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[ [ "Lamiales" ], [ "Introduction", "The order '''Lamiales''' (also known as the '''mint order''') are an order in the asterid group of dicotyledonous flowering plants.", "It includes about 23,810 species, 1,059 genera, and is divided into about 25 families.", "These families include Acanthaceae, Bignoniaceae, Byblidaceae, Calceolariaceae, Carlemanniaceae, Gesneriaceae, Lamiaceae, Lentibulariaceae, Linderniaceae, Martyniaceae, Mazaceae, Oleaceae, Orobanchaceae, Paulowniaceae, Pedaliaceae, Peltantheraceae, Phrymaceae, Plantaginaceae, Plocospermataceae, Schlegeliaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Stilbaceae, Tetrachondraceae, Thomandersiaceae, Verbenaceae.Being one of the largest orders of flowering plants, Lamiales have representatives found all over the world.", "Well-known or economically important members of this order include lavender, lilac, olive, jasmine, the ash tree, teak, snapdragon, sesame, psyllium, garden sage, and a number of table herbs such as mint, basil, and rosemary." ], [ "Description", "Example of Lamiales characteristics (shown on species ''Lavandula angustifolia'')Plant species within the order Lamiales are eudicots and are herbaceous or have woody stems.", "Zygomorphic flowers are common in Lamiales, having five petals with an upper lip of two petals and lower lip of three petals, however actinomorphic flowers are also seen.", "Plant species within the order Lamiales potentially have five stamens, but these are typically reduced to two or four.", "Lamiales also produce a single style attached to an ovary typically containing two carpels.", "The ovary in the Lamiales order is mostly observed to be superior.", "Lamiales inflorescence is typically seen as cyme, raceme or spike.", "Fruit type in Lamiales order is usually dehiscent capsules.", "Glandular hairs are present in Lamiales." ], [ "Habitat", "The Lamiales order can be found in almost all kinds of habitats world-wide.", "These habitats include forests, valleys, grasslands, rocky terrain, rainforests, the tropics, temperate regions, marshes, coastlines, and even frozen areas." ], [ "Carnivore plants", "Carnivorous plant in the order Lamiales; ''Utricularia aurea''A number of species of carnivorous plants are found in the Lamiales, in the families Lentibulariaceae and Byblidaceae.", "Protocarnivorous plant species have also been found in the order Lamiales, specifically in the families Martyniaceae." ], [ "Parasitic plants", "Parasitic plant in the order Lamiales; ''Cordylanthus rigidus''Parasitic plant species are found in the order Lamiales, belonging to the family Orobanchaceae.", "These parasitic plants can either be hemi-parasites or holoparasites." ], [ "Uses", "The order Lamiales has a variety of species with anthropogenic uses, the most popular belonging to the Lamiaceae and Acanthaceae families.", "Many of these species in the order Lamiales produce medicinal properties from alkaloids and saponins to help a variety of infections and diseases.", "These alkaloids and saponins may help with digestion, the common cold or flu, asthma, liver infections, pulmonary infections and contain antioxidant properties.Plant species within the order Lamiales are also known to have properties to repel insects and help control harmful diseases from insects, such as Malaria from mosquitos.", "The plant family Acanthaceae within the Lamiales order have bioactive secondary metabolites within their mature leaves, which have been found to be toxic to insect larvae.", "Botanical derived insecticides are a good alternate for chemical or synthetic insecticides as it is inexpensive, abundant and safe for other plants, non-target organisms and the environment.Many species within the order Lamiales are also used as decorations, flavouring agents, cosmetics and fragrances.", "Natural dyes can also be extracted from plant species within Lamiales.", "For example, in Sardinia culture, the most common Lamiales plant species used for natural dyes is ''Lavandula stoechas,'' where a light-green dye is extracted from the stem." ], [ "Taxonomy", "The Lamiales previously had a restricted circumscription (e.g., by Arthur Cronquist) that included the major families Lamiaceae (Labiatae), Verbenaceae, and Boraginaceae, plus a few smaller families.", "In the classification system of Dahlgren the Lamiales were in the superorder Lamiiflorae (also called Lamianae).", "Recent phylogenetic work has shown the Lamiales are polyphyletic with respect to order Scrophulariales and the two groups are now usually combined in a single order that also includes the former orders Hippuridales and Plantaginales.", "Lamiales has become the preferred name for this much larger combined group.", "The placement of the Boraginaceae is unclear, but phylogenetic work shows this family does not belong in Lamiales.Also, the circumscription of family Scrophulariaceae, formerly a paraphyletic group defined primarily by plesiomorphic characters and from within which numerous other families of the Lamiales were derived, has been radically altered to create a number of smaller, better-defined, and putatively monophyletic families." ], [ "Dating", "Much research has been conducted in recent years regarding the dating the Lamiales lineage, although there still remains some ambiguity.", "A 2004 study, on the molecular phylogenetic dating of asterid flowering plants, estimated 106 million years (MY) for the stem lineage of Lamiales.", "A 2009 study on angiosperm diversification through time, concluded an inferred age of lower Eocene, ca.", "50 MY, for Lamiales." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Lamiales* A parsimony analysis of the Asteridae sensu lato based on rbcL sequences* Disintegration of the Scrophulariaceae (deals with relationships throughout Lamiales)* L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards).", "The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval.", "http://delta-intkey.comhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070609093942/http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/vascular/acanth.htm 2002-09-06https://web.archive.org/web/20070630151231/http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/d52/52e.htm 2002-09-06https://web.archive.org/web/20070609093206/http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/d52/52efam.htm 2002-09-06https://web.archive.org/web/20050914001131/http://www.science.siu.edu/parasitic-plants/Relation-Scroph.htmlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070311032641/http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/web.dbs/genlist.html 2002-09-06*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lee Harvey Oswald" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lee Harvey Oswald''' (October 18, 1939 – November 24, 1963) was a U.S. Marine veteran who assassinated John F. Kennedy, the 35th president of the United States, on November 22, 1963.Oswald was placed in juvenile detention at the age of 12 for truancy, during which time he was assessed by a psychiatrist as \"emotionally disturbed\", due to a lack of normal family life.", "After attending 12 schools in his youth, he quit repeatedly, and finally when he was 17, joined the Marines.", "Oswald was court-martialed twice while in the Marines, and jailed.", "He was honorably released from active duty in the Marine Corps into the Marine Corps Reserve, then flew to Europe and defected to the Soviet Union in October 1959.He lived in Minsk, Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic, married a Russian woman named Marina, and had a daughter.", "In June 1962, he returned to the United States with his wife, and eventually settled in Dallas, Texas, where their second daughter was born.Oswald shot and killed Kennedy on November 22, 1963, from a sixth-floor window of the Texas School Book Depository as Kennedy traveled by motorcade through Dealey Plaza in Dallas.", "About 45 minutes after assassinating Kennedy, Oswald shot and killed Dallas police officer J. D. Tippit on a local street.", "He then slipped into a movie theater, where he was arrested for Tippit's murder.", "Oswald was charged with the assassination of Kennedy, but he denied responsibility for the killing, claiming that he was a \"patsy\".", "Two days later, Oswald was fatally shot by local nightclub owner Jack Ruby on live television in the basement of Dallas Police Headquarters.In September 1964, the Warren Commission concluded that Oswald had acted alone when assassinating Kennedy.", "This conclusion, though controversial, was supported by investigations from the Dallas Police Department, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the United States Secret Service, and the House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA).Despite forensic, ballistic, and eyewitness evidence supporting the official findings, public opinion polls have shown that most Americans still do not believe that the official version tells the whole truth of the events, and the assassination spawned numerous conspiracy theories." ], [ "Early life", "Oswald was born at the old French Hospital in New Orleans, Louisiana, on October 18, 1939, to a MetLife worker Robert Edward Lee Oswald Sr. (1896–1939) and a legal clerk Marguerite Frances Claverie (1907–1981).", "Robert Oswald was a third cousin of President Theodore Roosevelt and a distant cousin of Confederate general Robert E. Lee and served as a sergeant in the U.S. Army during World War I. Robert died of a heart attack two months before Lee was born.", "Lee's elder brother Robert Jr. (1934–2017) was a former U.S. Marine during the Korean War.", "Through Marguerite's first marriage to Edward John Pic Jr., Lee and Robert Jr. were the half-brothers of U.S. Air Force veteran John Edward Pic (1932–2000).In 1944, Marguerite moved the family from New Orleans to Dallas, Texas.", "Oswald entered the first grade in 1945 and over the next six years attended several different schools in the Fort Worth areas through the sixth grade.", "Oswald took an IQ test in the fourth grade and scored 103; \"on achievement tests in grades 4 to 6, he twice did best in reading and twice did worst in spelling\".As a child, Oswald was described as withdrawn and temperamental by several people who knew him.", "When Oswald was 12 in August 1952, his mother took him to New York City where they lived for a short time with Oswald's half-brother, John.", "Oswald and his mother were later asked to leave after an argument in which Oswald allegedly struck his mother and threatened John's wife with a pocket knife.Oswald attended seventh grade in the Bronx, New York, but was often truant, which led to a psychiatric assessment at a juvenile reformatory.", "The reformatory psychiatrist, Dr. Renatus Hartogs, described Oswald as immersed in a \"vivid fantasy life, turning around the topics of omnipotence and power, through which Oswald tries to compensate for his present shortcomings and frustrations\".", "Hartogs concluded:Lee has to be diagnosed as \"personality pattern disturbance with schizoid features and passive-aggressive tendencies\".", "Lee has to be seen as an emotionally, quite disturbed youngster who suffers under the impact of really existing emotional isolation and deprivation, lack of affection, absence of family life and rejection by a self involved and conflicted mother.Hartogs recommended that Lee be placed on probation on condition that he seek help and guidance through a child guidance clinic, and that Oswald seek \"psychotherapeutic guidance through contact with a family agency\".", "Evelyn D. Siegel, a social worker who interviewed both Lee and Marguerite Oswald at Youth House, while describing \"a rather pleasant, appealing quality about this emotionally starved, affectionless youngster which grows as one speaks to him\", found that he had detached himself from the world around him because \"no one in it ever met any of his needs for love\".", "Hartogs and Siegel indicated that Marguerite gave him very little affection, with Siegel concluding that Lee \"just felt that his mother never gave a damn for him.", "He always felt like a burden that she simply just had to tolerate.\"", "Furthermore, his mother did not apparently indicate an awareness of the relationship between her conduct and her son's psychological problems, with Siegel describing Marguerite as a \"defensive, rigid, self-involved person who had real difficulty in accepting and relating to people\" and who had \"little understanding\" of Lee's behavior and of the \"protective shell he has drawn around himself\".", "Hartogs reported that she did not understand that Lee's withdrawal was a form of \"violent but silent protest against his neglect by her and represents his reaction to a complete absence of any real family life\".When Oswald returned to school for the 1953 Fall semester, his disciplinary problems continued.", "When he failed to cooperate with school authorities, they sought a court order to remove him from his mother's care so he could be placed into a home for boys to complete his education.", "This was postponed, perhaps partially because his behavior abruptly improved.", "Before the New York family court system could address their case, the Oswalds left New York in January 1954, and returned to New Orleans.Oswald completed the eighth and ninth grades in New Orleans.", "He entered the tenth grade in 1955 but quit school after one month.", "After leaving school, Oswald worked for several months as an office clerk and messenger in New Orleans.", "In July 1956, Oswald's mother moved the family to Fort Worth, Texas, and Oswald re-enrolled in the tenth grade for the September session at Arlington Heights High School in Fort Worth.", "A few weeks later in October, Oswald quit school at age 17 to join the Marines; he never earned a high school diploma.", "By this point, he had resided at 22 locations and attended 12 schools.Though Oswald had trouble spelling in his youth and may have had a \"reading-spelling disability\", he read voraciously.", "By age 15, he considered himself a socialist.", "According to his diary, \"I was looking for a key to my environment, and then I discovered socialist literature.", "I had to dig for my books in the back dusty shelves of libraries.\"", "At 16, he wrote to the Socialist Party of America for information on their Young People's Socialist League, saying he had been studying socialist principles for \"well over fifteen months\".", "Edward Voebel, \"whom the Warren Commission had established was Oswald's closest friend during his teenage years in New Orleans\", said \"reports that Oswald was already 'studying Communism' were a 'lot of baloney.", "Voebel said that \"Oswald commonly read 'paperback trash.As a teenager in 1955, Oswald became a cadet member of Civil Air Patrol in New Orleans.", "Fellow cadets variously recalled him attending CAP meetings \"three or four\" times, or \"10 or 12 times\", over a one- to three-month period." ], [ "Marine Corps", "Oswald as a U.S. Marine in 1956Oswald enlisted in the United States Marine Corps on October 24, 1956, just a week after his seventeenth birthday; because of his age, his brother Robert Jr. was required to sign as his legal guardian.", "Oswald also named his mother and his half-brother John as beneficiaries.", "Oswald idolized his older brother Robert Jr., and wore his Marine Corps ring.", "John Pic (Oswald's half-brother) testified to the Warren Commission that Oswald's enlistment was motivated by wanting \"to get from out and under ... the yoke of oppression from my mother\".Oswald's enlistment papers recite that he was tall and weighed , with hazel eyes and brown hair.", "His primary training was in radar operation, which required a security clearance.", "A May 1957 document stated that he was \"granted final clearance to handle classified matter up to and including confidential after careful check of local records had disclosed no derogatory data\".At Keesler Air Force Base in Mississippi, Oswald finished seventh in a class of thirty in the Aircraft Control and Warning Operator Course, which \"included instruction in aircraft surveillance and the use of radar\".", "He was given the military occupational specialty of Aviation Electronics Operator.", "On July 9, he reported to the Marine Corps Air Station El Toro in California.", "There he met fellow Marine Kerry Thornley, who co-created Discordianism.", "Thornley wrote the 1962 fictional book ''The Idle Warriors'' based on Oswald.", "This was the only book written about Oswald before the Kennedy assassination.", "Oswald departed for Japan the following month, where he was assigned to Marine Air Control Squadron 1 at Naval Air Facility Atsugi near Tokyo.Like all Marines, Oswald was trained and tested in shooting.", "In December 1956, he scored 212, which was slightly above the requirements for the designation of ''sharpshooter''.", "In May 1959 he scored 191, which reduced his rating to ''marksman''.Oswald was court-martialed after he accidentally shot himself in the elbow with an unauthorized .22 caliber handgun.He was court-martialed a second time for fighting with the sergeant he thought was responsible for his punishment in the shooting matter.", "He was demoted from private first class to private and briefly imprisoned.Oswald was later punished for a third incident: while he was on a night-time sentry duty in the Philippines, he inexplicably fired his rifle into the jungle.Slightly built, Oswald was nicknamed ''Ozzie Rabbit'' after the cartoon character; he was also called ''Oswaldskovich'' because he espoused pro-Soviet sentiments.", "In November 1958, Oswald transferred back to El Toro where his unit's function \"was to serveil for aircraft, but basically to train both enlisted men and officers for later assignment overseas\".", "An officer there said that Oswald was a \"very competent\" crew chief and was \"brighter than most people\".While Oswald was in the Marines, he taught himself rudimentary Russian.", "Although this was an unusual endeavor, on February 25, 1959, he was invited to take a Marine proficiency exam in written and spoken Russian.", "His level at the time was rated \"poor\" in understanding spoken Russian, though he fared rather reasonably for a Marine private at the time in reading and writing.", "On September 11, 1959, he received a hardship discharge from active service, claiming his mother needed care.", "He was placed on the United States Marine Corps Reserve." ], [ "Defection to the Soviet Union", "Oswald traveled to the Soviet Union just before he turned 20 in October 1959.He had taught himself Russian and saved $1,500 of his Marine Corps salary ().", "Oswald spent two days with his mother in Fort Worth, then embarked by ship on September 20 from New Orleans to Le Havre, France, and immediately traveled to the United Kingdom.", "Arriving in Southampton on October 9, he told officials he had $700 and planned to stay for one week before proceeding to a school in Switzerland.", "On the same day, he flew to Helsinki, where he checked in at the Hotel Torni, room 309, then moved to Hotel Klaus Kurki, room 429.He was issued a Soviet visa on October 14.Oswald left Helsinki by train on the following day, crossed the Soviet border at Vainikkala, and arrived in Moscow on October 16.His visa, valid only for a week, was due to expire on October 21.Almost immediately after arriving, Oswald informed his Intourist guide of his desire to become a Soviet citizen.", "When asked why by the various Soviet officials he encountered—all of whom, by Oswald's account, found his wish incomprehensible—he said that he was a communist, and gave what he described in his diary as \"vauge ''sic'' answers about 'Great Soviet Union'\".", "On October 21, the day his visa was due to expire, he was told that his citizenship application had been refused, and that he had to leave the Soviet Union that evening.", "Distraught, Oswald inflicted a minor but bloody wound to his left wrist in his hotel room bathtub soon before his Intourist guide was due to arrive to escort him from the country, according to his diary because he wished to kill himself in a way that would shock her.", "Delaying Oswald's departure because of his self-inflicted injury, the Soviets kept him in a Moscow hospital under psychiatric observation for a week, until October 28, 1959.Apartment building where Oswald lived in MinskAccording to Oswald, he met with four more Soviet officials that day, who asked if he wanted to return to the United States.", "Oswald replied by insisting that he wanted to live in the Soviet Union as a Soviet national.", "When pressed for identification papers, he provided his Marine Corps discharge papers.On October 31, Oswald appeared at the United States embassy in Moscow and declared a desire to renounce his U.S. citizenship.", "\"I have made up my mind\", he said; \"I'm through.\"", "He told the U.S. embassy interviewing officer, Richard Edward Snyder, that \"he had been a radar operator in the Marine Corps and that he had voluntarily stated to unnamed Soviet officials that as a Soviet citizen he would make known to them such information concerning the Marine Corps and his specialty as he possessed.", "He intimated that he might know something of special interest.\"", "Such statements led to Oswald's ''hardship/honorable'' military reserve discharge being changed to ''undesirable''.", "The story of the defection of a former U.S. Marine to the Soviet Union was reported by both the Associated Press and United Press International.Though Oswald had wanted to attend Moscow State University, in January 1960 he was sent to Minsk, Belarus, to work as a lathe operator at the Gorizont Electronics Factory, which produced radios, televisions, and military and space electronics.", "Stanislau Shushkevich, who later became independent Belarus's first head of state, also worked at Gorizont at the time, and was assigned to help Oswald improve his Russian.", "Oswald received a government-subsidized, fully furnished studio apartment in a prestigious building and an additional supplement to his factory pay, which allowed him to have a comfortable standard of living by working-class Soviet standards, though he was kept under constant surveillance.From mid-1960 to early 1961, Oswald was in a relationship with Ella German (), a Belarusian coworker born in 1937.They ate together in the factory cafeteria every day and dated about twice each week.German later described Oswald as \"a pleasant-looking guy with a good sense of humor... not as rough and rude as the men here were back then\";she did not love him, but thought he was lonely and continued to date him out of pity.", "Their relationship became more seriousin Oswald's eyesduring the summer and fall of 1960,but began to deteriorate after German learned in October that Oswald had been seeing other women.", "On January 2, 1961, Oswald proposed, but German refused." ], [ "Return to the U.S.", "Oswald wrote in his diary in January 1961: \"I am starting to reconsider my desire about staying.", "The work is drab, the money I get has nowhere to be spent.", "No nightclubs or bowling alleys, no places of recreation except the trade union dances.", "I have had enough.\"", "Shortly afterwards, Oswald (who had never formally renounced his U.S. citizenship) wrote to the Embassy of the United States, Moscow requesting the return of his American passport, and proposing to return to the U.S. if any charges against him would be dropped.In March 1961, Oswald met Marina Prusakova (born 1941), a 19-year-old pharmacology student; they married six weeks later.", "The Oswalds' first child, June, was born on February 15, 1962.On May 24, 1962, Oswald and Marina applied at the U.S. Embassy in Moscow for documents that enabled her to immigrate to the U.S. On June 1, the U.S. Embassy gave Oswald a repatriation loan of $435.71.Oswald, Marina, and their infant daughter left for the United States, where they received less attention from the press than Oswald expected.=== Dallas–Fort Worth ===The Oswalds soon settled in the Dallas/Fort Worth area, where Lee's mother and brother lived.", "Lee began a manuscript on Soviet life, though he eventually gave up the project.", "The Oswalds also became acquainted with a number of anti-Communist Russian and East European émigrés in the area.", "In testimony to the Warren Commission, Alexander Kleinlerer said that the Russian émigrés sympathized with Marina, while merely tolerating Oswald, whom they regarded as rude and arrogant.Although the Russian émigrés eventually abandoned Marina when she made no sign of leaving her husband, Oswald found an unlikely friend in 51-year-old Russian émigré George de Mohrenschildt, a well-educated petroleum geologist with international business connections.", "A native of Russia, Mohrenschildt later told the Warren Commission that Oswald had a \"remarkable fluency in Russian\".", "Marina, meanwhile, befriended Ruth Paine, a Quaker trying to learn Russian, and her husband Michael Paine, who worked for Bell Helicopter.In July 1962, Oswald was hired by the Leslie Welding Company as a sheet metal worker in Dallas; he disliked the work and quit after three months.", "On October 12, he started working for the graphic-arts firm of Jaggars-Chiles-Stovall as a photoprint trainee.", "A fellow employee at Jaggars-Chiles-Stovall testified that Oswald's rudeness at his new job was such that fights threatened to break out, and that he once saw Oswald reading a Russian-language publication.", "Oswald was fired in the first week of April 1963.=== Edwin Walker assassination attempt ===Oswald's $19.95 second-hand Carcano rifle in the U.S. National ArchivesIn March 1963, Oswald used the alias \"A. Hidell\" to make a mail-order purchase of a secondhand 6.5 mm caliber Carcano rifle for $19.95, plus $1.50 for shipping.", "He also purchased a .38 Smith & Wesson Model 10 revolver by mail for $29.95 plus $1.27 shipping.", "The Warren Commission concluded that Oswald attempted to kill retired U.S. Major General Edwin Walker on April 10, 1963, and that Oswald fired the Carcano rifle at Walker through a window from less than away as Walker sat at a desk in his Dallas home.", "The bullet struck the window-frame and Walker's only injuries were bullet fragments to the forearm.", "The United States House Select Committee on Assassinations stated that the \"evidence strongly suggested\" that Oswald carried out the shooting.General Walker was an outspoken anti-communist, segregationist, and member of the John Birch Society.", "In 1961, Walker had been relieved of his command of the 24th Division of the U.S. Army in West Germany for distributing right-wing literature to his troops.", "Walker's later actions in opposition to racial integration at the University of Mississippi led to his arrest on insurrection, seditious conspiracy, and other charges.", "He was temporarily held in a mental institution on orders from President Kennedy's brother, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, but a grand jury declined to indict him.Marina Oswald testified that her husband told her that he traveled by bus to General Walker's house and shot at Walker with his rifle.", "She said that Oswald considered Walker to be the leader of a \"fascist organization\".", "A note Oswald left for Marina on the night of the attempt, telling her what to do if he did not return, was found ten days after the Kennedy assassination.Before the Kennedy assassination, Dallas police had no suspects in the Walker shooting, but Oswald's involvement was suspected within hours of his arrest following the assassination.", "The Walker bullet was too damaged to run conclusive ballistics studies on it, but neutron activation analysis later showed that it was \"extremely likely\" that it was made by the same manufacturer and for the same rifle make as the two bullets which later struck Kennedy.George de Mohrenschildt testified that he \"knew that Oswald disliked General Walker\".", "Regarding this, de Mohrenschildt and his wife Jeanne recalled an incident that occurred the weekend following the Walker assassination attempt.", "The de Mohrenschildts testified that on April 14, 1963, just before Easter Sunday, they were visiting the Oswalds at their new apartment and had brought them a toy Easter bunny to give to their child.", "As Oswald's wife Marina was showing Jeanne around the apartment, they discovered Oswald's rifle standing upright, leaning against the wall inside a closet.", "Jeanne told George that Oswald had a rifle, and George joked to Oswald, \"Were you the one who took a pot-shot at General Walker?\"", "When asked about Oswald's reaction to this question, George de Mohrenschildt told the Warren Commission that Oswald \"smiled at that\".", "When de Mohrenschildt's wife Jeanne was asked about Oswald's reaction, she said, \"I didn't notice anything\"; she continued, \"we started laughing our heads off, big joke, big George's joke\".", "Jeanne de Mohrenschildt testified that this was the last time she or her husband ever saw the Oswalds.=== New Orleans ===Oswald rented an apartment in this building in Uptown New Orleans .Oswald's mugshot following his arrest for disturbing the peace in New Orleans, August 9, 1963Oswald passing out \"Fair Play for Cuba\" leaflets in New Orleans, August 16, 1963Oswald returned to New Orleans on April 24, 1963.Marina's friend Ruth Paine drove her by car from Dallas to join Oswald in New Orleans the following month.", "On May 10, Oswald was hired by the Reily Coffee Company as a machinery greaser.", "He was fired in July \"because his work was not satisfactory and because he spent too much time loitering in Adrian Alba's garage next door, where he read rifle and hunting magazines\".In his 1988 book ''On the Trail of the Assassins'', New Orleans District Attorney Jim Garrison claimed that Oswald really spent that time across the street at 544 Camp Street.", "These were the law offices of Guy Banister, a former FBI agent, an avid segregationist, and a local politician.", "Garrison added that Guy Banister, during the summer of 1963 in New Orleans, was most interested in infiltrating the Fair Play for Cuba Committee, and used Oswald as his spy.", "In their 1978 investigation, the House Select Committee on Assassinations investigated a possible connection between Oswald and Banister at the Camp Street address.", "The HSCA wrote that it \"could find no documentary proof that Banister had a file on Lee Harvey Oswald nor could the committee find credible witnesses whoever saw Lee Harvey Oswald and Guy Banister together.", "There are indications, however, that Banister at least knew of Oswald's leafletting activities and probably maintained a file on him.", "\"On May 26, Oswald wrote to the New York City headquarters of the pro-Fidel Castro Fair Play for Cuba Committee, proposing to rent \"a small office at my own expense for the purpose of forming a FPCC branch here in New Orleans\".", "Three days later, the FPCC responded to Oswald's letter advising against opening a New Orleans office \"at least not ... at the very beginning\".", "In a follow-up letter, Oswald replied, \"Against your advice, I have decided to take an office from the very beginning.", "\"On May 29, Oswald ordered the following items from a local printer: 500 application forms, 300 membership cards, and 1,000 leaflets with the heading, \"Hands Off Cuba\".", "According to Marina, Lee told her to sign the name \"A.J.", "Hidell\" as chapter president on his membership card.According to anti-Castro militant Carlos Bringuier, Oswald visited him on August 5 and 6 at a store he owned in New Orleans.", "Bringuier was the New Orleans delegate for the anti-Castro organization Directorio Revolucionario Estudantil (DRE).", "Bringuier would later tell the Warren Commission that he believed Oswald's visits were an attempt by Oswald to infiltrate his group.", "On August 9, Oswald turned up in downtown New Orleans handing out pro-Castro leaflets.", "Bringuier confronted Oswald, claiming he was tipped off about Oswald's leafleting by a friend.", "A scuffle ensued and Oswald, Bringuier, and two of Bringuier's friends were arrested for disturbing the peace.", "Prior to leaving the police station, Oswald requested to speak with an FBI agent.", "Oswald told the agent that he was a member of the New Orleans branch of the Fair Play for Cuba Committee which he claimed had 35 members and was led by A. J. Hidell.", "In fact, Oswald was the branch's only member and it had never been chartered by the national organization.A week later, on August 16, Oswald again passed out Fair Play for Cuba leaflets with two hired helpers, this time in front of the International Trade Mart.", "The incident was filmed by WDSU, a local TV station.", "The next day, Oswald was interviewed by WDSU radio commentator William Stuckey, who probed Oswald's background.", "A few days later, Oswald accepted Stuckey's invitation to take part in a radio debate with Carlos Bringuier and Bringuier's associate Edward Scannell Butler, head of the right-wing Information Council of the Americas (INCA).=== Mexico ===Marina's friend Ruth Paine transported Marina and her child by car from New Orleans to the Paine home in Irving, Texas, near Dallas, on September 23, 1963.Oswald stayed in New Orleans at least two more days to collect a $33 unemployment check.", "It is uncertain when he left New Orleans; he is next known to have boarded a bus in Houston on September 26 – bound for the Mexican border, rather than Dallas – and to have told other bus passengers that he planned to travel to Cuba via Mexico.", "He arrived in Mexico City on September 27, where he applied for a transit visa at the Cuban consulate, claiming he wanted to visit Cuba on his way to the Soviet Union.", "The Cuban consular officials insisted Oswald would need Soviet approval, but he was unable to get prompt co-operation from the Soviet consulate.", "CIA documents note Oswald spoke \"terrible hardly recognizable Russian\" during his meetings with Cuban and Soviet officials.After five days of shuttling between consulates – and including a heated argument with an official at the Cuban consulate, impassioned pleas to KGB agents, and at least some CIA scrutiny – Oswald was told by a Cuban consular officer that he was disinclined to approve the visa, saying \"a person like Oswald in place of aiding the Cuban Revolution, was doing it harm\".", "Later, on October 18, the Cuban embassy approved the visa, but by this time Oswald was back in the United States and had given up on his plans to visit Cuba and the Soviet Union.", "Still later, eleven days before the assassination of President Kennedy, Oswald wrote to the Soviet embassy in Washington, D.C., saying, \"Had I been able to reach the Soviet Embassy in Havana, as planned, the embassy there would have had time to complete our business.", "\"While the Warren Commission concluded that Oswald had visited Mexico City and the Cuban and Soviet consulates, questions regarding whether someone posing as Oswald had appeared at the embassies were serious enough to be investigated by the House Select Committee on Assassinations.", "Later, the Committee agreed with the Warren Commission that Oswald had visited Mexico City and concluded that \"the majority of evidence tends to indicate\" that Oswald visited the consulates, but the Committee could not rule out the possibility that someone else had used his name in visiting the consulates.According to a CIA document released in 2017, it is possible Oswald was trying to get the necessary documents from the embassies to make a quick escape to the Soviet Union after the assassination.