List of French possessions and colonies*Louisiana Purchase Historic State Park*Territorial evolution of the United States*Territories of the United States on stamps*Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail==Footnotes=="
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Works Cited",
"**** Carr, James A.",
"\"The Battle of New Orleans and the Treaty of Ghent.\"",
"''Diplomatic History'' 3.3 (1979): 273–282.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7709.1979.tb00315.x*******, pp. 101–109.",
"****************"
],
[
"Further reading",
"*** * * * ***"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Labor theory of value"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''labor theory of value''' ('''LTV''') is a theory of value that argues that the exchange value of a good or service is determined by the total amount of \"socially necessary labor\" required to produce it.The LTV is usually associated with Marxian economics, although it originally appeared in the theories of earlier classical economists such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo, and later in anarchist economics.",
"Smith saw the price of a commodity as a reflection of how much labour it can \"save\" the purchaser.",
"The LTV is central to Marxist theory, which holds that capitalists' expropriation of the surplus value produced by the working class is exploitative.",
"Modern orthodox economics rejects the LTV and uses a theory of value based on subjective preferences."
],
[
"Definitions of value and labor",
"According to the LTV, value refers refer to the amount of socially necessary labor to produce a marketable commodity; According to Ricardo and Marx, this includes the labor components necessary to develop any real capital (i.e., physical assets used to produce other assets).",
"Including these indirect labour components, sometimes described as \"dead labour,\" provides the \"real price,\" or \"natural price\" of a commodity.",
"However, Adam Smith's version of labor value does not implicate the role of past labor in the commodity itself or in the tools (capital) required to produce it.=== Distinctions of economically pertinent labor ===\"Value in use\" is the usefulness or utility of a commodity.",
"A classical paradox often comes up when considering this type of value.In a passage of Adam Smith's ''An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations'', he discusses the concepts of value in use and value in exchange, and notices how they tend to differ:Value \"in exchange\" is the relative proportion with which this commodity exchanges for another commodity (in other words, its price in the case of money).",
"It is relative to labor as explained by Adam Smith: The value of any commodity, ... to the person who possesses it, and who means not to use or consume it himself, but to exchange it for other commodities, is equal to the quantity of labour which it enables him to purchase or command.",
"Labour, therefore, is the real measure of the exchangeable value of all commodities (''Wealth of Nations'' Book 1, chapter V).According to the classical economists, value is the labor embodied in a commodity under a given structure of production.",
"Marx called this the \"socially necessary labor\" but it is sometimes also called the \"real cost\", \"absolute value.\""
],
[
"Relation between values and prices",
"While the LTV posits that value is primarily determined by labor, it recognizes that the actual price of a commodity can be influenced in the short-term by various factors, including supply and demand,.",
"market conditions (such the extent of monopolization), and the profit motive.",
"Adherents to the LTV conceptualize value (i.e., socially necessary labour time) as a \"center of gravity\" for price over the long-term.In Book 1, chapter VI, Adam Smith writes:The real value of all the different component parts of price, it must be observed, is measured by the quantity of labour which they can, each of them, purchase or command.",
"Labour measures the value not only of that part of price which resolves itself into labour, but of that which resolves itself into rent, and of that which resolves itself into profit.The final sentence explains how Smith sees value of a product as relative to labor of buyer or consumer, as opposite to Marx who sees the value of a product being proportional to labor of laborer or producer.",
"And we value things, price them, based on how much labor we can avoid or command, and we can command labor not only in a simple way but also by trading things for a profit.The demonstration of the relation between commodities' unit values and their respective prices is known in Marxian terminology as the transformation problem or the transformation of values into prices of production.",
"The transformation problem has probably generated the greatest bulk of debate about the LTV.",
"The problem with transformation is to find an algorithm where the magnitude of value added by labor, in proportion to its duration and intensity, is sufficiently accounted for after this value is distributed through prices that reflect an equal rate of return on capital advanced.",
"If there is an additional magnitude of value or a loss of value after transformation, then the relation between values (proportional to labor) and prices (proportional to total capital advanced) is incomplete.",
"Various solutions and impossibility theorems have been offered for the transformation, but the debate has not reached any clear resolution.LTV does not deny the role of supply and demand influencing price, but suggests that value and price are equivalent when supply-demand equilibrium is met.",
"In ''Value, Price and Profit'' (1865), Karl Marx quotes Adam Smith:It suffices to say that if supply and demand equilibrate each other, the market prices of commodities will correspond with their natural prices, that is to say, with their values as determined by the respective quantities of labor required for their production.The LTV seeks to explain the level of this equilibrium.",
"This could be explained by a ''cost of production'' argument—pointing out that all costs are ultimately labor costs, but this does not account for profit, and it is vulnerable to the charge of tautology in that it explains prices by prices.",
"Marx later called this \"Smith's adding up theory of value\".Smith argues that labor values are the natural measure of exchange for direct producers like hunters and fishermen.",
"Marx, on the other hand, uses a measurement analogy, arguing that for commodities to be comparable they must have a common element or substance by which to measure them, and that labor is a common substance of what Marx eventually calls ''commodity-values''."
],
[
"Labor process",
"Since the term \"value\" is understood in the LTV as denoting something created by labor, and its \"magnitude\" as something proportional to the quantity of labor performed, it is important to explain how the labor process both preserves value and adds new value in the commodities it creates.The value of a commodity increases in proportion to the duration and intensity of labor performed on average for its production.",
"Part of what the LTV means by \"socially necessary\" is that the value only increases in proportion to this labor as it is performed with average skill and average productivity.",
"So though workers may labor with greater skill or more productivity than others, these more skillful and more productive workers thus produce more value through the production of greater quantities of the finished commodity.",
"Each unit still bears the same value as all the others of the same class of commodity.",
"By working sloppily, unskilled workers may drag down the average skill of labor, thus increasing the average labor time necessary for the production of each unit commodity.",
"But these unskillful workers cannot hope to sell the result of their labor process at a higher price (as opposed to value) simply because they have spent more time than other workers producing the same kind of commodities.However, production not only involves labor, but also certain means of labor: tools, materials, power plants and so on.",
"These means of labor—also known as means of production—are often the product of another labor process as well.",
"So the labor process inevitably involves these means of production that already enter the process with a certain amount of value.",
"Labor also requires other means of production that are not produced with labor and therefore bear no value: such as sunlight, air, uncultivated land, unextracted minerals, etc.",
"While useful, even crucial to the production process, these bring no value to that process.",
"In terms of means of production resulting from another labor process, LTV treats the magnitude of value of these produced means of production as constant throughout the labor process.",
"Due to the constancy of their value, these means of production are referred to, in this light, as constant capital.Consider for example workers who take coffee beans, use a roaster to roast them, and then use a brewer to brew and dispense a fresh cup of coffee.",
"In performing this labor, these workers add value to the coffee beans and water that compose the material ingredients of a cup of coffee.",
"The worker also transfers the value of constant capital—the value of the beans; some specific depreciated value of the roaster and the brewer; and the value of the cup—to the value of the final cup of coffee.",
"Again, on average, the worker can transfer no more than the value of these means of labor previously possessed to the finished cup of coffee.",
"So the value of coffee produced in a day equals the sum of both the value of the means of labor—this constant capital—and the value newly added by the worker in proportion to the duration and intensity of their work.Often this is expressed mathematically as:where* is the constant capital of materials used in a period plus the depreciated portion of tools and plant used in the process.",
"(A period is typically a day, week, year, or a single turnover: meaning the time required to complete one batch of coffee, for example.",
")* is the quantity of labor time (average skill and productivity) performed in producing the finished commodities during the period* is the value (or think \"worth\") of the product of the period ( comes from the German word for value: ''wert'')Note: if the product resulting from the labor process is homogeneous (all similar in quality and traits, for example, all cups of coffee) then the value of the period's product can be divided by the total number of items (use-values or ) produced to derive the unit value of each item.",
"where is the total items produced.The LTV further divides the value added during the period of production, , into two parts.",
"The first part is the portion of the process when the workers add value equivalent to the wages they are paid.",
"For example, if the period in question is one week and these workers collectively are paid $1,000, then the time necessary to add $1,000 to—while preserving the value of—constant capital is considered the necessary labor portion of the period (or week): denoted .",
"The remaining period is considered the surplus labor portion of the week: or .",
"The value used to purchase labor-power, for example, the $1,000 paid in wages to these workers for the week, is called variable capital ().",
"This is because in contrast to the constant capital expended on means of production, variable capital can add value in the labor process.",
"The amount it adds depends on the duration, intensity, productivity and skill of the labor-power purchased: in this sense, the buyer of labor-power has purchased a commodity of variable use.",
"Finally, the value added during the portion of the period when surplus labor is performed is called surplus value ().",
"From the variables defined above, we find two other common expressions for the value produced during a given period:andThe first form of the equation expresses the value resulting from production, focusing on the costs and the surplus value appropriated in the process of production, .",
"The second form of the equation focuses on the value of production in terms of the values added by the labor performed during the process ."
],
[
"History",
"=== Origins ===The labor theory of value has developed over many centuries.",
"It had no single originator, but rather many different thinkers arrived at the same conclusion independently.",
"Aristotle is claimed to hold to this view.",
"Some writers trace its origin to Thomas Aquinas.",
"In his ''Summa Theologiae'' (1265–1274) he expresses the view that \"value can, does and should increase in relation to the amount of labor which has been expended in the improvement of commodities.\"",
"Scholars such as Joseph Schumpeter have cited Ibn Khaldun, who in his ''Muqaddimah'' (1377), described labor as the source of value, necessary for all earnings and capital accumulation.",
"He argued that even if earning \"results from something other than a craft, the value of the resulting profit and acquired (capital) must (also) include the value of the labor by which it was obtained.",
"Without labor, it would not have been acquired.\"",
"Scholars have also pointed to Sir William Petty's ''Treatise of Taxes'' of 1662 and to John Locke's labor theory of property, set out in the ''Second Treatise on Government'' (1689), which sees labor as the ultimate source of economic value.",
"Karl Marx himself credited Benjamin Franklin in his 1729 essay entitled \"A Modest Enquiry into the Nature and Necessity of a Paper Currency\" as being \"one of the first\" to advance the theory.Adam Smith accepted the theory for pre-capitalist societies but saw a flaw in its application to contemporary capitalism.",
"He pointed out that if the \"labor embodied\" in a product equaled the \"labor commanded\" (i.e.",
"the amount of labor that could be purchased by selling it), then profit was impossible.",
"David Ricardo (seconded by Marx) responded to this paradox by arguing that Smith had confused labor with wages.",
"\"Labor commanded\", he argued, would always be more than the labor needed to sustain itself (wages).",
"The value of labor, in this view, covered not just the value of wages (what Marx called the value of labor power), but the value of the entire product created by labor.Ricardo's theory was a predecessor of the modern theory that equilibrium prices are determined solely by production costs associated with Neo-Ricardianism.Based on the discrepancy between the wages of labor and the value of the product, the \"Ricardian socialists\"—Charles Hall, Thomas Hodgskin, John Gray, and John Francis Bray, and Percy Ravenstone—applied Ricardo's theory to develop theories of exploitation.Marx expanded on these ideas, arguing that workers work for a part of each day adding the value required to cover their wages, while the remainder of their labor is performed for the enrichment of the capitalist.",
"The LTV and the accompanying theory of exploitation became central to his economic thought.19th century American individualist anarchists based their economics on the LTV, with their particular interpretation of it being called \"Cost the limit of price\".",
"They, as well as contemporary individualist anarchists in that tradition, hold that it is unethical to charge a higher price for a commodity than the amount of labor required to produce it.",
"Hence, they propose that trade should be facilitated by using notes backed by labor.=== Adam Smith and David Ricardo ===Adam Smith held that, in a primitive society, the amount of labor put into producing a good determined its exchange value, with exchange value meaning, in this case, the amount of labor a good can purchase.",
"However, according to Smith, in a more advanced society the market price is no longer proportional to labor cost since the value of the good now includes compensation for the owner of the means of production: \"The whole produce of labour does not always belong to the labourer.",
"He must in most cases share it with the owner of the stock which employs him.\"",
"According to Whitaker, Smith is claiming that the 'real value' of such a commodity produced in advanced society is measured by the labor which that commodity will command in exchange but \"Smith disowns what is naturally thought of as the genuine classical labor theory of value, that labor-cost regulates market-value.",
"This theory was Ricardo's, and really his alone.",
"\"Classical economist David Ricardo's labor theory of value holds that the value of a good (how much of another good or service it exchanges for in the market) is proportional to how much labor was required to produce it, including the labor required to produce the raw materials and machinery used in the process.",
"David Ricardo stated it as, \"The value of a commodity, or the quantity of any other commodity for which it will exchange, depends on the relative quantity of labour which is necessary for its production, and not on the greater or less compensation which is paid for that labour.\"",
"In this connection Ricardo seeks to differentiate the quantity of labour necessary to produce a commodity from the wages paid to the laborers for its production.",
"Therefore, wages did not always increase with the price of a commodity.",
"However, Ricardo was troubled with some deviations in prices from proportionality with the labor required to produce them.",
"For example, he said \"I cannot get over the difficulty of the wine, which is kept in the cellar for three or four years i.e., while constantly increasing in exchange value, or that of the oak tree, which perhaps originally had not 2 s. expended on it in the way of labour, and yet comes to be worth £100.\"",
"(Quoted in Whitaker) Of course, a capitalist economy stabilizes this discrepancy until the value added to aged wine is equal to the cost of storage.",
"If anyone can hold onto a bottle for four years and become rich, that would make it hard to find freshly corked wine.",
"There is also the theory that adding to the price of a luxury product increases its exchange-value by mere prestige.The labor theory as an explanation for value contrasts with the subjective theory of value, which says that value of a good is not determined by how much labor was put into it but by its usefulness in satisfying a want and its scarcity.",
"Ricardo's labor theory of value is not a normative theory, as are some later forms of the labor theory, such as claims that it is ''immoral'' for an individual to be paid less for his labor than the total revenue that comes from the sales of all the goods he produces.It is arguable to what extent these classical theorists held the labor theory of value as it is commonly defined.",
"For instance, David Ricardo theorized that prices are determined by the amount of labor but found exceptions for which the labor theory could not account.",
"In a letter, he wrote: \"I am not satisfied with the explanation I have given of the principles which regulate value.\"",
"Adam Smith theorized that the labor theory of value holds true only in the \"early and rude state of society\" but not in a modern economy where owners of capital are compensated by profit.",
"As a result, \"Smith ends up making little use of a labor theory of value.",
"\"=== Anarchism ===Sample labor for labor note for the Cincinnati Time Store.",
"Scanned from ''Equitable Commerce'' (1846) by Josiah WarrenPierre Joseph Proudhon's mutualism and American individualist anarchists such as Josiah Warren, Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker adopted the labor theory of value of classical economics and used it to criticize capitalism while favoring a non-capitalist market system.Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist, and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, ''The Peaceful Revolutionist'', was the first anarchist periodical published.",
"Cost the limit of price was a maxim coined by Warren, indicating a (prescriptive) version of the labor theory of value.",
"Warren maintained that the just compensation for labor (or for its product) could only be an equivalent amount of labor (or a product embodying an equivalent amount).",
"Thus, profit, rent, and interest were considered unjust economic arrangements.",
"In keeping with the tradition of Adam Smith's ''The Wealth of Nations'', the \"cost\" of labor is considered to be the subjective cost; i.e., the amount of suffering involved in it.",
"He put his theories to the test by establishing an experimental \"labor for labor store\" called the Cincinnati Time Store at the corner of 5th and Elm Streets in what is now downtown Cincinnati, where trade was facilitated by notes backed by a promise to perform labor.",
"\"All the goods offered for sale in Warren's store were offered at the same price the merchant himself had paid for them, plus a small surcharge, in the neighborhood of 4 to 7 percent, to cover store overhead.\"",
"The store stayed open for three years; after it closed, Warren could pursue establishing colonies based on Mutualism.",
"These included \"Utopia\" and \"Modern Times\".",
"Warren said that Stephen Pearl Andrews' ''The Science of Society'', published in 1852, was the most lucid and complete exposition of Warren's own theories.Mutualism is an economic theory and anarchist school of thought that advocates a society where each person might possess a means of production, either individually or collectively, with trade representing equivalent amounts of labor in the free market.",
"Integral to the scheme was the establishment of a mutual-credit bank that would lend to producers at a minimal interest rate, just high enough to cover administration.",
"Mutualism is based on a labor theory of value that holds that when labor or its product is sold, in exchange, it ought to receive goods or services embodying \"the amount of labor necessary to produce an article of exactly similar and equal utility\".",
"Mutualism originated from the writings of philosopher Pierre-Joseph Proudhon.Collectivist anarchism as defended by Mikhail Bakunin defended a form of labor theory of value when it advocated a system where \"all necessaries for production are owned in common by the labour groups and the free communes ... based on the distribution of goods according to the labour contributed\".=== Karl Marx ===Contrary to popular belief Marx never used the term \"Labor theory of value\" in any of his works but used the term Law of value, Marx opposed \"ascribing a supernatural creative power to labor\", arguing as such:Labor is not the source of all wealth.",
"Nature is just as much a source of use values (and it is surely of such that material wealth consists!)",
"as labor, which is itself only the manifestation of a force of nature, human labor power.Here, Marx was distinguishing between exchange value (the subject of the LTV) and use value.",
"Marx used the concept of \"socially necessary labor time\" to introduce a social perspective distinct from his predecessors and neoclassical economics.",
"Whereas most economists start with the individual's perspective, Marx started with the perspective of society ''as a whole''.",
"\"Social production\" involves a complicated and interconnected division of labor of a wide variety of people who depend on each other for their survival and prosperity.",
"\"Abstract\" labor refers to a characteristic of commodity-producing labor that is shared by all different kinds of heterogeneous (concrete) types of labor.",
"That is, the concept abstracts from the ''particular'' characteristics of all of the labor and is akin to average labor.",
"\"Socially necessary\" labor refers to the quantity required to produce a commodity \"in a given state of society, under certain social average conditions or production, with a given social average intensity, and average skill of the labor employed.\"",
"That is, the value of a product is determined more by societal standards than by individual conditions.",
"This explains why technological breakthroughs lower the price of commodities and put less advanced producers out of business.",
"Finally, it is not labor per se that creates value, but labor power sold by free wage workers to capitalists.",
"Another distinction is between productive and unproductive labor.",
"Only wage workers of productive sectors of the economy produce value.",
"According to Marx an increase in productiveness of the laborer does not affect the value of a commodity, but rather, increases the surplus value realized by the capitalist.",
"Therefore, decreasing the cost of production does not decrease the value of a commodity, but allows the capitalist to produce more and increases the opportunity to earn a greater profit or surplus value, as long as there is demand for the additional units of production."
],
[
"Criticism",
"The Marxist labor theory of value has been criticised on several counts.",
"Some argue that it predicts that profits will be higher in labor-intensive industries than in capital-intensive industries, which would be contradicted by measured empirical data inherent in quantitative analysis.",
"This is sometimes referred to as the \"Great Contradiction\".",
"In volume 3 of Capital, Marx explains why profits are not distributed according to which industries are the most labor-intensive and why this is consistent with his theory.",
"Whether or not this is consistent with the labor theory of value as presented in volume 1 has been a topic of debate.",
"According to Marx, surplus value is extracted by the capitalist class as a whole and then distributed according to the amount of total capital, not just the variable component.",
"In the example given earlier, of making a cup of coffee, the constant capital involved in production is the coffee beans themselves, and the variable capital is the value added by the coffee maker.",
"The value added by the coffee maker is dependent on its technological capabilities, and the coffee maker can only add so much total value to cups of coffee over its lifespan.",
"The amount of value added to the product is thus the amortization of the value of the coffeemaker.",
"We can also note that not all products have equal proportions of value added by amortized capital.",
"Capital intensive industries such as finance may have a large contribution of capital, while labor-intensive industries like traditional agriculture would have a relatively small one.",
"Critics argue that this turns the LTV into a macroeconomic theory, when it was supposed to explain the exchange ratios of individual commodities in terms of their relation to their labour ratios (making it a microeconomic theory), yet Marx was now maintaining that these ratios must diverge from their labour ratios.",
"Critics thus held that Marx's proposed solution to the \"great contradiction\" was not so much a solution as it was sidestepping the issue.",
"Steve Keen argues that Marx's idea that only labor can produce value rests on the idea that as capital depreciates over its use, then this is transferring its exchange-value to the product.",
"Keen argues that it is not clear why the value of the machine should depreciate at the same rate it is lost.",
"Keen uses an analogy with labor: If workers receive a subsistence wage and the working day exhausts the capacity to labor, it could be argued that the worker has \"depreciated\" by the amount equivalent to the subsistence wage.",
"However this depreciation is not the limit of value a worker can add in a day (indeed this is critical to Marx's idea that labor is fundamentally exploited).",
"If it were, then the production of a surplus would be impossible.",
"According to Keen, a machine could have a use-value greater than its exchange-value, meaning it could, along with labor, be a source of surplus.",
"Keen claims that Marx almost reached such a conclusion in the Grundrisse but never developed it any further.",
"Keen further observes that while Marx insisted that the contribution of machines to production is solely their use-value and not their exchange-value, he routinely treated the use-value and exchange-value of a machine as identical, despite the fact that this would contradict his claim that the two were unrelated.",
"Marxists respond by arguing that use-value and exchange-value are incommensurable magnitudes; to claim that a machine can add \"more use-value\" than it is worth in value-terms is a category error.",
"According to Marx, a machine by definition cannot be a source of ''human'' labor.",
"Keen responds by arguing that the labor theory of value only works if the use-value and exchange-value of a machine are identical, as Marx argued that machines cannot create surplus value since as their use-value depreciates along with their exchange-value; they simply transfer it to the new product but create no new value in the process.",
"Keen's machinery argument can also be applied to slavery based modes of production, which also profit from extracting more use value from the laborers than they return to laborers.In their work ''Capital as Power'', Shimshon Bichler and Jonathan Nitzan argue that while Marxists have claimed to produce empirical evidence of the labor theory of value via numerous studies which show consistent correlations between values and prices, these studies do not actually provide evidence for it and are inadequate.",
"According to the authors, these studies attempt to prove the LTV by showing that there is a positive correlation between market prices and labor values.",
"However, the authors argue that these studies measure prices by looking at the price of total output (the unit price of a commodity multiplied by its total quantity) and do these for several sectors of the economy, estimate their total price and value from official statistics and measured for several years.",
"However, Bichler and Nitzan argue that this method has statistical implications as correlations measured this way also reflect the co-variations of the associated quantities of unit values and prices.",
"This means that the unit price and unit value of each sector are multiplied by the same value, which means that the greater the variability of output across different sectors, the tighter the correlation.",
"This means that the overall correlation is substantially larger than the underlying correlation between unit values and unit prices; when sectors are controlled for their size, the correlations often drop to insignificant levels.",
"Furthermore, the authors argue that the studies do not seem to actually attempt to measure the correlation between value and price.",
"The authors argue that, according to Marx, the value of a commodity indicates the abstract labor time required for its production; however Marxists have been unable to identify a way to measure a unit (elementary particle) of abstract labor (indeed the authors argue that most have given up and little progress has been made beyond Marx's original work) due to numerous difficulties.",
"This means assumptions must be made and according to the authors, these involve circular reasoning:Bichler and Nitzan argue that this amounts to converting prices into values and then determining if they correlate, which the authors argue proves nothing since the studies are simply correlating prices with themselves.",
"Paul Cockshott disagreed with Bichler and Nitzan's arguments, arguing that it was possible to measure abstract labour time using wage bills and data on working hours, while also arguing Bichler and Nitzan's claims that the true value-price correlations should be much lower actually relied on poor statistical analysis itself.",
"Most Marxists, however, reject Bichler and Nitzan's interpretation of Marx, arguing that their assertion that individual commodities can have values, rather than prices of production, misunderstands Marx's work.",
"For example, Fred Moseley argues Marx understood \"value\" to be a \"macro-monetary\" variable (the total amount of labor added in a given year plus the depreciation of fixed capital in that year), which is then concretized at the level of individual prices of production, meaning that \"individual values\" of commodities do not exist.The theory can also be sometimes found in non-Marxist traditions.",
"For instance, mutualist theorist Kevin Carson's ''Studies in Mutualist Political Economy'' opens with an attempt to integrate marginalist critiques into the labor theory of value.Additionally, economist Joseph Schumpeter pointed out a couple of issues he believed undermined the validity of the labor theory of value.",
"Firstly he wrote that labor theory of value failed to take into account the intrinsic differences in labor quality between individuals (a difference that, he believed, could not be properly encapsulated through the use of a value multiplier).",
"Furthermore, he claims that labor theory of value, both in its Marxist and Ricardian formulations, would entail that labor be the sole input in an economy alongside all labor being homogenous in nature, a thesis which Schumpeter dismisses as unrealistic and one that could be resolved by Marginalism anyway.",
"Schumpeter goes on to divert his attention towards the supposed self-contradictory nature of how labor theory of value allows for the justification of the Marxian exploitation thesis, highlighting that labor itself could not be valued since it was not itself produced by any labor and that the accumulation of surplus value described by Marx could not occur in a static, perfectly competitive market.",
"Thus, although giving Marx the credit for seeing the need for change inherent in capitalist markets, Schumpeter nonetheless concludes that labor theory of value and its consequences remain problematic theories.Some post-Keynesian economists have been highly critical of the labor theory of value.",
"Joan Robinson, who herself was considered an expert on the writings of Karl Marx, wrote that the labor theory of value was largely a tautology and \"a typical example of the way metaphysical ideas operate\".",
"The well-known Marxian economist Roman Rosdolsky replied to Robinson's claims at length, arguing that Robinson failed to understand key components of Marx's theory; for instance, Robinson argued that \"Marx's theory, as we have seen, rests on the assumption of a constant rate of exploitation\", but as Rosdolsky points out, there is a great deal of contrary evidence.In ecological economics, the labor theory of value has been criticized, where it is argued that labor is in fact energy over time.",
"Such arguments generally fail to recognize that Marx is inquiring into social relations among human beings, which cannot be reduced to the expenditure of energy, just as democracy cannot be reduced to the expenditure of energy that a voter makes in getting to the polling place.",
"However, echoing Joan Robinson, Alf Hornborg, an environmental historian, argues that both the reliance on \"energy theory of value\" and \"labor theory of value\" are problematic as they propose that use-values (or material wealth) are more \"real\" than exchange-values (or cultural wealth)—yet, use-values are culturally determined.",
"For Hornborg, any Marxist argument that claims uneven wealth is due to the \"exploitation\" or \"underpayment\" of use-values is actually a tautological contradiction, since it must necessarily quantify \"underpayment\" in terms of exchange-value.",
"The alternative would be to conceptualize unequal exchange as \"an asymmetric net transfer of material inputs in production (e.g., embodied labor, energy, land, and water), rather than in terms of an underpayment of material inputs or an asymmetric transfer of 'value'\".",
"In other words, uneven exchange is characterised by incommensurability, namely: the unequal transfer of material inputs; competing value-judgements of the worth of labor, fuel, and raw materials; differing availability of industrial technologies; and the off-loading of environmental burdens on those with less resources."
],
[
"See also",
"* Abstract labor and concrete labor* Cost the limit of price* Division of labor* Labor notes (currency)* Law of value* Prices of production* Producerism* Productive and unproductive labor* Social division of labor* Surplus labor* Surplus product* Surplus value* Transformation problem* Value-form* Anarchy of Production'''Competing theories'''* Anarcho-communism* Entitlement theory* Marginalism* Neo-Ricardianism* Subjective theory of value"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Bhaduri, Amit.",
"1969.",
"\"On the Significance of Recent Controversies on Capital Theory: A Marxian View.\"",
"''Economic Journal''.",
"79(315) September: 532–539.",
"* von Böhm-Bawerk, Eugen ''Karl Marx and the Close of His System'' (Classic criticism of Marxist economic theory).",
"* G.A.",
"Cohen 'The Labour Theory of Value and the Concept of Exploitation', in his ''History Labour and Freedom''.",
"* Duncan, Colin A.M.",
"1996.",
"''The Centrality of Agriculture: Between Humankind and The Rest of Nature.''",
"McGill–Queen's University Press, Montreal.",
"* ——2000.The Centrality of Agriculture: History, Ecology and Feasible Socialism.",
"Socialist Register, pp. 187–205.",
"* ——2004.Adam Smith's green vision and the future of global socialism.",
"In Albritton, R; Shannon Bell; John R. Bell; and R. Westra Eds.",
"''New Socialisms: Futures Beyond Globalization.",
"''New York/London, Routledge.",
"pp. 90–104.",
"* * Eldred, Michael (1984).",
"''Critique of Competitive Freedom and the Bourgeois-Democratic State: Outline of a Form-analytic Extension of Marx's Uncompleted System''.",
"With an Appendix 'Value-form Analytic Reconstruction of the Capital-Analysis' by Michael Eldred, Marnie Hanlon, Lucia Kleiber and Mike Roth, Kurasje, Copenhagen.",
"Emended, digitized edition 2010 with a new Preface, lxxiii + 466 pp. .",
"* Ellerman, David P. (1992) Property & Contract in Economics: The Case for Economic Democracy.",
"Blackwell.",
"Chapters 4,5, and 13 critiques of LTV in favor of the labor theory of property.",
"* Engels, F. (1880).",
"''Socialism: Utopian and Scientific''.",
"* Freeman, Alan: ''Price, value and profit – a continuous, general treatment''.",
"In: Alan Freeman, Guglielmo Carchedi (editors): ''Marx and Non-equilibrium Economics''.",
"Edward Elgar Publishing.",
"Cheltenham, UK, Brookfield, US 1996..* Hagendorf, Klaus: ''The Labour Theory of Value.",
"A Historical-Logical Analysis''.",
"Paris: EURODOS; 2008.",
"* Hagendorf, Klaus: ''Labour Values and the Theory of the Firm.",
"Part I: The Competitive Firm''.",
"Paris: EURODOS; 2009.",
"* Hansen, Bue Rübner.",
"(2011).",
"\"Review of ''Capital as Power'' by Jonathan Nitzan and Shimson Bichler\".",
"''Historical Materialism'' 19, no.",
"2: 144–159.",
"* Henderson, James M.; Quandt, Richard E. 1971: Microeconomic Theory – A Mathematical Approach.",
"Second Edition/International Student Edition.",
"McGraw-Hill Kogakusha, Ltd.* Keen, Steven ''Use, Value, and Exchange: The Misinterpretation of Marx'' .",
"* * (Internet edition: 1999 1887 English edition).",
"* * Moseley, Fred.",
"(2016).",
"''Money and Totality'' Leiden, Netherlands: Brill.",
"* Murray, Patrick.",
"(2016).",
"''The Mismeasure of Wealth : Essays on Marx and Social Form'' Leiden, Netherlands: Brill.",
"* Ormazabal, Kepa M. (2004).",
"''Smith On Labour Value'' Bilbo, Biscay, Spain: University of the Basque Country Working Paper.",
"* Parrington, Vernon Louis.",
"''The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin''.",
"* Pokrovskii, Vladimir (2011).",
"''Econodynamics.",
"The Theory of Social Production.''",
"Springer, Dordrecht-Heidelberg-London-New York.",
"* Rubin, Isaak Illich (1928).",
"''Essays on Marx's Theory of Value''* Shaikh, Anwar (1998).",
"\"The Empirical Strength of the Labour Theory of Value\" in ''Conference Proceedings of Marxian Economics: A Centenary Appraisal'', Riccardo Bellofiore (ed.",
"), Macmillan, London.",
"* * Vianello, F. (1987).",
"\"Labour theory of value\", in: Eatwell, J. and Milgate, M. and Newman, P.",
"(eds.",
"): ''The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics'', Macmillan e Stockton, London e New York, .",
"* Wolff, Jonathan (2003).",
"''Karl Marx'' in ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''.",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lunar Society of Birmingham"
],
[
"Introduction",
"Soho House in Handsworth, Birmingham, a regular venue for meetings of the Lunar SocietyThe '''Lunar Society of Birmingham''' was a British dinner club and informal learned society of prominent figures in the Midlands Enlightenment, including industrialists, natural philosophers and intellectuals, who met regularly between 1765 and 1813 in Birmingham.",
"At first called the Lunar Circle, \"Lunar Society\" became the formal name by 1775.The name arose because the society would meet during the full moon, as the extra light made the journey home easier and safer in the absence of street lighting.",
"The members cheerfully referred to themselves as ''\"lunaticks\"'', a contemporary spelling of lunatics.",
"Venues included Erasmus Darwin's home in Lichfield, Matthew Boulton's home, Soho House, Bowbridge House in Derbyshire, and Great Barr Hall."
],
[
"Membership and status",
"Matthew BoultonThe Lunar Society evolved through various degrees of organisation over a period of up to fifty years, but was only ever an informal group.",
"No constitution, minutes, publications or membership lists survive from any period, and evidence of its existence and activities is found only in the correspondence and notes of those associated with it.",
"Historians therefore disagree on what qualifies as membership of the Lunar Society, who can be considered to have been members, and even when the society can be said to have existed.",
"Josiah Wedgwood, for example, is described by some commentators as being one of five \"principal members\" of the society, while others consider that he \"cannot be recognized as a full member\" at all.",
"Dates given for the establishment of the society range from \"sometime before 1760\" to 1775.Some historians argue that it had ceased to exist by 1791; others that it was still operating as late as 1813.Despite this uncertainty, fourteen individuals have been identified as having verifiably attended Lunar Society meetings regularly over a long period during its most productive eras: these are Matthew Boulton, Erasmus Darwin, Thomas Day, Richard Lovell Edgeworth, Samuel Galton, Jr., Robert Augustus Johnson, James Keir, Joseph Priestley, William Small, Jonathan Stokes, James Watt, Josiah Wedgwood, John Whitehurst and William Withering.Benjamin FranklinWhile the society's meetings provided its name and social focus, however, they were relatively unimportant in its activities, and far more activity and communication took place outside the meetings themselves – members local to Birmingham were in almost daily contact, more distant ones in correspondence at least weekly.",
"A more loosely defined group has therefore been identified over a wider geographical area and longer time period, who attended meetings occasionally and who corresponded or co-operated regularly with multiple other members on group activities.",
"These include Joseph Pickford, Richard Kirwan, John Smeaton, Henry Moyes, John Michell, Pieter Camper, R. E. Raspe, John Baskerville, Thomas Beddoes, John Wyatt, William Thomson, Cyril Jackson, Jean-André Deluc, John Wilkinson, John Ash, Samuel More, Robert Bage, James Brindley, Ralph Griffiths, John Roebuck, Thomas Percival, Joseph Black, James Hutton, Benjamin Franklin, Joseph Banks, James Lind, William Herschel, Daniel Solander, John Warltire, George Fordyce, Alexander Blair, Samuel Parr, Louis Joseph d'Albert d'Ailly, William Emes, the seventh Duke of Chaulnes, Barthélemy Faujas de Saint-Fond, Grossart de Virly, Johann Gottling.",
"and Joseph Wright.This lack of a defined membership has led some historians to criticise a Lunar Society \"legend\", leading people to \"confuse it and its efforts with the general growth of intellectual and economic activities in the provinces of eighteenth century Britain\".",
"Others have seen this both as real and as one of the society's main strengths: a paper read at the Science Museum in London in 1963 claimed that"
],
[
"Development",
"===Origins 1755–1765=== ''Erasmus Darwin'' by Joseph Wright of Derby, 1770 (Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery)The origins of the Lunar Society lie in a pattern of friendships that emerged in the late 1750s.",
"Matthew Boulton and Erasmus Darwin met some time between 1757 and 1758, possibly through family connections, as Boulton's mother's family were patients of Darwin; or possibly though shared friendships, as both were admirers of the printer John Baskerville and friends of the astronomer and geologist John Michell, a regular visitor to Darwin's house in Lichfield.",
"Darwin was a physician and poet who had studied at Cambridge and Edinburgh; Boulton had left school at fourteen and started work in his father's business making metal goods in Birmingham at the age of 21.Despite their different backgrounds they shared a common interest in experiment and invention, and their activities would show Darwin's theoretical understanding and Boulton's practical experience to be complementary.",
"Soon they were visiting each other regularly and conducting investigations into scientific subjects such as electricity, meteorology and geology.Around the same time the Derby-based clockmaker John Whitehurst became a friend, first of Boulton and subsequently of Darwin, through his business supplying clock movements to Boulton's ormolu manufacturing operation.",
"Although older than both Boulton and Darwin, by 1758 Whitehurst was writing to Boulton telling excitedly of a pyrometer he had built, and looking forward to visiting Birmingham \"to spend one day with you in trying all necessary experiments\".Boulton, Darwin and Whitehurst were in turn introduced by Michell to Benjamin Franklin when he travelled to Birmingham in July 1758 \"to improve and increase Acquaintance among Persons of Influence\", and Franklin returned in 1760 to conduct experiments with Boulton on electricity and sound.",
"Although Michell seems to have withdrawn slightly from the group when he moved to Thornhill (near Dewsbury) in 1767, Franklin was to remain a common link among many of the early members.===The Lunar Circle 1765–1775===William SmallThe nature of the group was to change significantly with the move to Birmingham in 1765 of the Scottish physician William Small, who had been Professor of Natural Philosophy at The College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia.",
"There he had taught and been a major influence over Thomas Jefferson, and had formed the focus of a local group of intellectuals.",
"His arrival with a letter of introduction to Matthew Boulton from Benjamin Franklin was to have a galvanising effect on the existing circle, which began to explicitly identify itself as a group and actively started to attract new members.The first of these was Josiah Wedgwood, who became a close friend of Darwin in 1765 while campaigning for the building of the Trent and Mersey Canal and subsequently closely modelled his large new pottery factory at Etruria, Staffordshire on Boulton's Soho Manufactory.",
"Another new recruit, Richard Lovell Edgeworth, met Darwin, Small and Boulton in 1766 through a shared interest in carriage design, and he in turn introduced his friend and fellow Rousseau-admirer Thomas Day, with whom he had studied at Corpus Christi College, Oxford.",
"In 1767 James Keir visited Darwin in Lichfield, where he was introduced to Boulton, Small, Wedgwood and Whitehurst and subsequently decided to move to Birmingham.The Lunar Circle also attracted more distant involvement.",
"Joseph Priestley, then living in Leeds and a close friend of John Michell, became associated with the Society in 1767 when Darwin and Wedgwood became involved with his work on electricity.",
"In the same year James Watt visited Birmingham on the recommendation of his business patron John Roebuck, being shown around the Soho Manufactory by Small and Darwin in Boulton's absence.",
"Although neither Priestley nor Watt were to move to Birmingham for several years, both were to be in constant communication with the Birmingham members and central to the circle's activities from 1767.By 1768 the core group of nine individuals who would form the nucleus of the Lunar Society had come together with Small at their heart.",
"The group at this time is sometimes referred to as the \"Lunar circle\", though this is a later description used by historians, and the group themselves used a variety of less specific descriptions, including \"Birmingham Philosophers\" or simply \"fellow-schemers\".===The Lunar Society 1775–1780===William WitheringIf William Small's arrival in 1765 had been the catalyst to the development of the Lunar Circle as a cohesive group, his death – probably from malaria – in 1775 was to mark another change in its structure.",
"Small had been the key link between the members, and in his absence those remaining moved to place the group on a more organised footing.",
"Meetings were to be held on the Sunday nearest the full moon, lasting from two o'clock in the afternoon until eight o'clock in the evening.",
"The first was probably that held on 31 December 1775, and the \"Lunar\" name is first recorded in 1776.The era also saw significant changes in membership.",
"William Withering – like Small, a physician – was already an acquaintance of Darwin, Boulton and Wedgwood when he moved from Stafford to Birmingham and became a member of the Society in 1776.John Whitehurst's move to London in 1775 had a less dramatic effect: he kept in regular contact with other members of the society and remained an occasional attender of meetings.The leading figure behind the establishment of the society as a more organised body during this early period seems to have been Matthew Boulton: his home at Soho House in Handsworth was the principal venue for meetings, and in 1776 he is recorded as planning \"to make many Motions to the Members respecting new Laws, and regulations, such as will tend to prevent the decline of a society which I hope will be lasting.\"",
"This reliance on Boulton was also to prove a weakness, however, as the period coincided with the peak of his work building up his steam engine business and he was frequently absent.",
"Although the 1770s was one of the society's richest eras in terms of its collaborative achievements, the society's meetings declined from regular occurrences in 1775 to infrequent ones by the end of the decade.===Heyday of the Society 1780–1789===Joseph Priestley, c. 1783In late 1780 the nature of the society was to change again with the move to Birmingham of Joseph Priestley.",
"Priestley had been closely associated with the group's activities for over a decade and was a strong advocate of the benefits of scientific societies.",
"Shortly after his arrival Lunar meetings moved from Sunday afternoons to Mondays to accommodate Priestley's duties as a clergyman, while the society's dependence on Matthew Boulton was lessened by holding meetings at other members' houses in addition to Soho House.",
"The result was to be the society's most productive era.Several other major new figures became associated with the society during this period.",
"Samuel Galton, Jr., unusual as a Quaker who was also a gun-manufacturer, appears in the letters of other Lunar members as attending meetings from July 1781, and his daughter Mary Anne Schimmelpenninck was to provide one of the few first-hand accounts of the Lunar Society's activities.",
"The botanist and physician Jonathan Stokes, who had known William Withering as a child, moved to Stourbridge and started attending Lunar Society meetings from 1783.His contribution to the society was significant but short-lived: after collaborating with Withering on his ''Botanical Arrangement of British Plants'' the two quarrelled bitterly and Stokes severed his relations with the main Lunar members by 1788.The society also lost several major figures over the period: Richard Lovell Edgeworth ceased regular involvement in the society's activities when he returned to Ireland in 1782, John Whitehurst died in London in 1788, and Thomas Day died the following year.",
"Most significantly, Erasmus Darwin moved to Derby in 1781, but although he complained of being \"cut off from the milk of science\", he continued to attend Lunar Society meetings at least until 1788.===Decline 1789–1813===The Priestley riots of 1791The outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 caused political strains between members of the society, but it was the Priestley riots of 1791 in Birmingham itself that saw a decisive falling off of the society's spirit and activities.",
"Joseph Priestley himself was driven from the town, leaving England entirely for the United States in 1794, William Withering's house was invaded by rioters and Matthew Boulton and James Watt had to arm their employees to protect the Soho Manufactory.",
"Lunar meetings were continued by the younger generation of the families of earlier Lunar members, including Gregory Watt, Matthew Robinson Boulton, Thomas Wedgwood and James Watt junior, and possibly Samuel Tertius Galton.",
"Regular meetings are recorded into the nineteenth century – eight in 1800, five or six before August 1801 and at least one in 1802, while as late as 1809 Leonard Horner was describing \"the remnant of the Lunar Society\" as being \"very interesting\".",
"While individual members continued to produce work of importance, however, the collaborative activity that marked the heyday of the society was noticeably absent.The society had definitely collapsed by 1813, however: in August of that year Samuel Galton, Jr. is recorded as having won a ballot for possession of the scientific books from the society's library."
],
[
"Modern Lunar Societies",
"William Bloye's gold-covered statue ''Boulton, Watt and Murdoch'', in central BirminghamAmong memorials to the Society and its members are the Moonstones; two statues of Watt and a statue of ''Boulton, Watt and Murdoch'' by William Bloye; and the museum at Soho House – all in Birmingham.In more recent times a new Lunar Society was formed in Birmingham by a group led by Dame Rachel Waterhouse.",
"Its aim is to play a leading part in the development of the city and the wider region.Its current Chair, appointed for a two-year term in 2019, is Deirdre LaBassiere.",
"'''Outside Birmingham'''In Australia, The Lunaticks Society of Newcastle was formed by leading digital entrepreneurs, software developers, educators, film producers, creatives, investors to encourage creative thinking and new ideas in a digital age.===University of Birmingham Lunar Society===In the latter part of the 20th century, the University of Birmingham Lunar Society met every Thursday to debate and discuss all manner of topics in the Guild bar.",
"In 2011, steps were undertaken to reform the discussion society as an alternative to the more regulated debate options available at the university.",
"This was agreed by the University's Guild of Students in autumn 2012.The society now hosts symposiums every two weeks.",
"Any member has always been welcome to suggest a topic for discussion.",
"These meetings occur in a variety of environments from University rooms to local bars.",
"In 2013 the society attempted to change the name of one of the rooms in the Guild of Students to 'The Lunar Room' in honour of the original Birmingham Lunar Society.",
"Like the Oxford Union, the society has always traditionally put a huge emphasis on freedom of speech.",
"The society has similar aims to The Speculative Society of Edinburgh University.",
"In 2019, the society was rebranded as the Devil's Advocate Society, and retained the goals of the Lunar Society whilst changing much of its branding.Today, the society is an informal academic association open to both undergraduate and graduate students, as well as professional academics, from the University of Birmingham."
],
[
"Archives",
"Historical material related to the Lunar Society is held in multiple collections.",
"The University of Birmingham's Cadbury Research Library holds a series of portraits of the original Lunar Society members.",
"The Library of Birmingham holds a large collection of Joseph Priestley's publications.",
"Both archives also hold various letters of society members."
],
[
"See also",
"* Scottish Enlightenment* Science and invention in Birmingham* Erasmus Darwin House* Lunar Society Moonstones"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"**********"
],
[
"External links",
"* * Erasmus Darwin House, Lichfield* Article in Science* The Lunar Men who shaped the future (from the Birmingham Stories website)* Soho House* The modern Lunar Society* Revolutionary Players website* BBC Radio 4 ''In Our Time'' discussion* The Lunar Society Italia* The Lunaticks Society of Newcastle"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Libya"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Libya''' ( ; , ), officially the '''State of Libya''' (), is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa.",
"Libya borders the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad to the south, Niger to the southwest, Algeria to the west, and Tunisia to the northwest.",
"Libya comprises three historical regions: Tripolitania, Fezzan, and Cyrenaica.",
"With an area of almost , it is the fourth-largest country in Africa and the Arab world, and the 16th-largest in the world.",
"The country's official religion is Islam, with 96.6% of the Libyan population being Sunni Muslims.",
"The official language of Libya is Arabic, with vernacular Libyan Arabic being spoken most widely.",
"The majority of Libya's population is Arab.",
"The largest city and capital, Tripoli, is located in north-western Libya and contains over a million of Libya's seven million people.Libya has been inhabited by Berbers since the late Bronze Age as descendants from Iberomaurusian and Capsian cultures.",
"In classical antiquity, the Phoenicians established city-states and trading posts in western Libya, while several Greek cities were established in the East.",
"Parts of Libya were variously ruled by Carthaginians, Persians, and Greeks before the entire region becoming a part of the Roman Empire.",
"Libya was an early center of Christianity.",
"After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the area of Libya was mostly occupied by the Vandals until the 7th century when invasions brought Islam to the region.",
"From then on, centuries of Arab migration to the Maghreb shifted the demographic scope of Libya in favor of Arabs.",
"In the 16th century, the Spanish Empire and the Knights of St John occupied Tripoli until Ottoman rule began in 1551.Libya was involved in the Barbary Wars of the 18th and 19th centuries.",
"Ottoman rule continued until the Italo-Turkish War, which resulted in the Italian occupation of Libya and the establishment of two colonies, Italian Tripolitania and Italian Cyrenaica (1911–1934), later unified in the Italian Libya colony from 1934 to 1943.During the Second World War, Libya was an area of warfare in the North African Campaign.",
"The Italian population then went into decline.",
"Libya became independent as a kingdom in 1951.A bloodless military coup in 1969, initiated by a coalition led by Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, overthrew King Idris I and created a republic.",
"Gaddafi was often described by critics as a dictator, and was one of the world's longest serving non-royal leaders, ruling for 42 years.",
"He ruled until being overthrown and killed during the 2011 Libyan Civil War, which was part of the wider Arab Spring, with authority transferred to the National Transitional Council then to the elected General National Congress.",
"By 2014 two rival authorities claimed to govern Libya, which led to a second civil war, with parts of Libya split between the Tobruk and Tripoli-based governments as well as various tribal and Islamist militias.",
"The two main warring sides signed a permanent ceasefire in 2020, and a unity government took authority to plan for democratic elections, though political rivalries continue to delay this.",
"Libya is a developing country ranking 104th by HDI and has the 10th-largest proven oil reserves in the world.",
"Libya is a member of the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, the African Union, the Arab League, the OIC and OPEC."
],
[
"Etymology",
"Archaeological site of Sabratha, LibyaThe origin of the name \"Libya\" first appeared in an inscription of Ramesses II, written as ''rbw'' in hieroglyphic.",
"The name derives from a generalized identity given to a large confederacy of ancient east \"Libyan\" berbers, African people(s) and tribes who lived around the lush regions of Cyrenaica and Marmarica.",
"An army of 40,000 men and a confederacy of tribes known as \"Great Chiefs of the Libu\" were led by King Meryey who fought a war against pharaoh Merneptah in year 5 (1208 BCE).",
"This conflict was mentioned in the Great Karnak Inscription in the western delta during the 5th and 6th years of his reign and resulted in a defeat for Meryey.",
"According to the Great Karnak Inscription, the military alliance comprised the Meshwesh, the Lukka, and the \"Sea Peoples\" known as the Ekwesh, Teresh, Shekelesh, and the Sherden.The Great karnak inscription reads: '''' The modern name of \"Libya\" is an evolution of the \"''Libu''\" or \"''Libúē''\" name (from Greek ''Λιβύη, Libyē''), generally encompassing the people of Cyrenaica and Marmarica.",
"The ''\"Libúē\"'' or ''\"libu\"'' name likely came to be used in the classical world as an identity for the natives of the North African region, and it possibly derives from Proto-Afroasiatic ''labiʔ-'' (lion), compare Somali '' libaax''.",
"The name was revived in 1934 for Italian Libya from the ancient Greek ('''').",
"It was intended to supplant terms applied to Ottoman Tripolitania, the coastal region of what is today Libya, having been ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1551 to 1911 as the Eyalet of Tripolitania.",
"The name \"Libya\" was brought back into use in 1903 by Italian geographer Federico Minutilli.Libya gained independence in 1951 as the United Libyan Kingdom ( ''''), changing its name to the Kingdom of Libya ( ''''), literally \"Libyan Kingdom\", in 1963.Following a coup d'état led by Muammar Gaddafi in 1969, the name of the state was changed to the Libyan Arab Republic ( '''').",
"The official name was \"Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya\" from 1977 to 1986 (), and \"Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya\" (, '''' ) from 1986 to 2011.The National Transitional Council, established in 2011, referred to the state as simply \"Libya\".",
"The UN formally recognized the country as \"Libya\" in September 2011 based on a request from the Permanent Mission of Libya citing the Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration of 3 August 2011.In November 2011, the ISO 3166-1 was altered to reflect the new country name \"Libya\" in English, ''\"Libye (la)\"'' in French.In December 2017 the Permanent Mission of Libya to the United Nations informed the United Nations that the country's official name was henceforth the \"State of Libya\"; \"Libya\" remained the official short form, and the country continued to be listed under \"L\" in alphabetical lists."