=== Return to Dallas ===Texas School Book Depository, the building where Oswald worked, and from which he shot KennedyOn October 2, 1963, Oswald left Mexico City by bus and arrived in Dallas the next day.", "Ruth Paine said that a neighbor told her on October 14 about a job opening at the Texas School Book Depository, where her neighbor's brother, Wesley Frazier, worked.", "Mrs. Paine informed Oswald, who was interviewed at the depository and was hired there on October 16 as a $1.25 an hour minimum wage order filler.", "Oswald's supervisor, Roy S. Truly (1907–1985), said that Oswald \"did a good day's work\" and was an above-average employee.", "During the week, Oswald stayed in a Dallas rooming house under the name \"O. H. Lee\", but he spent his weekends with Marina at the Paine home in Irving.", "Oswald did not drive a car, but he commuted to and from Dallas on Mondays and Fridays with his co-worker Wesley Frazier.", "On October 20 (a month before the assassination), the Oswalds' second daughter, Audrey, was born.The Dallas branch of the FBI became interested in Oswald after its agent learned that the CIA had determined that Oswald had been in contact with the Soviet embassy in Mexico, making Oswald a possible espionage case.", "FBI agents twice visited the Paine home in early November, when Oswald was not present, and spoke to Mrs. Paine.", "Oswald visited the Dallas FBI office about two to three weeks before the assassination, asking to see Special Agent James P. Hosty.", "When he was told that Hosty was unavailable, Oswald left a note that, according to the receptionist, read: \"Let this be a warning.", "I will blow up the FBI and the Dallas Police Department if you don't stop bothering my wife\" signed \"Lee Harvey Oswald\".", "The note allegedly contained a threat, but accounts vary as to whether Oswald threatened to \"blow up the FBI\" or merely \"report this to higher authorities\".", "According to Hosty, the note said, \"If you have anything you want to learn about me, come talk to me directly.", "If you don't cease bothering my wife, I will take the appropriate action and report this to the proper authorities.\"", "Agent Hosty said that he destroyed Oswald's note on orders from his superior, Gordon Shanklin, after Oswald was named the suspect in the Kennedy assassination." ], [ "John F. Kennedy and J. D. Tippit shootings", "Witness Howard Brennan standing in the same spot across the street from the Texas School Book Depository four months after the assassination.", "Circle \"A\" indicates where he saw Oswald fire a rifle at the presidential motorcade.In the days before Kennedy's arrival, several local newspapers published the route of Kennedy's motorcade, which passed the Texas School Book Depository.", "On Thursday, November 21, 1963, Oswald asked Frazier for an unusual mid-week lift back to Irving, saying he had to pick up some curtain rods.", "The next morning (the day of the assassination), he returned to Dallas with Frazier.", "He left $170 and his wedding ring, but took a large paper bag with him.", "Frazier reported that Oswald told him the bag contained curtain rods.", "The Warren Commission concluded that the package of \"curtain rods\" actually contained the rifle that Oswald was going to use for the assassination.One of Oswald's co-workers, Charles Givens, testified to the Commission that he last saw Oswald on the sixth floor of the Texas School Book Depository (TSBD) at approximately 11:55 a.m., which was 35 minutes before the motorcade entered Dealey Plaza.", "The Commission report stated that Oswald was not seen again \"until after the shooting\".", "In an FBI report taken the day after the assassination, Givens said that the encounter took place at 11:30 a.m. and that he saw Oswald reading a newspaper in the first-floor domino room at 11:50 a.m, 20 minutes later.", "William Shelley, a foreman at the depository, also testified that he saw Oswald near the telephone on the first floor between 11:45 and 11:50 a.m. Janitor Eddie Piper also testified that he spoke to Oswald on the first floor at 12:00 p.m. Another co-worker, Bonnie Ray Williams, was eating his lunch on the sixth floor of the depository and was there until at least 12:10 p.m.", "He said that during that time, he did not see Oswald, or anyone else, on the sixth floor and thought that he was the only person up there.", "He also said that some boxes in the southeast corner may have prevented him from seeing deep into the \"sniper's nest\".", "Various workers – including Givens, Junior Jarman, Troy West, Danny Arce, Jack Dougherty, Joe Molina, Mrs. Robert Reid, and Bill Lovelady – who were either in the first or second floor lunchrooms at times between 12:00 and 12:30 pm reported that Oswald was not present in those rooms during their lunch breaks.As Kennedy's motorcade passed through Dealey Plaza at approximately 12:30 p.m. on November 22, Oswald fired three rifle shots from the southeast-corner window on the sixth floor of the Texas School Book Depository, killing the President and seriously wounding Texas Governor John Connally.", "One shot apparently missed the presidential limousine entirely, another struck both Kennedy and Connally, and a third bullet struck Kennedy in the head, killing him.", "Bystander James Tague received a minor facial injury from a small piece of curbstone that had fragmented after it was struck by one of the bullets.Witness Howard Brennan was sitting across the street from the Texas School Book Depository and watching the motorcade go by.", "He notified police that he heard a shot come from above and looked up to see a man with a rifle fire another shot from the southeast corner window on the sixth floor.", "He said he had seen the same man minutes earlier looking through the window.", "Brennan gave a description of the shooter, and Dallas police subsequently broadcast descriptions at 12:45 p.m., 12:48 p.m., and 12:55 p.m. After the second shot was fired, Brennan recalled, \"This man I saw previously was aiming for his last shot ... and maybe paused for another second as though to assure himself that he had hit his mark.", "\"The paper bag Frazier had described was found by police near the open sixth-floor window from which Oswald was determined to have fired; it was long and had marks on its inside consistent with having been used to carry a rifle.", "Three shell casings were found on the floor near the window, and a Mannlicher-Carcano rifle with telescopic sight was found on the northwest corner of the sixth-floor near the staircase.According to the investigations, after the shooting Oswald covered the rifle with boxes and descended via the rear stairwell.", "About 90 seconds after the shots sounded, he was encountered in the second-floor lunchroom by Dallas police officer Marrion L. Baker, who was with Oswald's supervisor, Roy Truly.", "Baker let Oswald pass after Truly identified him as an employee.", "Baker later said Oswald did not seem \"nervous\" or \"out of breath\".", "Truly said that Oswald looked \"startled\" when Baker pointed his gun directly at him.", "Mrs. Robert Reid, a clerical supervisor at the depository who returned to her office within two minutes of the shooting, said she saw Oswald, \"very calm\", on the second floor holding a Coca-Cola bottle.", "As they walked past each other, Mrs. Reid said to Oswald, \"The President has been shot\" to which he mumbled something in response, but Reid did not understand him.", "Oswald was believed to have left the depository through the front entrance just before police sealed it off.", "Truly later pointed out to officers that Oswald was the only employee that he was certain was missing.At about 12:40 p.m., 10 minutes after the shooting, Oswald boarded a city bus.", "Probably due to heavy traffic, he requested a transfer from the driver and got off two blocks later.", "Oswald then took a taxicab to his rooming house at 1026 North Beckley Avenue and entered through the front door at about 1:00 p.m.", "According to his housekeeper Earlene Roberts, Oswald immediately went to his room, \"walking pretty fast\".", "Roberts said that Oswald left \"a very few minutes\" later, zipping up a jacket he was not wearing when he had entered earlier.", "As Oswald left, Roberts looked out of the window of her house and last saw him standing at the northbound Beckley Avenue bus stop in front of her house.The Warren Commission concluded that at approximately 1:15 p.m., Dallas Patrolman J. D. Tippit drove up in his patrol car alongside Oswald, presumably because Oswald resembled the broadcast description of the man seen by witness Howard Brennan firing shots at Kennedy's motorcade.", "He encountered Oswald near the corner of East 10th Street and North Patton Avenue.", "This location is about southeast of Oswald's rooming house – a distance that the Warren Commission concluded \"Oswald could have easily walked\".", "Tippit pulled alongside Oswald and \"apparently exchanged words with him through the right front or vent window\".", "\"Shortly after 1:15 p.m.\", Tippit exited his car.", "Oswald immediately fired his pistol and killed the policeman with four shots.", "Numerous witnesses heard the shots and saw Oswald flee the scene holding a revolver; nine positively identified him as the man who shot Tippit and fled.", "Four cartridge cases found at the scene were identified by expert witnesses before the Warren Commission and the House Select Committee as having been fired from the revolver later found in Oswald's possession, excluding all other weapons.", "The bullets taken from Tippit's body could not be positively identified as having been fired from Oswald's revolver, as the bullets were too extensively damaged to make conclusive assessments.=== Arrest at the Texas Theatre ===Shoe store manager Johnny Brewer testified that he saw Oswald \"ducking into\" the entrance alcove of his store.", "Suspicious of this activity, Brewer watched Oswald continue up the street and slip without paying into the nearby Texas Theatre, where the film ''War Is Hell'' was playing.", "He alerted the theater's ticket clerk, who telephoned police at about 1:40 p.m.As police arrived, the house lights were brought up and Brewer pointed out Oswald sitting near the rear of the theater.", "Police Officer Nick McDonald testified that he was the first to reach Oswald and that Oswald seemed ready to surrender saying, \"Well, it is all over now.\"", "McDonald said that Oswald pulled out a pistol tucked into the front of his pants, then pointed the pistol at him, and pulled the trigger.", "McDonald stated that the pistol did not fire because the pistol's hammer came down on the webbing between the thumb and index finger of his hand as he grabbed for the pistol.", "McDonald also said that Oswald struck him, but that he struck back and Oswald was disarmed.", "As he was led from the theater, Oswald shouted he was a victim of police brutality.Oswald was formally arraigned for the murder of Officer Tippit at 7:10 p.m.Soon after his arrest, Oswald encountered reporters in a hallway.", "Oswald declared, \"I didn't shoot anybody\" and, \"They've taken me in because of the fact that I lived in the Soviet Union.", "I'm just a patsy!\"", "Later, at an arranged press meeting, a reporter asked, \"Did you kill the President?\"", "and Oswald – who by that time had been advised of the charge of murdering Tippit, but had not yet been arraigned in Kennedy's death – answered, \"No, I have not been charged with that.", "In fact, nobody has said that to me yet.", "The first thing I heard about it was when the newspaper reporters in the hall asked me that question.\"", "As he was led from the room the question was called out, \"What did you do in Russia?\"", "and, \"How did you hurt your eye?", "\"; Oswald answered, \"A policeman hit me.\"", "By early the next morning (shortly after 1:30 a.m.) he had been arraigned for the assassination of President Kennedy." ], [ "Police interrogation", "Fake Selective Service System (draft) card in the name of \"Alek James Hidell\", which was found on Oswald when he was arrested.", "\"A. Hidell\" was the name used on both envelope and order slip to buy the alleged murder weapon (see CE 773), and \"A. J. Hidell\" was the alternate name on the New Orleans post office box rented June 11, 1963, by Oswald.", "Both the alleged murder weapon and the pistol in Oswald's possession at arrest had earlier been shipped (at separate times) to Oswald's Dallas P.O.", "Box 2915, as ordered by \"A. J. Hidell\".Oswald was interrogated several times during his two days at Dallas Police Headquarters.", "He admitted that he went to his rooming house after leaving the book depository.", "He also admitted that he changed his clothes and armed himself with a .38 caliber revolver before leaving his house to go to the theater.", "Oswald denied killing Kennedy and Tippit, denied owning a rifle, and said two photographs of him holding a rifle and a pistol were fakes.", "He denied telling his co-worker he wanted a ride to Irving to get curtain rods for his apartment (he said that the package contained his lunch).", "He also denied carrying a long, bulky package to work the morning of the assassination.", "Oswald denied knowing an \"A. J. Hidell\".", "Oswald was then shown a forged Selective Service System card bearing his photograph and the alias, \"Alek James Hidell\" that he had in his possession at the time of his arrest.", "Oswald refused to answer any questions concerning the card, saying \"you have the card yourself and you know as much about it as I do\".FBI Special Agent James P. Hosty and Dallas Police Captain Will Fritz (chief of homicide) conducted the first interrogation of Oswald on Friday, November 22.When Oswald was asked to account for himself at the time of the assassination, he replied that he was eating his lunch in the first-floor lounge (known as the \"domino room\").", "He said that he then went to the second-floor lunchroom to buy a Coca-Cola from the soda machine there and was drinking it when he encountered Dallas motorcycle policeman Marrion L. Baker, who had entered the building with his gun drawn.", "Oswald said that while he was in the domino room, he saw two \"Negro employees\" walking by, one he recognized as \"Junior\" and a shorter man whose name he could not recall.", "Junior Jarman and Harold Norman confirmed to the Warren Commission that they had \"walked through\" the domino room around noon during their lunch break.", "When asked if anyone else was in the domino room, Norman testified that somebody else was there, but he could not remember who it was.", "Jarman testified that Oswald was not in the domino room when he was there.When homicide detective Jim Leavelle testified before the Warren Commission, he said that the first time he had ever sat in on an interrogation with Oswald was on Sunday morning, November 24, 1963.When Counsel Joseph Ball asked Leavelle if he had ever spoken to Oswald before this interrogation, he stated, \"No, I had never talked to him before\".", "Leavelle then stated during his testimony that \"the only time I had connections with Oswald was this Sunday morning November 24, 1963.I never had the occasion... to talk with him at any time...\" During Oswald's last interrogation on November 24, according to postal inspector Harry Holmes, Oswald was again asked where he was at the time of the shooting.", "Holmes (who attended the interrogation at the invitation of Captain Will Fritz) said that Oswald replied that he was working on an upper floor when the shooting occurred, then went downstairs where he encountered Dallas motorcycle policeman Marrion L. Baker.Oswald asked for legal representation several times during the interrogation, and he also asked for assistance during encounters with reporters.", "When H. Louis Nichols, President of the Dallas Bar Association, met with him in his cell on Saturday, he declined their services, saying he wanted to be represented by John Abt, chief counsel to the Communist Party USA, or by lawyers associated with the American Civil Liberties Union.", "Both Oswald and Ruth Paine tried to reach Abt by telephone several times Saturday and Sunday, but Abt was away for the weekend.", "Oswald also declined his brother Robert's offer on Saturday to obtain a local attorney.During an interrogation with Captain Fritz, when asked, \"Are you a communist?", "\", he replied, \"No, I am not a communist.", "I am a Marxist.\"" ], [ "Murder", "On Sunday, November 24, detectives were escorting Oswald through the basement of Dallas Police Headquarters toward an armored car that was to take him from the city jail (located on the fourth floor of police headquarters) to the nearby county jail.", "At 11:21 a.m. CST, Dallas nightclub operator Jack Ruby approached Oswald from the side of the crowd and shot him once in the abdomen at close range.", "As the shot rang out, a police detective recognized Ruby and exclaimed: \"Jack, you son of a bitch!\"", "The crowd outside the headquarters applauded when they heard that Oswald had been shot.An unconscious Oswald was taken by ambulance to Parkland Memorial Hospital—the same hospital where Kennedy was pronounced dead two days earlier.", "Oswald died at 1:07 p.m; Dallas police chief Jesse Curry announced his death on a TV news broadcast.At 2:45 p.m. the same day, an autopsy was performed on Oswald in the Office of the County Medical Examiner.", "Dallas County medical examiner Earl Rose announced the results of the gross autopsy: \"The two things that we could determine were, first, that he died from a hemorrhage from a gunshot wound, and that otherwise he was a physically healthy male.\"", "Rose's examination found that the bullet entered Oswald's left side in the front part of the abdomen and caused damage to his spleen, stomach, aorta, vena cava, kidney, liver, diaphragm, and eleventh rib before coming to rest on his right side.A network television pool camera was broadcasting live to cover the transfer; millions of people watching on NBC saw the shooting as it happened, and on other networks within minutes afterward.", "In 1964, Robert H. Jackson of the ''Dallas Times Herald'' was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Photography for his photograph taken immediately after the shot was fired, as Oswald began to double over in pain.=== Ruby's motive ===Ruby later said he had been distraught over Kennedy's death and that his motive for killing Oswald was \"saving Mrs. Kennedy the discomfiture of coming back to trial\".", "Others have hypothesized that Ruby was part of a conspiracy.", "G. Robert Blakey, chief counsel for the House Select Committee on Assassinations from 1977 to 1979, said: \"The most plausible explanation for the murder of Oswald by Jack Ruby was that Ruby had stalked him on behalf of organized crime, trying to reach him on at least three occasions in the forty-eight hours before he silenced him forever.", "\"=== Burial ===Oswald's replacement gravestoneMiller Funeral Home had great difficulty finding a cemetery willing to accept Oswald's remains; Rose Hill Cemetery in Fort Worth eventually agreed.", "A Lutheran reverend reluctantly agreed to officiate but then failed to appear.", "Reverend Louis Saunders of the Fort Worth Council of Churches volunteered, saying that \"someone had to help this family\".", "He performed a brief graveside service under heavy guard on November 25.Reporters covering the burial were asked to act as pallbearers.Oswald's original tombstone, which gave his full name, birth date, and death date, was stolen four years after the assassination, and his mother replaced it with a marker simply inscribed ''Oswald''.", "His mother's body was buried beside his in 1981.A claim that a look-alike Russian agent was buried in place of Oswald led to the body's exhumation on October4, 1981.Dental records confirmed it was Oswald.", "The remains were reburied in a new coffin because of water damage to the original.In 2010, Miller Funeral Home employed a Los Angeles auction house to sell the original coffin to an anonymous bidder for $87,468.The sale was halted after Oswald's brother Robert (19342017) sued to reclaim the coffin.", "In 2015, a district judge in Tarrant County, Texas, ruled that the funeral home intentionally concealed the existence of the coffin from Robert Oswald, who had originally purchased it and believed that it had been discarded after the exhumation, and ordered it returned to Robert Oswald along with damages equal to the sale price.", "Robert Oswald's attorney stated that the coffin would likely be destroyed \"as soon as possible\"." ], [ "Official investigations", "=== Warren Commission ===President Lyndon B. Johnson issued an executive order that created the Warren Commission to investigate the assassination.", "The commission concluded that Oswald acted alone in assassinating Kennedy, and the Warren Report could not ascribe any one motive or group of motives to Oswald's actions:The proceedings of the commission were closed, though not secret.", "Approximately three percent of its files have yet to be released to the public, which has continued to provoke speculation among researchers.=== Ramsey Clark Panel ===In 1968, the Ramsey Clark Panel examined various photographs, X-ray films, documents, and other evidence.", "It concluded that Kennedy was struck by two bullets fired from above and behind him: one of which traversed the base of the neck on the right side without striking bone, and the other of which entered the skull from behind and destroyed its right side.=== House Select Committee ===In 1979, after a review of the evidence and of prior investigations, the United States House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA) largely concurred with the Warren Commission and was preparing to issue a finding that Oswald had acted alone in killing Kennedy.", "Late in the Committee's proceedings, a dictabelt recording was introduced, purportedly recording sounds heard in Dealey Plaza before, during, and after the shots.", "After an analysis by the firm Bolt, Beranek and Newman appeared to indicate more than three gunshots, the HSCA revised its findings to assert a \"high probability that two gunmen fired\" at Kennedy and that Kennedy \"was probably assassinated as the result of a conspiracy\".", "Although the Committee was \"unable to identify the other gunman or the extent of the conspiracy\", it made a number of further findings regarding the likelihood that particular groups, named in the findings, were involved.", "Four of the twelve members of the HSCA dissented from this conclusion.The acoustic evidence has since been discredited.", "Officer H.B.", "McLain, from whose motorcycle radio the HSCA acoustic experts said the Dictabelt evidence came, has repeatedly stated that he was not yet in Dealey Plaza at the time of the assassination.", "McLain asked the Committee, \"'If it was my radio on my motorcycle, why did it not record the revving up at high speed plus my siren when we immediately took off for Parkland Hospital?'\"", "In 1982, a panel of twelve scientists appointed by the National Academy of Sciences, including Nobel laureates Norman Ramsey and Luis Alvarez, unanimously concluded that the acoustic evidence submitted to the HSCA was \"seriously flawed\", was recorded after the shots, and did not indicate additional gunshots.", "Their conclusions were published in the journal ''Science''.In a 2001 article in the journal ''Science & Justice'', D.B.", "Thomas wrote that the NAS investigation was itself flawed.", "He concluded with a 96.3 percent certainty that at least two gunmen fired at President Kennedy and that at least one shot came from the grassy knoll.", "In 2005, Thomas's conclusions were rebutted in the same journal.", "Ralph Linsker and several members of the original NAS team reanalyzed the timings of the recordings and reaffirmed the earlier conclusion of the NAS report that the alleged shot sounds were recorded approximately one minute after the assassination.", "In 2010, D.B.", "Thomas challenged the 2005 ''Science & Justice'' article and restated his conclusion that there were at least two gunmen.==Backyard photos==Image CE 133-A, one of three known \"backyard photos\".", "Oswald sent this image (as a first-generation copy) to George de Mohrenschildt in April 1963.Photos of Oswald holding the rifle that was later determined to be the murder weapon are an important piece of evidence linking Oswald to the crime.", "The photos were uncovered with other possessions belonging to Oswald in the garage of Ruth Paine in Irving, Texas, on November 23, 1963.Marina Oswald told the Warren Commission that around March 31, 1963, she had taken pictures of Oswald as he posed with a Carcano rifle, a holstered pistol, and two Marxist newspapers – ''The Militant'' and ''The Worker''.Oswald had sent one of the photos to ''The Militant'''s New York office with an accompanying letter stating he was \"prepared for anything\": according to Sylvia Weinstein, who handled the newspaper's subscriptions at the time, Oswald was seen as a \"kookie\" and politically \"dumb and totally naive\", as he apparently did not know that ''The Militant'', published by the Trotskyist Socialist Workers Party, and ''The Worker'', published by the pro-Soviet Communist Party USA, were rival publications and ideologically opposed to each other.The pictures were shown to Oswald after his arrest, but he insisted that they were forgeries.In 1964, Marina testified before the Warren Commission that she had photographed Oswald, at his request and using his camera.", "These photos were labelled CE 133-A and CE 133-B.", "CE 133-A shows the rifle in Oswald's left hand and newspapers in front of his chest in the other, while the rifle is held with the right hand in CE 133-B.", "The Carcano in the images had markings matching those on the rifle found in the Book Depository after the assassination.", "Oswald's mother testified that on the day after the assassination she and Marina destroyed another photograph with Oswald holding the rifle with both hands over his head, with \"To my daughter June\" written on it.When shown one of the photos during his interrogation by Dallas police, Oswald stated that it was a fake.", "According to Dallas Police Captain Will Fritz:He said that the picture was not his, that the face was his face, but that this picture had been made by someone superimposing his face, the other part of the picture was not him at all and that he had never seen the picture before.", "...", "He told me that he understood photography real well, and that in time, he would be able to show that it was not his picture, and that it had been made by someone else.The HSCA obtained another first-generation print (from CE 133-A) on April 1, 1977, from the widow of George de Mohrenschildt.", "The words \"Hunter of fascists – ha ha ha!\"", "written in block Russian were on the back.", "Also in English were added in script: \"To my friend George, Lee Oswald, 5/IV/63 April 5, 1963.\"", "Handwriting experts for the HSCA concluded the English inscription and signature were by Oswald.", "After two original photos, one negative and one first-generation copy had been found, the Senate Intelligence Committee located (in 1976) a third backyard photo (CE 133-C) showing Oswald with newspapers held away from his body in his right hand.These photos, widely recognized as some of the most significant evidence against Oswald, have been subjected to rigorous analysis.", "Photographic experts consulted by the HSCA concluded they were genuine, answering twenty-one points raised by critics.", "Marina Oswald has always maintained she took the photos herself, and the 1963 de Mohrenschildt print bearing Oswald's signature clearly indicate they existed before the assassination.", "Nonetheless, some continue to contest their authenticity.", "In 2009, after digitally analyzing the photograph of Oswald holding the rifle and paper, computer scientist Hany Farid concluded that the photo \"almost certainly was not altered\"." ], [ "Other investigations and dissenting theories", " Some critics have not accepted the conclusions of the Warren Commission and have proposed several other theories, such as that Oswald conspired with others, or was not involved at all and was framed.", "A Gallup Poll taken in mid-November 2013, showed 61% believed that Kennedy was killed as a result of conspiracy, and only 30% thought Oswald acted alone.Oswald was never prosecuted because he was murdered two days after the assassination.", "In March 1967, New Orleans District Attorney Jim Garrison arrested and charged New Orleans businessman Clay Shaw with conspiring to assassinate President Kennedy, with the help of Oswald, David Ferrie, and others.", "Garrison believed that the men were part of an arms smuggling ring supplying weapons to the anti-Castro Cubans in a conspiracy with elements of the CIA to kill Kennedy.", "The trial of Clay Shaw began in January 1969 in Orleans Parish Criminal Court.", "The jury acquitted Shaw.Several films have fictionalized a trial of Oswald, depicting what may have happened had Ruby not killed Oswald.", "''The Trial of Lee Harvey Oswald'' (1964); ''The Trial of Lee Harvey Oswald'' (1977); and ''On Trial: Lee Harvey Oswald'' (1986) have imagined such a trial.", "In 1988, a 21-hour unscripted mock trial was held on television, argued by lawyers before a judge, with unscripted testimony from surviving witnesses to the events surrounding the assassination; the jury returned a verdict of guilty.", "In 1992, the American Bar Association conducted two mock Oswald trials.", "The first trial ended in a hung jury.", "In the second trial the jury acquitted Oswald." ], [ "See also", "* Robert F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories* John Wilkes Booth, assassin of President Abraham Lincoln* Charles Guiteau, assassin of President James Garfield* Leon Czolgosz, assassin of President William McKinley* Sirhan Sirhan, assassin of Robert Kennedy" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * " ], [ "Further reading", " .", "* * * Gillon, Steven.", "''Lee Harvey Oswald: 48 Hours to Live'' Sterling.", "2013.", "* McMillan, Priscilla Johnson.", "''Marina and Lee'' New York: Harper & Row, 1977.", "* Melanson, Philip H. ''Spy Saga: Lee Harvey Oswald and U.S. Intelligence''.", "New York: Praeger Publishers, 1990, hardcover, * Nechiporenko, Oleg M. ''Passport to Assassination: The Never-Before Told Story of Lee Harvey Oswald by the KGB Colonel Who Knew Him''.", "New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 1993, .", "* Roffman, Howard.", "''Presumed Guilty''.", "South Brunswick and New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1976, hardcover, " ], [ "External links", " ''Frontline'': Who Was Lee Harvey Oswald?", "* ''American Experience'': Oswald's Ghost* Lee Harvey Oswald: Lone Assassin or Patsy by John C. McAdams* Lee Harvey Oswald Chronology by W. Tracy Parnell* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lincoln, Nebraska" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lincoln''' is the capital city of the U.S. state of Nebraska and the county seat of Lancaster County.", "The city covers with a population of 292,657 in 2021.It is the state's 2nd most populous city and the 73rd-largest in the United States.", "Lincoln is the economic and cultural anchor of a substantially larger metropolitan area in southeastern Nebraska, the Lincoln Metropolitan and Lincoln-Beatrice Combined Statistical Areas.", "The statistical area is home to 361,921 people, making it the 104th-largest combined statistical area in the United States.Lincoln was founded in 1856 as the village of Lancaster on the wild salt marshes and arroyos of what became Lancaster County.", "Renamed after President Abraham Lincoln, it became Nebraska's state capital in 1869.The Bertram G. Goodhue–designed state capitol building was completed in 1932, and is the nation's second-tallest capitol.", "As the city is the seat of government for the state of Nebraska, the state and the U.S. government are major employers.", "The University of Nebraska was founded in Lincoln in 1869.The university is Nebraska's largest, with 26,079 students enrolled, and the city's third-largest employer.", "Other primary employers fall into the service and manufacturing industries, including a growing high-tech sector.", "The region makes up a part of what is known as the greater Midwest Silicon Prairie.Designated as a \"refugee-friendly\" city by the U.S. Department of State in the 1970s, the city was the 12th-largest resettlement site per capita in the country by 2000.Refugee Vietnamese, Karen (Burmese ethnic minority), Sudanese and Yazidi (Iraqi ethnic minority) people, as well as refugees from Iraq, the Middle East and Afghanistan, have resettled in the city.", "During the 2018–19 school year, Lincoln Public Schools provided support for about 3,000 students from 150 countries, who spoke 125 different languages." ], [ "History", "===Natives===Before the expansion westward of settlers, the prairie was covered with buffalo grass.", "Plains Indians, descendants of indigenous peoples who occupied the area for thousands of years, lived in and hunted along Salt Creek.", "The Pawnee, which included four tribes, lived in villages along the Platte River.", "The Great Sioux Nation, including the ''Ihanktowan-Ihanktowana'' and the Lakota, to the north and west, used Nebraska as a hunting and skirmish ground, but did not have any long-term settlements in the state.", "An occasional buffalo could still be seen in the plat of Lincoln in the 1860s.