],
[
"History",
"===Ancient Libya===Leptis MagnaThe coastal plain of Libya was inhabited by Neolithic peoples from as early as 8000 BC.",
"The Afroasiatic ancestors of the Berber people are assumed to have spread into the area by the Late Bronze Age.",
"The earliest known name of such a tribe was the Garamantes, based in Germa.",
"The Phoenicians were the first to establish trading posts in Libya.",
"By the 5th century BC, the greatest of the Phoenician colonies, Carthage, had extended its hegemony across much of North Africa, where a distinctive civilization, known as Punic, came into being.In 630 BC, the ancient Greeks colonized the area around Barca in Eastern Libya and founded the city of Cyrene.",
"Within 200 years, four more important Greek cities were established in the area that became known as Cyrenaica.",
"The area was home to the renowned philosophy school of the Cyrenaics.",
"In 525 BC the Persian army of Cambyses II overran Cyrenaica, which for the next two centuries remained under Persian or Egyptian rule.",
"Alexander the Great ended Persian rule in 331 BC and received tribute from Cyrenaica.",
"Eastern Libya again fell under the control of the Greeks, this time as part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom.After the fall of Carthage the Romans did not immediately occupy Tripolitania (the region around Tripoli), but left it instead under control of the kings of Numidia, until the coastal cities asked and obtained its protection.",
"Ptolemy Apion, the last Greek ruler, bequeathed Cyrenaica to Rome, which formally annexed the region in 74 BC and joined it to Crete as a Roman province.",
"As part of the Africa Nova province, Tripolitania was prosperous, and reached a golden age in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, when the city of Leptis Magna, home to the Severan dynasty, was at its height.On the Eastern side, Cyrenaica's first Christian communities were established by the time of the Emperor Claudius.",
"It was heavily devastated during the Kitos War and almost depopulated of Greeks and Jews alike.",
"Although repopulated by Trajan with military colonies, from then started its decline.",
"Libya was early to convert to Nicene Christianity and was the home of Pope Victor I; however, Libya was also home to many non-Nicene varieties of early Christianity, such as Arianism and Donatism.===Islamic Libya===Atiq Mosque in Awjila is the oldest mosque in the Sahara.Under the command of Amr ibn al-As, the Rashidun army conquered Cyrenaica.",
"In 647 an army led by Abdullah ibn Saad took Tripoli from the Byzantines definitively.",
"The Fezzan was conquered by Uqba ibn Nafi in 663.The Berber tribes of the hinterland accepted Islam, however they resisted Arab political rule.For the next several decades, Libya was under the purview of the Umayyad Caliph of Damascus until the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads in 750, and Libya came under the rule of Baghdad.",
"When Caliph Harun al-Rashid appointed Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab as his governor of Ifriqiya in 800, Libya enjoyed considerable local autonomy under the Aghlabid dynasty.",
"By the 10th century, the Shiite Fatimids controlled Western Libya, and ruled the entire region in 972 and appointed Bologhine ibn Ziri as governor.Ibn Ziri's Berber Zirid dynasty ultimately broke away from the Shiite Fatimids, and recognised the Sunni Abbasids of Baghdad as rightful Caliphs.",
"In retaliation, the Fatimids brought about the migration of thousands from mainly two Arab Qaisi tribes, the Banu Sulaym and Banu Hilal to North Africa.",
"This act drastically altered the fabric of the Libyan countryside, and cemented the cultural and linguistic Arabisation of the region.Zirid rule in Tripolitania was short-lived though, and already in 1001 the Berbers of the Banu Khazrun broke away.",
"Tripolitania remained under their control until 1146, when the region was overtaken by the Normans of Sicily.",
"For the next 50 years, Tripolitania was the scene of numerous battles among Ayyubids, the Almohad rulers and insurgents of the Banu Ghaniya.",
"Later, a general of the Almohads, Muhammad ibn Abu Hafs, ruled Libya from 1207 to 1221 before the later establishment of a Tunisian Hafsid dynasty independent from the Almohads.",
"The Hafsids ruled Tripolitania for nearly 300 years.",
"By the 16th century the Hafsids became increasingly caught up in the power struggle between Spain and the Ottoman Empire.After weakening control of Abbasids, Cyrenaica was under Egypt based states such as Tulunids, Ikhshidids, Ayyubids and Mamluks before Ottoman conquest in 1517.Finally Fezzan acquired independence under Awlad Muhammad dynasty after Kanem rule.",
"Ottomans finally conquered Fezzan between 1556 and 1577.===Ottoman Tripolitania===siege of Tripoli in 1551 allowed the Ottomans to capture the city from the Knights of St. John.After a successful invasion of Tripoli by Habsburg Spain in 1510, and its handover to the Knights of St. John, the Ottoman admiral Sinan Pasha took control of Libya in 1551.His successor Turgut Reis was named the Bey of Tripoli and later Pasha of Tripoli in 1556.By 1565, administrative authority as regent in Tripoli was vested in a ''pasha'' appointed directly by the ''sultan'' in Constantinople/Istanbul.",
"In the 1580s, the rulers of Fezzan gave their allegiance to the sultan, and although Ottoman authority was absent in Cyrenaica, a ''bey'' was stationed in Benghazi late in the next century to act as agent of the government in Tripoli.",
"European slaves and large numbers of enslaved Blacks transported from Sudan were also a feature of everyday life in Tripoli.",
"In 1551, Turgut Reis enslaved almost the entire population of the Maltese island of Gozo, some 5,000 people, sending them to Libya.In time, real power came to rest with the pasha's corps of janissaries.",
"In 1611 the ''deys'' staged a coup against the pasha, and Dey Sulayman Safar was appointed as head of government.",
"For the next hundred years, a series of ''deys'' effectively ruled Tripolitania.",
"The two most important Deys were Mehmed Saqizli (r. 1631–49) and Osman Saqizli (r. 1649–72), both also Pasha, who ruled effectively the region.",
"The latter conquered also Cyrenaica.Enterprise'' of the Mediterranean Squadron capturing a Tripolitan Corsair during the First Barbary War, 1801Lacking direction from the Ottoman government, Tripoli lapsed into a period of military anarchy during which coup followed coup and few deys survived in office more than a year.",
"One such coup was led by Turkish officer Ahmed Karamanli.",
"The Karamanlis ruled from 1711 until 1835 mainly in Tripolitania, and had influence in Cyrenaica and Fezzan as well by the mid-18th century.",
"Ahmed's successors proved to be less capable than himself, however, the region's delicate balance of power allowed the Karamanli.",
"The 1793–95 Tripolitanian civil war occurred in those years.",
"In 1793, Turkish officer Ali Pasha deposed Hamet Karamanli and briefly restored Tripolitania to Ottoman rule.",
"Hamet's brother Yusuf (r. 1795–1832) re-established Tripolitania's independence.A US Navy expedition under Commodore Edward Preble engaging gunboats and fortifications in Tripoli, 1804In the early 19th century war broke out between the United States and Tripolitania, and a series of battles ensued in what came to be known as the First Barbary War and the Second Barbary War.",
"By 1819, the various treaties of the Napoleonic Wars had forced the Barbary states to give up piracy almost entirely, and Tripolitania's economy began to crumble.",
"As Yusuf weakened, factions sprung up around his three sons.",
"Civil war soon resulted.Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II sent in troops ostensibly to restore order, marking the end of both the Karamanli dynasty and an independent Tripolitania.",
"Order was not recovered easily, and the revolt of the Libyan under Abd-El-Gelil and Gûma ben Khalifa lasted until the death of the latter in 1858.The second period of direct Ottoman rule saw administrative changes, and greater order in the governance of the three provinces of Libya.",
"Ottoman rule finally reasserted to Fezzan between 1850 and 1875 for earning income from Saharan commerce.===Italian colonization and Allied occupation===Omar Mukhtar was a prominent leader of Libyan resistance in Cyrenaica against Italian colonization.After the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912), Italy simultaneously turned the three regions into colonies.",
"From 1912 to 1927, the territory of Libya was known as Italian North Africa.",
"From 1927 to 1934, the territory was split into two colonies, Italian Cyrenaica and Italian Tripolitania, run by Italian governors.",
"Some 150,000 Italians settled in Libya, constituting roughly 20% of the total population.Omar Mukhtar rose to prominence as a resistance leader against Italian colonization and became a national hero despite his capture and execution on 16 September 1931.His face is currently printed on the Libyan ten dinar note in memory and recognition of his patriotism.",
"Another prominent resistance leader, Idris al-Mahdi as-Senussi (later King Idris I), Emir of Cyrenaica, continued to lead the Libyan resistance until the outbreak of the Second World War.The so-called \"pacification of Libya\" by the Italians resulted in mass deaths of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica, killing approximately one quarter of Cyrenaica's population of 225,000.Ilan Pappé estimates that between 1928 and 1932 the Italian military \"killed half the Bedouin population (directly or through disease and starvation in Italian concentration camps in Libya).\"",
"Italian propaganda postcard depicting the Italian invasion of Libya in 1911.In 1934, Italy combined Cyrenaica, Tripolitania and Fezzan and adopted the name \"Libya\" (used by the Ancient Greeks for all of North Africa except Egypt) for the unified colony, with Tripoli as its capital.",
"The Italians emphasized infrastructure improvements and public works.",
"In particular, they greatly expanded Libyan railway and road networks from 1934 to 1940, building hundreds of kilometers of new roads and railways and encouraging the establishment of new industries and dozens of new agricultural villages.In June 1940, Italy entered World War II.",
"Libya became the setting for the hard-fought North African Campaign that ultimately ended in defeat for Italy and its German ally in 1943.From 1943 to 1951, Libya was under Allied occupation.",
"The British military administered the two former Italian Libyan provinces of Tripolitana and Cyrenaïca, while the French administered the province of Fezzan.",
"In 1944, Idris returned from exile in Cairo but declined to resume permanent residence in Cyrenaica until the removal of some aspects of foreign control in 1947.Under the terms of the 1947 peace treaty with the Allies, Italy relinquished all claims to Libya.===Independence and Kingdom of Libya===Idris I of the Senussi order became the first head of state of Libya in 1951.On 24 December 1951, Libya declared its independence as the United Kingdom of Libya, a constitutional and hereditary monarchy under King Idris, Libya's only monarch.",
"The discovery of significant oil reserves in 1959 and the subsequent income from petroleum sales enabled one of the world's poorest nations to establish an extremely wealthy state.",
"Although oil drastically improved the Libyan government's finances, resentment among some factions began to build over the increased concentration of the nation's wealth in the hands of King Idris.=== Gaddafi era (1969—2011) ===Nasser in 1969|212x212pxMuammar al-Gaddafi, leader of Libya (1969—2011)On 1 September 1969, a group of rebel military officers led by Muammar Gaddafi launched a coup d'état against King Idris, which became known as the Al Fateh Revolution.",
"Gaddafi was referred to as the \"Brother Leader and Guide of the Revolution\" in government statements and the official Libyan press.",
"Moving to reduce Italian influence, in October 1970 all Italian-owned assets were expropriated and the 12,000-strong Italian community was expelled from Libya alongside the smaller community of Libyan Jews.",
"The day became a national holiday known as \"Vengeance Day\".",
"Libya's increase in prosperity was accompanied by increased internal political repression, and political dissent was made illegal under Law 75 of 1973.Widespread surveillance of the population was carried out through Gaddafi's Revolutionary Committees.Gaddafi also wanted to combat the strict social restrictions that had been imposed on women by the previous regime, establishing the Revolutionary Women's Formation to encourage reform.",
"In 1970, a law was introduced affirming equality of the sexes and insisting on wage parity.",
"In 1971, Gaddafi sponsored the creation of a Libyan General Women's Federation.",
"In 1972, a law was passed criminalizing the marriage of any females under the age of sixteen and ensuring that a woman's consent was a necessary prerequisite for a marriage.On 25 October 1975, a coup attempt was launched by some 20 military officers, mostly from the city of Misrata.",
"This resulted in the arrest and executions of the coup plotters.",
"On 2 March 1977, Libya officially became the \"Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya\".",
"Gaddafi officially passed power to the General People's Committees and henceforth claimed to be no more than a symbolic figurehead.",
"The new ''jamahiriya'' (Arab for \"republic\") governance structure he established was officially referred to as \"direct democracy\".Gaddafi, in his vision of democratic government and political philosophy, published ''The Green Book'' in 1975.His short book inscribed a representative mix of utopian socialism and Arab nationalism with a streak of Bedouin supremacy.",
"In February 1977, Libya started delivering military supplies to Goukouni Oueddei and the People's Armed Forces in Chad.",
"The Chadian–Libyan War began in earnest when Libya's support of rebel forces in northern Chad escalated into an invasion.",
"Later that same year, Libya and Egypt fought a four-day border war that came to be known as the Egyptian–Libyan War.",
"Both nations agreed to a ceasefire under the mediation of the Algerian president Houari Boumédiène.",
"Hundreds of Libyans lost their lives in the country's support for Idi Amin's Uganda in its war against Tanzania.",
"Gaddafi financed various other groups from anti-nuclear movements to Australian trade unions.Libya adopted its plain green national flag on 19 November 1977.The country had the only plain-coloured flag in the world until 2011, when Libya adopted its current flag.From 1977 onward, per capita income in the country rose to more than US$11,000, the fifth-highest in Africa, while the Human Development Index became the highest in Africa and greater than that of Saudi Arabia.",
"This was achieved without borrowing any foreign loans, keeping Libya debt-free.",
"The Great Manmade River was also built to allow free access to fresh water across large parts of the country.",
"In addition, financial support was provided for university scholarships and employment programs.Much of Libya's income from oil, which soared in the 1970s, was spent on arms purchases and on sponsoring dozens of paramilitaries and terrorist groups around the world.",
"An American airstrike intended to kill Gaddafi failed in 1986.Libya was finally put under sanctions by the United Nations after the bombing of a commercial flight at Lockerbie in 1988 killed 270 people.",
"In 2003, Gaddafi announced that all of his regime's weapons of mass destruction were disassembled, and that Libya was transitioning toward nuclear power.===First Libyan Civil War===The first civil war came during the Arab Spring movements which overturned the rulers of Tunisia and Egypt.",
"Libya first experienced protests against Gaddafi's regime on 15 February 2011, with a full-scale revolt beginning on 17 February.",
"Libya's authoritarian regime led by Muammar Gaddafi put up much more of a resistance compared to the regimes in Egypt and Tunisia.",
"While overthrowing the regimes in Egypt and Tunisia was a relatively quick process, Gaddafi's campaign posed significant stalls on the uprising in Libya.",
"The first announcement of a competing political authority appeared online and declared the Interim Transitional National Council as an alternative government.",
"One of Gaddafi's senior advisors responded by posting a tweet, wherein he resigned, defected, and advised Gaddafi to flee.",
"By 20 February, the unrest had spread to Tripoli.",
"On 27 February 2011, the National Transitional Council was established to administer the areas of Libya under rebel control.",
"On 10 March 2011, the United States and many other nations recognised the council headed by Mahmoud Jibril as acting prime minister and as the legitimate representative of the Libyan people and withdrawing the recognition of Gaddafi's regime.Pro-Gaddafi forces were able to respond militarily to rebel pushes in Western Libya and launched a counterattack along the coast toward Benghazi, the ''de facto'' centre of the uprising.",
"The town of Zawiya, from Tripoli, was bombarded by air force planes and army tanks and seized by Jamahiriya troops, \"exercising a level of brutality not yet seen in the conflict.",
"\"The no-fly zone over Libya as well as bases and warships which were involved in the 2011 military interventionOrganizations of the United Nations, including United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and the United Nations Human Rights Council, condemned the crackdown as violating international law, with the latter body expelling Libya outright in an unprecedented action.On 17 March 2011 the UN Security Council passed Resolution 1973, with a 10–0 vote and five abstentions including Russia, China, India, Brazil and Germany.",
"The resolution sanctioned the establishment of a no-fly zone and the use of \"all means necessary\" to protect civilians within Libya.",
"On 19 March, the first act of NATO allies to secure the no-fly zone began by destroying Libyan air defenses when French military jets entered Libyan airspace on a reconnaissance mission heralding attacks on enemy targets.In the weeks that followed, US American forces were in the forefront of NATO operations against Libya.",
"More than 8,000 US personnel in warships and aircraft were deployed in the area.",
"At least 3,000 targets were struck in 14,202 strike sorties, 716 of them in Tripoli and 492 in Brega.",
"The US air offensive included flights of B-2 Stealth bombers, each bomber armed with sixteen 2000-pound bombs, flying out of and returning to their base in Missouri in the continental United States.",
"The support provided by the NATO air forces contributed to the ultimate success of the revolution.By 22 August 2011, rebel fighters had entered Tripoli and occupied Green Square, which they renamed Martyrs' Square in honour of those killed since 17 February 2011.On 20 October 2011, the last heavy fighting of the uprising came to an end in the city of Sirte.",
"The Battle of Sirte was both the last decisive battle and the last one in general of the First Libyan Civil War where Gaddafi was captured and killed by NATO-backed forces on 20 October 2011.Sirte was the last Gaddafi loyalist stronghold and his place of birth.",
"The defeat of loyalist forces was celebrated on 23 October 2011, three days after the fall of Sirte.At least 30,000 Libyans died in the civil war.",
"In addition, the National Transitional Council estimated 50,000 wounded.===Interwar period and the Second Libyan Civil War===Civil War, updated 11 June 2020:11px Tobruk-led Government11px Government of National Accord11px Petroleum Facilities Guard 11px Tuareg tribes11px Local forces Following the defeat of loyalist forces, Libya was torn among numerous rival, armed militias affiliated with distinct regions, cities and tribes, while the central government had been weak and unable to effectively exert its authority over the country.",
"Competing militias pitted themselves against each other in a political struggle between Islamist politicians and their opponents.",
"On 7 July 2012, Libyans held their first parliamentary elections since the end of the former regime.",
"On 8 August, the National Transitional Council officially handed power over to the wholly-elected General National Congress, which was then tasked with the formation of an interim government and the drafting of a new Libyan Constitution to be approved in a general referendum.On 25 August 2012, in what Reuters reported as \"the most blatant sectarian attack\" since the end of the civil war, unnamed organized assailants bulldozed a Sufi mosque with graves in the center of the Libyan capital Tripoli.",
"It was the second such razing of a Sufi site in two days.",
"Numerous acts of vandalism and destruction of heritage were carried out by suspected Islamist militias, including the removal of the Nude Gazelle Statue and the destruction and desecration of World War II-era British grave sites near Benghazi.",
"Many other cases of heritage vandalism were reported to be carried out by Islamist-related radical militias and mobs that either destroyed, robbed, or looted a number of historic sites.On 11 September 2012, Islamist militants mounted an attack on the American diplomatic compound in Benghazi, killing the U.S. ambassador to Libya, J. Christopher Stevens, and three others.",
"The incident generated outrage in the United States and Libya.",
"On 7 October 2012, Libya's Prime Minister-elect Mustafa A.G. Abushagur was ousted after failing a second time to win parliamentary approval for a new cabinet.",
"On 14 October 2012, the General National Congress elected former GNC member and human rights lawyer Ali Zeidan as prime minister-designate.",
"Zeidan was sworn in after his cabinet was approved by the GNC.",
"On 11 March 2014, after having been ousted by the GNC for his inability to halt a rogue oil shipment, Prime Minister Zeidan stepped down, and was replaced by Prime Minister Abdullah al-Thani.The Second Civil War began in May 2014 following fighting between rival parliaments with tribal militias and jihadist groups soon taking advantage of the power vacuum.",
"Most notably, radical Islamist fighters seized Derna in 2014 and Sirte in 2015 in the name of the Islamic State.",
"In February 2015, neighbouring Egypt launched airstrikes against IS in support of the Tobruk government.people trying to reach EuropeIn June 2014, elections were held to the House of Representatives, a new legislative body intended to take over from the General National Congress.",
"The elections were marred by violence and low turnout, with voting stations closed in some areas.",
"Secularists and liberals did well in the elections, to the consternation of Islamist lawmakers in the GNC, who reconvened and declared a continuing mandate for the GNC, refusing to recognise the new House of Representatives.",
"Armed supporters of the General National Congress occupied Tripoli, forcing the newly elected parliament to flee to Tobruk.Field Marshal Khalifa Haftar, the head of the Libyan National Army, one of the main factions in the 2014 civil war.In January 2015, meetings were held with the aim to find a peaceful agreement between the rival parties in Libya.",
"The so-called Geneva-Ghadames talks were supposed to bring the GNC and the Tobruk government together at one table to find a solution of the internal conflict.",
"However, the GNC actually never participated, a sign that internal division not only affected the \"Tobruk Camp\", but also the \"Tripoli Camp\".",
"Meanwhile, terrorism within Libya steadily increased, also affecting neighbouring countries.",
"The terrorist attack against the Bardo Museum in Tunisia on 18 March 2015 was reportedly carried out by two Libyan-trained militants.During 2015 an extended series of diplomatic meetings and peace negotiations were supported by the United Nations, as conducted by the Special Representative of the Secretary-General (SRSG), Spanish diplomat Bernardino León.",
"UN support for the SRSG-led process of dialogue carried on in addition to the usual work of the United Nations Support Mission in Libya (UNSMIL).In July 2015 SRSG Leon reported to the UN Security Council on the progress of the negotiations, which at that point had just achieved a political agreement on 11 July setting out \"a comprehensive framework... including guiding principles... institutions and decision-making mechanisms to guide the transition until the adoption of a permanent constitution.\"",
"The stated purpose of that process was \"...intended to culminate in the creation of a modern, democratic state based on the principle of inclusion, the rule of law, separation of powers and respect for human rights.\"",
"The SRSG praised the participants for achieving agreement, stating that \"The Libyan people have unequivocally expressed themselves in favour of peace.\"",
"The SRSG then informed the Security Council that \"Libya is at a critical stage\" and urging \"all parties in Libya to continue to engage constructively in the dialogue process\", stating that \"only through dialogue and political compromise, can a peaceful resolution of the conflict be achieved.",
"A peaceful transition will only succeed in Libya through a significant and coordinated effort in supporting a future Government of National Accord...\".Talks, negotiations and dialogue continued on during mid-2015 at various international locations, culminating at Skhirat in Morocco in early September.Also in 2015, as part of the ongoing support from the international community, the UN Human Rights Council requested a report about the Libyan situation and the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Zeid Ra'ad Al Hussein, established an investigative body (OIOL) to report on human rights and rebuilding the Libyan justice system.",
"Chaos-ridden Libya emerged as a major transit point for people trying to reach Europe.",
"Between 2013 and 2018, nearly 700,000 migrants reached Italy by boat, many of them from Libya.In May 2018 Libya's rival leaders agreed to hold parliamentary and presidential elections following a meeting in Paris.",
"In April 2019, Khalifa Haftar launched Operation Flood of Dignity, in an offensive by the Libyan National Army aimed to seize Western territories from the Government of National Accord (GNA).",
"In June 2019, forces allied to Libya's UN-recognized Government of National Accord successfully captured Gharyan, a strategic town where military commander Khalifa Haftar and his fighters were based.",
"According to a spokesman for GNA forces, Mustafa al-Mejii, dozens of LNA fighters under Haftar were killed, while at least 18 were taken prisoner.In March 2020, UN-backed government of Fayez Al-Sarraj commenced Operation Peace Storm.",
"The government initiated the bid in response to the state of assaults carried by Haftar's LNA.",
"\"We are a legitimate, civilian government that respects its obligations to the international community, but is committed primarily to its people and has an obligation to protect its citizens,\" Sarraj said in line with his decision.",
"On 28 August 2020, the ''BBC Africa Eye'' and ''BBC Arabic Documentaries'' revealed that a drone operated by the United Arab Emirates (UAE) killed 26 young cadets at a military academy in Tripoli, on 4 January.",
"Most of the cadets were teenagers and none of them were armed.",
"The Chinese-made drone Wing Loong II fired Blue Arrow 7 missile, which was operated from UAE-run Al-Khadim Libyan air base.",
"In February, these drones stationed in Libya were moved to an air base near Siwa in the western Egyptian desert.",
"''The Guardian'' probed and discovered the blatant violation of UN arms embargo by the UAE and Turkey on 7 October 2020.As per the reporting, both the nations sent large-scale military cargo planes to Libya in support of their respective parties.On 23 October 2020, a permanent ceasefire was signed to end the war.===Post-civil war years===In December 2021, the country's first presidential election was scheduled, but was delayed to June 2022 and later postponed further.Fathi Bashagha was appointed prime minister by the parliament in February 2022 to lead a transitional administration, but standing prime minister Abdul Hamid Dbeibeh refused to hand over power as of April 2022.In protest against the Dbeibah government, tribal leaders from the desert town of Ubari shut down the El Sharara oil field, Libya's largest oil field, on 18 April 2022.The shut down threatened to cause oil shortages domestically in Libya, and preclude the state-run National Oil Corp. from exploiting the high oil prices on the international market resulting from the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.",
"On 2 July, the House of Representatives was burned down by protesters.On September 10, 2023, catastrophic floods due to dam failures generated by Storm Daniel devastated the port city of Derna, killing more than 4,000 and leaving over 10,000 missing.",
"The floods were the worst natural disaster in Libya's modern history."
],
[
"Geography",
"A map of LibyaleftLibya extends over , making it the 16th largest nation in the world by size.",
"Libya is bound to the north by the Mediterranean Sea, the west by Tunisia and Algeria, the southwest by Niger, the south by Chad, the southeast by Sudan, and the east by Egypt.",
"Libya lies between latitudes 19° and 34°N, and longitudes 9° and 26°E.At , Libya's coastline is the longest of any African country bordering the Mediterranean.",
"The portion of the Mediterranean Sea north of Libya is often called the Libyan Sea.",
"The climate is mostly extremely dry and desertlike in nature.",
"However, the northern regions enjoy a milder Mediterranean climate.Six ecoregions lie within Libya's borders: Saharan halophytics, Mediterranean dry woodlands and steppe, Mediterranean woodlands and forests, North Saharan steppe and woodlands, Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands, and West Saharan montane xeric woodlands.Natural hazards come in the form of hot, dry, dust-laden sirocco (known in Libya as the ''gibli'').",
"This is a southern wind blowing from one to four days in spring and autumn.",
"There are also dust storms and sandstorms.",
"Oases can also be found scattered throughout Libya, the most important of which are Ghadames and Kufra.",
"Libya is one of the sunniest and driest countries in the world due to prevailing presence of desert environment.Libya was a pioneer state in North Africa in species protection, with the creation in 1975 of the El Kouf protected area.",
"The fall of Muammar Gaddafi's regime favoured intense poaching: \"Before the fall of Gaddafi even hunting rifles were forbidden.",
"But since 2011, poaching has been carried out with weapons of war and sophisticated vehicles in which one can find up to 200 gazelle heads killed by militiamen who hunt to pass the time.",
"We are also witnessing the emergence of hunters with no connection to the tribes that traditionally practice hunting.",
"They shoot everything they find, even during the breeding season.",
"More than 500,000 birds are killed in this way each year, when protected areas have been seized by tribal chiefs who have appropriated them.",
"The animals that used to live there have all disappeared, hunted when they are edible or released when they are not,\" explains zoologist Khaled Ettaieb.===Libyan Desert===Libya is a predominantly desert country.",
"Over 95% of the land area is covered in desert.Libya is the fourth most water stressed country in the world.The Libyan Desert, which covers most of Libya, is one of the most arid and sun-baked places on earth.",
"In places, decades may pass without seeing any rainfall at all, and even in the highlands rainfall seldom happens, once every 5–10 years.",
"At Uweinat, the last recorded rainfall was in September 1998.Likewise, the temperature in the Libyan Desert can be extreme; on 13 September 1922, the town of 'Aziziya, which is located southwest of Tripoli, recorded an air temperature of , considered to be a world record.",
"In September 2012, however, the world record figure of 58 °C was determined to be invalid by the World Meteorological Organization.There are a few scattered uninhabited small oases, usually linked to the major depressions, where water can be found by digging to a few feet in depth.",
"In the west there is a widely dispersed group of oases in unconnected shallow depressions, the Kufra group, consisting of Tazerbo, Rebianae and Kufra.",
"Aside from the scarps, the general flatness is only interrupted by a series of plateaus and massifs near the centre of the Libyan Desert, around the convergence of the Egyptian-Sudanese-Libyan borders.Slightly further to the south are the massifs of Arkenu, Uweinat, and Kissu.",
"These granite mountains are ancient, having formed long before the sandstones surrounding them.",
"Arkenu and Western Uweinat are ring complexes very similar to those in the Aïr Mountains.",
"Eastern Uweinat (the highest point in the Libyan Desert) is a raised sandstone plateau adjacent to the granite part further west.The plain to the north of Uweinat is dotted with eroded volcanic features.",
"With the discovery of oil in the 1950s also came the discovery of a massive aquifer underneath much of Libya.",
"The water in the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System pre-dates the last Ice ages and the Sahara Desert itself.",
"This area also contains the Arkenu structures, which were once thought to be two impact craters."
],
[
"Politics",
"The politics of Libya has been in a tumultuous state since the start of the Arab Spring and the NATO intervention related Libyan Crisis in 2011; the crisis resulted in the collapse of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya and the killing of Muammar Gaddafi, amidst the First Civil War and the foreign military intervention.The crisis was deepened by the factional violence in the aftermath of the First Civil War, resulting in the outbreak of the Second Civil War in 2014.The control over the country is currently split between the House of Representatives (HoR) in Tobruk and the Government of National Unity (GNU) in Tripoli and their respective supporters, as well as various jihadist groups and tribal elements controlling parts of the country.The former legislature was the General National Congress, which had 200 seats.",
"The General National Congress (2014), a largely unrecognised rival parliament based in the ''de jure'' capital of Tripoli, claims to be a legal continuation of the GNC.On 7 July 2012, Libyans voted in parliamentary elections, the first free elections in almost 40 years.",
"Around thirty women were elected to become members of parliament.",
"Early results of the vote showed the National Forces Alliance, led by former interim Prime Minister Mahmoud Jibril, as front runner.",
"The Justice and Construction Party, affiliated to the Muslim Brotherhood, has done less well than similar parties in Egypt and Tunisia.",
"It won 17 out of 80 seats that were contested by parties, but about 60 independents have since joined its caucus.As of January 2013, there was mounting public pressure on the National Congress to set up a drafting body to create a new constitution.",
"Congress had not yet decided whether the members of the body would be elected or appointed.On 30 March 2014, the General National Congress voted to replace itself with a new House of Representatives.",
"The new legislature allocates 30 seats for women, will have 200 seats overall (with individuals able to run as members of political parties) and allows Libyans of foreign nationalities to run for office.Following the 2012 elections, Freedom House improved Libya's rating from Not Free to Partly Free, and now considers the country to be an electoral democracy.Gaddafi merged civil and sharia courts in 1973.Civil courts now employ sharia judges who sit in regular courts of appeal and specialise in sharia appellate cases.",
"Laws regarding personal status are derived from Islamic law.At a meeting of the European Parliament Committee on Foreign Affairs on 2 December 2014, UN Special Representative Bernardino León described Libya as a non-state.An agreement to form a national unity government was signed on 17 December 2015.Under the terms of the agreement, a nine-member Presidency Council and a seventeen-member interim Government of National Accord would be formed, with a view to holding new elections within two years.",
"The House of Representatives would continue to exist as a legislature and an advisory body, to be known as the State Council, will be formed with members nominated by the General National Congress (2014).The formation of an interim unity government was announced on 5 February 2021, after its members were elected by the Libyan Political Dialogue Forum (LPDF).",
"Seventy four members of the LPDF cast ballots for four-member slates which would fill positions including the Prime Minister and the head of the Presidential Council.",
"After no slates reached a 60% vote threshold, the two leading teams competed in a run-off election.",
"Mohamed al-Menfi, a former ambassador to Greece, became head of the Presidential Council.",
"Meanwhile, the LPDF confirmed that Abdul Hamid Dbeibeh, a businessman, would be the transitional Prime Minister.",
"All of the candidates who ran in this election, including the members of the winning slate, promised to appoint women to 30% of all senior government positions.",
"The politicians elected to lead the interim government initially agreed not to stand in the national elections scheduled for 24 December 2021.However, Abdul Hamid Dbeibeh announced his candidature for president despite the ban in November 2021.The Appeals Court in Tripoli rejected appeals for his disqualification, and allowed Dbeibeh back on the candidates' list, along with a number of other disqualified candidates, originally scheduled for December 24.Even more controversially, the court also reinstated Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, a son of the former dictator, as a presidential candidate.",
"On 22 December 2021, Libya's Election Commission called for the postponement of the election until 24 January 2022.Earlier, a parliamentary commission said it would be \"impossible\" to hold the election on 24 December 2021.The UN called on Libya's interim leaders to \"expeditiously address all legal and political obstacles to hold elections, including finalising the list of presidential candidates\".",
"However, at the last minute, the election was postponed indefinitely and the international community agreed to continue its support and recognition of the interim government headed by Mr Dbeibeh.According to new election rules, a new prime minister has 21 days to form a cabinet that must be endorsed by the various governing bodies within Libya.",
"After this cabinet is agreed upon, the unity government will replace all \"parallel authorities\" within Libya, including the Government of National Accord in Tripoli and the administration led by General Haftar.===Foreign relations===UK Foreign Secretary William Hague with Libyan Prime Minister Ali Zeidan and U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry, November 2013Libyan National Security Advisor Mutassim Gaddafi and U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, April 2009Libya's foreign policies have fluctuated since 1951.As a Kingdom, Libya maintained a definitively pro-Western stance, and was recognized as belonging to the conservative traditionalist bloc in the League of Arab States (the present-day Arab League), of which it became a member in 1953.The government was also friendly towards Western countries such as the United Kingdom, United States, France, Italy, Greece, and established full diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in 1955.Although the government supported Arab causes, including the Moroccan and Algerian independence movements, it took little active part in the Arab-Israeli dispute or the tumultuous inter-Arab politics of the 1950s and early 1960s.",
"The Kingdom was noted for its close association with the West, while it steered a conservative course at home.Secretary of State Antony J. Blinken meets with Libyan interim Prime Minister Abdulhamid Dabaiba, in Berlin, Germany on June 24, 2021.State Department photo by Ron Przysucha/ Public DomainAfter the 1969 coup, Muammar Gaddafi closed American and British bases and partly nationalized foreign oil and commercial interests in Libya.Gaddafi was known for backing a number of leaders viewed as anathema to Westernization and political liberalism, including Ugandan President Idi Amin, Central African Emperor Jean-Bédel Bokassa, Ethiopian strongman Haile Mariam Mengistu, Liberian President Charles Taylor, and Yugoslav President Slobodan Milošević.Relations with the West were strained by a series of incidents for most of Gaddafi's rule, including the killing of London policewoman Yvonne Fletcher, the bombing of a West Berlin nightclub frequented by U.S. servicemen, and the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103, which led to UN sanctions in the 1990s, though by the late 2000s, the United States and other Western powers had normalised relations with Libya.Gaddafi's decision to abandon the pursuit of weapons of mass destruction after the Iraq War saw Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein overthrown and put on trial led to Libya being hailed as a success for Western soft power initiatives in the War on Terror.",
"In October 2010, Gaddafi apologized to African leaders on behalf of Arab nations for their involvement in the trans-Saharan slave trade.Libya is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer.",
"Libyan authorities rejected European Union's plans aimed at stopping migration from Libya.",
"In 2017, Libya signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.===Military=== Libya's previous national army was defeated in the Libyan Civil War and disbanded.",
"The Tobruk based House of Representatives who claim to be the legitimate government of Libya have attempted to reestablish a military known as the Libyan National Army.",
"Led by Khalifa Haftar, they control much of eastern Libya.",
"In May 2012, an estimated 35,000 personnel had joined its ranks.",
"The internationally recognised Government of National Accord established in 2015 has its own army that replaced the LNA, but it consists largely of undisciplined and disorganised militia groups.As of November 2012, it was deemed to be still in the embryonic stage of development.",
"President Mohammed el-Megarif promised that empowering the army and police force is the government's biggest priority.",
"President el-Megarif also ordered that all of the country's militias must come under government authority or disband.Militias have so far refused to be integrated into a central security force.",
"Many of these militias are disciplined, but the most powerful of them answer only to the executive councils of various Libyan cities.",
"These militias make up the so-called Libyan Shield, a parallel national force, which operates at the request, rather than at the order, of the defence ministry.===Administrative divisions===Districts of Libya since 2007Historically, the area of Libya was considered three provinces (or states), Tripolitania in the northwest, Barka (Cyrenaica) in the east, and Fezzan in the southwest.",
"It was the conquest by Italy in the Italo-Turkish War that united them in a single political unit.Since 2007, Libya has been divided into 22 districts (Shabiyat):In 2022, 18 provinces were declared by the Libyan Government of National Unity ( |Libyan Observer): the eastern coast, Jabal Al-Akhdar, Al-Hizam, Benghazi, Al-Wahat, Al-Kufra, Al-Khaleej, Al-Margab, Tripoli, Al-Jafara, Al-Zawiya, West Coast, Gheryan, Zintan, Nalut, Sabha, Al-Wadi, and Murzuq Basin.===Human rights===According to Human Rights Watch annual report 2016, journalists are still being targeted by the armed groups in Libya.",
"The organization added that Libya ranked very low in the 2015 Press Freedom Index, 154th out of 180 countries.",
"For the 2021 Press Freedom Index its score dropped to 165th out of 180 countries.",
"Homosexuality is illegal in Libya."
],
[
"Economy",
"Change in per capita GDP of Libya, 1950–2018.Figures are inflation-adjusted to 2011 International dollars.A proportional representation of Libya exports, 2019The Libyan economy depends primarily upon revenues from the oil sector, which account for over half of GDP and 97% of exports.",
"Libya holds the largest proven oil reserves in Africa and is an important contributor to the global supply of light, sweet crude.",
"During 2010, when oil averaged at $80 a barrel, oil production accounted for 54% of GDP.",
"Apart from petroleum, the other natural resources are natural gas and gypsum.",
"The International Monetary Fund estimated Libya's real GDP growth at 122% in 2012 and 16.7% in 2013, after a 60% plunge in 2011.The World Bank defines Libya as an 'Upper Middle Income Economy', along with only seven other African countries.",
"Substantial revenues from the energy sector, coupled with a small population, give Libya one of the highest per capita GDPs in Africa.",
"This allowed the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya state to provide an extensive level of social security, particularly in the fields of housing and education.An oil platform off the Libyan coastLibya faces many structural problems including a lack of institutions, weak governance, and chronic structural unemployment.",
"The economy displays a lack of economic diversification and significant reliance on immigrant labour.",
"Libya has traditionally relied on unsustainably high levels of public sector hiring to create employment.",
"In the mid-2000s, the government employed about 70% of all national employees.Unemployment rose from 8% in 2008 to 21% in 2009, according to the census figures.",
"According to an Arab League report, based on data from 2010, unemployment for women stands at 18% while for the figure for men is 21%, making Libya the only Arab country where there are more unemployed men than women.",
"Libya has high levels of social inequality, high rates of youth unemployment and regional economic disparities.",
"Water supply is also a problem, with some 28% of the population not having access to safe drinking water in 2000.Pivot irrigation in Kufra, southeast Libya, 2008Libya imports up to 90% of its cereal consumption requirements, and imports of wheat in 2012/13 was estimated at 1 million tonnes.",
"The 2012 wheat production was estimated at 200,000 tonnes.",
"The government hopes to increase food production to 800,000 tonnes of cereals by 2020.However, natural and environmental conditions limit Libya's agricultural production potential.",
"Before 1958, agriculture was the country's main source of revenue, making up about 30% of GDP.",
"With the discovery of oil in 1958, the size of the agriculture sector declined rapidly, comprising less than 5% GDP by 2005.The country joined OPEC in 1962.Libya is not a WTO member, but negotiations for its accession started in 2004.In the early 1980s, Libya was one of the wealthiest countries in the world; its GDP per capita was higher than some developed countries.estimated reserves of 43.6 billion barrels.In the early 2000s officials of the Jamahiriya era carried out economic reforms to reintegrate Libya into the global economy.",
"UN sanctions were lifted in September 2003, and Libya announced in December 2003 that it would abandon programs to build weapons of mass destruction.",
"Other steps have included applying for membership of the World Trade Organization, reducing subsidies, and announcing plans for privatization.Authorities privatized more than 100 government owned companies after 2003 in industries including oil refining, tourism and real estate, of which 29 were 100% foreign owned.",
"Many international oil companies returned to the country, including oil giants Shell and ExxonMobil.",
"After sanctions were lifted there was a gradual increase of air traffic, and by 2005 there were 1.5 million yearly air travellers.",
"Libya had long been a notoriously difficult country for Western tourists to visit due to stringent visa requirements.In 2007 Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, the second-eldest son of Muammar Gaddafi, was involved in a green development project called the Green Mountain Sustainable Development Area, which sought to bring tourism to Cyrene and to preserve Greek ruins in the area.In August 2011 it was estimated that it would take at least 10 years to rebuild Libya's infrastructure.",
"Even before the 2011 war, Libya's infrastructure was in a poor state due to \"utter neglect\" by Gaddafi's administration, according to the NTC.",
"By October 2012, the economy had recovered from the 2011 conflict, with oil production returning to near normal levels.",
"Oil production was more than 1.6 million barrels per day before the war.",
"By October 2012, the average oil production has surpassed 1.4 million bpd.",
"The resumption of production was made possible due to the quick return of major Western companies, like TotalEnergies, Eni, Repsol, Wintershall and Occidental.",
"In 2016, an announcement from the company said the company aims 900,000 barrel per day in the next year.",
"Oil production has fallen from 1.6 million barrel per day to 900,000 in four years of war.The Great Man-Made River is the world's largest irrigation project.",
"The project utilizes a pipeline system that pumps fossil water from the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System from down south in Libya to cities in the populous Libyan northern Mediterranean coast including Tripoli and Benghazi.",
"The water provides 70% of all freshwater used in Libya.",
"During the second Libyan civil war, lasting from 2014 to 2020, the water infrastructure suffered neglect and occasional breakdowns.By 2017, 60% of the Libyan population were malnourished.",
"Since then, 1.3 million people are waiting for emergency humanitarian aid, out of a total population of 7.1 million."
],
[
"Demographics",
"Ethnic composition of the Libyan population in 1974 (CIA map) Libya is a large country with a relatively small population concentrated very narrowly along the coast.",
"Its population density is about in the two northern regions of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, but falls to less than elsewhere.",
"Ninety percent of the people live along the coast in less than 10% of the area.About 88% of the population is urban, mostly concentrated in the three largest cities, Tripoli, Benghazi and Misrata.",
"Libya has a population of about million, 27.7% of whom are under the age of 15.In 1984 the population was 3.6 million, an increase from the 1.54 million reported in 1964.The population of Libya is primarily of Arab ancestry.",
"Arabs comprise 92% of the population, while Berbers comprise 5%.",
"Unofficial estimates put the number of Berbers in Libya at around 600,000, about 10% of the population of Libya.",
"Among the Berber groups are the minority Berber populations of Zuwarah and the Nafusa Mountains.",
"Southern Libya, primarily Sebha, Kufra, Ghat, Ghadamis and Murzuk, is also inhabited by two other ethnic groups; the Tuareg and Toubou.",
"Libya is one of the world's most tribal countries.",
"There are about 140 tribes and clans in Libya.",
"Additionally, there are an estimated 750,000 Egyptian workers residing in Libya, which had declined from the 2 million Egyptians in Libya prior to the 2011 Civil War that led to the overthrow of Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi.Family life is important for Libyan families, the majority of whom live in apartment blocks and other independent housing units, with modes of housing depending on their income and wealth.",
"Although the Arab Libyans traditionally lived nomadic Bedouin lifestyles in tents, they have predominately settled in towns and cities.Because of this, their old ways of life are gradually fading out.",
"An unknown small number of Libyans still live in the desert as their families have done for centuries.",
"Most of the population has occupations in industry and services, and a small percentage is in agriculture.According to the UNHCR, there were around 8,000 registered refugees, 5,500 unregistered refugees, and 7,000 asylum seekers of various origins in Libya in January 2013.Additionally, 47,000 Libyan nationals were internally displaced and 46,570 were internally displaced returnees.===Health===In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 3.88% of the country's GDP.",
"In 2009, there were 18.71 physicians and 66.95 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.",
"The life expectancy at birth was 74.95 years in 2011, or 72.44 years for males and 77.59 years for females.===Education===Al Manar Royal Palace in central Benghazi – the location of the University of Libya's first campus, founded by royal decree in 1955Libya's population includes 1.7 million students, over 270,000 of whom study at the tertiary level.",
"Basic education in Libya is free for all citizens, and is compulsory up to the secondary level.",
"The adult literacy rate in 2010 was 89.2%.After Libya's independence in 1951, its first university – the University of Libya – was established in Benghazi by royal decree.",
"In the 1975–76 academic year the number of university students was estimated to be 13,418., this number has increased to more than 200,000, with another 70,000 enrolled in the higher technical and vocational sector.",
"The rapid increase in the number of students in the higher education sector has been mirrored by an increase in the number of institutions of higher education.Since 1975 the number of public universities has grown from two to twelve and since their introduction in 1980, the number of higher technical and vocational institutes has grown to 84.Since 2007 some new private universities such as the Libyan International Medical University have been established.",
"Although before 2011 a small number of private institutions were given accreditation, the majority of Libya's higher education has always been financed by the public budget.",
"In 1998 the budget allocation for education represented 38.2% of Libya's national budget.===Ethnicity===The original inhabitants of Libya belonged predominantly to Berber ethnic groups; however, the long series of foreign invasions and migrations – particularly by Arabs – had a profound and lasting ethnic, linguistic, and cultural influence on Libyan demographics.",
"Centuries of large-scale Arab migration to the Maghreb since the 7th century shifted the demographics of Libya in favor of Arabs.",
"Some Turks settled in Libya during the rule of the Ottoman Empire.Most of Libya's inhabitants are Arab, with many tracing their ancestry to Bedouin Arab tribes like Banu Sulaym and Banu Hilal, plus Turkish and Berber minorities.",
"The Turkish minority are often called \"Kouloughlis\" and are concentrated in and around villages and towns.",
"There are some ethnic minorities, such as the Berber Tuareg and the Black African Tebou.Most Italian settlers, at their height numbering over half a million, left after Italian Libya's independence in 1947.More repatriated in 1970 after the accession of Muammar Gaddafi, but a few hundred returned in the 2000s.===Foreign Labour===As of 2023 the IOM estimates that approximately 10% of Libya's population (upwards of 700,000 people) constituted foreign labour.",
"Prior to the 2011 revolution, official and unofficial figures of migrant labour ranged from 25% to 40% of the population (between 1.5 and 2.4 million people).",
"Historically, Libya hosted millions of low- and high-skilled Egyptian migrants, in particular.It is difficult to estimate the total number of immigrants in Libya because the census figures, official counts and typically more accurate unofficial estimates all differ.",
"In the 2006 census, around 359,540 foreign nationals were resident in Libya out of a population of over 5.5 million (6.35% of the population).",
"Almost half of these were Egyptians, followed by Sudanese and Palestinian immigrants.During the 2011 revolution, 768,362 immigrants fled Libya as calculated by the IOM, around 13% of the population at the time, although many more stayed on in the country.If consular records prior to the revolution are used to estimate the immigrant population, as many as 2 million Egyptian migrants were recorded by the Egyptian embassy in Tripoli in 2009, followed by 87,200 Tunisians, and 68,200 Moroccans by their respective embassies.",
"Turkey recorded the evacuation of 25,000 workers during the 2011 uprising.",
"The number of Asian migrants before the revolution were just over 100,000 (60,000 Bangladeshis, 20,000 Filipinos, 18,000 Indians, 10,000 Pakistanis, as well as Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese, Thai and other workers).",
"This would put the immigrant population at almost 40% before the revolution and is a figure more consistent with government estimates in 2004 which put the regular and irregular migrant numbers at 1.35 to 1.8 million (25–33% of the population at the time).Libya's native population of Arabs-Berbers as well as Arab migrants of various nationalities collectively make up 97% of the population .===Languages===According to the CIA, the official language of Libya is Arabic.",
"The local Libyan Arabic variety is spoken alongside Modern Standard Arabic.",
"Various Berber languages are also spoken, including Tamasheq, Ghadamis, Nafusi, Suknah and Awjilah.",
"The Libyan Amazigh High Council (LAHC) has declared the Amazigh (Berber or Tamazight) language to be official in the cities and districts inhabited by the Berbers in Libya.In addition, English is widely understood in the major cities, while the former colonial language of Italian is also used in commerce and by the remaining Italian population.===Religion===Mosque in Ghadames, close to the Tunisian and Algerian border.About 97% of the population in Libya are Muslims, most of whom belong to the Sunni branch.",
"Small numbers of Ibadi Muslims live in the country.Before the 1930s, the Senussi Sunni Sufi movement was the primary Islamic movement in Libya.",
"This was a religious revival adapted to desert life.",
"Its ''zawaaya'' (lodges) were found in Tripolitania and Fezzan, but Senussi influence was strongest in Cyrenaica.",
"Rescuing the region from unrest and anarchy, the Senussi movement gave the Cyrenaican tribal people a religious attachment and feelings of unity and purpose.",
"This Islamic movement was eventually destroyed by the Italian invasion.",
"Gaddafi asserted that he was a devout Muslim, and his government was taking a role in supporting Islamic institutions and in worldwide proselytising on behalf of Islam.The International Religious Freedom Report 2004 noted that \"bishops, priests and nuns wear religious dress freely in public and report virtually no discrimination,\" while also \"enjoying good relations with the Government\".",
"The report also indicated that members of minority religions said \"they do not face harassment by authorities or the Muslim majority on the basis of their religious practices\".",
"The International Christian Concern does not list Libya as a country where there is \"persecution or severe discrimination against Christians\".Since the fall of Gaddafi, ultra-conservative strains of Islam have reasserted themselves in places.",
"Derna in eastern Libya, historically a hotbed of jihadist thought, came under the control of militants aligned with the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant in 2014.Jihadist elements have also spread to Sirte and Benghazi, among other areas, as a result of the Second Libyan Civil War.Prior to independence, Libya was home to more than 140,000 Christians (mostly of Italian and Maltese ancestry).",
"Many Christian settlers left to Italy or Malta after the independence.",
"Small foreign communities of Christians remained.",
"Coptic Orthodox Christianity, the predominant Christian church of Egypt, is the largest and most historic Christian denomination in Libya.",
"There are about 60,000 Egyptian Copts in Libya.",
"There are three Coptic Churches in Libya, one in Tripoli, one in Benghazi, and one in Misurata.The Coptic Church has grown in recent years in Libya, due to the growing immigration of Egyptian Copts to Libya.",
"There are an estimated 40,000 Roman Catholics in Libya who are served by two bishops, one in Tripoli (serving the Italian community) and one in Benghazi (serving the Maltese community).",
"There is also a small Anglican community, made up mostly of African immigrant workers in Tripoli which is part of the Anglican Diocese of Egypt.",
"People have been arrested on suspicion of being Christian missionaries, as proselytising is illegal.",
"Christians have also faced the threat of violence from radical Islamists in some parts of the country, with a well-publicised video released by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant in February 2015 depicting the mass beheading of Christian Copts.",
"Libya was ranked fourth on Open Doors' 2022 World Watch List, an annual ranking of the 50 countries where Christians face the most extreme persecution.Libya was once the home of one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world, dating back to at least 300 BC.",
"In 1942, the Italian Fascist authorities set up forced labor camps south of Tripoli for the Jews, including Giado (about 3,000 Jews), Gharyan, Jeren, and Tigrinna.",
"In Giado some 500 Jews died of weakness, hunger, and disease.",
"In 1942, Jews who were not in the concentration camps were heavily restricted in their economic activity and all men between 18 and 45 years were drafted for forced labor.",
"In August 1942, Jews from Tripolitania were interned in a concentration camp at Sidi Azaz.",
"In the three years after November 1945, more than 140 Jews were murdered, and hundreds more wounded, in a series of pogroms.",
"By 1948, about 38,000 Jews remained in the country.",
"Upon Libyan independence in 1951, most of the Jewish community emigrated.===Largest cities==="
],
[
"Culture",
"CyreneAncient Roman mosaic in Sabrathaal-fateh Revolution day decorations in Tripoli 2008Many Arabic speaking Libyans consider themselves as part of a wider Arab community.",
"This was strengthened by the spread of Pan-Arabism in the mid-20th century, and their reach to power in Libya where they instituted Arabic as the only official language of the state.",
"Under Gaddafi's rule, the teaching and even use of indigenous Berber language was strictly forbidden.",
"In addition to banning foreign languages previously taught in academic institutions, leaving entire generations of Libyans with limitations in their comprehension of the English language.",
"Both the spoken Arabic dialects and Berber, still retain words from Italian, that were acquired before and during the ''Libia Italiana'' period.Libyans have a heritage in the traditions of the previously nomadic Bedouin Arabic speakers and sedentary Berber tribes.",
"Most Libyans associate themselves with a particular family name originating from tribal or conquest based heritage.Reflecting the \"nature of giving\" ( '''', Berber languages: ⴰⵏⴰⴽⴽⴰⴼ Anakkaf ), amongst the Libyan people as well as the sense of hospitality, recently the state of Libya made it to the top 20 on the world giving index in 2013.According to CAF, in a typical month, almost three-quarters (72%) of all Libyans helped somebody they did not know – the third highest level across all 135 countries surveyed.There are few theaters or art galleries due to the decades of cultural repression under the Qaddafi regime and lack of infrastructure development under the regime of dictatorship.",
"For many years there have been no public theaters, and only very few cinemas showing foreign films.",
"The tradition of folk culture is still alive and well, with troupes performing music and dance at frequent festivals, both in Libya and abroad.A large number of Libyan television stations are devoted to political review, Islamic topics and cultural phenomena.",
"A number of TV stations air various styles of traditional Libyan music.",
"Tuareg music and dance are popular in Ghadames and the south.",
"Libyan television broadcasts air programs mostly in Arabic though usually have time slots for English and French programs.",
"A 1996 analysis by the Committee to Protect Journalists found Libya's media was the most tightly controlled in the Arab world during the country's dictatorship.",
"hundreds of TV stations have begun to air due to the collapse of censorship from the old regime and the initiation of \"free media\".Many Libyans frequent the country's beach and they also visit Libya's archaeological sites—especially Leptis Magna, which is widely considered to be one of the best preserved Roman archaeological sites in the world.",
"The most common form of public transport between cities is the bus, though many people travel by automobile.",
"There are no railway services in Libya, but these are planned for construction in the near future (see rail transport in Libya).Libya's capital, Tripoli, has many museums and archives.",
"These include the Government Library, the Ethnographic Museum, the Archaeological Museum, the National Archives, the Epigraphy Museum and the Islamic Museum.",
"The Red Castle Museum located in the capital near the coast and right in the city center, built in consultation with UNESCO, may be the country's most famous.===Cuisine===Bazeen, a communal bread dishLibyan cuisine is a mixture of the different Italian, Bedouin and traditional Arab culinary influences.",
"Pasta is the staple food in the Western side of Libya, whereas rice is generally the staple food in the east.Common Libyan foods include several variations of red (tomato) sauce based pasta dishes (similar to the Italian Sugo all'arrabbiata dish); rice, usually served with lamb or chicken (typically stewed, fried, grilled, or boiled in-sauce); and couscous, which is steam cooked whilst held over boiling red (tomato) sauce and meat (sometimes also containing courgettes/zucchini and chickpeas), which is typically served along with cucumber slices, lettuce and olives.Bazeen, a dish made from barley flour and served with red tomato sauce, is customarily eaten communally, with several people sharing the same dish, usually by hand.",
"This dish is commonly served at traditional weddings or festivities.",
"Asida is a sweet version of Bazeen, made from white flour and served with a mix of honey, ghee or butter.",
"Another favorite way to serve Asida is with rub (fresh date syrup) and olive oil.",
"Usban is animal tripe stitched and stuffed with rice and vegetables cooked in tomato based soup or steamed.",
"Shurba is a red tomato sauce-based soup, usually served with small grains of pasta.A very common snack eaten by Libyans is known as ''khubs bi' tun'', literally meaning \"bread with tuna fish\", usually served as a baked baguette or pita bread stuffed with tuna fish that has been mixed with harissa (chili sauce) and olive oil.",
"Many snack vendors prepare these sandwiches and they can be found all over Libya.",
"Libyan restaurants may serve international cuisine, or may serve simpler fare such as lamb, chicken, vegetable stew, potatoes and macaroni.",
"Due to severe lack of infrastructure, many under-developed areas and small towns do not have restaurants and instead food stores may be the only source to obtain food products.",
"Alcohol consumption is illegal in the entire country.There are four main ingredients of traditional Libyan food: olives (and olive oil), dates, grains and milk.",
"Grains are roasted, ground, sieved and used for making bread, cakes, soups and bazeen.",
"Dates are harvested, dried and can be eaten as they are, made into syrup or slightly fried and eaten with bsisa and milk.",
"After eating, Libyans often drink black tea.",
"This is normally repeated a second time (for the second glass of tea), and in the third round of tea, it is served with roasted peanuts or roasted almonds known as ''shay bi'l-luz'' (mixed with the tea in the same glass).=== Sport ===Football is the most popular sport in Libya.",
"The country hosted the 1982 African Cup of Nations and almost qualified for the 1986 FIFA World Cup.",
"The national team almost won the 1982 AFCON; they lost to Ghana on penalties 7–6.In 2014, Libya won the African Nations Championship after beating Ghana in the finals.",
"Although the national team has never won a major competition or qualified for a World Cup, there is still lots of passion for the sport and the quality of football is improving.Horse racing is also a popular sport in Libya.",
"It is a tradition of many special occasions and holidays."