===Founding===Lincoln, 1868Lincoln was founded in 1856 as the village of Lancaster and became the county seat of the newly created Lancaster County in 1859.The village was sited on the east bank of Salt Creek.", "The first settlers were attracted to the area due to the abundance of salt.", "Once J.", "Sterling Morton developed his salt mines in Kansas, salt in the village was no longer a viable commodity.", "Captain W. T. Donovan, a former steamer captain, and his family settled on Salt Creek in 1856.In 1859, the village settlers met to form a county.", "A caucus was formed and the committee, which included Donovan, selected Lancaster as the county seat.", "The county was named Lancaster.", "After the passage of the 1862 Homestead Act, homesteaders began to inhabit the area.", "The first plat was dated August 6, 1864.By the end of 1868, Lancaster had a population of approximately 500.The township of Lancaster was renamed Lincoln, with the incorporation of the city of Lincoln on April 1, 1869.In 1869, the University of Nebraska was established in Lincoln by the state with a land grant of about 130,000 acres.", "Construction of University Hall, the first building, began the same year.===State capital===Nebraska State CapitolNebraska was granted statehood on March 1, 1867.The capital of the Nebraska Territory had been Omaha since the creation of the territory in 1854.Most of its population lived south of the Platte River.", "After much of the territory south of the Platte was considered annexation to Kansas, the territorial legislature voted to place the capital city south of the river and as far west as possible.", "Before the vote to remove the capital city from Omaha, Omaha Senator J. N. H. Patrick made a last-ditch effort to derail the move by having the future capital city named after recently assassinated President Abraham Lincoln.", "Many of the people south of the Platte had been sympathetic to the Confederate cause in the recently concluded Civil War.", "It was assumed that senators south of the river would not vote to pass the measure if the future capital was named after Lincoln.", "In the end, the motion to name the future capital city Lincoln was ineffective in blocking the measure and the vote to move the capital south of the Platte was successful, with the passage of the Removal Act in 1867.The Removal Act called for the formation of a Capital Commission to site the capital on state-owned land.", "On July 18, 1867, the Commission, composed of Governor David Butler, Secretary of State Thomas Kennard, and State Auditor John Gillespie, began to tour sites for the new capital city.", "The village of Lancaster was chosen, in part due to its salt flats and marshes.", "Lancaster had approximately 30 residents.", "Disregarding the original plat of the village of Lancaster, Kennard platted Lincoln on a broader scale.", "The plat of the village of Lancaster was not dissolved nor abandoned; it became Lincoln when the Lincoln plat files were finished on September 6, 1867.To raise money for the construction of a capital city, an auction of lots was held.Kennard and Gillespie houses, 1872Nebraska home for dependent children, 1904Newcomers began to arrive and Lincoln's population grew.", "The Nebraska State Capitol was completed on December 1, 1868, a two-story building constructed with native limestone with a central cupola.", "The Kennard house, built in 1869, is the oldest remaining building in the original plat of Lincoln.In 1888, a new capitol building was constructed on the site of the first to replace the structurally unsound former capitol.", "The second building was a classical design by architect William H. Willcox.", "Construction began on a third capitol building in 1922.Bertram G. Goodhue was selected in a national competition as its architect.", "By 1924, the first phase of construction was completed and state offices moved into the new building.", "In 1925, the Willcox-designed capitol building was razed.", "The Goodhue-designed capitol was constructed in four phases, with the completion of the fourth phase in 1932.It is the second-tallest capitol building in the United States.===Growth and expansion===City Hall (1906–1969).The worldwide economic depression of 1890 saw Lincoln's population fall from 55,000 to 40,169 by 1900 (per the 1900 census).", "Volga-German immigrants from Russia settled in the North Bottoms neighborhood and as Lincoln expanded with the growth in population, the city began to annex nearby towns.", "Normal was the first town annexed in 1919.Bethany Heights, incorporated in 1890, was annexed in 1922.In 1926, the town of University Place was annexed.", "College View, incorporated in 1892, was annexed in 1929.Union College, a Seventh Day Adventist institution, was founded in College View in 1891.In 1930, Lincoln annexed the town of Havelock.", "Havelock actively opposed annexation to Lincoln and only relented due to a strike by the Burlington railroad shop workers which halted progress and growth for the city.The Burlington and Missouri River Railroad's first train arrived in Lincoln on June 26, 1870, and the Midland Pacific (1871) and the Atchison and Nebraska (1872) soon followed.", "The Union Pacific began service in 1877.The Chicago and North Western and Missouri Pacific began service in 1886.The Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific extended service to Lincoln in 1892.Lincoln became a rail hub.Detroit-Lincoln-Denver (D-L-D) Highway monumentAs automobile travel became more common, so did the need for better roads in Nebraska and throughout the U.S.", "In 1911, the Omaha-Denver Trans-Continental Route Association, with support from the Good Roads Movement, established the Omaha-Lincoln-Denver Highway (O-L-D) through Lincoln.", "The goal was to have the most efficient highway for travel throughout Nebraska, from Omaha to Denver.In 1920, the Omaha-Denver Association merged with the Detroit-Lincoln-Denver Highway Association.", "As a result, the O-L-D was renamed the Detroit-Lincoln-Denver Highway (D-L-D) with the goal of having a continuous highway from Detroit to Denver.", "The goal was eventually realized by the mid-1920s; of constantly improved highway through six states.", "The auto route's success in attracting tourists led entrepreneurs to build businesses and facilities in towns along the route to keep up with the demand.", "In 1924, the D-L-D was designated as Nebraska State Highway 6.In 1926, the highway became part of the Federal Highway System and was renumbered U.S. Route 38.In 1931, U.S. 38 was renumbered as a U.S. 6/U.S.", "38 overlap and in 1933, the U.S. 38 route designation was dropped.Arrow Sport, Lincoln AirportIn the early years of air travel, Lincoln had three airports and one airfield.", "Union Airport, was established northeast of Lincoln in 1920.The Lincoln Flying School was founded by E.J.", "Sias in a building he built at 2145 O Street.", "Charles Lindbergh was a student at the flying school in 1922.The flying school closed in 1947.Some remnants of the Union Airport are still visible between N. 56th and N. 70th Streets, north of Fletcher Avenue; mangled within a slowly developing industrial zone.", "Arrow Airport was established around 1925 as a manufacturing and test facility for Arrow Aircraft and Motors Corporation, primarily the Arrow Sport.", "The airfield was near Havelock; or to the west of where the North 48th Street Small Vehicle Transfer Station is today.", "Arrow Aircraft and Motors declared bankruptcy in 1939 and Arrow Airport closed roughly several decades later.", "An Arrow Sport is on permanent display, hanging in the Lincoln Airport's main passenger terminal.As train, automobile, and air travel increased, business flourished and the city prospered.", "Lincoln's population increased 38.2% from 1920 to a population of 75,933 in 1930.In 1930, the city's small municipal airfield was dedicated to Charles Lindbergh and named Lindbergh Field for a short period as another airfield was named Lindbergh in California.", "It was north of Salt Lake, in an area known over the years as Huskerville, Arnold Heights and Air Park; and was approximately within the western half of the West Lincoln Township.", "The air field was a stop for United Airlines in 1927 and a mail stop in 1928.In 1942, the Lincoln Army Airfield was established at the site.", "During World War II, the U.S. Army used the facility to train over 25,000 aviation mechanics and process over 40,000 troopers for combat.", "The Army closed the base in 1945, but the Air Force reactivated it in 1952 during the Korean War.", "In 1966, after the Air Force closed the base, Lincoln annexed the airfield and the base's housing units.", "The base became the Lincoln Municipal Airport, and later the Lincoln Airport, under the Lincoln Airport Authority's ownership.", "The two main airlines that served the airport were United Airlines and Frontier Airlines.", "The Authority shared facilities with the Nebraska National Guard, who continued to own parts of the old Air Force base.In 1966, Lincoln annexed the township of West Lincoln, incorporated in 1887.West Lincoln voters rejected Lincoln's annexation until the state legislature passed a bill in 1965 that allowed cities to annex surrounding areas without a vote.===Revitalization and growth===Skyline, 2021The downtown core retail district from 1959 to 1984 saw profound changes as retail shopping moved from downtown to the suburban Gateway Shopping Mall.", "In 1956, Bankers Life Insurance Company of Nebraska announced plans to build a $6 million shopping center next to their new campus on Lincoln's eastern outskirts.", "Gateway Shopping Center, now called Gateway Mall, opened at 60th and O streets in 1960.By 1984, 75% of Lincoln's revenue from retail sales tax came from within a one-mile radius of the Mall.", "The exodus of retail and service businesses led the downtown core to decline and deteriorate.In 1969, the Nebraska legislature legislated laws for urban renewal.", "Soon afterward, Lincoln began a program of revitalization and beautification.", "Most of the urban renewal projects focused on downtown and the near South areas.", "Many ideas were considered and not implemented.", "Successes included Sheldon Memorial Art Gallery, designed by Philip Johnson; new branch libraries, new street lighting, the First National Bank Building and the National Bank of Commerce Building designed by I.M.", "Pei.In 1971, an expansion of Gateway Mall was completed.", "1974 marked a new assembly facility in Lincoln, a subsidiary of Kawasaki Heavy Industries in Japan to produce motorcycles for the North American market.", "Lincoln's first woman mayor, Helen Boosalis, was elected in 1975.Mayor Boosalis was a strong supporter of the revitalization of Lincoln with the downtown beautification project being completed in 1978.In 1979, the square-block downtown Centrum was opened and connected to buildings with a skywalk.", "The Centrum was a two-level shopping mall with a garage for 1,038 cars.", "With the beautification and urban renewal projects, many historic buildings were razed in the city.", "In 2007 and 2009, the city of Lincoln received beautification grants for improvements on O and West O Streets, west of the Harris Overpass, commemorating the history of the D-L-D.After the fall of Saigon in 1975, Vietnamese refugees created a large residential and business community along the 27th Street corridor alongside Mexican eateries and African markets.", "Lincoln was designated as a \"Refugee Friendly\" city by the U.S. Department of State in the 1970s.", "In 2000, Lincoln was the twelfth-largest resettlement site per capita in the country.", "As of 2011, Lincoln had the second largest Karen (Burmese ethnic minority) population in the United States (behind Omaha), with an estimated 1,500 in 2019.As of the same year, Nebraska was one of the largest resettlement sites for the people of Sudan, mostly in Lincoln and Omaha.", "In 2014, some social service organizations estimated that up to 10,000 Iraqi refugees had resettled in Lincoln.", "In recent years, Lincoln had the largest Yazidi (Iraqi ethnic minority) population in the U.S., with over 2,000–3,000 having settled within the city (as of late 2017).", "In a three-year period, the immigrant and refugee student population at Lincoln Public Schools increased 52% - from 1,606 students in 2014, to 2,445 in 2017.The decade from 1990 to 2000 saw a significant rise in population from 191,972 to 225,581.North 27th Street and Cornhusker Highway were redeveloped with new housing and businesses built.", "The boom housing market in south Lincoln created new housing developments including high end housing in areas like Cripple Creek, Willamsburg and The Ridge.", "The shopping center Southpointe Pavilions was completed in competition of Gateway Mall.In 2001, Westfield America Trust purchased the Gateway Mall and named it Westfield Shoppingtown Gateway.", "In 2005, the company renamed it the Westfield Gateway.", "Westfield made a $45 million makeover of the mall in 2005 including an expanded food court, a new west-side entrance and installation of an Italian carousel.", "In 2012, Westfield America Trust sold Westfield Gateway to Starwood Capital Group.", "Starwood reverted the mall's name from Westfield Gateway to Gateway Mall and has made incremental expansions and renovations.In 2015, ALLO Communications announced it would bring ultra-high speed fiber internet to the city.", "Speeds up to 1 Gigabit per second were available for business and households by building off of the city's existing fiber network.", "Construction on the citywide network began in March 2016 and was estimated to be complete by 2019, making it one of the largest infrastructure projects in the United States.", "Telephone and cable TV service were also included, making it the third company to compete for such services within the same Lincoln footprint.", "In April 2016, Windstream Communications announced that 2,300 customers in Lincoln had 1 Gigabit per second fiber internet with an expected expansion of services to 25,000 customers by 2017.On November 29, 2017, Lincoln was named a Smart Gigabit Community by U.S. Ignite Inc. and in early 2018, Spectrum joined the ranks of internet service providers providing 1 gigabit internet within the city." ], [ "Geography", "East Lincoln from International Space Station, 2007)Lincoln has an area of , of which is land and is water, according to the United States Census Bureau in 2020.Lincoln is one of the few large cities of Nebraska not along either the Platte River or the Missouri River.", "The city was originally laid out near Salt Creek and among the nearly flat saline wetlands of northern Lancaster County.", "The city's growth has led to development of the surrounding land, much of which is composed of gently rolling hills.", "In recent years, Lincoln's northward growth has encroached on the habitat of the endangered Salt Creek tiger beetle.===Metropolitan area===The Lincoln Metropolitan Statistical Area consists of Lancaster County and Seward County.", "Seward County was added to the metropolitan area in 2003.Lincoln is also in the Lincoln-Beatrice Combined Statistical Area which consists of the Lincoln metropolitan area and the micropolitan area of Beatrice.", "The city of Beatrice is the county seat of Gage County.", "The Lincoln-Beatrice combined statistical area is home to 363,733 people (2021 estimate) making it the 104th-largest combined statistical area in the United States.===Neighborhoods===South Lincoln from top of Nebraska State Capitol, 2012Lincoln's neighborhoods include both old and new development.", "Some neighborhoods in Lincoln were formerly small towns that Lincoln later annexed, including University Place in 1926, Belmont, Bethany (Bethany Heights) in 1922, College View in 1929, Havelock in 1930, and West Lincoln in 1966.A number of Historic Districts are near downtown Lincoln, while newer neighborhoods have appeared primarily in the south and east.", "As of December 2013, Lincoln had 45 registered neighborhood associations within the city limits.One core neighborhood that has seen rapid residential growth in recent years is the downtown Lincoln area.", "In 2010, there were 1,200 downtown Lincoln residents; in 2016, there were 3,000 (an increase of 140%).", "Around the middle of the same decade, demand for housing and rent units began outpacing supply.", "With Lincoln's population expected to grow to more than 311,000 people by 2020, prices for homes and rent costs have risen.", "Home prices rose 10% from the first quarter of 2015 to the first quarter of 2016; rent prices rose 30% from 2007 to 2017 with a 5–8% increase in 2016 alone.===Climate===Climate chart for LincolnLocated in the Great Plains far from the moderating influence of mountains or large bodies of water, Lincoln has a highly variable four season humid continental climate (Köppen ''Dfa''): winters are cold and summers are hot.", "With little precipitation during winter, precipitation is concentrated in the warmer months, when thunderstorms frequently roll in, often producing tornadoes.", "Snow averages per season but seasonal accumulation has ranged from in 1967–1968 to in 2018–2019.Snow tends to fall in light amounts, though blizzards are possible.", "There is an average of 38 days with a snow depth of or more.", "The average window for freezing temperatures is October 7 thru April 25, allowing a growing season of 164 days.The monthly daily average temperature ranges from in January to in July.", "However, the city is subject both to episodes of bitter cold in winter and heat waves during summer, with 10.1 nights of or lower lows, 41.8 days of + highs, and 3.5 days of + highs.", "The city straddles the boundary of USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5b and 6a.", "Temperature extremes have ranged from on January 12, 1974, up to on July 25, 1936.Readings as high as or as low as occur somewhat rarely; the last occurrence of each was August 24, 2023 and February 16, 2021.The second lowest temperature ever recorded in Lincoln was on February 16, 2021, which broke the monthly record of last set a day earlier.", "It occurred during the wider February 13–17, 2021 North American winter storm, which impacted the Midwestern and Northeastern United States as a whole.Based on 30-year averages obtained from NOAA's National Climatic Data Center for December, January and February, the Weather Channel ranked Lincoln the seventh-coldest major U.S. city in a 2014 article.", "In 2014, the Lincoln-Beatrice area was among the \"Cleanest U.S. Cities for Ozone Air Pollution\" in the American Lung Association's \"State of the Air 2014\" report.On May 5, 2019, an EF2 tornado hit parts of western Lincoln, although no major injuries occurred." ], [ "Demographics", "Lincoln is Nebraska's second-most-populous city.", "In the 1970s, The U.S. government designated Lincoln a refugee-friendly city due to its stable economy, educational institutions, and size.", "Since then, refugees from Vietnam settled in Lincoln, and more came from other countries.", "In 2013, Lincoln was named one of the \"Top Ten Most Welcoming Cities in America\" by Welcoming America.===2020 census===The 2020 United States census counted 291,082 people, 115,930 households, and 67,277 families in Lincoln.", "The population density was 2,937.6 per square mile (1,134.2/km).", "There were 122,048 housing units at an average density of 1,231.7 per square mile (475.6/km).", "The racial makeup was 78.66% (228,956) white, 4.67% (13,605) black or African-American, 0.89% (2,589) Native American, 4.77% (13,871) Asian, 0.07% (196) Pacific Islander, 3.5% (10,175) from other races, and 7.45% (21,690) from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race was 7.0% (22,321) of the population.Of the 115,930 households, 26.9% had children under the age of 18; 43.8% were married couples living together; 27.1% had a female householder with no husband present.", "31.0% of households consisted of individuals and 9.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.4 and the average family size was 3.0.21.9% of the population was under the age of 18, 15.7% from 18 to 24, 26.8% from 25 to 44, 20.8% from 45 to 64, and 13.2% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 32.9 years.", "For every 100 females, the population had 100.8 males.", "For every 100 females ages 18 and older, there were 99.4 males.The 2016-2020 5-year American Community Survey estimates show that the median household income was $60,063 (with a margin of error of +/- $1,248) and the median family income $79,395 (+/- $1,992).", "Males had a median income of $37,646 (+/- $1,251) versus $27,411 (+/- $805) for females.", "The median income for those above 16 years old was $31,869 (+/- $455).", "Approximately, 7.5% of families and 12.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.4% of those under the age of 18 and 6.2% of those ages 65 or over." ], [ "Economy", "Fort Western storeLincoln's economy is fairly typical of a mid-sized American city; most economic activity is derived from the service and manufacturing industries.", "Government and the University of Nebraska are both large contributors to the local economy.", "Other prominent industries in Lincoln include finance, insurance, publishing, manufacturing, pharmaceutical, telecommunications, railroads, high technology, information technology, medical, education and truck transport.For October 2021, the Lincoln Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) preliminary unemployment rate was 1.3% (not seasonally adjusted).", "With a tight labor market, Lincoln has seen rapid wage growth.", "From the summer of 2014 to the summer of 2015, the average hourly pay for both public and private employees have increased by 11%.", "From October 2014 to October 2015, wages were also up by 8.4%.One of the largest employers is Bryan Health, which consists of two major hospitals and several large outpatient facilities across the city.", "Healthcare and medical jobs account for a large portion of Lincoln's employment: as of 2009, full-time healthcare employees in the city included 9,010 healthcare practitioners in technical occupations, 4,610 workers in healthcare support positions, 780 licensed and vocational nurses, and 150 medical and clinical laboratory technicians.Several national business were originally established in Lincoln; these include student lender Nelnet, Ameritas, Assurity, Fort Western Stores, CliffsNotes and HobbyTown USA.", "Several regional restaurant chains began in Lincoln, including Amigos/Kings Classic, Runza Restaurants, and Valentino's.The Lincoln area makes up a part of what is known as the greater Midwest Silicon Prairie.", "The city is also a part of a rapidly growing craft brewing industry.", "In 2013, Lincoln ranked no.", "4 on ''Forbes'''s list of the Best Places for Business and Careers, no.", "1 on NerdWallet's Best Cities for Job Seekers in 2015, and no.", "2 on SmartAsset's Cities with the Best Work-life Balance in 2019.===Principal employers===According to the city's 2020 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the principal employers of the city are: # Employer # of Employees1State of Nebraska9,7762Lincoln Public Schools8,2043University of Nebraska-Lincoln6,3154Bryan Health3,5005US Government3,4636City of Lincoln2,6797Saint Elizabeth Regional Medical Center2,3008Burlington Northern Railroad2,0009Madonna Rehabilitation Hospital1,50010Duncan Aviation1,200===Automotive and technology===1974 saw the establishment of a Kawasaki motorcycles assembly facility named the American Kawasaki Motors Corporation (KMC), to complete Japan-produced components into finished products for the North American market.", "Incorporated in 1981, Kawasaki Motors Manufacturing Corp. (KMM) and assumed control of KMC.", "As of 2022, their webpresence named tallies \"All-Terrain Vehicles, Utility Vehicles, Personal Watercraft, Recreation Utility Vehicles, and Passenger Rail Cars\" as their range.Kawasaki is one of Lincoln's largest private employers with over 2,400 employees, and it has the largest square footage of manufacturing space.", "Newer product lines are rail cars and aircraft cargo doors.===Military===The Nebraska Air and Army National Guard's Joint Force Headquarters are in Lincoln along with other major units of the Nebraska National Guard.", "During the early years of the Cold War, the Lincoln Airport was the Lincoln Air Force Base; the Nebraska Air National Guard and the Nebraska Army National Guard now have joint-use facilities with the Lincoln Airport.", "Alongside the National Guard, the 55th Wing of Offutt Air Force Base was temporarily headquartered in Lincoln through September 2022." ], [ "Arts and culture", "Downtown Lincoln, 14th and O StreetsSince Pinnacle Bank Arena opened in 2013, Lincoln's music scene has grown to the point where it is sometimes called a \"Music City\".", "Primary venues for live music include Pinnacle Bank Arena, Bourbon Theatre, Duffy's Tavern, and the Zoo Bar.", "The Pla-Mor Ballroom is a classic Lincoln music and dance scene with its in-house Sandy Creek Band.", "Pinewood Bowl hosts a range of performances, from national music performances to local plays, during the summer.The Lied Center is a venue for national tours of Broadway productions, concert music, and guest lectures, and regularly features its resident orchestra, the Lincoln Symphony Orchestra.", "Lincoln has several performing arts venues.", "Plays are staged by UNL students in the Temple Building; community theater productions are held at the Lincoln Community Playhouse, the Loft at The Mill, and the Haymarket Theater.Lincoln has a growing number of arts galleries, including the Sheldon Museum of Art, Burkholder Project and Noyes Art Gallery.For movie viewing, Marcus Theatres owns 32 screens at four locations, and the University of Nebraska's Mary Riepma Ross Media Arts Center shows independent and foreign films.", "Standalone cinemas in Lincoln include the Joyo Theatre and Rococo Theater.", "The Rococo Theater also hosts benefits and other engagements.", "The downtown section of O Street is Lincoln's largest bar and nightclub district.", "There is also the Bourbon Theatre, which is primarily used for bands in the metal rock and other related genres.Lincoln is the hometown of Zager and Evans, known for their international hit record \"In the Year 2525\" (1969).", "It is also the hometown of several notable musical groups, such as Remedy Drive, VOTA, For Against, Lullaby for the Working Class, Matthew Sweet, Dirtfedd, The Show is the Rainbow and Straight.", "Lincoln is home to Maroon 5 guitarist James Valentine.In 2012, the city was listed among the 10 best places to retire in the United States by ''U.S.", "News & World Report''.===Annual cultural events===Annual events in Lincoln have come and gone throughout time, such as Band Day at the University of Nebraska's Lincoln campus and the Star City Holiday Parade.", "However, some events have never changed while new traditions have been created.", "Current annual cultural events in Lincoln include the Lincoln National Guard Marathon and Half-Marathon in May,Celebrate Lincoln in early June, the Uncle Sam Jam around July 3, and Boo at the Zoo in October.", "A locally popular event is the Haymarket Farmers' Market, running from May to October in the Historic Haymarket, one of several farmers markets throughout the city.===Tourism===Tourist attractions and activities include the Sunken Gardens, basketball games at Pinnacle Bank Arena, the Lincoln Children's Zoo, the dairy store at UNL's East Campus, and Mueller Planetarium on the city campus.", "The Nebraska State Capitol, which is also the tallest building in Lincoln, offers tours.The Speedway Motors Museum of American Speed preserves, interprets, and displays physical items significant in racing and automotive history.", "The National Museum of Roller Skating extends public knowledge of roller skating history and seeks to preserve its legacy for future generations.", "In late 2016, Lincoln was ranked #3 on Lonely Planet's \"Best in the U.S.,\" destinations to see in 2017 list." ], [ "Sports", "Memorial StadiumLincoln is home to the University of Nebraska's sports teams, the Cornhuskers.", "In total, the university fields 22 men's and women's teams in 14 NCAA Division I sports.", "Nebraska football began play in 1890.Of the 128 Division I-A football teams, Nebraska is one of nine to have won 900 or more games.", "Notable coaches include Tom Osborne and Bob Devaney.", "Devaney coached from 1962 to 1972; the university's indoor arena, the Bob Devaney Sports Center, is named for him.", "Osborne coached from 1972 to 1997.Other sports teams are the Nebraska Wesleyan Prairie Wolves, an NCAA Division III University; the Lincoln Saltdogs, an American Association independent minor league baseball team; the Lincoln Stars, a USHL junior ice hockey team; and the No Coast Derby Girls, a member of the Women's Flat Track Derby Association.Lincoln Airpark hosts SCCA Solo Nationals each September." ], [ "Parks and recreation", "Lincoln has an extensive park system, with over 131 individual parks connected by a system of recreational trails, a system of bike lanes and a system of cycle tracks.", "The MoPac Trail is a bicycling, equestrian and walking trail built on an abandoned Missouri Pacific Railroad corridor which runs for from the University of Nebraska's Lincoln campus eastward to Wabash, Nebraska.Regional parks include Antelope Park from S. 23rd and \"N\" Streets to S. 33rd Street and Sheridan Boulevard, Bicentennial Cascade Fountain, Hamann Rose Garden, Lincoln Children's Zoo, Veterans Memorial Garden, and Holmes Park at S. 70th Street and Normal Boulevard.", "Pioneers Park includes the Pioneers Park Nature Center at S. Coddington Avenue and W. Calvert Streets.Community parks include Ballard Park, Bethany Park, Bowling Lake Park, Densmore Park, Erwin Peterson Park, Fleming Fields, Irvingdale Park, Mahoney Park, Max E. Roper Park, Oak Lake Park, Peter Pan Park, Pine Lake Park, Sawyer Snell Park, Seacrest Park, Tierra Briarhurst, University Place Park and Woods Park.Other notable parks include Iron Horse Park, Lincoln Community Foundation Tower Square, Nine Mile Prairie owned by the University of Nebraska Foundation, Sunken Gardens, Union Plaza, and Wilderness Park.", "Smaller neighborhood parks are scattered throughout the city.", "Additionally, there are five public recreation centers, nine outdoor public pools and five public golf courses not including private facilities in Lincoln." ], [ "Government", "County-City BuildingLincoln has a mayor–council government.", "The mayor and a seven-member city council are selected in nonpartisan elections.", "Four members are elected from city council districts; the remaining three members are elected at-large.", "Lincoln's health, personnel, and planning departments are joint city/county agencies; most city and Lancaster County offices are in the County/City Building.", "The most recent city general election was held on May 4, 2021.Since Lincoln is the state capital, many Nebraska state and United States Government offices are in Lincoln.", "The city lies within the Lincoln Public Schools school district.", "The Lincoln Fire and Rescue Department shoulders the city's fire fighting and emergency ambulatory services while private companies provide non-emergency medical transport and volunteer fire fighting units support the city's outlying areas.The city's public library system is Lincoln City Libraries, which has eight branches.", "Lincoln City Libraries circulates more than three million items per year to the residents of Lincoln and Lancaster County.", "Lincoln City Libraries is also home to Polley Music Library and the Jane Pope Geske Heritage Room of Nebraska authors.===Law enforcement===The Lincoln Police Department has just over 350 police officers.", "The police per capita rate is extremely low at 1.2 officers per 1,000 people (the average being 1.94), and the violent crime rate of 522 per 100,000 people.", "The department is nationally accredited by the Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies and was the first law enforcement agency in Nebraska to become so.The LPD shares its headquarters with the Lancaster County Sheriff's Office." ], [ "Education", "Lincoln Public Schools district office===Primary and secondary education===Lincoln Public Schools (LPS) is the public school district which includes the majority of the city limits.", "It includes six traditional high schools: Lincoln High, East, Northeast, North Star, Southeast, and Southwest.", "Two additional, smaller high schools are currently under construction: Northwest and Standing Bear.", "LPS is also home to special interest high school programs, including the Arts and Humanities Focus Program, the Bryan Community School, The Career Academy and the Science Focus Program (Zoo School).", "Other programs include the Pathfinder Education Program, the Yankee Hill Program and the Lincoln Air Force JROTC.Some outerlying sections of Lincoln are in other school districts: Norris School District 160 and Waverly School District 145.There are several private parochial elementary and middle schools throughout the community.", "Like Lincoln Public Schools, these schools are broken into districts, but most will allow attendance outside of boundary lines.", "Lincoln's private high schools are College View Academy, Lincoln Christian, Lincoln Lutheran, Parkview Christian School and Pius X High School.