],
[
"See also",
"* Outline of Libya* Index of Libya-related articles"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography"
],
[
"External links",
"* Libya .",
"''The World Factbook''.",
"Central Intelligence Agency.",
"* * * Libya profile from the BBC News.",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Law of noncontradiction"
],
[
"Introduction",
"In logic, the '''law of non-contradiction''' ('''LNC''') (also known as the '''law of contradiction''', '''principle of non-contradiction''' ('''PNC'''), or the '''principle of contradiction''') states that contradictory propositions cannot both be true in the same sense at the same time, e. g. the two propositions \"''p is the case''\" and \"''p is not the case''\" are mutually exclusive.",
"Formally, this is expressed as the tautology ¬(p ∧ ¬p).",
"The law is not to be confused with the law of excluded middle which states that at least one, \"p is the case\" or \"p is not the case\", holds.One reason to have this law is the principle of explosion, which states that anything follows from a contradiction.",
"The law is employed in a ''reductio ad absurdum'' proof.To express the fact that the law is tenseless and to avoid equivocation, sometimes the law is amended to say \"contradictory propositions cannot both be true 'at the same time and in the same sense'\".",
"It is one of the so called three laws of thought, along with its complement, the law of excluded middle, and the law of identity.",
"However, no system of logic is built on just these laws, and none of these laws provide inference rules, such as ''modus ponens'' or De Morgan's laws.The law of non-contradiction and the law of excluded middle create a dichotomy in \"logical space\", wherein the two parts are \"mutually exclusive\" and \"jointly exhaustive\".",
"The law of non-contradiction is merely an expression of the mutually exclusive aspect of that dichotomy, and the law of excluded middle is an expression of its jointly exhaustive aspect."
],
[
"Interpretations",
"One difficulty in applying the law of non-contradiction is ambiguity in the propositions.",
"For instance, if it is not explicitly specified as part of the propositions A and B, then ''A'' may be ''B'' at one time, and not at another.",
"A and B may in some cases be made to sound mutually exclusive linguistically even though ''A'' may be partly ''B'' and partly not ''B'' at the same time.",
"However, it is impossible to predicate of the same thing, at the same time, and in the same sense, the absence and the presence of the same fixed quality.=== Heraclitus ===According to both Plato and Aristotle, Heraclitus was ''said'' to have denied the law of non-contradiction.",
"This is quite likely if, as Plato pointed out, the law of non-contradiction does not hold for changing things in the world.",
"If a philosophy of Becoming is not possible without change, then (the potential of) what is to become must already exist in the present object.",
"In \"We step and do not step into the same rivers; we are and we are not\", both Heraclitus's and Plato's object simultaneously must, in some sense, be both what it now is and have the potential (dynamic) of what it might become.So little remains of Heraclitus' aphorisms that not much about his philosophy can be said with certainty.",
"He seems to have held that strife of opposites is universal both within and without, therefore ''both'' opposite existents or qualities must simultaneously exist, although in some instances in different respects.",
"\"The ''road up and down are one and the same''\" implies either the road leads both ways, or there can be no road at all.",
"This is the logical complement of the law of non-contradiction.",
"According to Heraclitus, change, and the constant conflict of opposites is the universal logos of nature.=== Protagoras ===Personal subjective perceptions or judgments can only be said to be true at the same time in the same respect, in which case, the law of non-contradiction must be applicable to personal judgments.The most famous saying of Protagoras is: \"Man is the measure of all things: of things which are, that they are, and of things which are not, that they are not\".",
"However, Protagoras was referring to things that are used by or in some way related to humans.",
"This makes a great difference in the meaning of his aphorism.",
"Properties, social entities, ideas, feelings, judgments, etc.",
"originate in the human mind.",
"However, Protagoras has never suggested that man must be the measure of stars or the motion of the stars.=== Parmenides ===Parmenides employed an ontological version of the law of non-contradiction to prove that being is and to deny the void, change, and motion.",
"He also similarly disproved contrary propositions.",
"In his poem On Nature, he said,The nature of the 'is' or what-is in Parmenides is a highly contentious subject.",
"Some have taken it to be whatever exists, some to be whatever is or can be the object of scientific inquiry.=== Socrates ===In Plato's early dialogues, Socrates uses the elenctic method to investigate the nature or definition of ethical concepts such as justice or virtue.",
"Elenctic refutation depends on a dichotomous thesis, one that may be divided into exactly two mutually exclusive parts, only one of which may be true.",
"Then Socrates goes on to demonstrate the contrary of the commonly accepted part using the law of non-contradiction.",
"According to Gregory Vlastos, the method has the following steps:# Socrates' interlocutor asserts a thesis, for example, \"Courage is endurance of the soul\", which Socrates considers false and targets for refutation.# Socrates secures his interlocutor's agreement to further premises, for example, \"Courage is a fine thing\" and \"Ignorant endurance is not a fine thing\".# Socrates then argues, and the interlocutor agrees, that these further premises imply the contrary of the original thesis, in this case, it leads to: \"courage is not endurance of the soul\".# Socrates then claims that he has shown that his interlocutor's thesis is false and that its negation is true.=== Plato's synthesis ===Plato's version of the law of non-contradiction states that \"The same thing clearly cannot act or be acted upon in the same part or in relation to the same thing at the same time, in contrary ways\" (The ''Republic'' (436b)).",
"In this, Plato carefully phrases three axiomatic restrictions on ''action'' or reaction: in the same part, in the same relation, at the same time.",
"The effect is to momentarily create a frozen, timeless state, somewhat like figures frozen in action on the frieze of the Parthenon.This way, he accomplishes two essential goals for his philosophy.",
"First, he logically separates the Platonic world of constant change from the formally knowable world of momentarily fixed physical objects.",
"Second, he provides the conditions for the dialectic method to be used in finding definitions, as for example in the ''Sophist''.",
"So Plato's law of non-contradiction is the empirically derived necessary starting point for all else he has to say.In contrast, Aristotle reverses Plato's order of derivation.",
"Rather than starting with ''experience'', Aristotle begins ''a priori'' with the law of non-contradiction as the fundamental axiom of an analytic philosophical system.",
"This axiom then necessitates the fixed, realist model.",
"Now, he starts with much stronger logical foundations than Plato's non-contrariety of action in reaction to conflicting demands from the three parts of the soul.=== Aristotle's contribution ===The traditional source of the law of non-contradiction is Aristotle's ''Metaphysics'' where he gives three different versions.",
"*Ontological: \"It is impossible that the same thing belong and not belong to the same thing at the same time and in the same respect.\"",
"(1005b19-20)*Psychological: \"No one can believe that the same thing can (at the same time) be and not be.\"",
"(1005b23–24)*Logical (aka the medieval ''Lex Contradictoriarum''): \"The most certain of all basic principles is that contradictory propositions are not true simultaneously.\"",
"(1011b13-14)Aristotle attempts several proofs of this law.",
"He first argues that every expression has a single meaning (otherwise we could not communicate with one another).",
"This rules out the possibility that by \"to be a man\", \"not to be a man\" is meant.",
"But \"man\" means \"two-footed animal\" (for example), and so if anything is a man, it is necessary (by virtue of the meaning of \"man\") that it must be a two-footed animal, and so it is impossible at the same time for it ''not'' to be a two-footed animal.",
"Thus \"it is not possible to say truly at the same time that the same thing is and is not a man\" (''Metaphysics'' 1006b 35).",
"Another argument is that anyone who believes something cannot believe its contradiction (1008b)::Why does he not just get up first thing and walk into a well or, if he finds one, over a cliff?",
"In fact, he seems rather careful about cliffs and wells.=== Avicenna ===Avicenna's commentary on the ''Metaphysics'' illustrates the common view that the law of non-contradiction \"and their like are among the things that do not require our elaboration.\"",
"Avicenna's words for \"the obdurate\" are quite facetious: \"he must be subjected to the conflagration of fire, since 'fire' and 'not fire' are one.",
"Pain must be inflicted on him through beating, since 'pain' and 'no pain' are one.",
"And he must be denied food and drink, since eating and drinking and the abstention from both are one and the same.",
"\"=== Indian philosophy ===The law of non-contradiction is found in ancient Indian logic as a meta-rule in the ''Shrauta Sutras'', the grammar of Pāṇini, and the ''Brahma Sutras'' attributed to Vyasa.",
"It was later elaborated on by medieval commentators such as Madhvacharya.=== Thomas Aquinas ===Thomas Aquinas argued that the principle of non-contradiction is essential to the reasoning of human beings (\"One cannot reasonably hold two mutually exclusive beliefs at the same time\").",
"He argued that human reasoning without the principle of non-contradiction is utterly impossible because reason itself can't function with two contradictory ideas.",
"Aquinas argued that this is the same both for moral arguments as well as theological arguments and even machinery (“the parts must work together, the machine can’t work if two parts are incompatible”).=== Leibniz and Kant ===Leibniz and Kant both used the law of non-contradiction to define the difference between analytic and synthetic propositions.",
"For Leibniz, analytic statements follow from the law of non-contradiction, and synthetic ones from the principle of sufficient reason.===Russell===The principle was stated as a theorem of propositional logic by Russell and Whitehead in ''Principia Mathematica'' as::: === Dialetheism ===Graham Priest advocates the view that ''under some conditions'', some statements can be both true and false simultaneously, or may be true and false at different times.",
"Dialetheism arises from formal logical paradoxes, such as the Liar's paradox and Russell's paradox, even though it isn't the only solution to them."
],
[
"Alleged impossibility of its proof or denial",
"The law of non-contradiction is alleged to be neither verifiable nor falsifiable, on the ground that any proof or disproof must use the law itself prior to reaching the conclusion.",
"In other words, in order to verify or falsify the laws of logic one must resort to logic as a weapon, an act that is argued to be self-defeating.",
"Since the early 20th century, certain logicians have proposed logics that deny the validity of the law.",
"Logics known as \"paraconsistent\" are inconsistency-tolerant logics in that there, from P together with ¬P, it does not imply that any proposition follows.",
"Nevertheless, not all paraconsistent logics deny the law of non-contradiction and some such logics even prove it.Some, such as David Lewis, have objected to paraconsistent logic on the ground that it is simply impossible for a statement and its negation to be jointly true.",
"A related objection is that \"negation\" in paraconsistent logic is not really ''negation''; it is merely a subcontrary-forming operator."
],
[
"In popular culture",
"The ''Fargo'' episode \"The Law of Non-Contradiction\", which takes its name from the law, was noted for its several elements relating to the law of non-contradiction, as the episode's main character faces several paradoxes.",
"For example, she is still the acting chief of police while having been demoted from the position, and tries to investigate a man that both was and was not named Ennis Stussy, and who both was and was not her stepfather.",
"It also features the story of a robot who, after having spent millions of years unable to help humanity, is told that he greatly helped mankind all along by observing history."
],
[
"See also",
"* Contradiction* First principle* Law of identity* Oxymoron* Peirce's law* Principle of bivalence* Principle of sufficient reason* Trivialism"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"* * Béziau (2000).",
"* Lewis, David (1982), \"Logic for equivocators\", reprinted in ''Papers in Philosophical Logic,'' Cambridge University Press (1997), p.",
"97-110.",
"* .",
"* Slater (1995)."
],
[
"Further reading",
"*"
],
[
"External links",
"* S. M. Cohen, \" Aristotle on the Principle of Non-Contradiction\", ''Canadian Journal of Philosophy'', Vol.",
"16, No.",
"3.",
"* James Danaher (2004), \" The Laws of Thought\", ''The Philosopher'', Vol.",
"LXXXXII No.",
"1.",
"* Paula Gottlieb, \" Aristotle on Non-contradiction\" (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).",
"* Laurence Horn, \" Contradiction\" (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).",
"* Graham Priest and Francesco Berto, \" Dialetheism\" (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).",
"* Graham Priest and Koji Tanaka, \" Paraconsistent logic\" (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)."
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Law of excluded middle"
],
[
"Introduction",
"In logic, the '''law of excluded middle''' (or the '''principle of excluded middle''') states that for every proposition, either this proposition or its negation is true.",
"It is one of the so-called three laws of thought, along with the law of noncontradiction, and the law of identity.",
"However, no system of logic is built on just these laws, and none of these laws provides inference rules, such as modus ponens or De Morgan's laws.The law is also known as the '''law''' (or '''principle''') '''of the excluded third''', in Latin '''''principium tertii exclusi'''''.",
"Another Latin designation for this law is '''''tertium non datur''''' or \"no third possibility is given\".",
"In classical logic, the law is a tautology.The principle should not be confused with the semantical principle of bivalence, which states that every proposition is either true or false.",
"The principle of bivalence always implies the law of excluded middle, while the converse is not always true.",
"A commonly cited counterexample uses statements unprovable now, but provable in the future to show that the law of excluded middle may apply when the principle of bivalence fails."
],
[
"History",
"=== Aristotle ===The earliest known formulation is in Aristotle's discussion of the principle of non-contradiction, first proposed in ''On Interpretation,'' where he says that of two contradictory propositions (i.e.",
"where one proposition is the negation of the other) one must be true, and the other false.",
"He also states it as a principle in the ''Metaphysics'' book 3, saying that it is necessary in every case to affirm or deny, and that it is impossible that there should be anything between the two parts of a contradiction.Aristotle wrote that ambiguity can arise from the use of ambiguous names, but cannot exist in the facts themselves:Aristotle's assertion that \"it will not be possible to be and not to be the same thing\" would be written in propositional logic as ~(''P'' ∧ ~''P'').",
"In modern so called classical logic, this statement is equivalent to the law of excluded middle (''P'' ∨ ~''P''), through distribution of the negation in Aristotle's assertion.",
"The former claims that no statement is ''both'' true and false, while the latter requires that any statement is ''either'' true or false.But Aristotle also writes, \"since it is impossible that contradictories should be at the same time true of the same thing, obviously contraries also cannot belong at the same time to the same thing\" (Book IV, CH 6, p. 531).",
"He then proposes that \"there cannot be an intermediate between contradictories, but of one subject we must either affirm or deny any one predicate\" (Book IV, CH 7, p. 531).",
"In the context of Aristotle's traditional logic, this is a remarkably precise statement of the law of excluded middle, ''P'' ∨ ~''P''.Also in ''On Interpretation'', Aristotle seems to deny the law of excluded middle in the case of future contingents, in his discussion on the sea battle.=== Leibniz ====== Bertrand Russell and ''Principia Mathematica'' ===The principle was stated as a theorem of propositional logic by Russell and Whitehead in ''Principia Mathematica'' as:.So just what is \"truth\" and \"falsehood\"?",
"At the opening ''PM'' quickly announces some definitions:This is not much help.",
"But later, in a much deeper discussion (\"Definition and systematic ambiguity of Truth and Falsehood\" Chapter II part III, p. 41 ff), ''PM'' defines truth and falsehood in terms of a relationship between the \"a\" and the \"b\" and the \"percipient\".",
"For example \"This 'a' is 'b (e.g.",
"\"This 'object a' is 'red) really means object a' is a sense-datum\" and red' is a sense-datum\", and they \"stand in relation\" to one another and in relation to \"I\".",
"Thus what we really mean is: \"I perceive that 'This object a is red and this is an undeniable-by-3rd-party \"truth\".",
"''PM'' further defines a distinction between a \"sense-datum\" and a \"sensation\":Russell reiterated his distinction between \"sense-datum\" and \"sensation\" in his book ''The Problems of Philosophy'' (1912), published at the same time as ''PM'' (1910–1913):Russell further described his reasoning behind his definitions of \"truth\" and \"falsehood\" in the same book (Chapter XII, ''Truth and Falsehood'').==== Consequences of the law of excluded middle in ''Principia Mathematica'' ====From the law of excluded middle, formula ✸2.1 in ''Principia Mathematica,'' Whitehead and Russell derive some of the most powerful tools in the logician's argumentation toolkit.",
"(In ''Principia Mathematica,'' formulas and propositions are identified by a leading asterisk and two numbers, such as \"✸2.1\".",
")✸2.1 ~''p'' ∨ ''p'' \"This is the Law of excluded middle\" (''PM'', p. 101).The proof of ✸2.1 is roughly as follows: \"primitive idea\" 1.08 defines ''p'' → ''q'' = ~''p'' ∨ ''q''.",
"Substituting ''p'' for ''q'' in this rule yields ''p'' → ''p'' = ~''p'' ∨ ''p''.",
"Since ''p'' → ''p'' is true (this is Theorem 2.08, which is proved separately), then ~''p'' ∨ ''p'' must be true.✸2.11 ''p'' ∨ ~''p'' (Permutation of the assertions is allowed by axiom 1.4)✸2.12 ''p'' → ~(~''p'') (Principle of double negation, part 1: if \"this rose is red\" is true then it's not true that this rose is not-red' is true\".",
")✸2.13 ''p'' ∨ ~{~(~''p'')} (Lemma together with 2.12 used to derive 2.14)✸2.14 ~(~''p'') → ''p'' (Principle of double negation, part 2)✸2.15 (~''p'' → ''q'') → (~''q'' → ''p'') (One of the four \"Principles of transposition\".",
"Similar to 1.03, 1.16 and 1.17.A very long demonstration was required here.",
")✸2.16 (''p'' → ''q'') → (~''q'' → ~''p'') (If it's true that \"If this rose is red then this pig flies\" then it's true that \"If this pig doesn't fly then this rose isn't red.",
"\")✸2.17 ( ~''p'' → ~''q'' ) → (''q'' → ''p'') (Another of the \"Principles of transposition\".",
")✸2.18 (~''p'' → ''p'') → ''p'' (Called \"The complement of ''reductio ad absurdum''.",
"It states that a proposition which follows from the hypothesis of its own falsehood is true\" (''PM'', pp. 103–104).",
")Most of these theorems—in particular ✸2.1, ✸2.11, and ✸2.14—are rejected by intuitionism.",
"These tools are recast into another form that Kolmogorov cites as \"Hilbert's four axioms of implication\" and \"Hilbert's two axioms of negation\" (Kolmogorov in van Heijenoort, p. 335).Propositions ✸2.12 and ✸2.14, \"double negation\":The intuitionist writings of L. E. J. Brouwer refer to what he calls \"the ''principle of the reciprocity of the multiple species'', that is, the principle that for every system the correctness of a property follows from the impossibility of the impossibility of this property\" (Brouwer, ibid, p. 335).This principle is commonly called \"the principle of double negation\" (''PM'', pp. 101–102).",
"From the law of excluded middle (✸2.1 and ✸2.11), ''PM'' derives principle ✸2.12 immediately.",
"We substitute ~''p'' for ''p'' in 2.11 to yield ~''p'' ∨ ~(~''p''), and by the definition of implication (i.e.",
"1.01 p → q = ~p ∨ q) then ~p ∨ ~(~p)= p → ~(~p).",
"QED (The derivation of 2.14 is a bit more involved.",
")===Reichenbach===It is correct, at least for bivalent logic—i.e.",
"it can be seen with a Karnaugh map—that this law removes \"the middle\" of the inclusive-or used in his law (3).",
"And this is the point of Reichenbach's demonstration that some believe the ''exclusive''-or should take the place of the ''inclusive''-or.About this issue (in admittedly very technical terms) Reichenbach observes:::The tertium non datur::29.",
"(''x'')''f''(''x'') ∨ ~''f''(''x'')::is not exhaustive in its major terms and is therefore an inflated formula.",
"This fact may perhaps explain why some people consider it unreasonable to write (29) with the inclusive-'or', and want to have it written with the sign of the ''exclusive''-'or'::30.",
"(''x'')''f''(''x'') ⊕ ~''f''(''x''), where the symbol \"⊕\" signifies exclusive-or::in which form it would be fully exhaustive and therefore nomological in the narrower sense.",
"(Reichenbach, p. 376)In line (30) the \"(x)\" means \"for all\" or \"for every\", a form used by Russell and Reichenbach; today the symbolism is usually ''x''.",
"Thus an example of the expression would look like this:* (''pig''): (''Flies''(''pig'') ⊕ ~''Flies''(''pig''))* (For all instances of \"pig\" seen and unseen): (\"Pig does fly\" or \"Pig does not fly\" but not both simultaneously)=== Formalists versus Intuitionists ===From the late 1800s through the 1930s, a bitter, persistent debate raged between Hilbert and his followers versus Hermann Weyl and L. E. J. Brouwer.",
"Brouwer's philosophy, called intuitionism, started in earnest with Leopold Kronecker in the late 1800s.Hilbert intensely disliked Kronecker's ideas:The debate had a profound effect on Hilbert.",
"Reid indicates that Hilbert's second problem (one of Hilbert's problems from the Second International Conference in Paris in 1900) evolved from this debate (italics in the original):::In his second problem, Hilbert had asked for a ''mathematical proof'' of the consistency of the axioms of the arithmetic of real numbers.",
"::To show the significance of this problem, he added the following observation:::\"If contradictory attributes be assigned to a concept, I say that ''mathematically the concept does not exist''\" (Reid p. 71)Thus, Hilbert was saying: \"If ''p'' and ~''p'' are both shown to be true, then ''p'' does not exist\", and was thereby invoking the law of excluded middle cast into the form of the law of contradiction.The rancorous debate continued through the early 1900s into the 1920s; in 1927 Brouwer complained about \"polemicizing against it intuitionism in sneering tones\" (Brouwer in van Heijenoort, p. 492).",
"But the debate was fertile: it resulted in ''Principia Mathematica'' (1910–1913), and that work gave a precise definition to the law of excluded middle, and all this provided an intellectual setting and the tools necessary for the mathematicians of the early 20th century:Brouwer reduced the debate to the use of proofs designed from \"negative\" or \"non-existence\" versus \"constructive\" proof:::According to Brouwer, a statement that an object exists having a given property means that, and is only proved, when a method is known which in principle at least will enable such an object to be found or constructed …::Hilbert naturally disagreed.",
"::\"pure existence proofs have been the most important landmarks in the historical development of our science,\" he maintained.",
"(Reid p. 155)::Brouwer refused to accept the logical principle of the excluded middle, His argument was the following:::\"Suppose that A is the statement \"There exists a member of the set ''S'' having the property ''P''.\"",
"If the set is finite, it is possible—in principle—to examine each member of ''S'' and determine whether there is a member of ''S'' with the property ''P'' or that every member of ''S'' lacks the property ''P''.\"",
"(this was missing a closing quote) For finite sets, therefore, Brouwer accepted the principle of the excluded middle as valid.",
"He refused to accept it for infinite sets because if the set ''S'' is infinite, we cannot—even in principle—examine each member of the set.",
"If, during the course of our examination, we find a member of the set with the property ''P'', the first alternative is substantiated; but if we never find such a member, the second alternative is still not substantiated.",
"::Since mathematical theorems are often proved by establishing that the negation would involve us in a contradiction, this third possibility which Brouwer suggested would throw into question many of the mathematical statements currently accepted.",
"::\"Taking the Principle of the Excluded Middle from the mathematician,\" Hilbert said, \"is the same as … prohibiting the boxer the use of his fists.",
"\"::\"The possible loss did not seem to bother Weyl … Brouwer's program was the coming thing, he insisted to his friends in Zürich.\"",
"(Reid, p. 149)In his lecture in 1941 at Yale and the subsequent paper, Gödel proposed a solution: \"that the negation of a universal proposition was to be understood as asserting the existence … of a counterexample\" (Dawson, p. 157)Gödel's approach to the law of excluded middle was to assert that objections against \"the use of 'impredicative definitions had \"carried more weight\" than \"the law of excluded middle and related theorems of the propositional calculus\" (Dawson p. 156).",
"He proposed his \"system Σ … and he concluded by mentioning several applications of his interpretation.",
"Among them were a proof of the consistency with intuitionistic logic of the principle ~ (∀A: (A ∨ ~A)) (despite the inconsistency of the assumption ∃ A: ~ (A ∨ ~A))\" (Dawson, p. 157) (no closing parenthesis had been placed)The debate seemed to weaken: mathematicians, logicians and engineers continue to use the law of excluded middle (and double negation) in their daily work.=== Intuitionist definitions of the law (principle) of excluded middle ===The following highlights the deep mathematical and philosophic problem behind what it means to \"know\", and also helps elucidate what the \"law\" implies (i.e.",
"what the law really means).",
"Their difficulties with the law emerge: that they do not want to accept as true implications drawn from that which is unverifiable (untestable, unknowable) or from the impossible or the false.",
"(All quotes are from van Heijenoort, italics added).",
"''Brouwer'' offers his definition of \"principle of excluded middle\"; we see here also the issue of \"testability\":::On the basis of the testability just mentioned, there hold, for properties conceived within a specific finite main system, the \"principle of excluded middle\", that is, ''the principle that for every system every property is either correct richtig or impossible'', and in particular the principle of the reciprocity of the complementary species, that is, the principle that for every system the correctness of a property follows from the impossibility of the impossibility of this property.",
"(335)''Kolmogorov'''s definition cites Hilbert's two axioms of negation''A'' → (~''A'' → ''B'')(''A'' → ''B'') → { (~''A'' → ''B'') → ''B''}::Hilbert's first axiom of negation, \"anything follows from the false\", made its appearance only with the rise of symbolic logic, as did the first axiom of implication … while … the axiom under consideration axiom 5 asserts something about the consequences of something impossible: we have to accept ''B'' if the true judgment ''A'' is regarded as false …::Hilbert's second axiom of negation expresses the principle of excluded middle.",
"The principle is expressed here in the form in which is it used for derivations: if ''B'' follows from ''A'' as well as from ~''A'', then ''B'' is true.",
"Its usual form, \"every judgment is either true or false\" is equivalent to that given above\".",
"::From the first interpretation of negation, that is, the interdiction from regarding the judgment as true, it is impossible to obtain the certitude that the principle of excluded middle is true … Brouwer showed that in the case of such transfinite judgments the principle of excluded middle cannot be considered obvious::footnote 9: \"This is Leibniz's very simple formulation (see ''Nouveaux Essais'', IV,2).",
"The formulation \"''A'' is either ''B'' or not-''B''\" has nothing to do with the logic of judgments.",
"::footnote 10: \"Symbolically the second form is expressed thus:''A'' ∨ ~''A''where ∨ means \"or\".",
"The equivalence of the two forms is easily proved (p. 421)"
],
[
"Examples",
"For example, if ''P'' is the proposition::''Socrates is mortal.",
"''then the law of excluded middle holds that the logical disjunction::''Either Socrates is mortal, or it is not the case that Socrates is mortal.",
"''is true by virtue of its form alone.",
"That is, the \"middle\" position, that Socrates is neither mortal nor not-mortal, is excluded by logic, and therefore either the first possibility (''Socrates is mortal'') or its negation (''it is not the case that Socrates is mortal'') must be true.An example of an argument that depends on the law of excluded middle follows.",
"We seek to prove that:there exist two irrational numbers and such that is rational.It is known that is irrational (see proof).",
"Consider the number:.Clearly (excluded middle) this number is either rational or irrational.",
"If it is rational, the proof is complete, and: and .But if is irrational, then let: and .Then:,and 2 is certainly rational.",
"This concludes the proof.In the above argument, the assertion \"this number is either rational or irrational\" invokes the law of excluded middle.",
"An intuitionist, for example, would not accept this argument without further support for that statement.",
"This might come in the form of a proof that the number in question is in fact irrational (or rational, as the case may be); or a finite algorithm that could determine whether the number is rational.=== Non-constructive proofs over the infinite ===The above proof is an example of a ''non-constructive'' proof disallowed by intuitionists: (Constructive proofs of the specific example above are not hard to produce; for example and are both easily shown to be irrational, and ; a proof allowed by intuitionists).By ''non-constructive'' Davis means that \"a proof that there actually are mathematic entities satisfying certain conditions would not have to provide a method to exhibit explicitly the entities in question.\"",
"(p. 85).",
"Such proofs presume the existence of a totality that is complete, a notion disallowed by intuitionists when extended to the ''infinite''—for them the infinite can never be completed:David Hilbert and Luitzen E. J. Brouwer both give examples of the law of excluded middle extended to the infinite.",
"Hilbert's example: \"the assertion that either there are only finitely many prime numbers or there are infinitely many\" (quoted in Davis 2000:97); and Brouwer's: \"Every mathematical species is either finite or infinite.\"",
"(Brouwer 1923 in van Heijenoort 1967:336).",
"In general, intuitionists allow the use of the law of excluded middle when it is confined to discourse over finite collections (sets), but not when it is used in discourse over infinite sets (e.g.",
"the natural numbers).",
"Thus intuitionists absolutely disallow the blanket assertion: \"For all propositions ''P'' concerning infinite sets ''D'': ''P'' or ~''P''\" (Kleene 1952:48).Putative counterexamples to the law of excluded middle include the liar paradox or Quine's paradox.",
"Certain resolutions of these paradoxes, particularly Graham Priest's dialetheism as formalised in LP, have the law of excluded middle as a theorem, but resolve out the Liar as both true and false.",
"In this way, the law of excluded middle is true, but because truth itself, and therefore disjunction, is not exclusive, it says next to nothing if one of the disjuncts is paradoxical, or both true and false."
],
[
"Criticisms",
"The Catuṣkoṭi (tetralemma) is an ancient alternative to the law of excluded middle, which examines all four possible assignments of truth values to a proposition and its negation.",
"It has been important in Indian logic and Buddhist logic as well as the ancient Greek philosophical school known as Pyrrhonism.Many modern logic systems replace the law of excluded middle with the concept of negation as failure.",
"Instead of a proposition's being either true or false, a proposition is either true or not able to be proved true.",
"These two dichotomies only differ in logical systems that are not complete.",
"The principle of negation as failure is used as a foundation for autoepistemic logic, and is widely used in logic programming.",
"In these systems, the programmer is free to assert the law of excluded middle as a true fact, but it is not built-in ''a priori'' into these systems.Mathematicians such as L. E. J. Brouwer and Arend Heyting have also contested the usefulness of the law of excluded middle in the context of modern mathematics.===In mathematical logic===In modern mathematical logic, the excluded middle has been argued to result in possible self-contradiction.",
"It is possible in logic to make well-constructed propositions that can be neither true nor false; a common example of this is the \"Liar's paradox\", the statement \"this statement is false\", which is argued to itself be neither true nor false.",
"Arthur Prior has argued that The Paradox is not an example of a statement that cannot be true or false.",
"The law of excluded middle still holds here as the negation of this statement \"This statement is not false\", can be assigned true.",
"In set theory, such a self-referential paradox can be constructed by examining the set \"the set of all sets that do not contain themselves\".",
"This set is unambiguously defined, but leads to a Russell's paradox: does the set contain, as one of its elements, itself?",
"However, in the modern Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, this type of contradiction is no longer admitted.",
"Furthermore, paradoxes of self reference can be constructed without even invoking negation at all, as in Curry's paradox."
],
[
"Analogous laws",
"Some systems of logic have different but analogous laws.",
"For some finite ''n''-valued logics, there is an analogous law called the ''law of excluded ''n''+1th''.",
"If negation is cyclic and \"∨\" is a \"max operator\", then the law can be expressed in the object language by (P ∨ ~P ∨ ~~P ∨ ... ∨ ~...~P), where \"~...~\" represents ''n''−1 negation signs and \"∨ ... ∨\" ''n''−1 disjunction signs.",
"It is easy to check that the sentence must receive at least one of the ''n'' truth values (and not a value that is not one of the ''n'').Other systems reject the law entirely.=== Law of the weak excluded middle===A particularly well-studied intermediate logic is given by De Morgan logic, which adds the axiom to intuitionistic logic, which is sometimes called the law of the weak excluded middle.This is equivalent to a few other statements:* Satisfying all of De Morgan's laws including * *"
],
[
"See also",
"* : an account on the formalist-intuitionist divide around the Law of the excluded middle* ''''* Constructive set theory* * * * Law of excluded middle is untrue in s such as and * * * s: a graphical syntax for propositional logic* : the application excluded middle to propositions* Mathematical constructivism* Non-affirming negation in the school of Buddhism, another system in which the law of excluded middle is untrue* : another way of turning intuition classical"
],
[
"Footnotes"
],
[
"References",
"* Aquinas, Thomas, \"Summa Theologica\", Fathers of the English Dominican Province (trans.",
"), Daniel J. Sullivan (ed.",
"), vols.",
"19–20 in Robert Maynard Hutchins (ed.",
"), ''Great Books of the Western World'', Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., Chicago, Illinois, 1952.Cited as GB 19–20.",
"* Aristotle, \"Metaphysics\", W.D.",
"Ross (trans.",
"), vol.",
"8 in Robert Maynard Hutchins (ed.",
"), ''Great Books of the Western World'', Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., Chicago, Illinois, 1952.Cited as GB 8.1st published, W.D.",
"Ross (trans.",
"), ''The Works of Aristotle'', Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.",
"* Martin Davis 2000, ''Engines of Logic: Mathematicians and the Origin of the Computer'', W. W. Norton & Company, NewYork, New York, pbk.",
"* Dawson, J., ''Logical Dilemmas, The Life and Work of Kurt Gödel'', A.K.",
"Peters, Wellesley, Massachusetts, 1997.",
"* van Heijenoort, J., ''From Frege to Gödel, A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879–1931'', Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1967.Reprinted with corrections, 1977.",
"* Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer, 1923, ''On the significance of the principle of excluded middle in mathematics, especially in function theory'' reprinted with commentary, p. 334, van Heijenoort* Andrei Nikolaevich Kolmogorov, 1925, ''On the principle of excluded middle'', reprinted with commentary, p. 414, van Heijenoort* Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer, 1927, ''On the domains of definitions of functions'',reprinted with commentary, p. 446, van Heijenoort Although not directly germane, in his (1923) Brouwer uses certain words defined in this paper.",
"* Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer, 1927(2), ''Intuitionistic reflections on formalism'',reprinted with commentary, p. 490, van Heijenoort* Stephen C. Kleene 1952 original printing, 1971 6th printing with corrections, 10th printing 1991, ''Introduction to Metamathematics'', North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam, New York, .",
"* Kneale, W. and Kneale, M., ''The Development of Logic'', Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 1962.Reprinted with corrections, 1975.",
"* Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell, ''Principia Mathematica to *56'', Cambridge at the University Press 1962 (Second Edition of 1927, reprinted).",
"Extremely difficult because of arcane symbolism, but a must-have for serious logicians.",
"* Bertrand Russell, ''An Inquiry Into Meaning and Truth''.",
"The William James Lectures for 1940 delivered at Harvard University.",
"* Bertrand Russell, ''The Problems of Philosophy, With a New Introduction by John Perry'', Oxford University Press, New York, 1997 edition (first published 1912).",
"Easy to read.",
"* Bertrand Russell, ''The Art of Philosophizing and Other Essays'', Littlefield, Adams & Co., Totowa, New Jersey, 1974 edition (first published 1968).",
"Includes a wonderful essay on \"The Art of drawing Inferences\".",
"* Hans Reichenbach, ''Elements of Symbolic Logic'', Dover, New York, 1947, 1975.",
"* Tom Mitchell, ''Machine Learning'', WCB McGraw–Hill, 1997.",
"* Constance Reid, ''Hilbert'', Copernicus: Springer–Verlag New York, Inc. 1996, first published 1969.Contains a wealth of biographical information, much derived from interviews.",
"* Bart Kosko, ''Fuzzy Thinking: The New Science of Fuzzy Logic'', Hyperion, New York, 1993.Fuzzy thinking at its finest but a good introduction to the concepts.",
"* David Hume, ''An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding'', reprinted in Great Books of the Western World Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 35, 1952, p. 449 ff.",
"This work was published by Hume in 1758 as his rewrite of his \"juvenile\" ''Treatise of Human Nature: Being An attempt to introduce the experimental method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects Vol.",
"I, Of The Understanding'' first published 1739, reprinted as: David Hume, ''A Treatise of Human Nature'', Penguin Classics, 1985.Also see: David Applebaum, ''The Vision of Hume'', Vega, London, 2001: a reprint of a portion of ''An Inquiry'' starts on p. 94 ff"
],
[
"External links",
"* \"Contradiction\" entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lowball"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lowball''' can refer to:*Low-ball, a persuasion, negotiation, and selling technique*Lowball (poker), a variant of the card game poker, in which hand values are reversed so that the lowest-valued hand wins*Lowball glass, a short drinking glass typically used for serving liquor"
],
[
"See also",
"* Highball"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Line of scrimmage"
],
[
"Introduction",
"American football line of scrimmage, before a play A Canadian football line of scrimmage, before a play.In gridiron football, a '''line of scrimmage''' is an imaginary transverse line (across the width of the field) beyond which a team cannot cross until the next play has begun.",
"Its location is based on the spot where the ball is placed after the end of the most recent play and following the assessment of any penalty yards."
],
[
"History",
"The line of scrimmage first came into use in 1880.Developed by Walter Camp (who introduced many innovations that are part of the modern game of American football), it replaced a contested scrimmage that had descended from the game's rugby roots.",
"This uncontested line of scrimmage would set into motion many more rules that led to the formation of the modern form of gridiron football (although the Canadian rules were developed independently of the American game, despite their similarities)."
],
[
"Dimensions",
"A line of scrimmage is parallel to the goal lines and touches one edge of the ball where it sits on the ground before the snap.",
"In American football, the set distance of the line of scrimmage between the offense and defense is , the length of the ball.",
"In Canadian football, the set distance of the line of scrimmage is , more than three times as long as the American line.Under NCAA, and NFHS rules, there are two lines of scrimmage at the outset of each play: one that restricts the offense and one that restricts the defense.",
"The area between the two lines (representing the length of the ball as extended to both sidelines) is called the ''neutral zone''."
],
[
"Rules regarding the line of scrimmage",
"* Only the offensive player who snaps the ball (usually the center or long snapper) is allowed to have any part of his body in the neutral zone.",
"* For there to be a legal beginning of a play, at least seven players on the offensive team, including two eligible receivers, must be at, on, or within a few inches of their line of scrimmage.",
"* Beginning in 2019, high school football will allow as few as five players on a line of scrimmage, but in practice, the limits will remain the same since teams will still be limited to four persons behind the line of scrimmage; the difference would only come into play if a team plays offense with fewer than 11 players."
],
[
"Presentation during broadcasts",
"Modern video techniques enable broadcasts of American football to display a visible line on the screen representing the line of scrimmage.",
"The line is tapered according to the camera angle and gets occluded by players and other objects as if the line were painted on the field.",
"The line may represent the line of scrimmage or the minimum distance that the ball must be moved for the offensive team to achieve a first down."
],
[
"Misnomers",
"Many fans and commentators refer colloquially to the entire neutral zone as the \"line of scrimmage,\" although this is technically incorrect.",
"In the NFL rulebook, only the defensive-side restraining line is officially considered a line of scrimmage."
],
[
"See also",
"* Scrummage* Glossary of American football* Comparison of Canadian and American football"
],
[
"Footnotes"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lateral pass"
],
[
"Introduction",
"A lateral during an option play.In gridiron football, a '''lateral pass''' or '''lateral''' (officially '''backward pass''' in American football and '''onside pass''' in Canadian football) occurs when the ball carrier throws the football to a teammate in a direction parallel to or away from the opponents' goal line.",
"A lateral pass is distinguished from a forward pass, in which the ball is thrown forward, towards the opposition's end zone.",
"In a lateral pass the ball is not advanced, but unlike a forward pass a lateral may be attempted from anywhere on the field by any player to any player at any time.While the forward pass is an invention of the North American games, the lateral and backward pass is also a part of rugby union and rugby league, where such passes are the norm.",
"Compared to its use in rugby, laterals and backward passes are less common in North American football, due to a much greater focus on ball control in American football strategy; they are most commonly used by the quarterback, after taking the snap, to quickly transfer (\"pitch\") the ball a short distance to a nearby running back (or, rarely, wide receiver) on a rushing play.",
"Laterals are also often seen as part of a last-minute desperation strategy or as part of a trick play.",
"Examples of plays utilizing the lateral pass are the toss, flea flicker, hook and lateral, and buck-lateral.==Rules== While a forward pass may only be thrown once per down by the team on offense from within or behind the neutral zone, there are no restrictions on the use of lateral passes; any player legally carrying the ball may throw a lateral pass from any position on the field at any time, any player may receive such a pass, and any number of lateral passes may be thrown on a single play.",
"Additionally, a player receiving a lateral pass may throw a forward pass if he is still behind the neutral zone, subject to the forward pass rules.",
"A lateral is the only type of pass that can be legally thrown following a change of possession during a play.A pitch to a receiverUnlike a forward pass, if a backward pass hits the ground or an official, play continues and, as with a fumble, a backward pass that has hit the ground may be recovered and advanced by either team.",
"Backward passes can also be intercepted.",
"A lateral may be underhand or overhand as long as the ball is not advanced in the pass.A ball that is passed exactly sideways is considered a backwards pass.",
"If it hits the ground, the person throwing or \"pitching\" the lateral pass will be subjected to the fumble designation in the statistics in the NFL, even if the ball is dropped or muffed by a teammate, although in college football this can be credited to whichever player the statistician feels is most responsible.",
"If the ball hits the ground after traveling even slightly forward, however, it is then incomplete instead of a fumble.The snap is legally considered to be a backward pass, although a blown snap is not scored as a fumble."
],
[
"Alternate uses",
"The oxymoron \"forward lateral\" is used to describe an attempted \"lateral\" (backward pass) that actually goes forward.",
"In most cases, it is illegal.A variant, the hook and lateral, where a forward pass is immediately passed backward to a second receiver to fool the defense, is used on occasion."
],
[
"Famous plays in history",
"The lateral pass rule, or rather the lack of restrictions contained therein, has given rise to some of the most memorable and incredible plays in football history.",
"Both collegiate and NFL football have certain examples of football lore which involve laterals.One famous college play involving the backward passes is simply known as The Play.",
"In the 1982 Big Game between Stanford and California, with four seconds left and trailing by one point, Cal ran the ball back on a kickoff all the way for the walk-off touchdown using five backward passes, eventually running through the Stanford Band, who had already taken the field (believing the game was over after Stanford players appeared to have tackled a Cal ball-carrier).",
"The game remains controversial because of Stanford's contention that the Cal player's knee was down before he passed the ball during the third lateral and that the fifth lateral was an illegal forward pass.A well-known and controversial NFL lateral pass occurred during the Music City Miracle play at the end of the 2000 playoff game between the Tennessee Titans and the Buffalo Bills.",
"The play was a true lateral (the ball did not move forward or backward in the pass), but the receiver was a step ahead of the passer and reached back to catch the ball, so it gave the appearance of an illegal forward pass.In October 2003, the Minnesota Vikings faced the Denver Broncos with the scores tied at 7–7 as the first half came to a close.",
"With 12 seconds left in the half and the Vikings on their own 41-yard line facing a 3rd-and-24, Daunte Culpepper threw a long pass to Randy Moss, who caught the ball at the Denver 10-yard line.",
"As Moss was being tackled and driven backwards by two Broncos defenders, he tossed the ball over his head for a blind lateral to running back Moe Williams at the 15, and Williams ran it into the end zone for a touchdown to give the Vikings a 14–7 lead at halftime.",
"This play was later named the 68th greatest play in the first 100 years of the NFL.Another well known backward pass in the NFL was the River City Relay in a game between the New Orleans Saints and the Jacksonville Jaguars on December 21, 2003.With time running out, the Saints threw backward passes and brought the ball down the length of the field for a touchdown.",
"However, kicker John Carney missed the extra point, which would have tied the game, so the Saints lost by one point, 20–19.Another well known play was executed in a college football game by Presbyterian against Wake Forest in 2010.In this trick play, three lateral pass rules were used in combination.",
"First the quarterback passed the ball sideways while intentionally bouncing the ball on the ground (a so-called \"fake fumble pass\").",
"The pass-receiver faked the end of the play, suggesting that it was an incomplete pass, but then passed the ball forward to a wide-receiver, who successfully ran for a touchdown.",
"Wake Forest coach Jim Grobe described the play \"as well executed as anything I’ve ever seen\".",
"In a Division III college football game on October 27, 2007, Trinity University was trailing by two points with two seconds left in a game against conference rival Millsaps College.",
"Starting from their own 39-yard line, Trinity called a play for a short pass across the middle.",
"The receiver pitched the ball backward, with a sequence of additional backward passes as players were in danger of being tackled.",
"The \"Mississippi Miracle\" ultimately included 15 backward passes as it covered 61 yards for the walk-off touchdown.On October 31, 2015, the Miami Hurricanes threw eight lateral passes over the course of 45 seconds to score a touchdown and upset the 22nd-ranked Duke Blue Devils 30–27.The play stirred controversy amid a number of missed calls by the Atlantic Coast Conference officiating crew.On December 9, 2018, the Miami Dolphins pulled off the only walk-off touchdown to involve multiple lateral passes in NFL history, completing two laterals for a 69-yard touchdown to beat the New England Patriots 34–33.Miami had almost lost a game against the Pittsburgh Steelers five years prior via laterals, but managed to win when Antonio Brown stepped out of bounds at the thirteen-yard line.Four years later on December 18, 2022, the Patriots attempted a lateral pass play of their own against the Las Vegas Raiders, but the attempt notably failed and resulted in a walk-off touchdown for the Raiders, as Las Vegas defensive end Chandler Jones picked off New England's second lateral pass attempt and ran it in for the winning score.",
"Because the Patriots attempted the play when game was tied, they were later criticized for the play, with some analysts such as Charles Curtis of ''USA Today Sports'' comparing it to the Butt Fumble, Colts Catastrophe, and other inept plays in NFL history."
],
[
"References"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lavandula"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''''Lavandula''''' (common name '''lavender''') is a genus of 47 known species of flowering plants in the mint family, Lamiaceae.",
"It is native to the Old World and is found in Cape Verde and the Canary Islands, and from Europe across to northern and eastern Africa, the Mediterranean, southwest Asia to India.Many members of the genus are cultivated extensively in temperate climates as ornamental plants for garden and landscape use, for use as culinary herbs, and also commercially for the extraction of essential oils.",
"Lavender is used in traditional medicine and as an ingredient in cosmetics."
],
[
"Description",
"===Plant and leaves ===The genus includes annual or short-lived herbaceous perennial plants, and shrub-like perennials, subshrubs or small shrubs.Leaf shape is diverse across the genus.",
"They are simple in some commonly cultivated species; in other species, they are pinnately toothed, or pinnate, sometimes multiple pinnate and dissected.",
"In most species, the leaves are covered in fine hairs or indumentum, which normally contain essential oils.=== Flowers ===Flowers are contained in whorls, held on spikes rising above the foliage, the spikes being branched in some species.",
"Some species produce colored bracts at the tips of the inflorescences.",
"The flowers may be blue, violet, or lilac in the wild species, occasionally blackish purple or yellowish.",
"The sepal calyx is tubular.",
"The corolla is also tubular, usually with five lobes (the upper lip often cleft, and the lower lip has two clefts)."
],
[
"Nomenclature and taxonomy",
"''Lavandula stoechas'', ''L.",
"pedunculata'', and ''L.",
"dentata'' were known in Roman times.",
"From the Middle Ages onwards, the European species were considered two separate groups or genera, ''Stoechas'' (''L.",
"stoechas'', ''L.",
"pedunculata'', ''L.",
"dentata'') and ''Lavandula'' (''L.",
"spica'' and ''L.",
"latifolia''), until Linnaeus combined them.",
"He recognised only five species in ''Species Plantarum'' (1753), ''L.",
"multifida'' and ''L.",
"dentata'' (Spain) and ''L.",
"stoechas'' and ''L.",
"spica'' from Southern Europe.",
"''L.",
"pedunculata'' was included within ''L.",
"stoechas.",
"''By 1790, ''L.",
"pinnata'' and ''L.",
"carnosa'' were recognised.",
"The latter was subsequently transferred to ''Anisochilus''.",
"By 1826, Frédéric Charles Jean Gingins de la Sarraz listed 12 species in three sections, and by 1848 eighteen species were known.One of the first modern major classifications was that of Dorothy Chaytor in 1937 at Kew.",
"The six sections she proposed for 28 species still left many intermediates that could not easily be assigned.",
"Her sections included ''Stoechas'', ''Spica'', ''Subnudae'', ''Pterostoechas'', ''Chaetostachys'', and ''Dentatae''.",
"However, all the major cultivated and commercial forms resided in the ''Stoechas'' and ''Spica'' sections.",
"There were four species within ''Stoechas'' (''Lavandula stoechas'', ''L.",
"dentata, L. viridis'', and ''L.",
"pedunculata'') while ''Spica'' had three (''L.",
"officinalis'' (now ''L.",
"angustifolia''), ''L.",
"latifolia'' and ''L.",
"lanata'').",
"She believed that the garden varieties were hybrids between true lavender ''L.",
"angustifolia'' and spike lavender (''L.",
"latifolia'').",
"''Lavandula'' has three subgenera: *Subgenus ''Lavandula'' is mainly of woody shrubs with entire leaves.",
"It contains the principal species grown as ornamental plants and for oils.",
"They are found across the Mediterranean region to northeast Africa and western Arabia.",
"*Subgenus ''Fabricia'' consists of shrubs and herbs, and it has a wide distribution from the Atlantic to India.",
"It contains some ornamental plants.",
"*Subgenus ''Sabaudia'' constitutes two species in the southwest Arabian peninsula and Eritrea, which are rather distinct from the other species, and are sometimes placed in their own genus ''Sabaudia''.In addition, there are numerous hybrids and cultivars in commercial and horticultural usage.The first major clade corresponds to subgenus ''Lavandula'', and the second ''Fabricia''.",
"The ''Sabaudia'' group is less clearly defined.",
"Within the ''Lavandula'' clade, the subclades correspond to the existing sections but place ''Dentatae'' separately from ''Stoechas'', not within it.",
"Within the ''Fabricia'' clade, the subclades correspond to ''Pterostoechas'', ''Subnudae'', and ''Chaetostachys''.Thus the current classification includes 39 species distributed across 8 sections (the original 6 of Chaytor and the two new sections of Upson and Andrews), in three subgenera (see table below).",
"However, since lavender cross-pollinates easily, countless variations present difficulties in classification."