===Colleges and universities===Lincoln has nine colleges and universities.", "The University of Nebraska–Lincoln, the main campus of the University of Nebraska system, is the largest university in Nebraska, with 20,830 undergraduate, 4,426 postgraduate students and 564 professionals enrolled in 2018.Out of the 25,820 enrolled, 2,187 undergraduate and 1,040 postgraduate students/professionals were international.", "With 135 countries outside of the U.S. represented, the five countries with the highest international enrollment were China, India, Malaysia, Oman and Rwanda.Nebraska Wesleyan University, as of 2020, has 1,924 undergraduate and 151 postgraduate students.", "The school teaches in the tradition of a liberal arts college education.", "Nebraska Wesleyan was ranked the #1 liberal arts college in Nebraska by ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' in 2002.In 2009, Forbes ranked it 84th of America's Best Colleges.", "It remains affiliated with the United Methodist Church.", "Union College is a private Seventh-day Adventist four-year coeducational college with 911 students enrolled 2013–14.Bryan College of Health Sciences offers undergraduate degrees in nursing and other health professions; a Masters in Nursing; a Doctoral degree in nurse anesthesia practice, as well as certificate programs for ancillary health professions.", "Universities with satellite locations in Lincoln are Bellevue University, Concordia University (Nebraska) and Doane University.", "Lincoln also hosts the College of Hair Design and Joseph's College of Cosmetology.Southeast Community College is a community college system in southeastern Nebraska, with three campuses in Lincoln and an enrollment of 9,751 students as of fall 2013.The two-year Academic Transfer program is popular among students who want to complete their general education requirements before they enroll in a four-year institution.", "The University of Nebraska-Lincoln is the most popular transfer location." ], [ "Media", "Headquarters of Nebraska Public Media===Television===Lincoln has four licensed broadcast full power television stations; and one serving the city, but licensed to an area outside its limits:KSNB-TV (Channel 4; 4.1 DT) - NBC/MyNetworkTV affiliate* Ion Television affiliate 4.3KLKN (Channel 8; 8.1 DT) – ABC affiliate* Grit affiliate 8.2 Escape affiliate 8.3 Laff affiliate 8.4KOLN (Channel 10; 10.1 DT) – CBS affiliate* KSNB-TV Simulcast/NBC 10.2*MeTV/MNTV 10.3KUON (Channel 12; 12.1 DT) – PBS affiliate, Nebraska Public Media Television flagship station NET-W (World) 12.2 NET-C (Create) 12.3** NET-K (PBS Kids) 12.4KFXL (Channel 15; 51.1 DT) – Fox affiliateThe headquarters of Nebraska Public Media, which is affiliated with the Public Broadcasting Service and National Public Radio, are in Lincoln.", "The city has two low power digital TV stations in Lincoln area: including the translator KFDY-LD (simulcast of (KOHA-LD)) owned by Flood Communications of Nebraska LLC, including for main Spanish-language network affiliate Telemundo on 27.1, NCN (Ind.)", "on 27.2, and religious network affiliate 3ABN on 27.3 in Lincoln area only, on virtual channel 27, digital channel 27; and another low power digital KCWH-LD on CW+ affiliate, owned by Gray on channel 18.1 included subchannels like Ion on 18.2, and CBS (Simulcast of KOLN) on 18.3.===Radio===Radio station studio KLIN-AMThere are 18 radio stations licensed in Lincoln, not including radio stations licensed outside of the city that serve the Lincoln area.", "Most areas of Lincoln also receive radio signals from Omaha and other surrounding communities.FM stations include:KLCV (88.5) – Religious talkKZUM (89.3) – Independent Community RadioKRNU (90.3) – Alternative / College radio UNLKUCV (91.1) – National Public RadioK220GT (91.9) – Contemporary ChristianK233AN (94.5) – Top 40KNNA-LP (95.7) – Christian K255CS (98.9) – ChristianKFOR (101.5) – News/TalkKLMS (103.3) – Hot ACKLNC (105.3) – Classic RockKFRX (106.3) – Top-40K294DJ (106.7) – ChristianKBBK (107.3) – Hot ACKJTM-LP (107.9) – Contemporary ChristianAM stations include:KFOR (1240) – News/TalkKLIN (1400) – News/TalkKLMS (1480) – HOT AC===Print===The ''Lincoln Journal Star'' is the city's major daily newspaper.", "The ''Daily Nebraskan ''is the official monthly magazine of the University of Nebraska's Lincoln campus and ''The DailyER'' is the university's biweekly satirical paper.", "Other university newspapers include the ''Reveille'', the official periodical campus paper of Nebraska Wesleyan University and the ''Clocktower'', the official weekly campus paper of Union College." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Transportation=======Major highways====Lincoln is served by Interstate 80 via seven interchanges, connecting the city to San Francisco in the west and Teaneck, New Jersey in the New York City metropolitan area in the east.", "Other Highways that serve the Lincoln area are Interstate 180, U.S. Route 6, U.S. Highway 34, U.S. Highway 77 and nearby Nebraska Highway 79.The eastern segment of Nebraska Highway 2 is a primary trucking route that connects the Kansas City metropolitan area (Interstate 29) to the I-80 corridor in Lincoln.", "A few additional minor State Highway segments are located within the city as well.====Mass transit====A public bus transit system, StarTran, operates in Lincoln.", "StarTran's fleet consists of 67 full-sized buses and 13 Handi-Vans.", "The transit system has 18 bus routes, with a circular bus route downtown.", "Annual ridership for the fiscal year 2017–18 was 2,463,799.====Intercity transit====Lincoln Airport passenger terminalThe Lincoln Airport (KLNK/LNK) provides passengers with daily non-stop service to Chicago O'Hare International Airport, Denver International Airport, and George Bush Intercontinental Airport.", "General aviation support is provided through several private aviation companies.", "The Lincoln Airport was among the emergency landing sites for the NASA Space Shuttle.", "The site was chosen chiefly because of a runway; the longest of three at the airport.Lincoln is served by both Express Arrow and Burlington Trailways for regional bus service between Omaha, Denver and points beyond.", "Megabus, in partnership with Windstar Lines, provides bus service between Lincoln and Chicago with stops in Omaha, Des Moines, Iowa City and Moline.Amtrak provides service to Lincoln station, operating its California Zephyr daily in each direction between Chicago and Emeryville, California, using BNSF's Lincoln – Denver route through Nebraska.", "The city is an Amtrak crew-change point.====Rail freight====Rail freight travels coast-to-coast, to and through Lincoln via BNSF Railway, the Union Pacific Railroad, Lincoln's own Omaha, Lincoln and Beatrice Railway Company and an Omaha Public Power District rail line.", "Lincoln was once served by the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad (Rock Island), the Missouri Pacific Railroad (MoPac) and the Chicago and North Western Transportation Company (C&NW).", "The abandoned right-of-way of these former railroads have since been turned into bicycle trails.====Cycling modes====Lincoln has a third-generation dock-based bike share program that began in mid-April 2018, called BikeLNK.", "The first phase of the program included 19 docks and 100 bicycles, scattered throughout downtown and around the UNL City, UNL East & Nebraska Innovation campuses.", "A second phase in 2019 increased the number of docks to 21, total bicycles to 105 and expanded to a location outside of downtown.", "Lincoln also has a fleet of commercial pedicabs that operates in the downtown area.====Modal characteristics====In 2016, 80.5 percent of working Lincoln residents commuted by driving alone, 9.6 percent carpooled, 1.1 percent used public transportation, and 3.1 percent walked.", "About 2.4 percent used all other forms of transportation, including taxis, bicycles, and motorcycles as well as ride-sharing services such as Lyft and Uber which entered the Lincoln market in the summer of 2014.About 3.3 percent worked at home.In 2015, 6.3 percent of city of Lincoln households were without a car, which decreased slightly to 5.8 percent in 2016.The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016.Lincoln averaged 1.78 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8 per household.===Utilities===Power in Lincoln is provided by the Lincoln Electric System (LES).", "The LES service area covers , serving Lincoln and several other communities outside of the city.", "A public utility, LES's electric rates are the 8th lowest in the nation, according to a nationwide survey conducted by LES in 2018.Current LES power supply resources are 35% oil and gas, 34% renewable and 31% coal.", "Renewable resources have increased with partial help from the addition of an LES-owned five Megawatt solar energy farm put into service June, 2016.The solar farm produces enough energy to power 900 homes.", "LES also owns two wind turbines in the northeast part of the city.Water in Lincoln is provided through the Lincoln Water System.", "In the 1920s, the city of Lincoln undertook the task of building the Lincoln Municipal Lighting and Waterworks Plant (designed by Fiske & Meginnis).", "The building worked as the main hub for water from nearby wells and power in Lincoln for decades until it was replaced and turned into an apartment building.", "Most of Lincoln's water originates from wells along the Platte River near Ashland, Nebraska.", "Wastewater is in turn collected by the Lincoln Wastewater System.", "The city of Lincoln owns both systems.Natural gas is provided by Black Hills Energy.Landline telephone service has had a storied history within the regional Lincoln area with the Lincoln Telephone & Telegraph Company, founded in 1880.In its history, LT&T introduced the first rotary dial telephone exchange in the U.S. in 1904; the first Radiotelephone in 1946; and piloted the first 911 system in the nation in 1968.Many years later, LT&T was renamed Aliant Communications and shortly thereafter merged in 1998 with Alltel.", "In 2006, Windstream Communications was formed with the spinoff of Alltel and a merge with VALOR Communications Group.", "Windstream Communications provides telephone service both over VoIP and conventional telephone circuits to the Lincoln area.", "Spectrum offers telephone service over VoIP on their cable network.", "In addition, ALLO Communications provides telephone, television and internet service over their underground fiber network to all parts of the city.===Health care===Lincoln has three major hospitals within two health care systems serving the city: Bryan Health and CHI Health St. Elizabeth.", "Madonna Rehabilitation Hospital is a geriatric facility and a physical medicine & rehabilitation center.", "Lincoln has two specialty hospitals: Lincoln Surgical Hospital and the Nebraska Heart Institute.", "A U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs Community-Based Outpatient Clinic (CBOC) is in Lincoln (Lincoln VA Clinic, part of the Nebraska-Western Iowa Health Care System)." ], [ "In popular culture", "Lincoln, Nebraska, is purportedly the setting of the animated television series ''Transformers: Armada''.", "However, this depiction of the city is vastly different than reality, featuring mountains, deserts, and palm trees.In April 2011, a contest held by DC Comics selected Omaha, Nebraska, as the site of a new issue.", "However, the Nebraska State Capitol was depicted in the issue, with the writers having confused Lincoln for Omaha." ], [ "See also", " Charles Starkweather* List of people from Lincoln, Nebraska* List of mayors of Lincoln, Nebraska* History of Lincoln, Nebraska" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Cited works===* * " ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", " Official website* ExploreLincoln* Lincoln Convention and Visitors Bureau* Lincoln Partnership for Economic Development* Public Art Lincoln" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Letterboxing (hobby)" ], [ "Introduction", "A letterbox by Alec Finlay, with a rubber stamp poem: \"There is a fork in every path\".", "'''Letterboxing''' is an outdoor hobby that combines elements of orienteering, art, and puzzle solving.", "Letterboxers hide small, weatherproof boxes in publicly accessible places (like parks) and distribute clues to finding the box in printed catalogs, on one of several web sites, or by word of mouth.", "Individual letterboxes contain a notebook and a rubber stamp, preferably hand carved or custom made.", "Finders make an imprint of the letterbox's stamp in their personal notebook, and leave an impression of their personal signature stamp on the letterbox's \"visitors' book\" or \"logbook\" — as proof of having found the box and letting other letterboxers know who has visited.", "Many letterboxers keep careful track of their \"find count\"." ], [ "History", "The origin of letterboxing can be traced to Dartmoor, Devon, England in 1854.William Crossing in his ''Guide to Dartmoor'' states that a well known Dartmoor guide (James Perrott) placed a bottle for visiting cards at Cranmere Pool on the northern moor in 1854.From this hikers on the moors began to leave a letter or postcard inside a box along the trail (sometimes addressed to themselves, sometimes a friend or relative)—hence the name \"letterboxing\".", "The next person to discover the site would collect the postcards and post them.", "In 1938 a plaque and letterbox in Crossing's memory were placed at Duck's Pool on southern Dartmoor.The first Dartmoor letterboxes were so remote and well-hidden that only the most determined walkers would find them, allowing weeks to pass before the letter made its way home.", "Until the 1970s there were no more than a dozen such sites around the moor, usually in the most inaccessible locations.", "Increasingly, however, letterboxes have been located in relatively accessible sites and today there are thousands of letterboxes, many within easy walking distance of the road.", "As a result, the tradition of leaving a letter or postcard in the box has been forgotten.Membership of the \"100 Club\" is open to anyone who has found at least 100 letterboxes on Dartmoor.", "Clues to the locations of letterboxes are published by the \"100 Club\" in an annual catalogue.", "Some letterboxes however remain \"word of mouth\" and the clues to their location can only be obtained from the person who placed the box.", "Some clues may also be found in other letterboxes or on the Internet, but this is more commonly for letterboxes in places other than Dartmoor, where no \"100 Club\" or catalogue exist.Letterboxing has become a popular sport, with thousands of walkers gathering for 'box-hunts' and while in some areas of Dartmoor it is particularly popular amongst children, some of the more difficult to find boxes and tougher terrain are better suited to more experienced adults.Letterboxes can be found in other areas of the United Kingdom including the North York Moors and have spread all over the world.", "The Scottish artist Alec Finlay has placed letterboxes with rubber stamp circle poems at locations around the world, including Yorkshire Sculpture Park.Interest in letterboxing in the U.S. is generally considered to have started with a feature article in the ''Smithsonian'' magazine in April 1998.Much of the terminology below is associated with letterboxing in the US and would be unfamiliar to UK letterboxers.", "The growing popularity of the somewhat similar activity of geocaching during the 2000s has increased interest in letterboxing as well.Clues to American letterboxes are commonly published on several different websites." ], [ "Gatherings", "Letterboxers organize events, usually called ''meets'' or ''gatherings''.", "The first letterbox meet was held on Dartmoor, and they are now held twice yearly on \"clock change days\" (in March and October).", "Gatherings in the US are usually at parks or places with enough space for a large group of letterboxers to meet up and do exchanges (exchanging of personal stamps and/or personal travelers), as well as talk and discuss box ideas.", "Gatherings in the US usually have a special, one-day \"Event stamp.\"", "At some gatherings, boxes are created or donated to be planted nearby specifically for the gathering attendees to find.The first gathering in North America was held in November, 1999, at The Inn at Long Trail in Killington, Vermont." ], [ "Types", "There are now many different kinds of letterboxes, each with some specific distinction.", "While purists recognize only those letterboxes planted in the wild, many new variations exist.", "The kinds include:; Traditional Box: A normal letterbox, hidden and uses clue to find it.", "; Mystery box: These are usually traditional boxes, but these \"mystery\" boxes have either vague starting areas, no starting areas, no descriptions, no clue – any number of things to make the box extremely hard to find.", ";Bonus Box:The clues for these are usually found in a traditional box as an extra one to find.", "Usually planted in the same area as the traditional that hosts its clue.", "Clues can be distributed in any way.", ";Word of Mouth Box (WOM) :The clue is given by word of mouth, or typed up, but a letterboxer can only receive the clue from the planter.", ";Cuckoo clue:A clue without a home.", "The clue is hidden in another letterbox (similar to clues for a bonus boxes), but the letterboxer that finds the clue is expected to move the clue to another nearby letterbox.", "The cuckoo clue typically contains directions to limit how far the clue should travel to find a new home.", "; Hitchhiker : A traveling letterbox, it is placed in a traditional letterbox for another letterboxer to find.", "When found, it is stamped just like a traditional letterbox, but is then carried by the letterboxer to the next letterbox they find and then left in that letterbox for the next finder.", "The hitchhiker's stamp should also be recorded in the host letterbox's logbook, and vice versa.", "; Personal Traveler: Much like a traditional box, but instead of being planted, the box is kept with the creator at all times.", "If another letterboxer is met on the trail or at a meet it is attainable if requested.", "In the US this box is usually only attainable if the other letterboxer knows the password or passphrase which is sometimes cryptic, straightforward, almost non-existent, or silly.In the US, letterboxes have developed new forms:; Cootie: Much like a hitchhiker, except instead of being carried from letterbox to letterbox, a letterboxer passes it to another letterboxer.", "It can be passed in a Personal Traveler, or planted on another letterboxer or their unattended bags on the trails or at gatherings.", "Most people are subtle about planting them—but not all.", ";Flea:Like a combination of a hitchhiker and a cootie.", "Either put in a traditional letterbox, like a hitchhiker, or put it on a person, like a cootie.", "; Hitchhiker Hostel: This is a traditional letterbox with special qualities.", "Namely, it is a \"hostel\" for hitchhikers, sized and specially designated to hold multiple hitchhikers at one time.", "Normally, there are at least one or two hitchhikers in the box at all times, and any letterboxer who takes a hitchhiker out is required to leave a new one in its place.", "A hitchhiker hostel has its own stamp and logbook, just like a traditional letterbox, and any hitchhiker that is placed within it should be stamped and recorded within the logbook, preferably with both the date of its being added to the hostel (in order to make it easier to move the older hitchhikers out), and the date it is removed.", "; American Parasite (these should not be confused with English Parasites): A parasite is very much like a hitchhiker except, instead of being carried by a letterboxer between letterboxes on its own, it is carried along with a hitchhiker.", "When a letterboxer joins a parasite to a hitchhiker (\"infecting\" it), it is stamped into the hitchhiker.", "The parasite's stamp is also recorded in the logbook of the letterbox that a hitchhiker is placed in, \"infecting\" the letterbox, as well.", "In the event of being placed in a letterbox that has multiple hitchhikers in it (such as a hitchhiker hostel), the parasite \"infects\" all of the hitchhikers inside.", "The letterboxer that has done the moving also has the choice of sending the parasite along with a different hitchhiker.", "(This is a relatively new variation of letterbox, and has only just recently begun to take off.", "); Virtual: Online letterboxes; actually a scavenger hunt of sorts for an image of a letterbox through different websites, collecting answers to questions posted as the clues to the box.", "Answers sometimes are unscrambled or simply emailed to the creator the final answer is put in a blank in a web address, which takes the finder to an image of the letterbox online.", "; Limited time Box: A letterbox that has only been planted for a short amount of time.", "(A few days or a week, any time length the planter wants.", "); Postal (PLB) : Boxes that are made just like traditional letterboxes, but instead of being planted in the wild, they are sent via postal mail to the people on sign up lists for the box, or around a \"ring\" of people in a postal ring, which is usually focused on a theme of some sort.", "Postals are also very often very well designed and organized, as well as ornate.", "Since the box is very unlikely to be stolen, go missing, or be damaged, creators of PLBs tend to get quite creative.", ";Other:Anything not described as any of the above listings.", "They could be bonus stamps inside boxes, a stamp you just have to ask for, etc.", "; Circle poem: A circle poem is a kind of 'art' letterbox developed in Britain.", "There are one hundred planned boxes, each of which contains a rubber stamp circle poem by the Scottish poet and artist, Alec Finlay.", "These are sited at locations around the world, and each has its own nominated keeper." ], [ "Find counts", "A letterboxer's ''find count'' or ''PFX count'' is organized as follows:The ''P'' (\"plants\") count is the number of boxes the letterboxer has made and placed.", "The ''F'' (\"finds\") count is the number of boxes the letterboxer has found in the wild.", "The ''X'' (\"exchanges\") count is the number of exchanges the letterboxer has.Some boxers list individual types of boxes in their PFX counts (e.g.", ": P12 F76 X45 E4 HH21 V4 would mean 12 plants, 76 finds, 45 exchanges, four events or event stamps, 21 hitchhikers, and four virtuals).", "Some include virtuals, hitchhikers, and other non-traditional boxes in a single find count, while some exclude them.", "Many letterboxers do not bother to keep count at all.The \"PFX count\" is not a term associated with Dartmoor Letterboxing." ], [ "Questing", "'''Questing''' is a game played across a community or geographic place.", "Originally coined in the USA, it is similar to the concept of letterboxing where clues lead to sealed boxes to be found in a type of treasure hunt.Questing originated with the placing of a treasure box at Cranmere Pool in Dartmoor, England, by James Perrott in 1854.Over time, the hobby spread, and there are now more than 5,000 treasures to be found in and around Dartmoor.Vital Communities, a non-profit organization in White River Junction, Vermont established the Valley Quest program as a sense-of-place education program in 1995.Valley quests map and share the Upper Valley region's special places.", "Created by school groups, scout groups, historical societies and others, there are now over 200 quests across Vermont and New Hampshire.", "Questing has spread to other communities, too.", "There is a South Shore Quests program in Hingham, Massachusetts along with programs in Keene, New Hampshire and on Martha's Vineyard." ], [ "See also", " BookCrossing* Encounter (game)* Geocaching* Orienteering* Puzzlehunt* Questing" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Anne Swinscow has written several popular guide books on Dartmoor Letterboxing: ''Dartmoor Letterboxes'' ; ''More Dartmoor Letterboxes'' ; ''101 Dartmoor Letterboxes: But Not How to Find Them!", "''(with John Howard) .", "* Janet Palmer has written a brief guide to Dartmoor Letterboxing: ''Let's Go Letterboxing: A Beginner's Guide'' (2nd revised edition) .", "* Alan Rowland has written a specialised guide to the letterboxes on Lundy published in 2006 ( the 20th Anniversary of) ''Lundy Letterboxes'' * ''The Letterboxer's Companion'' by Randy Hall was published in 2003 and focuses on letterboxing in North America; .", "* ''Cranmere Pool: The First Dartmoor Letterbox'' by Chips Barber published by Obelisk Publications, UK (1994); .", "* Alec Finlay has published two booklets on circle poem letterboxing: ''Isles, Arcs & Ways'' (Isle of Thanet, England, 2005), ; and ''Hill of Streams'' (Cairnhead, Scotland, 2008)." ], [ "External links", "* Dartmoor letterboxing resource, information and forum site* Atlas Quest: Letterboxing listing database, forums and information site* Letterboxing North America listing site* Valley Quest – Letterboxes for sharing natural and cultural heritage." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Legal technicality" ], [ "Introduction", "The term '''legal technicality''' is a casual or colloquial phrase referring to a technical aspect of law.", "The phrase is not a term of art in the law; it has no exact meaning, nor does it have a legal definition.", "In public perception, it typically refers to \"procedural rules that can dictate the outcome of a case without having anything to do with the merits of that case.\"", "However, as a vague term, the definition of a technicality varies from person to person, and it is often simply used to denote any portion of the law that interferes with the outcome desired by the user of the term.Some legal technicalities govern legal procedure, enable or restrict access to courts, and/or enable or limit the discretion of a court in handing down judgment.", "These are aspects of procedural law.", "Other legal technicalities deal with aspects of substantive law, that is, aspects of the law that articulate specific criteria that a court uses to assess a party's compliance with or violation of, for example, one or more criminal laws or civil laws.", "In some cases, people may regard legal protections such as the exclusionary rule as legal technicalities.In the introduction to ''A Dictionary of Human Rights'', David Robertson states (emphasis in original): In 1928, William W. Brewton wrote that the law is inevitably technical because a relatively small number of laws have to account for a much larger number of possible situations.", "Since the rules and principles of law are expected to apply to many different cases, they cannot always account for the exact circumstances, which can result in failures of justice in individual cases even when the greatest possible overall justice is being achieved.", "He said that people mistakenly criticize the technicalities, which are both \"necessary and inevitable\", when they should focus instead on preventing the original causes of litigation and crime.Brewton wrote that the rules of procedure are complex because there is no simplified approach that would be sufficient.", "Furthermore, allowing the rules to be broken (such as abrogating a constitutional right) to better fit a single case would mean that the same rules could be broken in other cases:" ], [ "See also", "* Legal abuse* Legal fiction* Letter and spirit of the law* Loophole" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lionhead Studios" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lionhead Studios Limited''' was a British video game developer founded in July 1997 by Peter Molyneux, Mark Webley, Tim Rance, and Steve Jackson.", "The company is best known for the ''Black & White'' and ''Fable'' series.", "Lionhead started as a breakaway from developer Bullfrog Productions, which was also founded by Molyneux.", "Lionhead's first game was ''Black & White'', a god game with elements of artificial life and strategy games.", "''Black & White'' was published by Electronic Arts in 2001.Lionhead Studios is named after Webley's hamster, which died not long after the naming of the studio, as a result of which the studio was very briefly renamed to Redeye Studios.", "''Black & White'' was followed up with the release of an expansion pack named ''Black & White: Creature Isle''.", "Lionhead released ''Fable'', from satellite developer Big Blue Box.", "In 2005, Lionhead released ''The Movies'' and ''Black & White 2''.", "Lionhead was acquired by Microsoft Studios in April 2006 due to encountering financial difficulties.", "Many Lionhead developers left around this time, including co-founder Jackson and several developers who left to found Media Molecule.", "Molyneux left Lionhead in early 2012 (shortly after the resignation of another group of developers who were dissatisfied with the company) to found 22cans because he wanted to be more creative.", "After Molyneux's departure, Microsoft had Lionhead switch to developing games as a service games.", "As a result, there were many changes within the studio.In early March 2016, Microsoft announced that it had proposed closing Lionhead Studios and that the planned game ''Fable Legends'' would be cancelled; Lionhead was closed down almost two months later, on 29 April.", "A few months after Lionhead's closure, two key people (Webley and Gary Carr, who was Lionhead's creative director) founded Two Point Studios." ], [ "History", "===Founding===Peter Molyneux (2007), co-founder of Lionhead StudiosPeter Molyneux founded Bullfrog Productions in 1987, which was later acquired by Electronic Arts (EA) in 1995.Around 1996, Molyneux had contemplated leaving Bullfrog, as he felt limited in his creative freedom under Electronic Arts.", "He along with Lionhead's eventual co-founders, Mark Webley, Tim Rance and Steve Jackson, started developing plans for a new studio.", "In 1997, due to a series of events and from issues arising between Molyneux and Electronic Arts, he ultimately left the company in July 1997, co-founding Lionhead shortly after that, along with Mark Webley, Tim Rance, and Steve Jackson (who co-founded Games Workshop and co-authored the ''Fighting Fantasy'' series).", "On his recruitment, Jackson said \"It was an offer I couldn't refuse\", as he wanted to get back to making games instead of writing about them (Jackson had interviewed Molyneux about Bullfrog and ''Dungeon Keeper'', but for much of it, they discussed German board games instead.", "This led to them meeting frequently for an event called \"Games Night\").", "Molyneux assured him that his lack of programming knowledge was an asset rather than a problem.", "Lionhead is the second Bullfrog break-off group, after Mucky Foot Productions (founded in February 1997).", "According to Glenn Corpes (who co-founded another: Lost Toys), Lionhead was Molyneux's \"take on what Bullfrog used was\".The idea of the company was to develop quality games without growing too large.", "On the differences between Lionhead and Bullfrog, Molyneux said: \"This time round we're a professionally run company.", "Gone are the days of shooting work experience people with guns\".", "He also said that Lionhead would develop only one game at a time.", "Early Lionhead employees included Demis Hassabis, Mark Healey (Lionhead's first artist), and Alex Evans.The name Lionhead came from Webley's pet hamster, who had died the week prior to the foundation.", "The hamster's death was taken as a bad sign, so other names, including Black Box, Red Rocket, Midnight, and Hurricane were considered but none had unanimous support.", "The name Red Eye was then suggested, and everyone liked it (the decision needed to be quick as Molyneux was to be interviewed by ''Edge'').", "However, for reasons including the name being in use by many other companies, the domains redeye.com and redeye.co.uk being taken and lionhead.co.uk had already been registered by Rance, the company already having Lionhead business cards, and the possibility of the name Red Eye having drinking connotations, the name was reverted to Lionhead.", "By the time the name was reverted, it was too late for ''Edge'' to amend their interview, so it was published with the company being referred to as Redeye Studios.", "In the interview, Molyneux stated that his ambition for the company was to \"make it a world-renowned software development house – known in Europe, Japan and America for top-quality games\".===Early years===Word about Lionhead began spreading quickly.", "Within the first month, companies including Sega, Nintendo, Eidos, GTI, and Lego had arranged meetings.", "One day, \"a major Japanese console manufacturer\" had come to present plans for a \"next generation console\", but by then, Lionhead's first game had already been committed.By the end of July, Lionhead had signed a one-game contract with Electronic Arts.", "The studio was initially run out of Molyneux's mansion in Elstead, before relocating to the University of Surrey Research Park in 1998.According to Jackson, it was \"a mere stone's throw from Bullfrog's old lily pad on the very same estate\".", "For the staff who had come from Bullfrog, it was \"a little like coming home\".", "Six companies were competing for a space, and Lionhead won due to Molyneux and Bullfrog's reputation.Lionhead had originally intended to make their first public appearance at the E3 trade show in May 1997.This was cancelled at the last minute because there was not yet any deal with Electronic Arts, and there was the possibility of not being able to discuss Lionhead.", "The debut was made in September at the European Computer Trade Show instead.", "According to Jackson, \"Everyone\" was interested in Lionhead: journalists from many major European magazines frequently turned up at Lionhead's suite.By August 1998, after the studio placed a job advertisement in ''Edge'' which received over 100 applications, Russell Shaw had been hired as Head of Music.", "Lionhead's first title was ''Black & White'', which was published by Electronic Arts under terms of Molyneux's severance package from departing Bullfrog.", "It was released in 2001 to widespread critical acclaim.", "It won BAFTA awards for Interactivity and Moving Images in 2001, and AIAS awards for Computer Innovation and Computer Game of the Year the following year.", "An expansion pack ''Black & White: Creature Isle'', was released the following year.", "In Lionhead's early years, Jackson wrote columns about the company and the development of ''Black & White'' for magazines such as ''PC Zone'' and ''Génération 4''.", "The articles were also published on Lionhead's website.According to Eurogamer, Lionhead \"was a continuation of the culture and development ethic of Bullfrog\", which included the playing of pranks.", "One such prank was one \"that would go down in Lionhead history\".", "It involved a visit from the Mayor of Guildford during the development of ''Black & White'': Healey had inserted a couple of wires into a woollen glove with the other ends put into a floppy drive.", "Molyneux was forced to explain to the Mayor how the game's on-screen hand was controlled by the glove (which Healey was wearing), when it was actually being controlled by a mouse with Healey's other hand, which were hidden.", "The Mayor fell for the trick.By June 2002, Lionhead had established satellite companies, including Big Blue Box Studios, Intrepid Computer Entertainment (also called Intrepid Developments), and Black & White Studios.", "Lionhead and its satellite studios had 107 employees and were developing six games: ''Fable'', ''The Movies'', a project called ''Creation'' (also called ''Dimitri''), ''Black & White NG'' (''Black & White Next Generation''), ''Black & White 2'', and ''BC'', despite Molyneux's earlier statement that Lionhead would only work on one at a time.", "The idea to form these satellite studios came from Jackson during the development of ''Black & White''.", "Big Blue Box Studios was founded in July 1998 by Ian Lovett and Simon and Dene Carter, because of a desire to leave Electronic Arts and \"the sadly ravaged corpse of Bullfrog it had left behind\".", "Intrepid Computer Entertainment was founded by Joe Rider and Matt Chilton, and Black & White Studios was headed by Jonty Barnes, who was a programmer on ''Dungeon Keeper'' and ''Black & White''.", "According to Molyneux, ''The Movies'' came about because Lionhead listened to some financial advisers after the release of ''Black & White'', who said that the company would die if it did not float on the stock market.", "The company then went for initial public offering, which Molyneux said was \"The most stupid thing that ever happened\" because it meant having to expand quickly and develop more games.", "In the early 2000s, Lionhead was \"growing very fast\".", "The company was nominated for the 2002 Golden Joystick Awards British Developer of the Year award.Before ''Fable'' shipped, Lionhead purchased Big Blue Box and Intrepid.", "The decision to merge Big Blue Box with Lionhead was made to accelerate the completion of the game.", "''Fable'' was released in 2004 for the Xbox, and won AIAS awards for Outstanding Achievement in Character or Story Development and Outstanding Achievement in Original Musical Composition in 2005.", "''Dimitri'' was cancelled.", "In 2003, Gary Carr joined Lionhead.", "Due to the stock market crash in the aftermath of 9/11, Lionhead sought investments from venture capitalists.", "Deals with various firms were signed in July 2004.This came at a time when the company needed money for the development of five games to be released by different publishers.