],
[
"Etymology",
"The English word lavender came into use in the 13th century, and is generally thought to derive from Old French ''lavandre'', ultimately from Latin ''lavare'' from ''lavo'' (to wash), referring to the use of blue infusions of the plants.",
"The botanic name ''Lavandula'' as used by Linnaeus is considered to be derived from this and other European vernacular names for the plants.The names widely used for some of the species, \"English lavender\", \"French lavender\" and \"Spanish lavender\" are all imprecisely applied.",
"\"English lavender\" is commonly used for ''L.",
"angustifolia'', though some references say the proper term is \"Old English lavender\".",
"The name \"French lavender\" may refer to either ''L.",
"stoechas'' or to ''L.",
"dentata''.",
"\"Spanish lavender\" may refer to ''L.",
"stoechas'', ''L.",
"lanata'', or ''L.",
"dentata''."
],
[
"Cultivation",
"Honey bee on flowerThe most common form in cultivation is the common or English lavender ''Lavandula angustifolia'' (formerly named ''L.",
"officinalis'').",
"A wide range of cultivars can be found.",
"Other commonly grown ornamental species are ''L.",
"stoechas'', ''L.",
"dentata'', and ''L.",
"multifida'' (Egyptian lavender).Because the cultivated forms are planted in gardens worldwide, they are occasionally found growing wild as garden escapes, well beyond their natural range.",
"Such spontaneous growth is usually harmless, but in some cases, ''Lavandula'' species have become invasive.",
"For example, in Australia, ''L.",
"stoechas'' has become a cause for concern; it occurs widely throughout the continent and has been declared a noxious weed in Victoria since 1920.It is regarded as a weed in parts of Spain.Lavenders flourish best in dry, well-drained, sandy or gravelly soils in full sun.",
"English lavender has a long germination process (14–28 days) and matures within 100–110 days.",
"All types need little or no fertilizer and good air circulation.",
"In areas of high humidity, root rot due to fungus infection can be a problem.",
"Organic mulches can trap moisture around the plants' bases, encouraging root rot.",
"Gravelly materials such as crushed rocks give better results.",
"It grows best in soils with a pH between 6 and 8.Most lavender is hand-harvested, and harvest times vary depending on intended use."
],
[
"Lavender oil",
"Commercially, the plant is grown mainly for the production of lavender essential oil.",
"English lavender (''Lavandula angustifolia'') yields an oil with sweet overtones and can be used in balms, salves, perfumes, cosmetics, and topical applications.",
"''Lavandula ''×'' intermedia'', also known as '''lavandin''' or '''Dutch lavender''', hybrids of ''L.",
"angustifolia'' and ''L.",
"latifolia''.",
"are widely cultivated for commercial use since their flowers tend to be bigger than those of English lavender and the plants tend to be easier to harvest.",
"They yield a similar essential oil, but with higher levels of terpenes including camphor, which add a sharper overtone to the fragrance, regarded by some as of lower quality than that of English lavender.The US Food and Drug Administration considers lavender as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) for human consumption.",
"The essential oil was used in hospitals during World War I.===Phytochemicals===Some 100 individual phytochemicals have been identified in lavender oil, including major contents of linalyl acetate (30–55%), linalool (20–35%), tannins (5–10%), and caryophyllene (8%), with lesser amounts of sesquiterpenoids, perillyl alcohols, esters, oxides, ketones, cineole, camphor, beta-ocimene, limonene, caproic acid, and caryophyllene oxide.",
"The relative amounts of these compounds vary considerably among lavender species."
],
[
"Culinary use",
"Lavender-flavored cupcakesCulinary lavender is usually English lavender, the most commonly used species in cooking (''L.",
"angustifolia'' 'Munstead').",
"As an aromatic, it has a sweet fragrance with lemon or citrus notes.",
"It is used as a spice or condiment in pastas, salads and dressings, and desserts.",
"Their buds and greens are used in teas, and their buds, processed by bees, are the essential ingredient of a monofloral honey.===Use of buds===For most cooking applications the dried buds, which are also referred to as flowers, are used.",
"Lavender greens have a more subtle flavor when compared to rosemary.The potency of the lavender flowers increases with drying which necessitates more sparing use to avoid a heavy, soapy aftertaste.",
"Chefs note to reduce by two-thirds the dry amount in recipes that call for fresh lavender buds.Lavender buds can amplify both sweet and savory flavors in dishes and are sometimes paired with sheep's milk and goat's milk cheeses.",
"Lavender flowers are occasionally blended with black, green, or herbal teas.",
"Lavender flavors baked goods and desserts, pairing especially well with chocolate.",
"In the United States, both lavender syrup and dried lavender buds are used to make lavender scones and marshmallows.Lavender buds are put into sugar for two weeks to allow the essential oils and fragrance to transfer; then the sugar itself is used in baking.",
"Lavender can be used in breads where recipes call for rosemary.",
"Lavender can be used decoratively in dishes or spirits, or as a decorative and aromatic in a glass of champagne.",
"Lavender is used in savory dishes, giving stews and reduced sauces aromatic flair.",
"It is also used to scent flans, custards, and sorbets.===In honey===The flowers yield abundant nectar, from which bees make a high-quality honey.",
"Monofloral honey is produced primarily around the Mediterranean Sea, and is marketed worldwide as a premium product.",
"Flowers can be candied and are sometimes used as cake decorations.",
"It is also used to make \"lavender sugar\"."
],
[
"Other uses",
"Soaps scented with lavender.Lavender products for sale at the San Francisco Farmers Market.",
"Flower spikes are used for dried flower arrangements.",
"The fragrant, pale purple flowers and flower buds are used in potpourris.",
"Lavender is also used as herbal filler inside sachets used to freshen linens.",
"Dried and sealed in pouches, lavender flowers are placed among stored items of clothing to give a fresh fragrance and to deter moths.",
"Dried lavender flowers may be used for wedding confetti.",
"Lavender is also used in scented waters, soaps, and sachets."
],
[
"In history and culture",
"The ancient Greeks called the lavender herb νάρδος: nárdos, Latinized as ''nardus'', after the Syrian city of Naarda (possibly the modern town of Duhok, Iraq).",
"It was also commonly called ''nard''.",
"The species originally grown was ''L.",
"stoechas''.During Roman times, flowers were sold for 100 ''denarii'' per pound, which was about the same as a month's wages for a farm laborer, or fifty haircuts from the local barber.",
"Its late Latin name was ''lavandārius'', from ''lavanda'' (things to be washed), from ''lavāre'' from the verb ''lavo'' (to wash).Since the late 19th centuary, lavenders have been associated with the queer community.===Culinary history===Spanish nard (), referring to ''L.",
"stoechas'', is listed as an ingredient in making a spiced wine, namely hippocras, in ''The Forme of Cury''.Lavender was introduced into England in the 1600s.",
"It is said that Queen Elizabeth prized a lavender conserve (jam) at her table, so lavender was produced as a jam at that time, as well as used in teas both medicinally and for its taste.Lavender was not used in traditional southern French cooking at the turn of the 20th century.",
"It does not appear at all in the best-known compendium of Provençal cooking, J.-B.",
"Reboul's ''Cuisinière Provençale''.",
"French lambs have been allowed to graze on lavender as it is alleged to make their meat more tender and fragrant.",
"In the 1970s, a blend of herbs called ''herbes de Provence'' was invented by spice wholesalers.",
"Culinary lavender is added to the mixture in the North American version.In the 21st century, lavender is used in many world regions to flavor tea, vinegar, jellies, baked goods, and beverages.Bunches of lavender for sale, intended to repel insects"
],
[
"Herbalism",
"The German scientific committee on traditional medicine, Commission E, reported uses of lavender flower in practices of herbalism, including its use for restlessness or insomnia, Roemheld syndrome, intestinal discomfort, and cardiovascular diseases, among others."
],
[
"Health precautions",
"The U.S. National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) states that lavender is considered likely safe in food amounts, and that topical uses may cause allergic reactions.",
"NCCIH does not recommend the use of lavender while pregnant or breastfeeding because of lack of knowledge of its effects.",
"It recommends caution if young boys use lavender oil because of possible hormonal effects leading to gynecomastia.A 2007 study examined the relationship between various fragrances and photosensitivity, stating that lavender is known \"to elicit cutaneous photo-toxic reactions\", but does not induce photohaemolysis.===Adverse effects===Some people experience contact dermatitis, allergic eczema, or facial dermatitis from the use of lavender oil on skin."
],
[
"Taxonomic table",
"Different lavender cultivars grown at Snowshill, Cotswolds.This is based on the classification of Upson and Andrews, 2004.Lavender field in Carshalton, London Borough of Sutton.Lavender field in Hitchin, England, UKI.",
"Subgenus ''Lavendula'' Upson & S.Andrews:i.",
"Section ''Lavandula'' (3 species):*''Lavandula angustifolia'' Mill.",
":: subsp.",
"''angustifolia'' from Catalonia and the Pyrenees.",
":: subsp.",
"''pyrenaica'' from southeast France, adjacent areas of Italy, Spain, Croatia etc.",
":*''Lavandula latifolia'' Medik – native to central Portugal, central and eastern Spain, southern France, northern Italy.",
":*''Lavandula lanata'' Boiss.",
"– native to southern Spain.",
":Hybrids:*''Lavandula × chaytorae'' Upson & S.Andrews (''L.",
"angustifolia'' subsp.",
"''angustifolia'' × ''L.",
"lanata''):*''Lavandula × intermedia'' Emeric ex Loisel.",
"(''L.",
"angustifolia'' subsp.",
"''angustifolia'' × ''L.",
"latifolia'') :ii.",
"Section ''Dentatae'' Suarez-Cerv.",
"& Seoane-Camba (1 species):*''Lavandula dentata'' L. from eastern Spain, northern Algeria and Morocco, southwestern Morocco.",
":: var.",
"''dentata'' (''rosea'', ''albiflora''), ''candicans'' (''persicina'') Batt.:iii.",
"Section ''Stoechas'' Ging.",
"(3 species):*''Lavandula stoechas'' L. :: subsp.",
"''stoechas'' from mostly coastal regions of eastern Spain, southern France, western Italy, Greece, Bulgaria, Mediterranean Turkey, Levantine coast, and most Mediterranean islands.",
":: subsp.",
"''luisieri'' native to coastal and inland Portugal and adjacent Spain.",
":*''Lavandula pedunculata'' Mill.(Cav.",
"):: subsp.",
"''pedunculata'' – Spain and Portugal.",
":: subsp.",
"''cariensis'' – from western Turkey and southern Bulgaria.",
":: subsp.",
"''atlantica'' – from montane Morocco.",
":: subsp.",
"''lusitanica'' – southern Portugal and southwestern Spain.",
":: subsp.",
"''sampaiana'' – from Portugal and southwest Spain.",
":*''Lavandula viridis'' L'Her.",
"– native to southwest Spain, southern Portugal, and possibly also to Madeira.",
":Intersectional hybrids (''Dentatae'' and ''Lavendula''):*''Lavandula × heterophylla'' Viv.",
"(''L.",
"dentata'' × ''L.",
"latifolia'' ):*''Lavandula × allardii'' :*''Lavandula × ginginsii'' Upson & S.Andrews (''L.",
"dentata'' × ''L.",
"lanata'' )II.",
"Subgenus ''Fabricia'' (Adams.)",
"Upson & S.Andrews:iv.",
"Section ''Pterostoechas'' Ging.",
"(16 species):*''Lavandula multifida'' L. – is native to a wide range including Morocco, southern Portugal and Spain, northern Algeria, Tunisia, Tripolitania, Calabria and Sicily, with isolated populations in the Nile valley.",
":*''Lavandula canariensis'' Mill., from the Canaries.",
":: subsp.",
"''palmensis'' – from La Palma.",
":: subsp.",
"''hierrensis'' – from El Hierro.",
":: subsp.",
"''canariensis'' – from Tenerife.",
":: subsp.",
"''canariae'' – from Gran Canaria.",
":: subsp.",
"''fuerteventurae'' – from Fuerteventura.",
":: subsp.",
"''gomerensis'' – from La Gomera.",
":: subsp.",
"''lancerottensis'' – from Lanzarote.",
":*''Lavandula minutolii'' Bolle – Canary Isles.",
":: subsp.",
"''minutolii'':: subsp.",
"''tenuipinna'':*''Lavandula bramwellii'' Upson & S.Andrews – from Gran Canaria.",
":*''Lavandula pinnata'' L. – from the Canaries and also Madeira.",
":*''Lavandula buchii'' Webb & Berthel.",
"– Tenerife.",
":*''Lavandula rotundifolia'' Benth.",
"– Cape Verde Islands.",
":*''Lavandula maroccana'' Murb.",
"– Atlas mountains of Morocco.",
":*''Lavandula tenuisecta'' Coss.",
"ex Ball – Atlas mountains in Morocco.",
":*''Lavandula rejdalii'' Upson & Jury – Morocco.",
":*''Lavandula mairei'' Humbert – Morocco.",
":*''Lavandula coronopifolia'' Poir.",
"– This has a wide distribution, from Cape Verde across North Africa, the northeast of tropical Africa, Arabia to eastern Iran.",
":*''Lavandula saharica'' Upson & Jury – southern Algeria and nearby regions.",
":*''Lavandula antineae'' Maire – central Sahara region.",
":: subsp.",
"''antinae'':: subsp.",
"''marrana'':: subsp.",
"''tibestica'':*''Lavandula pubescens'' Decne.",
"– from Egypt and Eritrea, Sinai, Israel and Palestine, Jordan, western Arabian peninsula to Yemen.",
":*''Lavandula citriodora'' A.G. Mill.",
"– southwestern Arabian peninsula.",
":Hybrids:*''Lavandula × christiana'' Gattef.",
"& Maire (L. pinnata × L. canariensis):v. Section ''Subnudae'' Chaytor (10 species):*''Lavandula subnuda'' Benth.",
"– from the mountains of Oman and the United Arab Emirates.",
":*''Lavandula macra'' Baker – southern Arabian peninsula and Somaliland.",
":*''Lavandula dhofarensis'' A.G. Mill.",
"– from Dhofar in southern Oman.",
":: subsp.",
"''dhofarensis'':: subsp.",
"''ayunensis'':*''Lavandula samhanensis'' Upson & S.Andrews – Dhofar, Oman.",
":*''Lavandula setifera'' T. Anderson – from coastal regions of Yemen and Somaliland.",
":*''Lavandula qishnensis'' Upson & S.Andrews – southern Yemen.",
":*''Lavandula nimmoi'' Benth.",
"– from Socotra.",
":*''Lavandula galgalloensis'' A.G. Mill.",
"– Somaliland.",
":*''Lavandula aristibracteata'' A.G. Mill.",
"– Somaliland.",
":*''Lavandula somaliensis'' Chaytor – Somaliland.:vi.",
"Section ''Chaetostachys'' Benth.",
"(2 species):*''Lavandula bipinnata'' (Roth) Kuntze – from the Deccan peninsula and central north India.",
":*''Lavandula gibsonii'' J. Graham – Western Ghats, India.",
":vii.",
"Section ''Hasikenses'' Upson & S.Andrews (2 species):*''Lavandula hasikensis'' A.G. Mill.",
"– Oman.",
":*''Lavandula sublepidota'' Rech.",
"f. – Far, in southern Iran.III.",
"Subgenus ''Sabaudia'' (Buscal.",
"& Muschl.)",
"Upson & S.Andrews:viii.",
"Section ''Sabaudia'' (Buscal.",
"& Muschl.)",
"Upson & S.Andrews (2 species):*''Lavandula atriplicifolia'' Benth.",
"– western Arabian peninsula, Egypt.",
":*''Lavandula erythraeae'' (Chiov.)",
"Cufod.",
"– from Eritrea."
],
[
"Gallery",
"File:Lavender02.jpg|Lavender flowerFile:LavendarFlower.jpg|Flower of cultivated lavender; ''Lavandula stoechas''File:Lavender fields in India.jpg|Lavender garden, IndiaFile:Lavandula fields.jpg|Lavandula fields near DramaFile:Lavender Flower Closeup 2.jpg|The flower of ''Lavandula angustifolia''.File:Kula Lavender Farm.jpg|Lavender growing at Kula Lavender Farm located in Maui, Hawaii"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Further reading",
"* Upson T, Andrews S. The Genus Lavandula.",
"Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2004* United States Department of Agriculture GRIN: Lavandula"
],
[
"External links",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Lemon balm"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Lemon balm''' ('''''Melissa officinalis''''') is a perennial herbaceous plant in the mint family and native to south-central Europe, the Mediterranean Basin, Iran, and Central Asia, but now naturalised elsewhere.It grows to a maximum height of .",
"The leaves have a mild lemon scent.",
"During summer, small white flowers full of nectar appear.",
"It is not to be confused with bee balm (genus ''Monarda''), although the white flowers attract bees, hence the genus ''Melissa'' (Greek for \"honey bee\").The leaves are used as a herb, in teas and also as a flavouring.",
"The plant is used to attract bees for honey production.",
"It is grown as an ornamental plant and for its oil (to use in perfumery).",
"Lemon balm has been cultivated at least since the 16th century."
],
[
"Description",
"An illustration of ''Melissa officinalis'' from (1885)Lemon balm (''Melissa officinalis'') is a perennial herbaceous plant in the mint family Lamiaceae, and native to south-central Europe, the Mediterranean Basin, Iran, and Central Asia, but now naturalized in the Americas and elsewhere.",
"The second name, ''officinalis'' (Latin, 'of the shop'), originates from the use of the herb by apothecaries, who sold herbal remedies directly to their customers.Lemon balm plants grow bushy and upright to a maximum height of .",
"The heart-shaped leaves are long, and have a rough, veined surface.",
"They are soft and hairy with scalloped edges, and have a mild lemon scent.",
"During summer, small white or pale pink flowers appear.",
"The plants live for ten years; the crop plant is replaced after five years to allow the ground to rejuvenate."
],
[
"Historical uses",
"The use of lemon balm can be dated to over 2000 years ago through the Greeks and the Romans.",
"It is mentioned by the Greek polymath Theophrastus in his ''Historia Plantarum'', written in 300 BC, as \"bee-leaf\" (μελισσόφυλλον).",
"Lemon balm was formally introduced into Europe in the 7th century, from which its use and domestication spread.",
"Its use in the Middle Ages is noted by herbalists, writers, philosophers, and scientists.Lemon balm was a favourite plant of the Tudors, who scattered the leaves across their floors.",
"It was in the herbal garden of the English botanist John Gerard in the 1590s, who considered it especially good for feeding and attracting honeybees.",
"Especially cultivated for honey production, according to the authors Janet Dampney and Elizabeth Pomeroy, \"bees were thought never to leave a garden in which it was grown\".",
"It was introduced to North America by the first colonists from Europe; it was cultivated in the Gardens of Monticello, designed by the American statesman Thomas Jefferson.The English botanist Nicholas Culpeper considered lemon balm to be ruled by the planet Jupiter in Cancer, and suggested it to be used for \"weak stomachs\", to cause the heart to become \"merry\", to help digestion, to open \"obstructions of the brain\", and to expel \"melancholy vapors\" from the heart and arteries.In traditional Austrian medicine, ''M.",
"officinalis'' leaves have been prescribed as a herbal tea, or as an external application in the form of an essential oil."
],
[
"Current uses",
"Lemon balm is the main ingredient of carmelite water, which is sold in German pharmacies.The plant is grown and sold as an ornamental plant, and for attracting bees.",
"The essential oil is used as a perfume ingredient.",
"It is used in toothpaste.Lemon balm is used as a flavouring in ice cream and herbal teas, often in combination with other herbs such as spearmint.",
"The leaves are not dried when used for tea.",
"It is a common addition to peppermint tea, mostly because of its complementing flavor.",
"Lemon balm is also used with fruit dishes or candies.",
"It can be used in fish dishes and is the main ingredient in lemon balm pesto.",
"Its flavour comes from geraniol (3–40%), neral (3–35%), geranial (4–85%) (both isomers of citral), (E)-caryophyllene (0–14%), and citronellal (1–44%).",
"It is also one of the ingredients in Spreewald gherkins."
],
[
"Cultivation",
"A bumblebee feeding on a lemon balm flower''Melissa officinalis'' is native to Europe, central Asia and Iran, but is now naturalized around the world.",
"It grows easily from seed, preferring rich, moist soil.Lemon balm seeds require light and a minimum temperature of to germinate.",
"The plant grows in clumps and spreads vegetatively (a new plant can grow from a fragment of the parent plant), as well as by seed.",
"In mild temperate zones, the plant stems die off at the start of the winter, but shoot up again in spring.",
"Lemon balm grows vigorously., Hungary, Egypt, and Italy are the major producing countries of lemon balm.",
"The leaves are harvested by hand in June and August in the northern hemisphere, on a day when the weather is dry, to prevent the crop from turning black if damp.The cultivars of ''M.",
"officinalis'' include:* ''M.",
"officinalis'' 'Citronella'* ''M.",
"officinalis'' 'Lemonella'* ''M.",
"officinalis'' 'Quedlinburger'* ''M.",
"officinalis'' 'Lime'* ''M.",
"officinalis'' 'Mandarina'* ''M.",
"officinalis'' 'Variegata'* ''M.",
"officinalis'' 'Aurea'* ''M.",
"officinalis'' 'Quedlinburger Niederliegende', an improved variety bred for high essential oil content.===Essential oil production===Ireland is a major producer of lemon balm essential oil, which has a pale yellow colour and a lemon scent.",
"The essential oil is commonly co-distilled with lemon oil, citronella oil or other essential oils.",
"Yields are low; 0.014% for fresh leaves and 0.112% for dried leaves.The plant seen in visible light, ultraviolet light and infrared"
],
[
"Chemistry",
"Lemon balm contains eugenol, tannins, and terpenes.+ Composition of lemon balm oil Component minimum % maximum % Methyl Heptenone 2.2 8.6 Citronellal 1.0 8.4 Linalool 0.5 2.7 Neral 19.6 36.1 Geranial 25.3 47.5 Geranyl acetate 1.2 6.2 Carophyllene 1.9 9.7 Carophyllene oxide 0.5 9.0"
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References",
"===Works cited===* * * * * * * * * * * * *"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Liliales"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Liliales''' is an order of monocotyledonous flowering plants in the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group and Angiosperm Phylogeny Web system, within the lilioid monocots.",
"This order of necessity includes the family Liliaceae.",
"The APG III system (2009) places this order in the monocot clade.",
"In APG III, the family Luzuriagaceae is combined with the family Alstroemeriaceae and the family Petermanniaceae is recognized.",
"Both the order Lililiales and the family Liliaceae have had a widely disputed history, with the circumscription varying greatly from one taxonomist to another.",
"Previous members of this order, which at one stage included most monocots with conspicuous tepals and lacking starch in the endosperm are now distributed over three orders, Liliales, Dioscoreales and Asparagales, using predominantly molecular phylogenetics.",
"The newly delimited Liliales is monophyletic, with ten families.",
"Well known plants from the order include ''Lilium'' (lily), tulip, the North American wildflower ''Trillium'', and greenbrier.Thus circumscribed, this order consists mostly of herbaceous plants, but lianas and shrubs also occur.",
"They are mostly perennial plants, with food storage organs such as corms or rhizomes.",
"The family Corsiaceae is notable for being heterotrophic.The order has worldwide distribution.",
"The larger families (with more than 100 species) are roughly confined to the Northern Hemisphere, or are distributed worldwide, centering on the north.",
"On the other hand, the smaller families (with up to 10 species) are confined to the Southern Hemisphere, or sometimes just to Australia or South America.",
"The total number of species in the order is now about 1768.As with any herbaceous group, the fossil record of the Liliales is rather scarce.",
"There are several species from the Eocene, such as ''Petermanniopsis anglesaensis'' or ''Smilax'', but their identification is not definite.",
"Another known fossil is ''Ripogonum scandens'' from the Miocene.",
"Due to the scarcity of data, it seems impossible to determine precisely the age and the initial distribution of the order.",
"It is assumed that the Liliales originate from the Lower Cretaceous, over 100 million years ago.",
"Fossil aquatic plants from the Cretaceous of northeastern Brazil and a new terrestrial species placed in the new genus ''Cratosmilax'' suggest that the first species have appeared around 120 million years ago when the continents formed Pangea, before dispersing as Asia, Africa and America.",
"The initial diversification to the current families took place between 82 and 48 million years ago.",
"The order consists of 10 families, 67 genera and about 1,768 species."