===Acquisition by Microsoft===In 2005, Lionhead released two titles: ''Black & White 2'' and ''The Movies''.", "Around this time, Lionhead had roughly 220 employees.", "These titles did not achieve a massive impact in sales (Molyneux described ''The Movies'' as \"a disaster\" due to lack of playtesting.", "However, it won a BAFTA award for Simulation in 2006.", "), and Lionhead soon afterwards encountered financial difficulty.", "Due to this, on 6 April 2006, Lionhead Studios was acquired by Microsoft.", "Ubisoft was another contender for the acquisition of Lionhead, but Molyneux believed Microsoft to be \"perfect\", and said people wanted \"the safety and security of being part of something bigger\".", "Microsoft wanted the ''Fable'' series to be an Xbox exclusive, and knew that if Ubisoft had acquired Lionhead, it would have gone to the PlayStation 3 instead, a conclusion that Webley concurred with.", "Lionhead were concerned with securing the company's future and protecting jobs and spent \"months\" preparing for the acquisition.", "Some, such as Andy Robson (Head of Testing), were dissatisfied with the deal.", "He claimed Lionhead were trying to cheat him out of money he was owed.", "Molyneux believed that Microsoft were pleased with the deal, and said that they made their money back due to the release of the \"fantastically successful\" ''Fable II'' (it won a BAFTA award for Action and Adventure in 2009) for the Xbox 360 in 2008.In late 2005, Healey left Lionhead with Evans and a couple of other developers to found Media Molecule.", "Jackson also left in 2006 when Microsoft took over.The general consensus amongst Lionhead was that the buyout \"benefited Lionhead greatly\".", "Microsoft purchased a lease that enabled Lionhead to expand to multiple floors, a canteen, and an office revamp.", "According to ''Fable'' franchise director Ted Timmins, the improvements felt like Lionhead was \"a real developer\".", "The pranks were also reduced.", "During the development of ''Fable II'', Lionhead received death threats because the game featured a gay character and some of the leading characters were black.", "Microsoft, for the most part, left Lionhead alone during the development of ''Fable II'', but did ask them to change the icon of a condom (the game featured a dog who was able to dig them up) to a modern one, despite the game being set in an earlier era.", "Lionhead and Microsoft conflicted over the game's marketing: Microsoft believed that role-playing games were about dragons and wanted to market the game as such, despite Lionhead's insistence that the game was \"a Monty Python-esque comedy\".", "According to ''Fable'' art director John McCormack, the marketing was \"shit\" and that dragons were ''Dungeons & Dragons'' fare and had nothing to do with ''Fable''.", "Despite the row, most of the ''Fable II'' team thought highly of the relationship between Lionhead and Microsoft, and after the game's release, Lionhead won a BAFTA award for the best action adventure game.", "There was also a dispute over ''Fable III''s box art.", "The game was developed and released in 18 months, but fell short of the expectations set by the previous installment.", "Six months before its release, Lionhead attempted to integrate Kinect into the game, but failed.", "In June 2009, Molyneux became creative director of Microsoft Studios' European division, a position he held concurrently with the head of Lionhead.Another Kinect-based project, ''Milo & Kate'' was in development but was cancelled.", "Molyneux blamed the cancellation on Kinect's technology and Microsoft's attitude towards their target market.", "Its development team moved to ''Fable: The Journey'', another Kinect game that was released in 2012 and was \"disastrous\".===Molyneux's departure===By early 2012, Lionhead were suffering what had been described as \"Black Monday\".", "Several Lionhead veterans, dissatisfied with the way the company was heading, resigned on the same day.", "According to McCormack, Molyneux \"lost it\" and ordered them to leave the premises immediately.", "Molyneux apologised for this outburst, and soon afterwards, in March, he too left Lionhead and founded 22cans, along with Rance, who had ceased being Lionhead's chief technology officer sometime prior.", "He was also joined by Paul McLaughlin, who was Lionhead's head of art.", "Webley then temporarily took over as head of the studio, before being replaced by Scott Henson early the following year.", "Molyneux said he left Lionhead because he wanted to increase his creativity.", "He also said that after 12 years (the series began in 2000 by Big Blue Box Studios), everyone was \"tired\" of the ''Fable'' series.", "Craig Oman, producer of ''Fable Anniversary'', said that Molyneux's departure gave Lionhead an opportunity to reidentify itself.Molyneux's departure had a much greater impact than those of other veterans who had already left the company.", "Lionhead became more professional and organised according to some staff.", "One said that Molyneux had the power to keep Microsoft at bay, and his departure left the remaining staff vulnerable.", "Around this time, Microsoft insisted that Lionhead make a games as a service ''Fable'' game to reinvigorate interest in the series or face closure.", "Due to the switch to service based model, the idea of ''Fable IV'' was rejected, and experts in monetisation and competitive game design were hired to assist the transition.", "At some point, John Needham became head of Lionhead.", "Creative director Carr (who had played major roles in ''Milo & Kate'', ''The Movies'', and ''Fable: The Journey'') left in September 2015, and a new one, David Eckelberry, was brought in.", "Lionhead encountered difficulty in this project, ''Fable Legends'', because they had not done anything like it before.===Closure===On 7 March 2016, Microsoft announced the cancellation of ''Fable Legends'' and a proposed closure of Lionhead Studios.", "The closure came as a shock to some staff, who had suspected Microsoft were concerned but did not think Lionhead would be shut down: it was thought that the worst-case scenario would be that ''Fable Legends''s assets would be used for ''Fable IV''.", "Some staff put the closure down to \"a string of bad decisions and mismanagement\".", "The game was supposed to be released in summer 2015, after the release of Windows 10, and some said Lionhead had failed to meet their own targets.", "To comply with UK employment law, there was a consultation period and the ''Fable Legends'' servers were not shut down until mid-April so that customers could get refunds.", "There was a small \"live operations\" team that conducted this process, but for others, work was optional.", "An attempt to save the project was made, under the name of ''Project Phoenix''.", "This would have involved developing it with a new studio under licence from Microsoft, who supported the idea but it failed due to lack of time, and the fact that many Lionhead employees had found new jobs.", "On 29 April 2016, Lionhead closed down.", "One Lionhead developer, Charlton Edwards (the only one remaining who had worked on ''Black & White''), said there was a giveaway and he received some of the \"trophies\".", "Both current and former Lionhead developers gave the studio a send-off at a pub.", "On 26 July, Webley and Carr founded Two Point Studios, a studio that some former Lionhead developers later joined.In the 2021 documentary ''Power On: The Story of Xbox'', Microsoft admitted that their handling of Lionhead Studios was a mistake.", "Phil Spencer, the current head of Xbox at Microsoft, admitted that forcing Lionhead to work on Kinect and the impact of that on the quality of their games was at fault.", "Spencer said \"You acquire a studio for what they’re great at now, and your job is to help them accelerate how they do what they do, not them accelerate what you do.\"" ], [ "Games" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Why Lionhead Studios was Shut Down?" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Leading question" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''leading question''' is a question that suggests a particular answer and contains information the examiner is looking to have confirmed.", "The use of leading questions in court to elicit testimony is restricted in order to reduce the ability of the examiner to direct or influence the evidence presented.", "Depending on the circumstances, leading questions can be objectionable or proper.The propriety of leading questions generally depends on the relationship of the witness to the party conducting the examination.", "An examiner may generally ask leading questions of a hostile witness or on cross-examination (\"Will help to elicit the testimony of a witness who, due to age, incapacity, or limited intelligence, is having difficulty communicating their evidence\"), but not on direct examination (to \"coach\" the witness to provide a particular answer).According to ''Black's Law Dictionary'', a leading question is a \"question that suggests the answer to the person being interrogated; esp., a question that may be answered by a mere 'yes' or 'no'.\"" ], [ "Example", "Leading questions may often be answerable with a yes or no (though not all yes–no questions are leading).", "Leading questions are distinct from loaded questions, which are objectionable because they contain implicit assumptions (such as \"Have you stopped beating your wife?\"", "indirectly asserting that the subject both ''has'' a wife, and ''has'' beaten her at some point).Leading question:\"Mr. Smith's car was traveling 20 miles over the speed limit when he lost control of his vehicle and slammed into the victim's car, right?\"", "(Leads the witness to the conclusion that Mr. Smith was speeding, and as a result lost control of his vehicle, leading to the accident, which was clearly his fault.", ")Neutral question:\"How fast would you estimate Mr. Smith's car was traveling before the collision?\"", "Even neutral questions can lead witnesses to answers based on word choice, response framing, assumptions made, and form.", "The words \"fast\", \"collision\" and \"How\", for example, can alter speed estimates provided by respondents.When someone asks a leading question, they expect the other person to agree with the leading question.", "\"Our company has the best sandwiches, right?", "\"They expect the answer to agree that the sandwiches are the best." ], [ "United States", "While each state has its own rules of evidence, many states model their rules on the Federal Rules of Evidence, which themselves relate closely to the common-law mode of examination.", "Rule 611(c) of the Federal Rules of Evidence provides that:Leading questions are the primary mode of examination of witnesses who are hostile to the examining party, and are not objectionable in that context.", "Examination of hostile witnesses usually takes place on cross-examination.", "As the rule recognizes, the examination of a \"hostile witness, an adverse party, or a witness identified with an adverse party\" will sometimes take place on direct examination, and leading questions are permitted.In practice, judges will sometimes permit leading questions on direct examination of friendly witnesses with respect to preliminary matters that are necessary to provide background or context, and which are not in dispute; for example, a witness's employment or education.", "Leading questions may also be permitted on direct examination when a witness requires special handling, for example a child.", "However, the court must take care to be sure that the examining attorney is not ''coaching'' the witness through leading questions.", "Courts may also cite the various editions of McCormick’s and Wigmore’s treatises on evidence to answer whether a closed-ended question is inherently leading.Although Rule 611(c) of the Federal Rules of Evidence (and comparable rules of many states) do not prohibit leading questions on re-direct, some states have expressly limited the use of leading questions on re-direct.", "As a practical matter, it rests within the trial court's discretion as to what leading questions may be asked on re-direct.", "Generally speaking, leading questions will be more liberally permitted on re-direct in order to establish a foundation and call the attention of the witness to specific testimony elicited on cross examination.", "Additionally, on re-direct, an interrogator will often ask questions which specifically seek to elicit whether an inference resulting from questioning on cross examinations is accurate.", "Although these type of questions will likely result in a \"yes\" or \"no\" response, they are properly understood to be direct questions, not leading questions, and are permissible.Exceptions to general restrictions against leading questions may arise,* Where the witness is hostile to the examiner, or reluctant or unwilling to testify, in which situation the witness is unlikely to accept being \"coached\" by the questioner.", "* To bring out preliminary matters (name, occupation, and other pedigree information).", "* Where the memory of the witness has been exhausted and there is still information to be elicited." ], [ "See also", "* Fallacy of many questions* Loaded question* Push polling* Suggestive question, similar to leading question but manipulates the respondent to answer in a specific way." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Federal Rules of Evidence - Rule 611(c)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lithuania" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lithuania''' ( ; ), officially the '''Republic of Lithuania''' ( ), is a country in the Baltic region of Europe.", "It is one of three Baltic states and lies on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea.", "It borders Latvia to the north, Belarus to the east and south, Poland to the south, and Russia to the southwest, with a maritime border with Sweden to the west.", "Lithuania covers an area of , with a population of 2.86 million.", "Its capital and largest city is Vilnius; other major cities are Kaunas, Klaipėda, Šiauliai and Panevėžys.", "Lithuanians belong to the ethnolinguistic group of the Balts and speak Lithuanian, one of only a few living Baltic languages, and the most widely spoken.For millennia, the southeastern shores of the Baltic Sea were inhabited by various Baltic tribes.", "In the 1230s, Lithuanian lands were united for the first time by Mindaugas, who formed the Kingdom of Lithuania on 6 July 1253.Subsequent expansion and consolidation resulted in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which by the 14th century was the largest country in Europe.", "In 1386, the Grand Duchy entered into a ''de facto'' personal union with the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland.", "The two realms were united into the bi-confederal Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569, forming one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe.", "The Commonwealth lasted more than two centuries, until neighbouring countries gradually dismantled it between 1772 and 1795, with the Russian Empire annexing most of Lithuania's territory.", "Towards the end of World War I, Lithuania declared Independence in 1918, founding the modern Republic of Lithuania.", "In World War II, Lithuania was occupied by the Soviet Union, then by Nazi Germany, before being reoccupied by the Soviets in 1944.Lithuanian armed resistance to the Soviet occupation lasted until the early 1950s.", "On 11 March 1990, a year before the formal dissolution of the Soviet Union, Lithuania became the first Soviet republic to break away when it proclaimed the restoration of its independence.Lithuania is a developed country with a high income, advanced economy, ranking 35th in the Human Development Index.", "Lithuania is a member of the European Union, the Council of Europe, the eurozone, the Nordic Investment Bank, the Schengen Agreement, NATO, and OECD.", "It also participates in the Nordic-Baltic Eight (NB8) regional co-operation format." ], [ "Etymology", "Lithuania's name in writing (''Litua'', on line 7), 1009The first known record of the name of Lithuania () is in a 9 March 1009 story of Saint Bruno in the Quedlinburg Chronicle.", "The Chronicle recorded a Latinized form of the name Lietuva: ''Litua'' (pronounced ).", "Due to lack of reliable evidence, the true meaning of the name is unknown.", "Scholars still debate the meaning of the word and there are a few plausible versions.Since ''Lietuva'' has a suffix (-''uva''), there should be a corresponding original word with no suffix.", "A likely candidate is ''Lietā''.", "Because many Baltic ethnonyms originated from hydronyms, linguists have searched for its origin among local hydronyms.", "Usually, such names evolved through the following process: hydronym → toponym → ethnonym.", "Lietava, a small river not far from Kernavė, the core area of the early Lithuanian state and a possible first capital of the eventual Grand Duchy of Lithuania, is usually credited as the source of the name.", "However, the river is very small and some find it improbable that such a small and local object could have lent its name to an entire nation.", "On the other hand, such naming is not unprecedented in world history.Artūras Dubonis proposed another hypothesis, that Lietuva relates to the word ''leičiai'' (plural of ''leitis'').", "From the middle of the 13th century, ''leičiai'' were a distinct warrior social group of the Lithuanian society subordinate to the Lithuanian ruler or the state itself.", "The word ''leičiai'' is used in 14–16th century historical sources as an ethnonym for Lithuanians (but not Samogitians) and is still used, usually poetically or in historical contexts, in the Latvian language, which is closely related to Lithuanian." ], [ "History", "Baltic amber was once a valuable trade resource.", "It was transported from the region of modern-day Lithuania to the Roman Empire and Egypt through the Amber Road.The first people settled in the territory of Lithuania after the last glacial period in the 10th millennium BC: Kunda, Neman and Narva cultures.", "They were traveling hunters and did not form stable settlements.", "In the 8th millennium BC, the climate became much warmer, and forests developed.", "The inhabitants of what is now Lithuania then travelled less and engaged in local hunting, gathering and fresh-water fishing.", "Agriculture did not emerge until the 3rd millennium BC due to a harsh climate and terrain and a lack of suitable tools to cultivate the land.", "Crafts and trade also started to form at this time.", "Over a millennium, the Indo-Europeans, who arrived in the 3rd – 2nd millennium BC, mixed with the local population and formed various Baltic tribes.The Baltic tribes did not maintain close cultural or political contacts with the Roman Empire, but they did maintain trade contacts (see Amber Road).", "Tacitus, in his study ''Germania'', described the Aesti people, inhabitants of the south-eastern Baltic Sea shores who were probably Balts, around the year 97 AD.", "The Western Balts differentiated and became known to outside chroniclers first.", "Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD knew of the Galindians and Yotvingians, and early medieval chroniclers mentioned Old Prussians, Curonians and Semigallians.The Lithuanian language is considered to be very conservative for its close connection to Indo-European roots.", "It is believed to have differentiated from the Latvian language, the most closely related existing language, around the 7th century.", "Traditional Lithuanian pagan customs and mythology, with many archaic elements, were long preserved.", "Rulers' bodies were cremated up until the conversion to Christianity: the descriptions of the cremation ceremonies of the grand dukes Algirdas and Kęstutis have survived.===Grand Duchy of Lithuania===Changes in the territory of Lithuania from the 13th to 15th century.", "At its peak, Lithuania was the largest state in Europe.", "Lithuania's strength was its toleration of various cultures and religions.From the 9th to the 11th centuries, coastal Balts were subjected to raids by the Vikings, and the kings of Denmark collected tribute at times.", "During the 10–11th centuries, Lithuanian territories were among the lands paying tribute to Kievan Rus', and Yaroslav the Wise was among the Ruthenian rulers who invaded Lithuania (from 1040).", "From the mid-12th century, it was the Lithuanians who were invading Ruthenian territories.", "In 1183, Polotsk and Pskov were ravaged, and even the distant and powerful Novgorod Republic was repeatedly threatened by the excursions from the emerging Lithuanian war machine toward the end of the 12th century.From the late 12th century, an organized Lithuanian military force existed; it was used for external raids, plundering and the gathering of slaves.", "Such military and pecuniary activities fostered social differentiation and triggered a struggle for power in Lithuania.", "This initiated the formation of early statehood, from which the Grand Duchy of Lithuania developed.", "The disparate Lithuanian tribes along the Nemunas were united into the Lithuanian state by 1219, at the latest.", "The only Lithuanian Roman Catholic king, Mindaugas, was baptised as a Roman Catholic in 1251 and crowned as King of Lithuania on 6 July 1253.After his assassination in 1263, pagan Lithuania was a target of the Christian crusades of the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian Order.", "The siege of Pilėnai is noted for the Lithuanians' defense against the intruders.", "Despite the devastating century-long struggle with the Orders, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania expanded rapidly, overtaking former Ruthenian principalities of Kievan Rus'.On 22 September 1236, the Battle of Saulė between Samogitians and the Livonian Brothers of the Sword took place close to Šiauliai.", "The Livonian Brothers were defeated during it and their further conquest of the Balts lands were stopped.", "The battle inspired rebellions among the Curonians, Semigallians, Selonians, Oeselians, tribes previously conquered by the Sword-Brothers.", "Some thirty years' worth of conquests on the left bank of Daugava were lost.", "In 2000, the Lithuanian and Latvian parliaments declared 22 September to be the Day of Baltic Unity.Trakai Island Castle, the former residence of the Grand Dukes and capital city of the medieval stateAccording to the legend, Grand Duke Gediminas was once hunting near the Vilnia River; tired after the successful hunt, he settled in for the night and dreamed of a huge Iron Wolf standing on top a hill and howling as strong and loud as a hundred wolves.", "''Krivis'' (pagan priest) Lizdeika interpreted the dream that the Iron Wolf represents Vilnius Castles.", "Gediminas, obeying the will of the gods, built the city and gave it the name Vilnius – from the stream of the Vilnia River.In 1362 or 1363, Grand Duke Algirdas achieved a decisive victory in the Battle of Blue Waters against the Golden Horde and stopped its further expansion in the present-day Ukraine.", "The victory brought the city of Kyiv and a large part of present-day Ukraine, including sparsely populated Podolia and Dykra, under the control of the expanding Grand Duchy of Lithuania.", "After taking Kyiv, Lithuania became a direct neighbor and rival of the Grand Duchy of Moscow.By the end of the 14th century, Lithuania was one of the largest countries in Europe and included present-day Belarus, Ukraine, and parts of Poland and Russia.", "The geopolitical situation between the west and the east determined the multicultural and multi-confessional character of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.", "The ruling elite practised religious tolerance and the Chancery Slavonic language was used as an auxiliary language to Latin for official documents.In 1385, the Grand Duke Jogaila accepted Poland's offer to become its king.", "Jogaila embarked on gradual Christianization of Lithuania and established a personal union between Poland and Lithuania.", "Lithuania was one of the last pagan areas of Europe to adopt Christianity.", "While territories to the north had been Christianized in 1186 by Western merchants and missionaries who formed the Order of the Brothers and the Sword to spread Christianity through military organization, the Lithuanians had defeated the Order's militant efforts in 1236.Battle of Grunwald and Vytautas the Great in the centreAfter two civil wars, Vytautas the Great became the Grand Duke of Lithuania in 1392.During his reign, Lithuania reached the peak of its territorial expansion, centralization of the state began, and the Lithuanian nobility became increasingly prominent in state politics.", "In the great Battle of the Vorskla River in 1399, the combined forces of Tokhtamysh and Vytautas were defeated by the Mongols.", "Thanks to close cooperation, the armies of Lithuania and Poland achieved a victory over the Teutonic Knights in 1410 at the Battle of Grunwald, one of the largest battles of medieval Europe.Since the 14th–15th centuries patrilineal members of the Lithuanian ruling Gediminids dynasty ruled not only Lithuania, but also Poland, Hungary, Croatia, Bohemia, and Moldavia (George Koriatovich).", "During the inaugurations of Lithuanian monarchs until 1569, Gediminas' Cap was placed on the monarch's head by the Bishop of Vilnius in Vilnius Cathedral.In January 1429, at the Congress of Lutsk Vytautas received the title of King of Lithuania with the backing of Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor, but the envoys who were transporting the crown were stopped by Polish magnates in autumn of 1430.Another crown was sent, but Vytautas died in the Trakai Island Castle several days before it reached Lithuania.", "He was buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius.After the deaths of Jogaila and Vytautas, the Lithuanian nobility attempted to break the union between Poland and Lithuania, independently selecting Grand Dukes from the Jagiellon dynasty.", "But, at the end of the 15th century, Lithuania was forced to seek a closer alliance with Poland when the growing power of the Grand Duchy of Moscow threatened Lithuania's Russian principalities and sparked the Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars and the Livonian War.Polish-Lithuanian forces over the Muscovites at the Battle of Orsha in 1514On 8 September 1514, the Battle of Orsha between Lithuanians, commanded by the Grand Hetman Konstanty Ostrogski, and Muscovites was fought.", "According to ''Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii'' by Sigismund von Herberstein, the primary source for information on the battle, the much smaller army of Poland–Lithuania (under 30,000 men) defeated a force of 80,000 Muscovite soldiers, capturing their camp and commander.", "The battle destroyed a military alliance against Lithuania and Poland.", "Thousands of Muscovites were captured as prisoners and used as labourers in the Lithuanian manors, while Konstanty Ostrogski delivered the captured Muscovite flags to the Cathedral of Vilnius.The Livonian War was ceased for ten years with a Truce of Yam-Zapolsky signed on 15 January 1582 according to which the already Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth recovered Livonia, Polotsk and Velizh, but transferred Velikiye Luki to the Tsardom of Russia.", "The truce was extended for twenty years in 1600, when a diplomatic mission to Moscow led by Lew Sapieha concluded negotiations with Tsar Boris Godunov.", "The truce was broken when the Poles invaded Muscovy in 1605.===Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth===Palace of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania in Vilnius, marked 6, in 1600The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was created in 1569 by the Union of Lublin.", "As a member of the Commonwealth, Lithuania retained its institutions, including a separate army, currency, and statutory laws – the Statute of Lithuania.", "Eventually Polonization affected all aspects of Lithuanian life: politics, language, culture, and national identity.", "From the mid-16th to the mid-17th centuries, culture, arts, and education flourished, fueled by the Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation.", "From 1573, the Kings of Poland and Grand Dukes of Lithuania were elected by the nobility, who were granted ever-increasing Golden Liberties.", "These liberties, especially the ''liberum veto'', led to anarchy and the eventual dissolution of the state.The Commonwealth reached its Golden Age in the early 17th century.", "Its powerful parliament was dominated by nobles who were reluctant to get involved in the Thirty Years' War; this neutrality spared the country from the ravages of a political-religious conflict that devastated most of contemporary Europe.", "The Commonwealth held its own against Sweden, the Tsardom of Russia, and vassals of the Ottoman Empire, and even launched successful expansionist offensives against its neighbours.", "In several invasions during the Time of Troubles, Commonwealth troops entered Russia and managed to take Moscow and hold it from 27 September 1610 to 4 November 1612, when they were driven out after a siege.Emilia Plater, often nicknamed as a Lithuanian Joan of Arc, leading peasant scythemen during the 1831 uprisingIn 1655, after the extinguishing battle, for the first time in history the Lithuanian capital Vilnius was taken by a foreign army.", "The Russian army looted the city, splendid churches, and manors.", "Between 8,000 and 10,000 citizens were killed; the city burned for 17 days.", "Those who returned after the catastrophe could not recognise the city.", "The Russian occupation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania lasted up to 1661.Many artefacts and cultural heritage were either lost or looted, significant parts of the state archive – Lithuanian Metrica, collected since the 13th century, were lost and the rest was moved out of the country.", "During the Northern Wars (1655–1661), the Lithuanian territory and economy were devastated by the Swedish army.", "Almost all territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was occupied by Swedish and Russian armies.", "This period is known as ''Tvanas'' (The Deluge).Before it could fully recover, Lithuania was ravaged during the Great Northern War (1700–1721).", "The war, a plague, and a famine caused the deaths of approximately 40% of the country's population.", "Foreign powers, especially Russia, became dominant in the domestic politics of the Commonwealth.", "Numerous fractions among the nobility used the Golden Liberties to prevent any reforms.The Constitution of 3 May 1791 was adopted by the Great Sejm (parliament) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth trying to save the state.", "The legislation was designed to redress the Commonwealth's political defects due to the system of Golden Liberties, also known as the \"Nobles' Democracy,\" which had conferred disproportionate rights on the nobility (Szlachta) and over time had corrupted politics.", "The constitution sought to supplant the prevailing anarchy fostered by some of the country's magnates with a more democratic constitutional monarchy.", "It introduced elements of political equality between townspeople and nobility, and placed the peasants under the protection of the government, thus mitigating the worst abuses of serfdom.", "It banned parliamentary institutions such as the ''liberum veto'', which had put the Sejm at the mercy of any deputy who could revoke all the legislation that had been passed by that Sejm.", "It was drafted in relation to a copy of the United States Constitution.", "It is regarded as the world's second-oldest codified national governmental constitution after the 1787 U.S. Constitution.===Russian Empire===Bishop Motiejus Valančius resisted Russification.", "He urged protest against the closing of Catholic churches and organised book printing in Lithuanian in Lithuania Minor.Eventually, the Commonwealth was partitioned in 1772, 1793, and 1795 by the Russian Empire, Prussia, and the Habsburg monarchy.The largest area of Lithuanian territory became part of the Russian Empire.", "After the unsuccessful uprisings in 1831 and 1863, the Tsarist authorities implemented a number of Russification policies.", "In 1840 the Third Statute of Lithuania was abolished.", "They banned the Lithuanian press, closed cultural and educational institutions and made Lithuania part of a new administrative region called Northwestern Krai.", "The Russification failed, owing to an extensive network of Lithuanian book smugglers and secret Lithuanian homeschooling.After the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), when German diplomats assigned what were seen as Russian spoils of war to Turkey, the relationship between Russia and the German Empire became complicated.", "The Russian Empire resumed the construction of fortresses at its western borders for defence against a potential invasion from Germany in the West.", "Large numbers of Lithuanians went to the United States in 1867–1868 after a famine.", "On 7 July 1879 the Russian Emperor Alexander II approved a proposal from the Russian military leadership to build the largest \"first-class\" defensive structure in the entire state – the Kaunas Fortress.Simonas Daukantas promoted a return to Lithuania's pre-Commonwealth traditions, which he depicted as a Golden Age of Lithuania and a renewal of the native culture, based on the Lithuanian language and customs.", "With those ideas in mind, he wrote already in 1822 a history of Lithuania in Lithuanian – ''Darbai senųjų lietuvių ir žemaičių'' (''The Deeds of Ancient Lithuanians and Samogitians''), though it was not published at that time.", "A colleague of S. Daukantas, Teodor Narbutt wrote in Polish a voluminous ''Ancient History of the Lithuanian Nation'' (1835–1841), where he likewise expounded and expanded further on the concept of historic Lithuania, whose days of glory had ended with the Union of Lublin in 1569.Narbutt, invoking German scholarship, pointed out the relationship between the Lithuanian and Sanskrit languages.", "A Lithuanian National Revival, inspired by the ancient Lithuanian history, language and culture, laid the foundations of the modern Lithuanian nation and independent Lithuania.===20th and 21st centuries=======1918–1939====The original 20 members of the Council of Lithuania after signing the Act of Independence of Lithuania, 16 February 1918As a result of the Great Retreat during World War I, Germany occupied the entire territory of Lithuania and Courland by the end of 1915.A new administrative entity, Ober Ost, was established.", "Lithuanians lost all political rights they had gained: personal freedom was restricted, and at the beginning, the Lithuanian press was banned.", "However, the Lithuanian intelligentsia tried to take advantage of the existing geopolitical situation and began to look for opportunities to restore Lithuania's independence.", "On 18–22 September 1917, the Vilnius Conference elected the 20-member Council of Lithuania.", "The council adopted the Act of Independence of Lithuania on 16 February 1918 which proclaimed the restoration of the independent state of Lithuania governed by democratic principles, with Vilnius as its capital.", "The state of Lithuania which had been built within the framework of the Act lasted from 1918 until 1940.Lithuanian armoured train ''Gediminas 3'', used in Lithuanian Wars of Independence and Lithuanian soldiersFollowing the capitulation of Germany in November 1918, the first Provisional Constitution of Lithuania was adopted and the first government of Prime Minister Augustinas Voldemaras was organized.", "At the same time, the army and other state institutions began to be organized.", "Lithuania fought three wars of independence: against the Bolsheviks who proclaimed the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic, against the Bermontians, and against Poland.", "As a result of the staged Żeligowski's Mutiny in October 1920, Poland took control of Vilnius Region and annexed it as Wilno Voivodeship in 1922.Lithuania continued to claim Vilnius as its ''de jure'' capital (the ''de facto'', provisional capital being Kaunas) and relations with Poland remained particularly tense and hostile for the entire interwar period.", "In January 1923, Lithuania staged the Klaipėda Revolt and captured Klaipėda Region (Memel territory) which was detached from East Prussia by the Treaty of Versailles.", "The region became an autonomous region of Lithuania.Antanas Smetona was the first and last president of ''interbellum'' Lithuania (1919–1920, 1926–1940).On 15 May 1920, the first meeting of the democratically elected constituent assembly took place.", "The documents it adopted, i. e. the temporary (1920) and permanent (1922) constitutions of Lithuania, strove to regulate the life of the new state.", "Land, finance, and educational reforms started to be implemented.", "The currency of Lithuania, the Lithuanian litas, was introduced.", "The University of Lithuania was opened.", "All major public institutions had been established.", "As Lithuania began to gain stability, foreign countries started to recognize it.", "In 1921 Lithuania was admitted to the League of Nations.On 17 December 1926, a military coup d'état took place, resulting in the replacement of the democratically elected government with a conservative authoritarian government led by Antanas Smetona.", "Augustinas Voldemaras was appointed to form a government.", "The so-called authoritarian phase had begun strengthening the influence of one party, the Lithuanian Nationalist Union, in the country.", "In 1927, the Seimas was dissolved.", "A new constitution was adopted in 1928, which consolidated presidential powers.", "Gradually, opposition parties were banned, censorship was tightened, and the rights of national minorities were narrowed.", "The only democratically elected body that continued to exist at the time was a Parliament of the Klaipėda Region.", "''Lituanica'' above New York in 1933.The transatlantic flight was one of the most precise in aviation history.", "It equaled, and in some aspects surpassed, Charles Lindbergh's classic flight.On 15 July 1933, Steponas Darius and Stasys Girėnas, Lithuanian pilots, emigrants to the United States, made a significant flight in the history of world aviation.", "They flew across the Atlantic Ocean, covering a distance of without landing, in 37 hours and 11 minutes ().", "In terms of comparison, as far as the distance of non-stop flights was concerned, their result ranked second only to that of Russell Boardman and John Polando.The provisional capital Kaunas, which was nicknamed ''Little Paris'', and the country itself had a Western standard of living with sufficiently high salaries and low prices.", "At the time, qualified workers there were earning very similar real wages as workers in Germany, Italy, Switzerland and France, the country also had a surprisingly high natural increase in population of 9.7 and the industrial production of Lithuania increased by 160% from 1913 to 1940.The situation was aggravated by the global economic crisis.", "The purchase price of agricultural products had declined significantly.", "In 1935, farmers began strikes in Suvalkija and Dzūkija.", "In addition to economic ones, political demands were made.", "The government cruelly suppressed the unrest.", "In the spring of 1936, four peasants were sentenced to death for starting the riots.====1939–1944====On 20 March 1939, after years of rising tensions, Lithuania was handed an ultimatum by Nazi Germany demanding it relinquish the Klaipėda Region.", "Two days later, the Lithuanian government accepted the ultimatum.", "When Nazi Germany and Soviet Union concluded the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Lithuania was initially assigned to the German sphere of influence but was later transferred to the Soviet sphere.", "At the outbreak of World War II, Lithuania declared neutrality.Soldiers of the Red Army enter the territory of Lithuania during the first Soviet occupation in 1940.In October 1939, Lithuania was forced to sign the Soviet–Lithuanian Mutual Assistance Treaty: five Soviet military bases with 20,000 troops were established in Lithuania in exchange for Vilnius, which the Soviets had captured from Poland.", "Delayed by the Winter War with Finland, the Soviets issued an ultimatum to Lithuania on 14 June 1940.They demanded the replacement of the Lithuanian government and that the Red Army be allowed into the country.", "The government decided that, with Soviet bases already in Lithuania, armed resistance was impossible and accepted the ultimatum.", "President Smetona left the country, hoping to form a government in exile, while more than 200,000 Soviet Red Army soldiers crossed the Belarus–Lithuania border.", "The next day, identical ultimatums were presented to Latvia and Estonia.", "The Baltic states were occupied.", "The Soviets followed semi-constitutional procedures for transforming the independent countries into soviet republics and incorporating them into the Soviet Union.Vladimir Dekanozov was sent to supervise the formation of the puppet People's Government and the rigged election to the People's Seimas.", "The Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed on 21 July and accepted into the Soviet Union on 3 August.", "Lithuania was rapidly Sovietized: political parties and various organizations (except the Communist Party of Lithuania) were outlawed, some 12,000 people, including many prominent figures, were arrested and imprisoned in Gulag as \"enemies of the people\", larger private property was nationalized, the Lithuanian litas was replaced by the Soviet rouble, farm taxes were increased by 50–200%, the Lithuanian Army was transformed into the 29th Rifle Corps of the Red Army.", "On 14–18 June 1941, less than a week before the Nazi invasion, some 17,000 Lithuanians were deported to Siberia, where many perished due to inhumane living conditions (see the June deportation).", "The occupation was not recognized by Western powers and the Lithuanian Diplomatic Service, based on pre-war consulates and legations, continued to represent independent Lithuania until 1990.Lithuanian resistance fighters.", "The armed resistance was 50,000 strong at its peak.When Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, Lithuanians began the anti-Soviet June Uprising, organized by the Lithuanian Activist Front.", "Lithuanians proclaimed independence and organized the Provisional Government of Lithuania.", "This government quickly self-disbanded.", "Lithuania became part of the Reichskommissariat Ostland, German civil administration.Paneriai massacre, where the German Nazis and their collaborators executed up to 100,000 people of various nationalities.", "About 70,000 of them were Jews.By 1 December 1941, over 120,000 Lithuanian Jews, or 91–95% of Lithuania's pre-war Jewish community, had been killed.", "Nearly 100,000 Jews, Poles, Russians and Lithuanians were murdered at Paneriai.", "However, thousands of Lithuanian families risking their lives also protected Jews from the Holocaust.", "Israel has recognized 918 Lithuanians (as of 1 January 2021) as Righteous Among the Nations for risking their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust.Approximately 13,000 men served in the Lithuanian Auxiliary Police Battalions.", "10 of the 26 Lithuanian Auxiliary Police Battalions working with the Nazi Einsatzkommando, were involved in the mass killings.", "Rogue units organised by Algirdas Klimaitis and supervised by SS ''Brigadeführer'' Walter Stahlecker started the Kaunas pogrom in and around Kaunas on 25 June 1941.In 1941, the Lithuanian Security Police (''Lietuvos saugumo policija''), subordinate to Nazi Germany's Security Police and Nazi Germany's Criminal Police, was created.", "The ''Lietuvos saugumo policija'' targeted the communist underground.A new occupation had begun.", "Nationalized assets were not returned to the residents.", "Some of them were forced to fight for Nazi Germany or were taken to German territories as forced labourers.", "Jewish people were herded into ghettos and gradually killed by shooting or sending them out to concentration camps.====1944–1990====Monument in Naujoji Vilnia in memory of the Soviet deportations from LithuaniaAfter the retreat of the German armed forces, the Soviets reestablished their control of Lithuania in July–October 1944.The massive deportations to Siberia were resumed and lasted until the death of Stalin in 1953.Antanas Sniečkus, the leader of the Communist Party of Lithuania from 1940 to 1974, supervised the arrests and deportations.", "All Lithuanian national symbols were banned.", "Under the pretext of Lithuania's economic recovery, the Moscow authorities encouraged the migration of workers and other specialists to Lithuania with the intention to further integrate Lithuania into the Soviet Union and to develop the country's industry.", "At the same time, Lithuanians were lured to work in the USSR by promising them all the privileges of settling in a new place.The second Soviet occupation was accompanied by the guerrilla warfare of the Lithuanian population, which took place in 1944–1953.It sought to restore an independent state of Lithuania, to consolidate democracy by destroying communism in the country, returning national values and the freedom of religion.", "About 50,000 Lithuanians took to the forests and fought Soviet occupants with a gun in their hands.", "In the later stages of the partisan war, Lithuanians formed the Union of Lithuanian Freedom Fighters and its leader Jonas Žemaitis (codename Vytautas) was posthumously recognized as the president of Lithuania.", "Despite the fact that the guerrilla warfare did not achieve its goal of liberating Lithuania and that it resulted in more than 20,000 deaths, the armed resistance ''de facto'' demonstrated that Lithuania did not voluntarily join the USSR and it also legitimized the will of the people of Lithuania to be independent.", "Lithuanian courts and the ECHR both treat the Soviets' annihilation of the Lithuanian partisans as a genocide.The Baltic Way was a mass anti-Soviet demonstration where approx.", "25% of the population of the Baltic states participated.Even with the suppression of partisan resistance, the Soviet government failed to stop the movement for the independence of Lithuania.", "The underground dissident groups were active publishing the underground press and Catholic literature.", "The most active participants of the movement included Vincentas Sladkevičius, Sigitas Tamkevičius and Nijolė Sadūnaitė.", "In 1972, after Romas Kalanta's public self-immolation, the unrest in Kaunas lasted for several days.An Anti-Soviet rally in Vingis Park of about 250,000 people.", "Sąjūdis was a movement which led to the restoration of an Independent State of Lithuania.The Helsinki Group, which was founded in Lithuania after the international conference in Helsinki (Finland), where the post-WWII borders were acknowledged, announced a declaration for Lithuania's independence on foreign radio station.", "The Helsinki Group informed the Western world about the situation in the Soviet Lithuania and violations of human rights.", "With the beginning of the increased openness and transparency in government institutions and activities (''glasnost'') in the Soviet Union, on 3 June 1988, the Sąjūdis was established in Lithuania with Romualdas Ozolas acting as the key figure of the movement.", "Very soon it began to seek the country's independence.", "Eventually, Vytautas Landsbergis became the movement's leader.", "The supporters of Sąjūdis joined movement's groups all over Lithuania.", "On 23 August 1988 a large rally took place at the Vingis Park in Vilnius.", "It was attended by approx.", "250,000 people.", "A year later, on 23 August 1989 commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and aiming to draw the attention of the whole world to the occupation of the Baltic states, a political demonstration, the Baltic Way, was organized.", "The event, led by Sąjūdis, was a human chain spanning across Vilnius, Riga and Tallinn, indicating the desire of the people of Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia to break away from the Soviet Union.====1990–present====On 11 March 1990, the Supreme Council announced the restoration of Lithuania's independence.", "Lithuania became the first Soviet-occupied state to announce the restitution of independence.", "On 20 April 1990, the Soviets imposed an economic blockade by ceasing to deliver supplies of raw materials (primarily oil) to Lithuania.", "Not only the domestic industry, but also the population started feeling the lack of fuel, essential goods, and even hot water.", "Although the blockade lasted for 74 days, Lithuania did not renounce the declaration of independence.Gradually, economic relations had been restored.", "However, tensions had peaked again in January 1991.At that time, attempts were made to carry out a coup using the Soviet Armed Forces, the Internal Army of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the USSR Committee for State Security (KGB).", "Because of the poor economic situation in Lithuania, the forces in Moscow thought the coup d'état would receive strong public support.13 January 1991, Soviet forces fired live rounds at unarmed independence supporters and crushed two of them with tanks, killing 13 in total.", "To this day, Russia refuses to extradite the perpetrators, who were convicted of war crimes.People from all over Lithuania flooded to Vilnius to defend the Supreme Council of the Republic of Lithuania and independence.", "The coup ended with a few casualties of peaceful civilians and caused huge material loss.", "Not a single person who defended Lithuanian Parliament or other state institutions used a weapon, but the Soviet Army did, killing 14 people and injured hundreds.", "A large part of the Lithuanian population participated in the January Events.", "Shortly after, on 11 February 1991, the Icelandic parliament voted to confirm that Iceland's 1922 recognition of Lithuanian independence was still in full effect, as it never formally recognized the Soviet Union's control over Lithuania, and that full diplomatic relations should be established as soon as possible.On 31 July 1991, Soviet paramilitaries killed seven Lithuanian border guards on the Belarusian border in what became known as the Medininkai Massacre.", "On 17 September 1991, Lithuania was admitted to the United Nations.On 25 October 1992, the citizens of Lithuania voted in a referendum to adopt the current constitution.", "On 14 February 1993, during the direct general elections, Algirdas Brazauskas became the first president after the restoration of independence of Lithuania.", "On 31 August 1993 the last units of the former Soviet Army left the territory of Lithuania.On 31 May 2001, Lithuania joined the World Trade Organization (WTO).", "Since 29 March 2004, Lithuania has been part of NATO.", "On 1 May 2004, it became a fully-fledged member of the European Union, and a member of the Schengen Agreement on 21 December 2007.On 1 January 2015, Lithuania joined the eurozone and adopted the European Union's single currency as the last of the Baltic states.", "On 4 July 2018, Lithuania officially joined OECD.Dalia Grybauskaitė was the first female President of Lithuania (2009–2019) and the first president to be re-elected for a second consecutive term.On 24 February 2022, Lithuania declared a state of emergency in response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.", "Together with the eight other NATO member states, the country also invoked NATO Article 4 to hold consultations on security.", "On 11–12 July 2023, the 2023 NATO summit was held in Vilnius." ], [ "Geography", "Physical map and geomorphological subdivision of LithuaniaLithuania is located in the Baltic region of Europe and covers an area of .", "It lies between latitudes 53° and 57° N, and mostly between longitudes 21° and 27° E (part of the Curonian Spit lies west of 21°).", "It has around of sandy coastline, only about of which face the open Baltic Sea, less than the other two Baltic states.", "The rest of the coast is sheltered by the Curonian sand peninsula.", "Lithuania's major warm-water port, Klaipėda, lies at the narrow mouth of the Curonian Lagoon (Lithuanian: ''Kuršių marios''), a shallow lagoon extending south to Kaliningrad.", "The country's main and largest river, the Nemunas River, and some of its tributaries carry international shipping.Lithuania lies at the edge of the North European Plain.", "Its landscape was smoothed by the glaciers of the last ice age, and is a combination of moderate lowlands and highlands.", "Its highest point is Aukštojas Hill at in the eastern part of the country.", "The terrain features numerous lakes (Lake Vištytis, for example) and wetlands, and a mixed forest zone covers over 33% of the country.", "Drūkšiai is the largest, Tauragnas is the deepest and Asveja is the longest lake in Lithuania.After a re-estimation of the boundaries of the continent of Europe in 1989, Jean-George Affholder, a scientist at the Institut Géographique National (French National Geographic Institute), determined that the geographic centre of Europe was in Lithuania, at , north of Lithuania's capital city of Vilnius.", "Affholder accomplished this by calculating the centre of gravity of the geometrical figure of Europe.===Climate===Lithuania has a temperate climate with both maritime and continental influences.", "It is defined as humid continental (Dfb) under the Köppen climate classification (but is close to oceanic in a narrow coastal zone).Average temperatures on the coast are in January and in July.", "In Vilnius the average temperatures are in January and in July.", "During the summer, is common during the day while is common at night; in the past, temperatures have reached as high as .", "Some winters can be very cold.", "occurs almost every winter.", "Winter extremes are in coastal areas and in the east of Lithuania.The average annual precipitation is on the coast, in the Samogitia highlands and in the eastern part of the country.", "Snow occurs every year, it can snow from October to April.", "In some years sleet can fall in September or May.", "The growing season lasts 202 days in the western part of the country and 169 days in the eastern part.", "Severe storms are rare in the eastern part of Lithuania but common in the coastal areas.The longest records of measured temperature in the Baltic area cover about 250 years.", "The data show warm periods during the latter half of the 18th century, and that the 19th century was a relatively cool period.", "An early 20th-century warming culminated in the 1930s, followed by a smaller cooling that lasted until the 1960s.", "A warming trend has persisted since then.Lithuania experienced a drought in 2002, causing forest and peat bog fires.===Environment===After the restoration of Lithuania's independence in 1990, the ''Aplinkos apsaugos įstatymas'' (Environmental Protection Act) was adopted already in 1992.The law provided the foundations for regulating social relations in the field of environmental protection, established the basic rights and obligations of legal and natural persons in preserving the biodiversity inherent in Lithuania, ecological systems and the landscape.", "Lithuania agreed to cut carbon emissions by at least 20% of 1990 levels by 2020 and by at least 40% by 2030, together with all European Union members.", "Also, by 2020 at least 20% (27% by 2030) of the country's total energy consumption should be from the renewable energy sources.", "In 2016, Lithuania introduced especially effective container deposit legislation, which resulted in collecting 92% of all packagings in 2017.Lithuania does not have high mountains and its landscape is dominated by blooming meadows, dense forests and fertile fields of cereals.", "However it stands out by the abundance of hillforts, which previously had castles where the ancient Lithuanians burned altars for pagan gods.", "Lithuania is a particularly watered region with more than 3,000 lakes, mostly in the northeast.", "The country is also drained by numerous rivers, most notably the longest Nemunas.", "Lithuania is home to two terrestrial ecoregions: Central European mixed forests and Sarmatic mixed forests.Forest has long been one of the most important natural resources in Lithuania.", "Forests occupy one third of the country's territory and timber-related industrial production accounts for almost 11% industrial production in the country.", "Lithuania has five national parks, 30 regional parks, 402 nature reserves, 668 state-protected natural heritage objects.In 2018 Lithuania was ranked fifth, second to Sweden (first 3 places were not granted) in the Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI).", "It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 1.62/10, ranking it 162nd globally out of 172 countries.===Biodiversity===The white stork is the national bird of Lithuania, which has the highest-density stork population in Europe.Lithuanian ecosystems include natural and semi-natural (forests, bogs, wetlands and meadows), and anthropogenic (agrarian and urban) ecosystems.", "Among natural ecosystems, forests are particularly important to Lithuania, covering 33% of the country's territory.", "Wetlands (raised bogs, fens, transitional mires, etc.)", "cover 7.9% of the country, with 70% of wetlands having been lost due to drainage and peat extraction between 1960 and 1980.Changes in wetland plant communities resulted in the replacement of moss and grass communities by trees and shrubs, and fens not directly affected by land reclamation have become drier as a result of a drop in the water table.", "There are 29,000 rivers with a total length of 64,000 km in Lithuania, the Nemunas River basin occupying 74% of the territory of the country.", "Due to the construction of dams, approximately 70% of spawning sites of potential catadromous fish species have disappeared.", "In some cases, river and lake ecosystems continue to be impacted by anthropogenic eutrophication.Agricultural land comprises 54% of Lithuania's territory (roughly 70% of that is arable land and 30% meadows and pastures), approximately 400,000 ha of agricultural land is not farmed, and acts as an ecological niche for weeds and invasive plant species.", "Habitat deterioration is occurring in regions with very productive and expensive lands as crop areas are expanded.", "Currently, 18.9% of all plant species, including 1.87% of all known fungi species and 31% of all known species of lichens, are listed in the Lithuanian Red Data Book.", "The list also contains 8% of all fish species.The wildlife populations have rebounded as the hunting became more restricted and urbanization allowed replanting forests (forests already tripled in size since their lows).", "Currently, Lithuania has approximately 250,000 larger wild animals or 5 per each square kilometre.", "The most prolific large wild animal in every part of Lithuania is the roe deer, with 120,000 of them.", "They are followed by boars (55,000).", "Other ungulates are the deer (~22,000), fallow-deer (~21,000) and the largest one: moose (~7,000).", "Among the Lithuanian predators, foxes are the most common (~27,000).", "Wolves are, however, more ingrained into the mythology as there are just 800 in Lithuania.", "Even rarer are the lynxes (~200).", "The large animals mentioned above exclude the rabbit, ~200,000 of which may live in the Lithuanian forests." ], [ "Government and politics", "Seimas — Parliament of Lithuania===Government===Since Lithuania declared the restoration of its independence on 11 March 1990, it has maintained strong democratic traditions.", "It held its first independent general elections on 25 October 1992, in which 56.75% of voters supported the new constitution.", "There were intense debates concerning the constitution, particularly the role of the president.", "A separate referendum was held on 23 May 1992 to gauge public opinion on the matter, and 41% of voters supported the restoration of the President of Lithuania.", "Through compromise, a semi-presidential system was agreed on.The Lithuanian head of state is the president, directly elected for a five-year term and serving a maximum of two terms.", "The president oversees foreign affairs and national security, and is the commander-in-chief of the military.", "The president also appoints the prime minister and, on the latter's nomination, the rest of the cabinet, as well as a number of other top civil servants and the judges for all courts except the Constitutional Court.", "The current Lithuanian head of state, Gitanas Nausėda was elected on 26 May 2019 by unanimously winning in all municipalities of Lithuania on the second election tour.The judges of the Constitutional Court (''Konstitucinis Teismas'') serve nine-year terms.", "The court is renewed by a third every three years.", "The judges are appointed by the Seimas, on the nomination of the President, Chairman of the Seimas, and the Chairman of the Supreme Court,.", "The unicameral Lithuanian parliament, the Seimas, has 141 members who are elected to four-year terms.", "71 of the members of its members are elected in single-member constituencies, and the others in a nationwide vote by proportional representation.", "A party must receive at least 5% of the national vote to be eligible for any of the 70 national seats in the Seimas.===Political parties and elections===Lithuania was one of the first countries in the world to grant women a right to vote in the elections.", "Lithuanian women were allowed to vote by the 1918 Constitution of Lithuania and used their newly granted right for the first time in 1919.By doing so, Lithuania allowed it earlier than such democratic countries as the United States (1920), France (1945), Greece (1952), Switzerland (1971).Lithuania exhibits a fragmented multi-party system, with a number of small parties in which coalition governments are common.", "Ordinary elections to the Seimas take place on the second Sunday of October every four years.", "To be eligible for election, candidates must be at least 25 years old on the election day, not under allegiance to a foreign state and permanently reside in Lithuania.", "Persons serving or due to serve a sentence imposed by the court 65 days before the election are not eligible.", "Also, judges, citizens performing military service, and servicemen of professional military service and officials of statutory institutions and establishments may not stand for election.", "Homeland Union – Lithuanian Christian Democrats won the 2020 Lithuanian parliamentary elections and gained 50 of 141 seats in the parliament.", "In October 2020, the prime ministerial candidate of Homeland Union-Lithuanian Christian Democrats (TS-LKD) Ingrida Šimonytė formed a centre-right coalition with two liberal parties.Commemoration of the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania in the historical Seimas hall where it was originally signed in 1990.The ceremony is attended by the Lithuanian President, Prime Minister, Chairman of the Seimas and other high-ranking officials.The President of Lithuania is the head of state of the country, elected to a five-year term in a majority vote.", "Elections take place on the last Sunday no more than two months before the end of current presidential term.", "To be eligible for election, candidates must be at least 40 years old on the election day and reside in Lithuania for at least three years, in addition to satisfying the eligibility criteria for a member of the parliament.", "Same President may serve for not more than two terms.", "Gitanas Nausėda has won the most recent election as an independent candidate in 2019.Each municipality in Lithuania is governed by a municipal council and a mayor, who is a member of the municipal council.", "The number of members, elected on a four-year term, in each municipal council depends on the size of the municipality and varies from 15 (in municipalities with fewer than 5,000 residents) to 51 (in municipalities with more than 500,000 residents).", "1,524 municipal council members were elected in 2015.Members of the council, with the exception of the mayor, are elected using proportional representation.", "Starting with 2015, the mayor is elected directly by the majority of residents of the municipality.", "Social Democratic Party of Lithuania won most of the positions in the 2015 elections (372 municipal councils seats and 16 mayors).As of 2019, the number of seats in the European Parliament allocated to Lithuania was 11.Ordinary elections take place on a Sunday on the same day as in other EU countries.", "The vote is open to all citizens of Lithuania, as well as citizens of other EU countries that permanently reside in Lithuania, who are at least 18 years old on the election day.", "To be eligible for election, candidates must be at least 21 years old on the election day, a citizen of Lithuania or a citizen of another EU country permanently residing in Lithuania.", "Candidates are not allowed to stand for election in more than one country.", "Persons serving or due to serve a sentence imposed by the court 65 days before the election are not eligible.", "Also, judges, citizens performing military service, and servicemen of professional military service and officials of statutory institutions and establishments may not stand for election.", "Six political parties and one committee representatives gained seats in the 2019 elections.===Law and law enforcement===Statutes of Lithuania were the central piece of Lithuanian law in 1529–1795.The first attempt to codify the Lithuanian laws was in 1468 when the Casimir's Code was compiled and adopted by Grand Duke Casimir IV Jagiellon.", "In the 16th century three editions of the Statutes of Lithuania were created with the First Statute being adopted in 1529, the Second Statute in 1566, and the Third Statute in 1588.On 3 May 1791, the Europe's first and the world's second Constitution was adopted by the Great Sejm.", "The Third Statute was partly in force in the territory of Lithuania even until 1840, despite the Third Partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795.In 1934–1935, Lithuania held the first mass trial of the Nazis in Europe, the convicted were sentenced to imprisonment in a heavy labor prison and capital punishments.After regaining of independence in 1990, the largely modified Soviet legal codes were in force for about a decade.", "The current Constitution of Lithuania was adopted on 25 October 1992.In 2001, the Civil Code of Lithuania was passed in Seimas.", "It was succeeded by the Criminal Code and Criminal Procedure Code in 2003.The approach to the criminal law is inquisitorial, as opposed to adversarial; it is generally characterised by an insistence on formality and rationalisation, as opposed to practicality and informality.", "Normative legal act enters into force on the next day after its publication in the ''Teisės aktų registras'', unless it has a later entry into force date.The European Union law is an integral part of the Lithuanian legal system since 1 May 2004.Lithuania, after breaking away from the Soviet Union, had a difficult crime situation, however, the Lithuanian law enforcement agencies fought crime over the years, making Lithuania a reasonably safe country.", "Crime in Lithuania has been declining rapidly.", "Law enforcement in Lithuania is primarily the responsibility of local ''Lietuvos policija'' (Lithuanian Police) commissariats.", "They are supplemented by the ''Lietuvos policijos antiteroristinių operacijų rinktinė Aras'' (Anti-Terrorist Operations Team of the Lithuanian Police ''Aras''), ''Lietuvos kriminalinės policijos biuras'' (Lithuanian Criminal Police Bureau), ''Lietuvos policijos kriminalistinių tyrimų centras'' (Lithuanian Police Forensic Research Center) and ''Lietuvos kelių policijos tarnyba'' (Lithuanian Road Police Service).Lithuanian police cruiser in Gediminas Avenue, VilniusIn 2017, there were 63,846 crimes registered in Lithuania.", "Of these, thefts comprised a large part with 19,630 cases (13.2% less than in 2016).", "While 2,835 crimes were serious and very serious (crimes that may lead to more than six years imprisonment), which is 14.5% less than in 2016.In total, 129 homicides or attempted homicide occurred (19.9% less than in 2016), while serious bodily harm was registered 178 times (17.6% less than in 2016).", "Another problematic crime contraband cases also decreased by 27.2% from 2016 numbers.", "Meanwhile, crimes in electronic data and information technology security fields noticeably increased by 26.6%.", "In the 2013 Special Eurobarometer, 29% of Lithuanians said that corruption affects their daily lives (EU average 26%).", "Moreover, 95% of Lithuanians regarded corruption as widespread in their country (EU average 76%), and 88% agreed that bribery and the use of connections is often the easiest way of obtaining certain public services (EU average 73%).", "Though, according to local branch of Transparency International, corruption levels have been decreasing over the past decade.Capital punishment in Lithuania was suspended in 1996 and eliminated in 1998.Lithuania has the highest number of prison inmates in the EU.", "According to scientist Gintautas Sakalauskas, this is not because of a high criminality rate in the country, but due to Lithuania's high repression level and the lack of trust of the convicted, who are frequently sentenced to imprisonment.