],
[
"Description",
"The Liliales are a diverse order of predominantly perennial erect or twining herbaceous and climbing plants.",
"Climbers, such as the herbaceous ''Gloriosa'' (Colchicaceae) and ''Bomarea'' (Alstroemeriaceae), are common in the Americas in temperate and tropical zones, while most species of the subtropical and tropical genus ''Smilax'' (Smilacaceae) are herbaceous or woody climbers and comprise much of the vegetation within the Liliales range.",
"They also include woody shrubs, which have fleshy stems and underground storage or perennating organs, mainly bulbous geophytes, sometimes rhizomatous or cormous.",
"Leaves are elliptical and straplike with parallel venation or ovate with palmate veins and reticulate minor venation (Smilacaceae).",
"In ''Alstroemeria'' and ''Bomarea'' (Alstroemeriaceae) the leaves are resupinate (twisted).",
"The flowers are highly variable, ranging in size from the small green actinomorphic (radially symmetric) blooms of ''Smilax'' to the large showy ones found in ''Lilium'', ''Tulipa'' and ''Calochortus'' (Liliaceae) and ''Lapageria'' (Philesiaceae).",
"Sepals and petals are undifferentiated from each other, and known as tepals, forming a perianth.",
"They are usually large and pointed and may be variegated in ''Fritillaria'' (Liliaceae).",
"Nectaries may be perigonal (at base of tepals) but not septal (on ovaries).",
"Perigonal nectaries may be a simple secretory epidermal region at the tepal bases (''Lapageria'') or small, depressed regions fringed with hairs, often with glandular surface protuberances, at the bases of the inner tepals (''Calochortus''), while in ''Tricyrtis'' the tepals become bulbous or spur-like at the base, forming a nectar-containing sac.",
"Ovaries may be inferior or superior, the style often long and stigma capitate (pin headed).",
"In a number of taxa there are three separate styles, particularly some Melanthiaceae ''s.l.''",
"(e.g.",
"''Helonias'', ''Trillium'', ''Veratrum'') and ''Chionographis''.",
"The outer integument epidermis of the seed coat is cellular, and the phytomelanin pigment is lacking.",
"The inner integument is also cellular and these features are plesiomorphic.The Liliales are characterised by (synapomorphies) the presence of nectaries at the base of the tepals (perigonal nectaries) or stamen filaments (''Colchicum'', ''Androcymbium'') most taxa but the absence of septal nectaries, together with extrorse (outward opening) anthers.",
"This distinguishes them from the septal nectaries and introrse anthers that are the features of most other monocots.",
"Exceptions are some Melanthiaceae in which nectaries are absent or septal and anthers that are introrse (dehiscence directed inwards) in Campynemataceae, Colchicaceae, and some Alstroemeriaceae, Melanthiaceae, Philesiaceae, Ripogonaceae and Smilacaceae.",
"Tepals are largely three-traced in net-veined taxa of Liliales (e.g.",
"''Clintonia'', ''Disporum''), distinguishing them from the single-traced Asparagales, and is associated with the presence of tepal nectaries, presumably to supply them.",
"The presence of separate styles is also a distinguishing feature from Asparagales, where it is rare.",
"Phytomelan is completely absent in Liliales seed coats, unlike Asparagales, which nearly all contain it.=== Phytochemistry ===The stems contain fructans, the plants also contain Chelidonic acid, saponins, while some species contain Velamen.",
"The epicuticular wax is of the Convallaria type, consisting of parallel orientated platelets.=== Genome ===The order includes taxa with some of the largest genomes among Angiosperms, particularly Melanthiaceae, Alstroemeriaceae and Liliaceae."
],
[
"Taxonomy",
"With 11 families, about 67 genera and about 1,558 species, Liliales is a relatively small angiosperm order, but a large group within the monocotyledons.=== History ======= Origins ====The botanical authority for Liliales is given to Perleb (1826), who grouped eleven families (Asparageae, Pontederiaceae, Asphodeleae, Coronariae, Colchicaceae, Dioscoreaceae, Hypoxideae, Amaryllideae, Haemodoraceae, Burmanniaceae, Irideae) into an order he called Liliaceae.",
"In Perleb's system, he divided the vascular plants into seven classes, of which the Phanerogamicae or seed plants he called his class IV, or Ternariae.",
"The latter, he divided into five orders (''ordo''), including the Liliaceae.A number of later taxonomists, such as Endlicher (1836) substitituted the term Coronarieae for this higher order, including six subordinate taxa.",
"Endlicher divided the Cormophyta into five sections, of which Amphibrya contained eleven classes, including Coronarieae.",
"The term Liliales was introduced by Lindley (1853), referring to these higher orders as Alliances.",
"Lindley included four families in this alliance.",
"Lindley called the monocots class Endogenae, with eleven alliances including Liliales.",
"Although Bentham (1877) restored Coronariae as one of seven Series making up the monocotyledons, it was replaced by Liliiflorae and then Liliales in subsequent publications (''see Table for history'').==== Phyletic systems ====Subsequent authors, now adopting a phylogenetic (phyletic) or evolutionary approach over the natural method, did not follow Bentham's nomenclature.",
"Eichler (1886) used Liliiflorae for the higher order including Liliaceae, placing it as the first order (''Reihe'') in his class monocotyledons, as did Engler (1903), Lotsy (1911), and Wettstein in 1924, in class Monocotyledones, subdivision Angiospermae.Hutchinson (1973) restored Liliales for the higher rank, an approach that has been adopted by most major classification systems onwards, reserving Liliiflorae for higher ranks.",
"These include Cronquist (1981), Dahlgren (1985), Takhtajan (1997) as well as Thorne and Reveal (2007).Hutchinson (1973) derived a more elaborate hierarchy, placing order Liliales as one of 14 in division Corolliferae, one of three divisions of subphylum monocotyledons.",
"Cronquist (1981) placed the order Liliales as one of two in subclass Liliidae, one of five in the class Liliopsida (monocotyledons) of division Magnoliophyta (angiosperms).",
"Dahlgren (1985) made Liliales one of six orders in Superorder Liliiflorae, one of ten divisions of the monocots.",
"Takhtajan (1997) had a more complex system of higher taxonomic ranks, placing Liliales as one of 15 orders within superorder Lilianae, one of four within subclass Liliidae.",
"Liliidae in turn was one of four subclasses in class Liliopsida (monocots).",
"In contrast Thorne and Reveal (2007) abandoned the use of monocotyledons as a distinct taxon, replacing it with 3 separate subclasses of Magnoliopsida (angiosperms), of which Liliidae consists of 3 superorders, placing Liliales in superorder Lilianae.In all these systems, Liliales (or Liliiflorae) were visualised as either a direct division of the monocots (or equivalent) or were placed in an intermediate division of the monocots, such as superorder Lilianae.==== Molecular phylogenetic systems ====The development of molecular phylogenetic methods for determining taxonomic circumscription and phylogeny led to considerable revision of angiosperm classification, and establishment of Liliales as a monophyletic group.",
"It was clear by 1996, that the most useful system to date, that of Dahlgren, required urgent revision.",
"The new classification was formalised with the creation of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) system (1998–2016), based on monophyletic clades, which continued the use of Liliales as the name for the taxon.The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group APG system (1998) established a structure of monocot classification with ten orders.",
"Notable was the separation of asparagids, as suggested by Dahlgren, into Asparagales, with other taxa placed in Dioscoreales, resulting in a much reduced order.=== Phylogeny ===The position of Liliales within the monocots (Lilianae) is shown in the following cladogram.",
"The monocot orders form three grades, the alismatid monocots, lilioid monocots and the commelinid monocots by order of branching, from early to late.",
"These have alternatively been referred to as Alismatanae, Lilianae and Commelinanae.",
"The alismatid monocots form the basal group, while the remaining grades (lilioid and commelinid monocots) have been referred to as the \"core monocots\".",
"The relationship between the orders (with the exception of the two sister orders) is pectinate, that is diverging in succession from the line that leads to the commelinids.",
"The lilioid monocot orders constitute a paraphyletic assemblage, that is groups with a common ancestor that do not include all direct descendants (in this case commelinids which are a sister group to Asparagales); to form a clade, all the groups joined by thick lines would need to be included.",
"In the cladogram the numbers indicate crown group (most recent common ancestor of the sampled species of the clade of interest) divergence times in mya (million years ago).",
"'''Cladogram 1: The phylogenetic composition of the monocots'''=== Biogeography and evolution ===The crown group of Liliales has been dated to ca.",
"117 Myr (million years ago) in the Early Cretaceous period of the Mesozoic era.=== Subdivision ===The circumscription of Liliales has varied greatly since Perleb's original construction with 11 families in 1826.Many of these families are now considered to be in Asparagales, with the remainder in commelinids and Dioscoreales, as shown in this table.Perleb(1826) Endlicher(1836)Lindley(1853) Bentham & Hooker(1883)Eichler(1886)Engler(1903)Lotsy(1911) Wettstein(1924) Hutchinson(1973) Cronquist(1981) Dahlgren(1985)Takhtajan (1997)Thorne & Reveal (2007) APG IV (2016)Liliaceae CoronarieaeLiliales CoronariaeLiliifloraeLiliifloraeLiliiflorae LiliifloraeLilialesLiliales LilialesLilialesLiliales LilialesAsparageaeA Asparagaceae AsphodeleaeA Asphodelaceae Colchicaceae Colchicaceae Colchicaceae Colchicaceae CoronariaeLiliaceaeLiliaceae LiliaceaeLiliaceae LiliaceaeLiliaceaeLiliaceaeLiliaceaeLiliaceaeLiliaceaeLiliaceaeLiliaceaeLiliaceaeAmaryllideaeA AmaryllidaceaeAmaryllidaceaeAmaryllidaceae PontederiaceaecPontederiaceaePontederiaceaePontederiaceae PontederiaceaePontederiaceaePontederiaceae DioscoreaceaeD Dioscoreaceae DioscoreaceaeDioscoreaceaeDioscoreaceae Dioscoreaceae HypoxideaeA Hypoxidaceae Haemodoraceaec Haemodoraceae HaemodoraceaeHaemodoraceaeHaemodoraceae Haemodoraceae BurmanniaceaeD BurmanniaceaeBurmanniaceae IrideaeA IridaceaeIridaceaeIridaceaeIridaceae IridaceaeIridaceae Juncaceaec Juncaceae JuncaceaeJuncaceaeJuncaceae Philydriaec Philydraceae Philydraceae Philydraceae Melanthaceae MelanthaceaeMelanthaceae Melanthiaceae Melanthiaceae Melanthiaceae Smilaceae Smilaceae SmilacaceaeSmilacaceae Smilacaceae Smilacaceae GilliesiaceaeA Gilliesiaceae RoxburghiaceaeP Stemonaceae StemonaceaeStemonaceae Stemonaceae Xyrideaec Mayaceaec Commelinaceaec Rapateaceaec Rapateaceae Bromeliaceaec Bromeliaceae VelloziaceaeP VellosiaceaeVelloziaceae Velloziaceae TaccaceaeD TaccaceaeTaccaceae Taccaceae AloinaceaeA EriospermaceaeA JohnsoniaceaeA AgapanthaceaeA AlliaceaeA Tulipaceae ScillaceaeA DracaenaceaeA Luzuriagaceae Luzuriagaceae OphiopogonaceaeA LomandraceaeA Dasypogonaceaec Calectasiaceaec Flagellariaceaec CyanastraceaecCyanastraceae Cyanastraceae AgavaceaeA Agavaceae TecophilaeaceaeA Trilliaceae Trilliaceae (in Melanthiaceae) RuscaceaeA XanthorrhoeaceaeA Alstroemeriaceae AlstroemeriaceaeAlstroemeriaceae Uvulariaceae (in ColchicaceaeLiliaceae) Calochortaceae (in Liliaceae) GeosiridaceaeA Medeolaceae (in Liliaceae) CorsiaceaeCorsiaceae Campynemataceae Campynemataceae Petermanniaceae Petermanniaceae RhipogonaceaeRipogonaceae PhilesiaceaePhilesiaceae Treatment of families in modern taxonomy (APG), remaining families included in Liliales:* A: Asparagales c: commelinids D: Dioscoreales P: PandanalesThe availability of molecular phylogenetic methods suggested four main lineages within Liliales, and seven families; # Liliaceae group: Liliaceae (including some former Uvulariaceae and Calochortaceae), and Smilacaceae (including Ripogonaceae and Philesiaceae) # Campynemataceae# Colchicaceae group: Colchicaceae (including Petermannia and Uvularia), Alstroemeriaceae and Luzuriaga# Melanthiaceae (including Trilliaceae)The first Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification (APG I) in 1998 had the following circumscription, with 9 families, having separated Philesiaceae and Ripogonaceae from Smilacaceae:* order Liliales*: family Alstroemeriaceae*: family Campynemataceae*: family Colchicaceae*: family Liliaceae*: family Luzuriagaceae*: family Melanthiaceae*: family Philesiaceae*: family Ripogonaceae *: family SmilacaceaeThe APG II system (2003) added Corsiaceae to the Liliales, while APG III (2009) added Petermanniaceae and merged Luzuriagaceae into Alstroemeriaceae.",
"The subsequent revision of APG IV (2016) left this unchanged, with 10 families.The exact phylogenetic relationship between the families of Liliales has been subject to revision.",
"This cladogram shows that of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (2020):The bulk of the Liliales species are found in the very diverse family Liliaceae (16 genera, 610 species).",
"Of the remaining nine families, three are referred to as the vine families (Ripogonaceae, Philesiaceae and Smilacaceae) and form a cluster.=== Families ===''alt=Flower of Corsia ornata==== Corsiaceae ====The Corsiaceae (ghost-flower family) are a very small family of 3 mycoheterotrophic genera, lacking chlorophyll, with 27 species of perennial herbaceous plants.",
"They are found in montane forests in South America (one genus) and from southern China to northern Australia in areas with high rainfall, and among dense leaf litter.",
"The majority of species occur in the type genus ''Corsia''.",
"The name commemorates the Florentine plant collector Marquis Bardo Corsi Salviati (1844–1907).",
"''alt=Flower of Campynema lineare==== Campynemataceae ====The Campynemataceae (Green-mountainlily family) are a very small family of two genera and four species of rhizomatous herbaceous plants found in Tasmania and New Caledonia.",
"The name is derived from the Greek words ''kampylos'' (curved) and nema (thread).",
"''alt=Flowers of Veratrum album==== Melanthiaceae ====The Melanthiaceae (Wake Robin family) is a family of perennial herbaceous plants, whose storage organs include bulbs, rhizomes and corms (rarely, e.g.",
"''Schoenocaulon'').",
"Their distribution is temperate and boreal Northern hemisphere, in the Americas extending south to the Andes and in Asia to the Himalayas and Taiwan.",
"Melanthiaceae consists of 17 genera and 173 species distributed in a number of subdivisions.",
"The largest genus is ''Trillium'' (44 species) but many genera are monotypic.",
"A number of genera, including ''Trillium'' are used as garden ornamentals, especially for woodland gardens.",
"''Paris japonica'' is noted for having the largest genome known to date.",
"The family name is derived from the Greek words ''melas'' (black) and ''anthos'' (flower) in reference to the dark colour of the petals.",
"''alt=Petermannia cirrosa vine, growing in Australia==== Petermanniaceae ====The Petermanniaceae (Petermann's vine family) consists of a single species, ''Petermannia cirrosa'', a perennial woody vine with underground rhizomes.",
"''Petermannia'' is restricted to Queensland and New South Wales, in temperate rainforests between Brisbane and Sydney.",
"The family was named for Wilhelm Ludwwig Petermann (1806–1855), director of the botanical garden at Leipzig.",
"''alt=Colchicum autumnale flowers==== Colchicaceae ====The Colchicaceae (Naked-ladies or Colchicum family) are perennial erect and climbing plants with underground corms, tubers and rhizomes.",
"They are herbaceous with the exception of ''Kuntheria'' which has a somewhat woody stem.",
"Their distribution is widespread including in temperate zones in North America, Europe, North Africa and the Middle east and tropical zones in Africa, Asia and Australasia.",
"They are absent from South America.",
"The family is of medium size with 15 genera and about 285 species.",
"The largest genus is the type genus, ''Colchicum'', with 159spp.",
"Although the alkaloids, which characterise them, they contain are toxic to animals and humans, Colchicine has usage medicinally and in botanical laboratories.",
"They are also include popular garden and indoor ornamentals.",
"These include ''Colchicum'' and ''Gloriosa''.",
"The family is named after Colchis on the eastern Black Sea.",
"''alt=Alstroemeria pelegrina flower==== Alstroemeriaceae ====The Alstroemeriaceae (Inca-lily family) are erect or creeping perennial (rarely annual) herbaceous plants with occasional shrubby vines, some of which have evergreen stems.",
"They are occasionally epiphytic and form often swollen rhizomes.",
"They are found in tropical and temperate Central and South America, as well as Australasia.",
"There are two large genera (Alstroemerieae), the erect ''Alstroemeria'' (S America 125 spp.)",
"and twining ''Bomarea'' (Central & S America 122 spp.)",
"and two very small genera (Luzuriageae) with 2 and 4 species each, for a total of 253 species in the family.",
"Two species are widely used for food in S America, ''Alstroemeria ligtu'' is used for a flour (Chuño) that is extracted from its roots, while the tubers of ''Bomarea edulis'' are directly consumed.",
"''Luzuriaga radicans'', also from S America, produces fibre used in rope making.",
"''Alstroemeria'' cultivars are popular ornamentals and widely used as cut flowers (Peruvian lilies).",
"The family is named for Baron Clas Alströmer (1736–1794), a student of Linnaeus.",
"''alt=Developing inflorescence of Ripogonum scandens==== Ripogonaceae ====The Ripogonaceae (Supplejack family) is a very small family, with a single genus, ''Ripogonum'' and six species.",
"They are woody evergreen shrubs and vines arising from a horizontal rhizome, swollen at its base to form a tuber.",
"They are confined to Eastern Australasia, with the type species, ''Ripogonum scandens'' as the sole New Zealand species.",
"The stems have a use in basketry and building and the young shoots are edible.",
"The name is derived from two Greek words, ''ripos'' (wicker) and ''gony'' (node) in reference to their node bearing shoots.",
"''alt=Flowers of Philesia magellanic==== Philesiaceae ====The Philesiaceae (Chilean-bellflower family) are a very small family consisting of two monotypic genera, the two species being ''Philesia magellanica'' and the similar ''Lapageria rosea''.",
"They grow from a short woody rhizome, forming shrubs and vines respectively.",
"They are found in the cool temperate forest of central and southern Chile, Magellan straits and adjacent Argentina, among the southern beech (Nothofagus) trees.",
"''Lapageria'' is the national flower of Chile and a popular ornamental with edible fruit.",
"The name is thought to be related to the Greek word ''phileo'' (love), because of the attractiveness of its flowers.",
"''alt=Leaves and berries of Smilax aspera==== Smilacaceae ====The Smilacaceae (Catbrier family) consist of a single large genus, ''Smilax'', with about 210 species, making it the second largest family of the order, after Liliaceae.",
"They are perennial vines, shrubs or herbaceous, sometimes woody, plants with short fibrous woody (sometimes tuberous) rhizomes.",
"Smilacaceae are pantropical with extension into temperate zones north (N America, Mediterranean, Russian Far East) and south (Eastern Australia).",
"A number of species have been used in traditional medicine and as foodstuffs.",
"''Smilax china'' was used to treat gout.",
"''S.",
"aristolochiifolia'' was used to treat syphilis (but later as sarsaparilla to flavor root beer and confectionary).",
"The fruit of ''S.",
"megacarpa'' is consumed in conserves.",
"The young shoots of many species are also edible.",
"The family is named after the Greek myth of the affair between the mortal Krokos (or Crocus) and the nymph Smilax, whose punishment was to be turned into the prickly vine ''Smilax aspera''.",
"''alt=Flowers of Lilium candidum==== Liliaceae ====The lily family, Liliaceae, are the largest Liliales family, with 15 genera and about 700 species, though much reduced from earlier circumscriptions, in four subfamilies.",
"Of these genera, ''Gagea'' is the largest (204 spp.",
"), but some are quite small, with ''Medeola'' being monotypic.",
"They are perennial herbaceous plants, growing from bulbs or corms (rarely creeping rhizomes), with actinomorphic hypogynous flowers that are often coloured and patterned.",
"They are predominantly northern temperate in distribution, with extension to subtropical areas of N Africa, India, China and Luzon, but are absent from the southern hemisphere.",
"The bulbs have been used as foodstuffs or in traditional medicine.",
"''Cardiocrinum cordatum'' and ''Erythronium japonicum'' are sources of starch.",
"Many Liliaceae are important in the floriculture and horticulture industries, particularly ''Tulipa'' and ''Lilium'', but also ''Fritillaria''.",
"Many are also important ornamentals, such as ''Calochortus'', ''Cardiocrinum'', ''Clintonia'', ''Erythronium'' and ''Tricyrtis''.",
"The name is derived from the Latin word for lily, ''lilium'', which in turn is derived from the Greek ''leirion'', a white lily."
],
[
"Distribution and habitat",
"Widely distributed but most commonly found in subtropical and temperate regions, especially herbaceous taxa in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, and subtropical regions of the Southern hemisphere, including vines.",
"Since many species are cultivated they have been introduced in many regions and consequently worldwide, and a number have subsequently escaped and naturalised."
],
[
"Uses",
"Liliales form important sources of food and pharmaceuticals as well as playing a significant role in horticulture and floriculture as ornamental plants.",
"Pharmaceutical products include colchicine from ''Colchicum'' and ''Gloriosa'' (Colchicaceae) and veratrine and related compounds from ''Veratrum'' (Melanthiaceae) and ''Zigadenus'' (Melanthiaceae)."
],
[
"Notes"
],
[
"References"
],
[
"Bibliography",
"=== Books and symposia ===* * * * * * * * Excerpts;Taxonomic systems* * ''Additional excerpts''* * , ''( additional excerpts)''* === Historical sources ===* * * * * , see also Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien* * * * === Chapters ===* * , In * , In * * , in === Articles ===* * * * * * * * * * * * ;APG* * * * * === Websites ===* * * (''see also'' Angiosperm Phylogeny Website)* (''see also'' Angiosperm Phylogeny Website)*"
],
[
"Further reading",
"=== Books and symposia ===* === Historical sources ===* === Articles ===* * * * * * * === Websites ===*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Laurales"
],
[
"Introduction",
"The '''Laurales''' are an order of flowering plants.",
"They are magnoliids, related to the Magnoliales.The order includes about 2500-2800 species from 85 to 90 genera, which comprise seven families of trees and shrubs.",
"Most of the species are tropical and subtropical, though a few genera reach the temperate zone.",
"The best known species in this order are those of the Lauraceae (for example bay laurel, cinnamon, avocado, and ''Sassafras''), and the ornamental shrub ''Calycanthus'' of the Calycanthaceae.The earliest lauraceous fossils are from the early Cretaceous.",
"It is possible that the ancient origin of this order is one of the reasons for its highly diverged morphology.",
"Presently no single morphological property is known, which would unify all the members of Laurales.",
"The presently accepted classification is based on molecular and genetic analysis."
],
[
"Classification",
"The first botanist to think of the Laurales as a natural group was H. Hallier in 1905.He viewed them as being derived from the Magnoliales.",
"During some or all of the 20th century, the Laurales generally included ''Amborella'' and the plants now classified in Austrobaileyales and Chloranthaceae.",
"They were not removed until the advent of molecular data in the late 20th century; their previous inclusion made it harder to determine the relationships within the Laurales and between the Laurales and other groups.The following families are included in the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system (APG III):order '''Laurales''' : family Atherospermataceae: family Calycanthaceae: family Gomortegaceae: family Hernandiaceae: family Lauraceae: family Monimiaceae: family Siparunaceae The current composition and phylogeny of the Laurales.",
"Under the older Cronquist system, the Laurales included a slightly different set of families (current placement, where different, in brackets):* Family Amborellaceae (Family Amborellaceae, unplaced)* Family Calycanthaceae* Family Gomortegaceae* Family Hernandiaceae* Family Idiospermaceae (= Calycanthaceae ''pro parte'')* Family Lauraceae* Family Monimiaceae (Cronquist included Atherospermataceae and Siparunaceae in Monimiaceae)* Family Trimeniaceae (Austrobaileyales)"
],
[
"References",
"* K.J.",
"Perleb (1826).",
"''Lehrbuch der Naturgeschichte des Pflanzenreichs'' p. 174.Magner, Freiburg im Breisgau, Deutschland.",
"* Renner, Susanne S. (May 2001) '''Laurales'''.",
"In: ''Nature Encyclopedia of Life Sciences''.",
"London: Nature Publishing Group.",
", Full text (pdf).",
"*"
]
] | wikipedia |
[
[
"Limerick (disambiguation)"
],
[
"Introduction",
"'''Limerick''' is a city in Ireland.",
"'''Limerick''' may also refer to:"
],
[
"Arts and entertainment",
"* Limerick (poetry), a form of verse, often humorous and sometimes rude, in five-line, predominantly anapestic meter, with a strict rhyme scheme of AABBA* Limerick (song), a traditional humorous drinking song with many obscene verses"
],
[
"Places",
"===Ireland===*County Limerick, Ireland, the county where the city Limerick is located*Limerick, County Wexford, a townland; see List of townlands of County Wexford===Canada===*Limerick, Ontario*Limerick, Saskatchewan===United States===*Limerick, Georgia*Limerick, Louisville, Kentucky*Limerick, Maine*Camanche, California, formerly Limerick*Limerick Township, Pennsylvania**Limerick Nuclear Power Plant*New Limerick, Maine*San Ramon, California, formerly Limerick"
],
[
"Constituencies",
"===Before 1801===*Askeaton (Parliament of Ireland constituency)*Kilmallock (Parliament of Ireland constituency)*Limerick City (Parliament of Ireland constituency)*County Limerick (Parliament of Ireland constituency)===1801–1885===*Limerick City (UK Parliament constituency)*County Limerick (UK Parliament constituency)===1885–1922===*Limerick City (UK Parliament constituency)*East Limerick (UK Parliament constituency)*West Limerick (UK Parliament constituency)===1921–1923===*Kerry–Limerick West (Dáil constituency)*Limerick City–Limerick East (Dáil constituency)===1923–1948===*Limerick (Dáil constituency)===1948–2011===*Limerick East (Dáil constituency)*Limerick West (Dáil constituency)===2011–2016===*Limerick (Dáil constituency)===2011–===*Limerick City (Dáil constituency)===2016–===*Limerick County (Dáil constituency)"
],
[
"People",
"*Alison Limerick, British singer*Earl of Limerick, a British noble title*Patricia Nelson Limerick, American historian"
],
[
"Other uses",
"*Limerick F.C., an Irish association football team*Limerick (horse), a New Zealand Thoroughbred race horse*Limerick lace, a variety of needle lace"
],
[
"See also",
"*LYMErix, a vaccine against Lyme disease"
]
] | wikipedia |
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