===Administrative divisions===The current system of administrative division was established in 1994 and modified in 2000 to meet the requirements of the European Union.", "The country's 10 counties (Lithuanian: singular – ''apskritis'', plural – ''apskritys'') are subdivided into 60 municipalities (Lithuanian: singular – ''savivaldybė'', plural – ''savivaldybės''), and further divided into 500 elderships (Lithuanian: singular – ''seniūnija'', plural – ''seniūnijos'').Municipalities have been the most important unit of administration in Lithuania since the system of county governorship (''apskrities viršininkas'') was dissolved in 2010.Some municipalities are historically called \"district municipalities\" (often shortened to \"district\"), while others are called \"city municipalities\" (sometimes shortened to \"city\").", "Each has its own elected government.", "The election of municipality councils originally occurred every three years, but now takes place every four years.", "The council appoints elders to govern the elderships.", "Mayors have been directly elected since 2015; prior to that, they were appointed by the council.Elderships, numbering over 500, are the smallest administrative units and do not play a role in national politics.", "They provide necessary local public services—for example, registering births and deaths in rural areas.", "They are most active in the social sector, identifying needy individuals or families and organizing and distributing welfare and other forms of relief.", "Some citizens feel that elderships have no real power and receive too little attention, and that they could otherwise become a source of local initiative for addressing rural problems.County Area (km2)Population (2023)GDP (billion EUR)GDP per capita (EUR) Alytus County 5,425 135,367 1.8 13,600 Kaunas County 8,089 580,333 13.7 23,900 Klaipėda County 5,209 336,104 7.0 21,300 Marijampolė County 4,463 135,891 2.0 14,400 Panevėžys County 7,881 211,652 3.6 17,100 Šiauliai County 8,540 261,764 4.6 17,600 Tauragė County 4,411 90,652 1.2 13,200 Telšiai County 4,350 131,431 2.2 16,900 Utena County 7,201 125,462 1.7 13,800 Vilnius County 9,731 851,346 29.4 35,300 Lithuania 65,300 2,860,002 67.4 23,800===Foreign relations===Lithuania became a member of the United Nations on 18 September 1991, and is a signatory to a number of its organizations and other international agreements.", "It is also a member of the European Union, the Council of Europe, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, as well as NATO and its adjunct North Atlantic Coordinating Council.", "Lithuania gained membership in the World Trade Organization on 31 May 2001, and joined the OECD on 5 July 2018, while also seeking membership in other Western organizations.Lithuania has established diplomatic relations with 149 countries.In 2011, Lithuania hosted the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe Ministerial Council Meeting.", "During the second half of 2013, Lithuania assumed the role of the presidency of the European Union.Stamp dedicated to Lithuania's presidency of the European Union.", "Post of Lithuania, 2013.Lithuania is also active in developing cooperation among northern European countries.", "It is a member of the interparliamentary Baltic Assembly, the intergovernmental Baltic Council of Ministers and the Council of the Baltic Sea States.Lithuania also cooperates with Nordic and the two other Baltic countries through the Nordic-Baltic Eight format.", "A similar format, NB6, unites Nordic and Baltic members of EU.", "NB6's focus is to discuss and agree on positions before presenting them to the Council of the European Union and at the meetings of EU foreign affairs ministers.The Council of the Baltic Sea States (CBSS) was established in Copenhagen in 1992 as an informal regional political forum.", "Its main aim is to promote integration and to close contacts between the region's countries.", "The members of CBSS are Iceland, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Germany, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, Russia, and the European Commission.", "Its observer states are Belarus, France, Italy, Netherlands, Romania, Slovakia, Spain, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Ukraine.The Nordic Council of Ministers and Lithuania engage in political cooperation to attain mutual goals and to determine new trends and possibilities for joint cooperation.", "The council's information office aims to disseminate Nordic concepts and to demonstrate and promote Nordic cooperation.Lithuania was recently a member of the United Nations Security Council.", "Its representatives are on the right side.Lithuania, together with the five Nordic countries and the two other Baltic countries, is a member of the Nordic Investment Bank (NIB) and cooperates in its NORDPLUS programme, which is committed to education.The Baltic Development Forum (BDF) is an independent nonprofit organization that unites large companies, cities, business associations and institutions in the Baltic Sea region.", "In 2010 the BDF's 12th summit was held in Vilnius.Poland was highly supportive of Lithuanian independence, despite Lithuania's discriminatory treatment of its Polish minority.", "The former Solidarity leader and Polish President Lech Wałęsa criticised the government of Lithuania over discrimination against the Polish minority and rejected Lithuania's Order of Vytautas the Great.", "Lithuania maintains greatly warm mutual relations with Georgia and strongly supports its European Union and NATO aspirations.", "During the Russo-Georgian War in 2008, when the Russian troops were occupying the territory of Georgia and approaching towards the Georgian capital Tbilisi, President Valdas Adamkus, together with the Polish and Ukrainian presidents, went to Tbilisi by answering to the Georgians request of the international assistance.", "Shortly, Lithuanians and the Lithuanian Catholic Church also began collecting financial support for the war victims.In 2004–2009, Dalia Grybauskaitė served as European Commissioner for Financial Programming and the Budget within the José Manuel Barroso-led Commission.In 2013, Lithuania was elected to the United Nations Security Council for a two-year term, becoming the first Baltic country elected to this post.", "During its membership, Lithuania actively supported Ukraine and often condemned Russia for the war in Ukraine, immediately earning vast Ukrainians esteem.", "As the war in Donbas progressed, President Dalia Grybauskaitė has compared the Russian President Vladimir Putin to Josef Stalin and to Adolf Hitler, she has also called Russia a \"terrorist state\".In 2018 Lithuania, along with Latvia and Estonia were awarded the – for their exceptional model of democratic development and contribution to peace in the continent.", "In 2019 Lithuania condemned the Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria.", "In December 2021, Lithuania reported that in an escalation of the diplomatic spat with China over its relations with Taiwan, China had stopped all imports from Lithuania.The 2023 NATO summit was held in the Lithuanian capital Vilnius.===Military===Lithuanian Army soldiers with their NATO allies during Iron Sword 2014Lithuanian Army soldiers marching with their dress uniforms in Vilnius.", "An officer stands out with a sword.The Lithuanian Armed Forces is the name for the unified armed forces of Lithuanian Land Force, Lithuanian Air Force, Lithuanian Naval Force, Lithuanian Special Operations Force and other units: Logistics Command, Training and Doctrine Command, Headquarters Battalion, Military Police.", "Directly subordinated to the Chief of Defence are the Special Operations Forces and Military Police.", "The Reserve Forces are under command of the Lithuanian National Defence Volunteer Forces.The Lithuanian Armed Forces consist of some 20,000 active personnel, which may be supported by reserve forces.", "Compulsory conscription ended in 2008 but was reintroduced in 2015.The Lithuanian Armed Forces currently have deployed personnel on international missions in Afghanistan, Kosovo, Mali and Somalia.Lithuania became a full member of NATO in March 2004.Fighter jets of NATO members are deployed in Šiauliai Air Base and provide safety for the Baltic airspace.Since the summer of 2005, Lithuania has been part of the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan (ISAF), leading a Provincial Reconstruction Team (PRT) in the town of Chaghcharan in the province of Ghor.", "The PRT includes personnel from Denmark, Iceland and the US.", "There are also special operation forces units in Afghanistan, placed in Kandahar Province.", "Since joining international operations in 1994, Lithuania has lost two soldiers: Lt. Normundas Valteris fell in Bosnia, as his patrol vehicle drove over a mine.", "Sgt.", "Arūnas Jarmalavičius was fatally wounded during an attack on the camp of his Provincial Reconstruction Team in Afghanistan.The Lithuanian National Defence Policy aims to guarantee the preservation of the independence and sovereignty of the state, the integrity of its land, territorial waters and airspace, and its constitutional order.", "Its main strategic goals are to defend the country's interests, and to maintain and expand the capabilities of its armed forces so they may contribute to and participate in the missions of NATO and European Union member states.The defense ministry is responsible for combat forces, search and rescue, and intelligence operations.", "The 5,000 border guards fall under the Interior Ministry's supervision and are responsible for border protection, passport and customs duties, and share responsibility with the navy for smuggling and drug trafficking interdiction.", "A special security department handles VIP protection and communications security.", "In 2015 National Cyber Security Centre of Lithuania was created.", "Paramilitary organisation Lithuanian Riflemen's Union acts as a civilian self-defence institution.According to NATO, in 2020, Lithuania allocated 2.13% of its GDP to the national defense.", "For a long time, especially after the global financial crisis in 2008, Lithuania lagged behind NATO allies in terms of defence spending.", "However, in recent years it has begun to rapidly increase the funding, exceeding the NATO guideline of 2% in 2019.Lithuania's president Gitanas Nausėda called for more NATO troops on 22 April 2022, saying NATO should increase its deployment of troops in Lithuania and elsewhere on Europe's eastern flank following Russia's invasion of Ukraine, during a meeting in Vilnius." ], [ "Economy", "Real GDP per capita development of Estonia, Latvia and LithuaniaLithuanian counties by GDP per capita, 2022Lithuania's GDP per capita compared to rest of the world (2022)Lithuania has an open and mixed economy that is classified as high-income economy by the World Bank.According to data from 2017, the three largest sectors in Lithuanian economy are – services (67.2% of GDP), industry (29.4%) and agriculture (3.5%).", "World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report ranks Lithuania 41st (of 137 ranked countries).Lithuania joined NATO in 2004, EU in 2004, Schengen in 2007 and OECD in 2018.On 1 January 2015, the euro became the national currency, replacing litas at the rate of EUR 1.00 = LTL 3.45280.Agricultural products and food comprise 18.3% of exports; other major sectors include chemical products and plastics (17.8%), machinery and appliances (15.8%), mineral products (14.7%), wood and furniture (12.5%).", "According to data from 2016, more than half of all Lithuanian exports go to 7 countries including Russia (14%), Latvia (9.9%), Poland (9.1%), Germany (7.7%), Estonia (5.3%), Sweden (4.8%) and United Kingdom (4.3%).", "Exports equaled 81.31 percent of Lithuania's GDP in 2017.Lithuanian GDP experienced very high real growth rates for decade up to 2009, peaking at 11.1% in 2007.As a result, the country was often termed as a Baltic Tiger.", "However, in 2009 due to a global financial crisis marked experienced a drastic decline – GDP contracted by 14.9% and unemployment rate reached 17.8% in 2010.After the decline of 2009, Lithuanian annual economic growth has been much slower compared to pre-2009 years.", "According to IMF, financial conditions are conducive to growth and financial soundness indicators remain strong.", "The public debt ratio in 2016 fell to 40 percent of GDP, to compare with 42.7 in 2015 (before global finance crisis – 15 percent of GDP in 2008).On average, more than 95% of all foreign direct investment in Lithuania comes from European Union countries.", "Sweden is historically the largest investor with 20% – 30% of all FDI in Lithuania.", "FDI into Lithuania spiked in 2017, reaching its highest ever recorded number of greenfield investment projects.", "In 2017, Lithuania was third country, after Ireland and Singapore by the average job value of investment projects.The US was the leading source country in 2017, 24.59% of total FDI.", "Next up are Germany and the UK, each representing 11.48% of total project numbers.", "Based on the Eurostat's data, in 2017, the value of Lithuanian exports recorded the most rapid growth not only in the Baltic countries, but also across Europe, which was 16.9 per cent.In the period between 2004 and 2016, one out of five Lithuanians emigrated, primarily due to insufficient income for residents; secondarily seeking to study abroad.", "Long term emigration and economy growth has resulted in a noticeable shortage in the labor market and growth in salaries being larger than growth in labor efficiency.", "Unemployment rate in 2017 was 8.1%.A proportional representation of Lithuania's exports, 2019As of 2022, Lithuanian median wealth per adult was $32,000 (mean was $70,000), while the total national wealth was $147 billion.", "As of 2023 Q2, the average monthly gross salary in Lithuania was €2,000.Although, cost of living in the country also is sufficiently less with the price level for household final consumption expenditure (HFCE) – 63, being 39% lower than EU average – 102 in 2016.Lithuania has a flat tax rate rather than a progressive scheme.", "According to Eurostat, the personal income tax (15%) and corporate tax (15%) rates in Lithuania are among the lowest in the EU.", "The country has the lowest implicit rate of tax on capital (9.8%) in the EU.", "Corporate tax rate in Lithuania is 15% and 5% for small businesses.", "7 Free Economic Zones are operating in Lithuania.Information technology production is growing in the country, reaching €1.9 billion in 2016.In 2017 only, 35 FinTech companies came to Lithuania – a result of Lithuanian government and Bank of Lithuania simplified procedures for obtaining licences for the activities of e-money and payment institutions.", "Europe's first international Blockchain Centre launched in Vilnius in 2018.Lithuania has granted a total of 39 e-money licenses, second in the EU only to the U.K. with 128 licenses.", "In 2018 Google set up a payment company in Lithuania.===Companies===Largest companies of Lithuania in 2022, by revenue:Nasdaq Vilnius Stock Exchange, located in K29 business centre in Konstitucijos Avenue, Vilnius Rank Name Headquarters Revenue(mil.", "€) Employees Industry 1.Orlen Lietuva, AB Mažeikiai 7,552 1,437 Oil, petrol 2.Ignitis, UAB Vilnius 2,929 345 Energy 3.Maxima LT, UAB Vilnius 1,985 12,035 Retail 4.Thermo Fisher Scientific Baltics, UAB Vilnius 1,477 1,817 Biotechnology, pharmaceutical 5.Viada LT, UAB Vilnius 981 1,139 Petrol stations 6.Achema, AB Jonava 937 1,207 Fertilizer 7.Linas Agro Group, AB Panevėžys 882 198 Agribusiness 8.Circle K Lietuva, UAB Vilnius 858 972 Retail 9.IKI Lietuva Vilnius 819 5,861 Retail 10.NEO Group, UAB Klaipėda District Municipality 740 211 Chemical industry===Agriculture===Agriculture in Lithuania dates to the Neolithic period, about 3,000 to 1,000 BC.", "It has been one of Lithuania's most important occupations for many centuries.", "Lithuania's accession to the European Union in 2004 ushered in a new agricultural era.", "The EU pursues a very high standard of food safety and purity.", "In 1999, the Seimas (parliament) of Lithuania adopted a Law on Product Safety, and in 2000 it adopted a Law on Food.", "The reform of the agricultural market has been carried out on the basis of these two laws.In 2016, agricultural production in Lithuania was €2.29 billion.", "Cereal crops occupied the largest part of it (5709.7 tons), other significant types include: sugar beets (933.9 tons), rapeseed (392.5 tons) and potatoes (340.2 tons).", "Products totaling €4,385.2 million were exported from Lithuania to foreign markets, of which products for €3,165.2 million were Lithuanian origin.", "Export of agricultural and food products accounted for 19.4% of all exports of goods from the country.Organic farming is constantly becoming more popular in Lithuania.", "The status of organic growers and producers in the country is granted by the public body ''Ekoagros''.", "In 2016, there were 2539 such farms that occupied 225,541.78 hectares.", "Of these, 43.13% were cereals, 31.22% were perennial grasses, 13.9% were leguminous crops and 11.75% were others.===Science and technology===The foundation of the University of Vilnius in 1579 was a major factor in fostering a scientific and academic community within Lithuania.", "The university has welcomed such prominent scientists and thinkers as Georg Forster, Jean-Emmanuel Gilibert, Johann Peter Frank.", "The 17th century artillery expert Kazimieras Simonavičius is considered a pioneer of rocketry; his publication, the ''Artis Magnae Artilleriae,'' was a basic artillery manual throughout Europe, containing a large chapter on caliber, construction, production and properties of rockets (for military and civil purposes), including multistage rockets, batteries of rockets, and rockets with delta wing stabilizers.", "Botanist Jurgis Pabrėža (1771–1849) created the first systematic guide of Lithuanian flora, ''Taislius auguminis'' (''Botany''), written in the Samogitian dialect, the Latin-Lithuanian dictionary of plant names, and the first Lithuanian geography textbook.", "German scientist Theodor Grotthuss (1785–1822), who proposed the Grotthuss mechanism, lived and worked in the , where he gained local prominence for his effort to educate and improve the well-being of peasants.The world wars of the early to mid-20th century severely diminished Lithuanian science and academia, although several Lithuanian scholars and scientists managed to succeed during the period, particularly abroad, including philosopher Vosylius Sezemanas, jurist Mykolas Römeris, aviator Antanas Gustaitis, management theorist Vytautas Andrius Graičiūnas, archaeologist Marija Gimbutas, primatologist Birutė Galdikas, linguist Algirdas Julien Greimas, and medievalist Jurgis Baltrušaitis.", "Mathematician Jonas Kubilius, long-term rector of the University of Vilnius, is known for works in Probabilistic number theory, including the Kubilius model, Theorem of Kubilius and the Turán–Kubilius inequality.", "Kubilius also successfully resisted attempts to Russify the university.Lasers and biotechnology are flagship fields of the Lithuanian science and high-tech industry.", "''Šviesos konversija'' (\"Light Conversion\") has developed a femtosecond laser system that has 80% market share worldwide, with applications in DNA research, ophthalmological surgeries, and nanotechnology.", "The Vilnius University Laser Research Center has developed one of the most powerful femtosecond lasers in the world dedicated primarily to oncological diseases.", "In 1963, Vytautas Straižys and his colleagues created Vilnius photometric system that is used in astronomy.", "Noninvasive intracranial pressure and blood flow measuring devices were developed by KTU scientist A. Ragauskas.Kęstutis Pyragas contributed to the study of chaos theory with his method of delayed feedback control, the Pyragas method.", "Kavli Prize laureate Virginijus Šikšnys is known for his discoveries in CRISPR, namely with respect to CRISPR-Cas9.Lithuania has launched three satellites to space: LitSat-1, Lituanica SAT-1 and LituanicaSAT-2.Lithuanian Museum of Ethnocosmology and Molėtai Astronomical Observatory is located in Kulionys.", "Fifteen R&D institutions are members of Lithuanian Space Association; Lithuania is a cooperating state with European Space Agency.", "Rimantas Stankevičius is the only ethnically Lithuanian astronaut.Lithuania in 2018 became Associated Member State of CERN.", "Two CERN incubators in Vilnius and Kaunas will be hosted.Most advanced scientific research in Lithuania is being conducted at the Life Sciences Center, Center For Physical Sciences and Technology.As of 2016 calculations, yearly growth of Lithuania's biotech and life science sector was 22% over the past 5 years.", "16 academic institutions, 15 R&D centres (science parks and innovation valleys) and more than 370 manufacturers operate in the Lithuanian life science and biotech industry.In 2008 the Valley development programme was started aiming to upgrade Lithuanian scientific research infrastructure and encourage business and science cooperation.", "Five R&D Valleys were launched – Jūrinis (maritime technologies), Nemunas (agro, bioenergy, forestry), Saulėtekis (laser and light, semiconductor), Santara (biotechnology, medicine), Santaka (sustainable chemistry and pharmacy).", "Lithuanian Innovation Center is created to provide support for innovations and research institutions.Lithuania ranks moderately in the International Innovation Index,and is placed 15th among EU countries by the European Innovation Scoreboard.", "Lithuania was ranked 34th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023===Tourism===Druskininkai is a popular spa town.Statistics from 2019 showed that 1.93 million tourists from foreign countries visited Lithuania and spent at least one night in the country.", "The largest number of tourists came from Germany (233,400), Poland (199,600), Russia (196,500), Belarus (181,000), Latvia (168,900), Ukraine (134,800), and the UK (83,100).The total contribution of Travel & Tourism to country GDP was €2,005.5 million, 5.3% of GDP in 2016, and is forecast to rise by 7.3% in 2017, and to rise by 4.2% pa to €3,243.5 million, 6.7% of GDP in 2027.Hot air ballooning is very popular in Lithuania, especially in Vilnius and Trakai.", "Bicycle tourism is growing, especially in Lithuanian Seaside Cycle Route.", "EuroVelo routes EV10, EV11, EV13 go through Lithuania.", "Total length of bicycle tracks amounts to 3769 km (of which 1988 km is asphalt pavement).Nemunas Delta Regional Park and Žuvintas biosphere reserve are known for birdwatching.Domestic tourism has been on the rise as well.", "Currently there are up to 1000 places of attraction in Lithuania.", "Most tourists visit the big cities—Vilnius, Klaipėda, and Kaunas, seaside resorts, such as Neringa, Palanga, and Spa towns – Druskininkai, Birštonas." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Communication===Telia (skyscraper with the old Teo LT logo) and Huawei headquarters in VilniusLithuania has a well developed communications infrastructure.", "The country has 2.8 million citizens and 5 million SIM cards.", "The largest LTE (4G) mobile network covers 97% of Lithuania's territory.", "Usage of fixed phone lines has been rapidly decreasing due to rapid expansion of mobile-cellular services.In 2017, Lithuania was top 30 in the world by average mobile broadband speeds and top 20 by average fixed broadband speeds.Lithuania was also top 7 in 2017 in the List of countries by 4G LTE penetration.", "In 2016, Lithuania was ranked 17th in United Nations' e-participation index.There are four TIER III datacenters in Lithuania.Lithuania is 44th globally ranked country on data center density according to Cloudscene.Long-term project (2005–2013) – Development of Rural Areas Broadband Network (RAIN) was started with the objective to provide residents, state and municipal authorities and businesses with fibre-optic broadband access in rural areas.", "RAIN infrastructure allows 51 communications operators to provide network services to their clients.", "The project was funded by the European Union and the Lithuanian government.", "72% of Lithuanian households have access to internet, a number which in 2017 was among EU's lowest and in 2016 ranked 97th by CIA World Factbook.", "Number of households with internet access is expected to increase and reach 77% by 2021.Almost 50% of Lithuanians had smartphones in 2016, a number that is expected to increase to 65% by 2022.Lithuania has the highest FTTH (Fiber to the home) penetration rate in Europe (36.8% in September 2016) according to FTTH Council Europe.===Transport===Major highways in LithuaniaMarijampolė railway station, completed in 1924A1 motorway near KaunasLyduvėnai Bridge, the highest (42 m.) and the longest (599 m.) railway bridge in the BalticsLithuania received its first railway connection in the middle of the 19th century, when the Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railway was constructed.", "It included a stretch from Daugavpils via Vilnius and Kaunas to Virbalis.", "The first and only still operating tunnel was completed in 1860.Rail transport in Lithuania consists of of Russian gauge railway of which are electrified.", "This railway network is incompatible with European standard gauge and requires train switching.", "However, Lithuanian railway network also has of standard gauge lines.", "More than half of all inland freight transported in Lithuania is carried by rail.", "The Trans-European standard gauge Rail Baltica railway, linking Helsinki–Tallinn–Riga–Kaunas–Warsaw and continuing on to Berlin is under construction.", "In 2017, Lietuvos Geležinkeliai, a company that operates most railway lines in Lithuania, received EU penalty for breaching EU's antitrust laws and restricting competition.Transportation is the third largest sector in Lithuanian economy.", "Lithuanian transport companies drew attention in 2016 and 2017 with huge and record-breaking orders of trucks.", "Almost 90% of commercial truck traffic in Lithuania is international transports, the highest of any EU country.Lithuania has an extensive network of motorways.", "WEF grades Lithuanian roads at 4.7 / 7.0 and Lithuanian road authority (LAKD) at 6.5 / 10.0.The Port of Klaipėda is the only commercial cargo port in Lithuania.", "In 2011 45.5 million tons of cargo were handled (including Būtingė oil terminal figures) Port of Klaipėda is outside of EU's 20 largest ports, but it is the eighth largest port in the Baltic Sea region with ongoing expansion plans.As of 2022, the LIWA (Lithuanian Inland Waterways Authority, Vidaus vandens keliu direkcija in Lithuanian) is developing a strategy to resurrect cargo shipping on the Nemunas.", "Its fleet of electric ships will travel 260 km between the port of Klaipda on the Baltic Sea coast and the industrial and transportation centre of Kaunas.", "The project is anticipated to need a €75.7 million initial investment in total.", "and estimated to eliminate 48 000 truck trips annually.Vilnius International Airport is the largest airport in Lithuania, 91st busiest airport in Europe (EU's 100 largest airports).", "It served 3.8 million passengers in 2016.Other international airports include Kaunas International Airport, Palanga International Airport and Šiauliai International Airport.", "Kaunas International Airport is also a small commercial cargo airport which started regular commercial cargo traffic in 2011.The inland river cargo port in Marvelė, linking Kaunas and Klaipėda, received first cargo in 2019.===Water supply and sanitation===Mineral water spring in BirštonasLithuania has one of the largest fresh water supplies, compared with other countries in Europe.", "Lithuania and Denmark are the only countries in Europe, which are fully equipped with fresh groundwater.", "Lithuanians consume about 0.5 million cubic metres of water per day, which is only 12–14 percent of all explored fresh groundwater resources.", "Water quality in the country is very high and is determined by the fact that drinking water comes from deep layers that are protected from pollution on the surface of the earth.", "Drilling depth usually reaches 30–50 metres, but in Klaipėda Region it even reaches 250 metres.", "Consequently, Lithuania is one of very few European countries where groundwater is used for centralized water supply.", "With a large underground fresh water reserves, Lithuania exports mineral-rich water to other countries.", "Approved mineral water quantity is about 2.7 million cubic metres per year, while production is only 4–5 percent of all mineral water resources.Vilnius is the only Baltic capital that uses centralized water supplying from deep water springs, which are protected from pollution and has no nitrates or nitrites that are harmful to the human body.", "Water is cleaned without chemicals in Lithuania.", "About 20% of the consumed water in the state is a non-filtered very high quality water.===Energy=== FSRU ''Independence'' in port of KlaipėdaSystematic diversification of energy imports and resources is Lithuania's key energy strategy.", "Long-term aims were defined in National Energy Independence strategy in 2012 by Lietuvos Seimas.", "It was estimated that strategic energy independence initiatives will cost €6.3–7.8 billion in total and provide annual savings of €0.9–1.1 billion.After the decommissioning of the Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant, Lithuania turned from electricity exporter to electricity importer.", "Unit No.", "1 was closed in December 2004, as a condition of Lithuania's entry into the European Union; Unit No.", "2 was closed down on 31 December 2009.Proposals have been made to construct a new – Visaginas Nuclear Power Plant in Lithuania.", "However, a non-binding referendum held in October 2012 clouded the prospects for the Visaginas project, as 63% of voters said no to a new nuclear power plant.Kruonis Pumped Storage PlantThe country's main primary source of electrical power is Elektrėnai Power Plant.", "Other primary sources of Lithuania's electrical power are Kruonis Pumped Storage Plant and Kaunas Hydroelectric Power Plant.", "Kruonis Pumped Storage Plant is the only in the Baltic states power plant to be used for regulation of the power system's operation with generating capacity of 900 MW for at least 12 hours.", ", 66% of electrical power was imported.", "First geothermal heating plant (Klaipėda Geothermal Demonstration Plant) in the Baltic Sea region was built in 2004.Lithuania–Sweden submarine electricity interconnection NordBalt and Lithuania–Poland electricity interconnection LitPol Link were launched at the end of 2015.In 2018, synchronising the Baltic states' electricity grid with the Synchronous grid of Continental Europe has started.", "In 2016, 20.8% of electricity consumed in Lithuania came from renewable sources.In order to break down Gazprom's monopoly in natural gas market of Lithuania, first large scale LNG import terminal (Klaipėda LNG FSRU) in the Baltic region was built in port of Klaipėda in 2014.The Klaipėda LNG terminal was called Independence, thus emphasising the aim to diversify energy market of Lithuania.", "Norvegian company Equinor supplies of natural gas annually from 2015 until 2020.The terminal is able to meet the Lithuania's demand 100 percent, and Latvia's and Estonia's national demand 90 percent in the future.", "Gas Interconnection Poland–Lithuania (GIPL), also known as Lithuania–Poland pipeline, is a natural gas pipeline interconnection between Lithuania and Poland that became operational in 2022." ], [ "Demographics", "Population of Lithuania 1915–2014Population density of LithuaniaSince the Neolithic period, the demographics of Lithuania have stayed fairly homogenous.", "There is a high probability that the inhabitants of present-day Lithuania have similar genetic compositions to their ancestors, although without being actually isolated from them.", "The Lithuanian population appears to be relatively homogeneous, without apparent genetic differences among ethnic subgroups.A 2004 analysis of MtDNA in the Lithuanian population revealed that Lithuanians are genetically close to the Slavic and Finno-Ugric speaking populations of Northern and Eastern Europe.", "Y-chromosome SNP haplogroup analysis showed Lithuanians to be genetically closest to Latvians and Estonians.In 2021, the age structure of the population was as follows:* 0–14 years, 14.86% (male 214,113/female 203,117)* 15–64 years: 65.19% (male 896,400/female 934,467)* 65 years and over: 19.95% (male 195,269/female 365,014).", "The median age in 2022 was 44 years (male: 41, female: 47).Lithuania has a sub-replacement fertility rate: the total fertility rate (TFR) in Lithuania was 1.34 children born per woman in 2021, and the mean age of women at childbirth was 30.3 years.", "The average age of first childbirth for women was 28.2 years.", "The human sex ratio is male leaning for the age categories 15–44, with 1.0352 males for every female.", ", 25.6% of births were to unmarried women.", "The mean age at first marriage in 2021 was 28.3 years for women and 30.5 years for men.===Functional urban areas===Functional urban areasPopulation (2022) Vilnius urban area716,856 Kaunas urban area393,397 Panevėžys urban area122,854===Ethnic groups===Lithuania has the most homogeneous population in the Baltic States.", "Ethnic Lithuanians make up about five-sixths of the country's population.", "In 2021, 84.6% of the 2,810,761 Lithuania's residents were ethnic Lithuanians who speak Lithuanian, which is the official language of the country.", "Several sizeable minorities exist, such as Poles (6.5%), Russians (5.0%), Belarusians (1.0%) and Ukrainians (0.5%).Poles in Lithuania are the largest minority, concentrated in southeast Lithuania (the Vilnius region), constituting majority in Šalčininkai (76.3%) and Vilnius District Municipality (46.8%).", "Russians in Lithuania are the second largest minority, concentrated in Visaginas (47.4%), Zarasai District Municipality (17.2%) and Klaipėda (16%).", "About 2,250 Roma live in Lithuania, mostly in Vilnius, Kaunas and Panevėžys; their organizations are supported by the National Minority and Emigration Department.", "For centuries, Tatar and Karaite communities have lived in Lithuania.", "In 2021, there were around 2,150 registered Tatars and 196 Karaites in the country.The official language is Lithuanian, but in some areas there is a significant presence of minority languages such as Polish, Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian.", "The greatest presence of minorities and the use of these languages are in Šalčininkai, Visaginas, and Vilnius District.", "Yiddish is spoken by members of the tiny remaining Jewish community in Lithuania.", "The state laws guarantee education in minority languages and there are numerous publicly funded schools in the areas populated by minorities, with Polish as the language of instruction being the most widely available.According to the survey carried out within the framework of the Lithuanian census of 2021, 85.33% of the country's population speak Lithuanian as their native language, 6.8% are native speakers of Russian and 5.1% of Polish.", ", 60.6% of residents speak Russian as a foreign language, 31.1% – English, 10.5% – Lithuanian, 8% – German, 7.9% – Polish, 1.9% – French, 2.6% – various others.", "Most Lithuanian schools teach English as the first foreign language, but students may also study German, or, in some schools, French or Russian.", "Around 80% of young people in Lithuania know English.===Urbanization===There has been a steady movement of population to the cities since the 1990s, encouraged by the planning of regional centres, such as Alytus, Marijampolė, Utena, Plungė, and Mažeikiai.", "By the early 21st century, about two-thirds of the total population lived in urban areas.", ", 68.19% of the total population lives in urban areas.", "Lithuania's functional urban areas include Vilnius (population 708,203), Kaunas (population 391,153), and Panevėžys (population 124,526).", "The fDI of the Financial Times in their research ''Cities and Regions of the Future'' ranked Vilnius fourth in the mid-sized European cities category in the 2018–19 ranking, second in the 2022–23 ranking, second in 2023 ranking while the city claimed 24th spot in the worldwide overall ranking in 2021–22 and Vilnius county was ranked 10th in the small European regions category in 2018–19, fifth in 2022–23, fifth in 2023 rankings.===Health===Kaunas Clinics, a medical institution in LithuaniaLithuania provides free state-funded healthcare to all citizens and registered long-term residents.", "It co-exists with a significant private healthcare sector.", "In 2003–2012, the network of hospitals was restructured, as part of wider healthcare service reforms.", "It started in 2003–2005 with the expansion of ambulatory services and primary care.In 2016, Lithuania ranked 27th in Europe in the Euro health consumer index, a ranking of European healthcare systems based on waiting time, results and other indicators., Lithuanian life expectancy at birth was 76.0 (71.2 years for males and 80.4 for females) and the infant mortality rate was 2.99 per 1,000 births.", "The annual population growth rate increased by 0.3% in 2007.Lithuania has seen a dramatic rise in suicides in the 1990s.", "The suicide rate has been constantly decreasing since, but it still remains the highest in the EU and the OECD.", "The suicide rate as of 2019 is 20.2 per 100,000 people.", "Suicide in Lithuania has been a subject of research, but the main reasons behind the high rate are thought to be both psychological and economic, including: social transformations and economic recessions, alcoholism, lack of tolerance in the society, bullying.By 2000, the vast majority of Lithuanian health care institutions were non-profit-making enterprises and a private sector developed, providing mostly outpatient services which are paid for out-of-pocket.", "The Ministry of Health also runs a few health care facilities and is involved in the running of the two major Lithuanian teaching hospitals.", "It is responsible for the State Public Health Centre which manages the public health network including ten county public health centres with their local branches.", "The ten counties run county hospitals and specialised health care facilities.There is Compulsory Health Insurance for the Lithuanian residents.", "There are 5 Territorial Health Insurance Funds, covering Vilnius, Kaunas, Klaipėda, Šiauliai and Panevėžys.", "Contributions for people who are economically active are 9% of income.Emergency medical services are provided free of charge to all residents.", "Access to the secondary and tertiary care, such as hospital treatment, is normally via referral by a general practitioner.", "Lithuania also has one of the lowest health care prices in Europe.===Religion===Hill of Crosses near ŠiauliaiAccording to the 2021 census, 74.2% of residents of Lithuania were Catholics.", "Catholicism has been the main religion since the official Christianisation of Lithuania in 1387.The Catholic Church was persecuted by the Russian Empire as part of the Russification policies and by the Soviet Union as part of the overall anti-religious campaigns.", "During the Soviet era, some priests actively led the resistance against the Communist regime, as symbolised by the Hill of Crosses and exemplified by ''The Chronicle of the Catholic Church in Lithuania''.3.7% of the population are Eastern Orthodox, mainly among the Russian minority.", "The community of Old Believers (0.6% of population) dates back to the 1660s.Protestants are 0.8%, of which 0.6% are Lutheran and 0.2% are Reformed.", "The Reformation did not impact Lithuania to a great extent as seen in East Prussia, Estonia, or Latvia.", "Before World War II, according to Losch (1932), the Lutherans were 3.3% of the total population.", "They were mainly Germans and Prussian Lithuanians in the Klaipėda Region (Memel territory).", "This population fled or was expelled after the war, and today Protestantism is mainly represented by ethnic Lithuanians throughout the northern and western parts of the country, as well as in large urban areas.", "Newly arriving evangelical churches have established missions in Lithuania since 1990.Hinduism is a minority religion and a fairly recent development in Lithuania.", "Hinduism is spread in Lithuania by Hindu organizations: ISKCON, Sathya Sai Baba, Brahma Kumaris and Osho Rajneesh.", "ISKCON (Lithuanian: Krišnos sąmonės judėjimas) is the largest and the oldest movement as the first Krishna followers date to 1979.It has three centres in Lithuania: in Vilnius, Klaipėda and Kaunas.", "Brahma Kumaris maintains the Centre Brahma Kumaris in Antakalnis, Vilnius.The historical communities of Lipka Tatars maintain Islam as their religion.", "Lithuania was historically home to a significant Jewish community and was an important centre of Jewish scholarship and culture from the 18th century until the eve of World War II.", "Of the approximately 220,000 Jews who lived in Lithuania in June 1941, almost all were killed during the Holocaust.", "The Lithuanian Jewish community numbered about 4,000 at the end of 2009.Romuva, the neopagan revival of the ancient religious practices, has gained popularity over the years.", "Romuva claims to continue living pagan traditions, which survived in folklore and customs.", "Romuva is a polytheistic pagan faith, which asserts the sanctity of nature and has elements of ancestor worship.", "According to the 2001 census, there were 1,270 people of Baltic faith in Lithuania.", "That number jumped to 5,118 in the 2011 census.===Education===Vilnius University, one of the oldest universities in the region.", "It was established by Stephen Báthory, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, in 1579.The Constitution of Lithuania mandates ten-year education ending at age 16 and guarantees a free public higher education for students deemed 'good'.", "The Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Lithuania proposes national educational policies and goals that are then voted for in the Seimas.", "Laws govern long-term educational strategy along with general laws on standards for higher education, vocational training, law and science, adult education, and special education.", "5.4% of GDP or 15.4% of total public expenditure was spent for education in 2016.Vilnius University Life Sciences Center in the Sunrise ValleyAccording to the World Bank, the literacy rate among Lithuanians aged 15 years and older is 100%.", "School attendance rates are above the EU average and school leave is less common than in the EU.", "According to Eurostat Lithuania leads among other countries of the European Union in people with secondary education (93.3%).", "Based on OECD data, Lithuania is among the top 5 countries in the world in postsecondary (tertiary) education attainment.", ", 54.9% of the population aged 25 to 34, and 30.7% of the population aged 55 to 64 had completed tertiary education.", "The share of tertiary-educated 25–64-year-olds in STEM (Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) fields in Lithuania were above the OECD average (29% and 26% respectively), similarly to business, administration and law (25% and 23% respectively).Modern Lithuanian education system has multiple structural problems.", "Insufficient funding, quality issues, and decreasing student population are the most prevalent.", "Lithuanian teacher salaries are the lowest in the entire EU.", "Low teacher salaries was the primary reason behind national teacher strikes in 2014, 2015, and 2016.Salaries in the higher education sector are also low.", "Many Lithuanian professors have a second job to supplement their income.", "PISA report from 2010 found that Lithuanian results in math, science and reading were below OECD average.", "PISA report from 2015 reconfirmed these findings.", "The population ages 6 to 19 has decreased by 36% between 2005 and 2015.As a result, the student-teacher ratio is decreasing and expenditure per student is increasing, but schools, particularly in rural areas, are forced into reorganizations and consolidations.", "As with other Baltic nations, in particular Latvia, the large volume of higher education graduates within the country, coupled with the high rate of spoken second languages is contributing to an education brain drain., there were 15 public and 6 private universities as well as 16 public and 11 private colleges in Lithuania (see: List of universities in Lithuania).", "Vilnius University is one of the oldest universities in Northern Europe and the largest university in Lithuania.", "Kaunas University of Technology is the largest technical university in the Baltic States and the second largest university in Lithuania.", "In an attempt to reduce costs and adapt to sharply decreasing number of high-school students, Lithuanian parliament decided to reduce the number of universities in Lithuania.", "In early 2018, Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences and Aleksandras Stulginskis University were merged into Vytautas Magnus University." ], [ "Culture", "===Lithuanian language===The Lithuanian language (''lietuvių kalba'') is the official state language of Lithuania and is recognized as one of the official languages of the European Union.", "There are about 2.96 million native Lithuanian speakers in Lithuania and about 0.2 million abroad.Lithuanian is a Baltic language, closely related to Latvian, although they are not mutually intelligible.", "It is written in an adapted version of the Roman script.", "Lithuanian is believed to be the linguistically most conservative living Indo-European tongue, retaining many features of Proto Indo-European.", "Lithuanian language studies are important for comparative linguistics and for reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European language.", "Lithuanian was studied by linguists such as Franz Bopp, August Schleicher, Adalbert Bezzenberger, Louis Hjelmslev, Ferdinand de Saussure, Winfred P. Lehmann, Vladimir Toporov and others.The earliest known Lithuanian glosses (between 1520 and 1530) written in the margins of Johann Herolt book ''Liber Discipuli de eruditione Christifidelium''.", "Words: ''teprÿdavſʒÿ'' (let it strike), ''vbagÿſte'' (indigence).There are two main dialects of the Lithuanian language: Aukštaitian dialect and Samogitian dialect.", "Aukštaitian dialect is mainly used in the central, southern and eastern parts of Lithuania while Samogitian dialect is used in the western part of the country.", "The Samogitian dialect also has many completely different words and is even considered a separate language by some linguists.", "Nowadays, the distinguishing feature between the two main Lithuanian dialects is the unequal pronunciation of accented and unaccented two-vowels uo and ie.The groundwork for written Lithuanian was laid in 16th and 17th centuries by Lithuanian noblemen and scholars, who promoted Lithuanian language, created dictionaries and published books – Mikalojus Daukša, Stanislovas Rapolionis, Abraomas Kulvietis, Jonas Bretkūnas, Martynas Mažvydas, Konstantinas Sirvydas, Simonas Vaišnoras-Varniškis.The first grammar book of the Lithuanian language ''Grammatica Litvanica'' was published in Latin in 1653 by Danielius Kleinas.Jonas Jablonskis' works and activities are especially important for the Lithuanian literature moving from the use of dialects to a standard Lithuanian language.", "The linguistic material which he collected was published in the 20 volumes of Academic Dictionary of Lithuanian and is still being used in research and in editing of texts and books.", "He also introduced the letter ''ū'' into Lithuanian writing.===Literature===printed book, ''Catechism of Martynas Mažvydas'' (1547, Königsberg)Mikalojus Radvila Rudasis (1512–1584) and recounts the famous victory of Lithuanian Armed Forces over Moscow troops (1564).There is a great deal of Lithuanian literature written in Latin, the main scholarly language of the Middle Ages.", "The edicts of the Lithuanian King Mindaugas are the prime example of the literature of this kind.", "The Letters of Gediminas are another crucial heritage of the Lithuanian Latin writings.One of the first Lithuanian authors who wrote in Latin was Nicolaus Hussovianus (around 1480 – after 1533).", "His poem ''Carmen de statura, feritate ac venatione bisontis'' (''A Song about the Appearance, Savagery and Hunting of the Bison''), published in 1523, describes the Lithuanian landscape, way of life and customs, touches on some actual political problems, and reflects the clash of paganism and Christianity.", "A person under the pseudonym (around 1490 – 1560) wrote a treatise ''De moribus tartarorum, lituanorum et moscorum'' (''On the Customs of Tatars, Lithuanians and Muscovites'') in the middle of the 16th century, but it was not published until 1615.An extraordinary figure in the cultural life of Lithuania in the 16th century was the lawyer and poet of Spanish origin Petrus Roysius Maurus Alcagnicensis (around 1505 – 1571).", "The publicist, lawyer, and mayor of Vilnius, Augustinus Rotundus (around 1520–1582) wrote a no longer existent history of Lithuania in Latin around the year 1560.loannes Radvanus, a humanist poet of the second half of the 16th century, wrote an epic poem imitating the Aeneid of Vergil.", "His ''Radivilias'', intended to become the Lithuanian national epic, was published in Vilnius in 1588.17th century Lithuanian scholars also wrote in Latin – Kazimieras Kojelavičius-Vijūkas, Žygimantas Liauksminas are known for their Latin writings in theology, rhetorics and music.", "Albertas Kojalavičius-Vijūkas wrote first printed Lithuanian history ''Historia Lithuania''.Lithuanian literary works in the Lithuanian language started being first published in the 16th century.", "In 1547 Martynas Mažvydas compiled and published the first printed Lithuanian book ''Katekizmo prasti žodžiai'' (''The Simple Words of Catechism''), which marks the beginning of literature, printed in Lithuanian.", "He was followed by Mikalojus Daukša with ''Katechizmas''.", "In the 16th and 17th centuries, as in the whole Christian Europe, Lithuanian literature was primarily religious.The evolution of the old (14th–18th century) Lithuanian literature ends with Kristijonas Donelaitis, one of the most prominent authors of the Age of Enlightenment.", "Donelaitis' poem ''Metai'' (''The Seasons'') is a landmark of the Lithuanian fiction literature, written in hexameter.With a mix of Classicism, Sentimentalism and Romanticism, the Lithuanian literature of the first half of the 19th century is represented by Maironis, Antanas Baranauskas, Simonas Daukantas, Oscar Milosz, and Simonas Stanevičius.", "During the Tsarist annexation of Lithuania in the 19th century, the Lithuanian press ban was implemented, which led to the formation of the Knygnešiai (Book smugglers) movement.", "This movement is thought to be the very reason the Lithuanian language and literature survived until today.20th-century Lithuanian literature is represented by Juozas Tumas-Vaižgantas, Antanas Vienuolis, Bernardas Brazdžionis, Antanas Škėma, Balys Sruoga, Vytautas Mačernis and Justinas Marcinkevičius.In 21st century debuted Kristina Sabaliauskaitė, Renata Šerelytė, Valdas Papievis, Laura Sintija Černiauskaitė, Rūta Šepetys.===Architecture===Vilnius Cathedral by Laurynas Gucevičius Several famous Lithuania-related architects are notable for their achievements in the field of architecture.", "Johann Christoph Glaubitz, Marcin Knackfus, Laurynas Gucevičius and Karol Podczaszyński were instrumental in introducing Baroque and neoclassical architectural movements to the Lithuanian architecture during the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries.", "Vilnius is considered as a capital of the Eastern Europe Baroque.", "Vilnius Old Town that is full of astonishing Baroque churches and other buildings is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "''Gryčia'' (traditional dwelling house, built in the 19th century)Lithuania is also known for numerous castles.", "About twenty castles exist in Lithuania.", "Some castles had to be rebuilt or survive partially.", "Many Lithuanian nobles' historic palaces and manor houses have remained till the nowadays and were reconstructed.", "Lithuanian village life has existed since the days of Vytautas the Great.", "Zervynos and Kapiniškiai are two of many ethnographic villages in Lithuania.", "Rumšiškės is an open space museum where old ethnographic architecture is preserved.During the interwar period, Art Deco, Lithuanian National Romanticism architectural style buildings were constructed in the Lithuania's temporary capital Kaunas.", "Its architecture is regarded as one of the finest examples of the European Art Deco and has received the European Heritage Label.===Arts and museums===''Kings' Fairy Tale'' (1908–1909) by Mikalojus Konstantinas ČiurlionisThe Lithuanian Art Museum was founded in 1933 and is the largest museum of art conservation and display in Lithuania.", "Among other important museums are the Palanga Amber Museum, where amber pieces comprise a major part of the collection, National Gallery of Art, presenting collection of Lithuanian art of the 20th and 21st century, National Museum of Lithuania presenting Lithuanian archaeology, history and ethnic culture.", "In 2018 two private museums were opened – MO Museum devoted to modern and contemporary Lithuanian art and ''Tartle'', exhibiting a collection of Lithuanian art heritage and artefacts.Perhaps the most renowned figure in Lithuania's art community was the composer Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis (1875–1911), an internationally renowned musician.", "The 2420 Čiurlionis asteroid, identified in 1975, honors his achievements.", "The M. K. Čiurlionis National Art Museum, as well as the only military museum in Lithuania, Vytautas the Great War Museum, are located in Kaunas.Franciszek Smuglewicz, Jan Rustem, Józef Oleszkiewicz and Kanuty Rusiecki are the most prominent Lithuanian painters of the 18th and 19th centuries.===Theatre===Lithuania has some very famous theatre directors well known in the country and abroad.", "One of them is Oskaras Koršunovas.", "He was awarded more than forty times with special prizes.", "Possibly most prestigious award is Swedish Commander Grand Cross: Order of the Polar Star.", "Today's the most famous theatres in Lithuania are in Vilnius, Kaunas, Klaipėda and Panevėžys.", "It is Lithuanian National Drama Theatre, ''Keistuolių teatras'' (Theatre of Freaks) in Vilnius, Kaunas State Drama Theatre, Theatre of Oskaras Koršunovas, Klaipėda Drama Theatre, Theatre of Gytis Ivanauskas, Miltinis Drama Theatre in Panevėžys, The Doll's Theatre, Old Theatre of Vilnius and others.", "There are some very popular theatre festivals like ''Sirenos'' (Sirens), ''TheATRIUM'', ''Nerk į teatrą'' (Dive into the Theatre) and others.", "The figures dominating in Lithuanian theatre world are directors like Eimuntas Nekrošius, Jonas Vaitkus, Cezaris Graužinis, Gintaras Varnas, Dalia Ibelhauptaitė, Artūras Areima; number of talented actors like Dainius Gavenonis, Rolandas Kazlas, Saulius Balandis, Gabija Jaraminaitė and many others.===Cinema===Romuva Cinema, the oldest still operational cinema in LithuaniaOn 28 July 1896, Thomas Edison live photography session was held in the Concerts Hall of the Botanical Garden of Vilnius University.", "After a year, similar American movies were available with the addition of special phonograph records that also provided sound.", "In 1909, Lithuanian cinema pioneers Antanas Račiūnas and Ladislas Starevich released their first movies.", "Soon the Račiūnas' recordings of Lithuania's views became very popular among the Lithuanian Americans abroad.", "In 1925, Pranas Valuskis filmed movie ''Naktis Lietuvoje'' (Night in Lithuania) about Lithuanian book smugglers that left the first bright Lithuanian footprint in Hollywood.", "The most significant and mature Lithuanian American movie of the time ''Aukso žąsis'' (Golden goose) was created in 1965 by that featured motifs from the Brothers Grimm fairy tales.", "In 1940, Romuva Cinema was opened in Kaunas and currently is the oldest still operational cinema in Lithuania.", "After the occupation of the state, movies mostly were used for the Soviet propaganda purposes, nevertheless Almantas Grikevičius, Gytis Lukšas, Henrikas Šablevičius, Arūnas Žebriūnas, Raimondas Vabalas were able to overcome the obstacles and create valuable films.", "After the restoration of the independence, Šarūnas Bartas, Audrius Stonys, Arūnas Matelis, Audrius Juzėnas, Algimantas Puipa, , Dijana and her husband Kornelijus Matuzevičius received success in international movie festivals.In 2018, 4,265,414 cinema tickets were sold in Lithuania with the average price of €5.26.===Music===Lithuanian folk music belongs to Baltic music branch which is connected with neolithic corded ware culture.", "Two instrument cultures meet in the areas inhabited by Lithuanians: stringed (kanklių) and wind instrument cultures.", "Lithuanian folk music is archaic, mostly used for ritual purposes, containing elements of paganism faith.", "There are three ancient styles of singing in Lithuania connected with ethnographical regions: monophony, heterophony and polyphony.", "Folk song genres: Sutartinės (Multipart Songs), Wedding Songs, War-Historical Time Songs, Calendar Cycle and Ritual Songs and Work Songs.Italian artists organized the first opera in Lithuania on 4 September 1636 at the Palace of the Grand Dukes by the order of Władysław IV Vasa.", "Currently, operas are staged at the Lithuanian National Opera and Ballet Theatre and also by independent troupe Vilnius City Opera.M.K.", "ČiurlionisMikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis is the most renowned Lithuanian painter and composer.", "During his short life he created about 200 pieces of music.", "His works have had profound influence on modern Lithuanian culture.", "His symphonic poems ''In the Forest'' (''Miške'') and ''The Sea'' (''Jūra'') were performed only posthumously.", "Čiurlionis contributed to symbolism and art nouveau and was representative of the fin de siècle epoch.", "He has been considered one of the pioneers of abstract art in Europe.In Lithuania, choral music is very important.", "Vilnius is the only city with three choirs laureates (Brevis, Jauna Muzika and Chamber Choir of the Conservatoire) at the European Grand Prix for Choral Singing.", "There is a long-standing tradition of the ''Dainų šventė'' (Lithuanian Song and Dance Festival).", "The first one took place in Kaunas in 1924.Since 1990, the festival has been organised every four years and summons roughly 30,000 singers and folk dancers of various professional levels and age groups from across the country.", "In 2008, Lithuanian Song and Dance Festival together with its Latvian and Estonian versions was inscribed as UNESCO Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.", "''Gatvės muzikos diena'' (Street Music Day) gathers musicians of various genres annually.Conductor Mirga Gražinytė-Tyla performing on the scenes of Rome, New York and Birmingham.Modern classical composers emerged in seventies – Bronius Kutavičius, , Osvaldas Balakauskas, Onutė Narbutaitė, Vidmantas Bartulis and others.", "Most of those composers explored archaic Lithuanian music and its harmonic combination with modern minimalism and neoromanticism.Jazz scene was active even during the years of Soviet occupation.", "The real breakthrough would occur in 1970–71 with the coming together of the Ganelin/Tarasov/Chekasin trio, the alleged instigators of the Vilnius Jazz School.", "Most known annual events are Vilnius Jazz Festival, Kaunas Jazz, Birštonas Jazz.Music Information Centre Lithuania (MICL) collects, promotes and shares information on Lithuanian musical culture.====Rock and protest music====Antis, which under firm censorship actively mocked the Soviet Union regime by using metaphors in their lyrics, during an Anti-Sovietism, Anti-communism concert in 1987After the Soviet reoccupation of Lithuania in 1944, the Soviet's censorship continued firmly controlling all artistic expressions in Lithuania, and any violations by criticizing the regime would immediately result in punishments.", "The first local rock bands started to emerge around 1965 and included ''Kertukai'', ''Aitvarai'' and ''Nuogi ant slenksčio'' in Kaunas, and Kęstutis Antanėlis, ''Vienuoliai'', and ''Gėlių Vaikai'' in Vilnius, among others.", "Unable to express their opinions directly, the Lithuanian artists began organizing patriotic Roko Maršai and were using metaphors in their songs' lyrics, which were easily identified for their true meanings by the locals.", "Postmodernist rock band Antis and its vocalist Algirdas Kaušpėdas were one of the most active performers who mocked the Soviet regime by using metaphors.", "For example, in the song ''Zombiai'' (Zombies), the band indirectly sang about the Red Army soldiers who occupied the state and its military base in Ukmergė.", "Vytautas Kernagis' song ''Kolorado vabalai'' (Colorado beetles) was also a favourite due to its lyrics in which true meaning of the Colorado beetles was intended to be the Soviets decorated with the Ribbons of Saint George.In the early independence years, rock band Foje was particularly popular and gathered tens of thousands of spectators to the concerts.", "After disbanding in 1997, Foje vocalist Andrius Mamontovas remained one of the most prominent Lithuanian performers and an active participant in various charity events.", "Marijonas Mikutavičius is famous for creating unofficial Lithuania sport anthem ''Trys milijonai'' (Three million) and official anthem of the EuroBasket 2011 ''Nebetyli sirgaliai'' (English version was named ''Celebrate Basketball'').===Cuisine===Lithuanian dark rye bread''Cepelinai'', a potato-based dumpling dish characteristic of Lithuanian cuisine with meat, curd or mushroomsLithuanian cuisine features the products suited to the cool and moist northern climate of Lithuania: barley, potatoes, rye, beets, greens, berries, and mushrooms are locally grown, and dairy products are one of its specialties.", "Fish dishes are very popular in the coastal region.", "Since it shares its climate and agricultural practices with Northern Europe, Lithuanian cuisine has some similarities to Scandinavian cuisine.", "Nevertheless, it has its own distinguishing features, which were formed by a variety of influences during the country's long and difficult history.Dairy products are an important part of traditional Lithuanian cuisine.", "These include white cottage cheese (''varškės sūris''), curd (''varškė''), soured milk (''rūgpienis''), sour cream (''grietinė''), butter (''sviestas''), and sour cream butter ''kastinis''.", "Traditional meat products are usually seasoned, matured and smoked – smoked sausages (''dešros''), lard (''lašiniai''), ''skilandis'', smoked ham (''kumpis'').", "Soups (''sriubos'') – boletus soup (''baravykų sriuba''), cabbage soup (''kopūstų sriuba''), beer soup (''alaus sriuba''), milk soup (''pieniška sriuba''), cold-beet soup (''šaltibarščiai'') and various kinds of porridges (''košės'') are part of tradition and daily diet.", "Freshwater fish, herring, wild berries and mushrooms, honey are highly popular diet to this day.beer brewing traditions.One of the oldest and most fundamental Lithuanian food products was and is rye bread.", "Rye bread is eaten every day for breakfast, lunch and dinner.", "Bread played an important role in family rituals and agrarian ceremonies.Lithuanians and other nations that once formed part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania share many dishes and beverages.", "German traditions also influenced Lithuanian cuisine, introducing pork and potato dishes, such as potato pudding (''kugelis'' or kugel) and potato sausages (''vėdarai''), as well as the baroque tree cake known as ''Šakotis''.", "The most exotic of all the influences is Eastern (Karaite) cuisine – the ''kibinai'' are popular in Lithuania.", "Lithuanian noblemen usually hired French chefs, so French cuisine influence came to Lithuania in this way.Balts were using mead (''midus'') for thousands of years.", "Beer (''alus'') is the most common alcoholic beverage.", "Lithuania has a long farmhouse beer tradition, first mentioned in 11th century chronicles.", "Beer was brewed for ancient Baltic festivities and rituals.", "Farmhouse brewing survived to a greater extent in Lithuania than anywhere else, and through accidents of history the Lithuanians then developed a commercial brewing culture from their unique farmhouse traditions.", "Lithuania is top 5 by consumption of beer per capita in Europe in 2015, counting 75 active breweries, 32 of them are microbreweries.", "The microbrewery scene in Lithuania has been growing in later years, with a number of bars focusing on these beers popping up in Vilnius and also in other parts of the country.Eight Lithuanian restaurants are listed in the White Guide Baltic Top 30.===Media===The Constitution of Lithuania provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice.", "An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combine to promote these freedoms.", "However, the constitutional definition of freedom of expression does not protect certain acts, such as incitement to national, racial, religious, or social hatred, violence and discrimination, or slander, and disinformation.", "It is a crime to deny or \"grossly trivialize\" Soviet or Nazi German crimes against Lithuania or its citizens, or to deny genocide, crimes against humanity, or war crimes.In 2021, the best-selling daily national newspapers in Lithuania were ''Lietuvos rytas'' (5.4% of all weekly readers), '''' (3.2%), ''Kauno diena'' (2.9%).", "Best-selling weekly newspapers were '''' (16.5%), '''' (8.4%), ''Prie kavos'' (4.1%), ''Savaitgalis'' (3.9%) and ''Verslo žinios'' (3.2%).In 2021, the most popular national television channels in Lithuania were TV3 (34.6% of the daily auditorium), LNK (32.3%), Lithuanian National Radio and Television (31.6%), BTV (17.3%), Lietuvos rytas TV (16.2%), TV6 (15.3%).The most popular radio stations in Lithuania were M-1 (14.5% of daily listeners), ''Lietus'' (12.7%), ''Radiocentras'' (9.1%) and ''LRT Radijas'' (8.5%).===Public holidays and festivals===As a result of a thousand-years history, Lithuania has two National days.", "First one is the Statehood Day on 6 July, marking the establishment of the medieval Kingdom of Lithuania by Mindaugas in 1253.Creation of modern Lithuanian state is commemorated on 16 February as a Lithuanian State Reestablishment Day on which declaration of independence from Russia and Germany was declared in 1918.Joninės (previously known as ''Rasos'') is a public holiday with paganic roots that celebrates a solstice.", "As of 2018, there are 13 public holidays (which come with a day off).Kaziuko mugė is an annual fair held since the beginning of the 17th century that commemorates the anniversary of Saint Casimir's death and gathers thousands of visitors and many craftsmen.", "Other notable festivals are Vilnius International Film Festival, Kauno Miesto Diena, Klaipėda Sea Festival, Mados infekcija, Vilnius Book Fair, Vilnius Marathon, Devilstone Open Air, , Great Žemaičių Kalvarija Festival.===Sports===Basketball is the most popular and national sport of Lithuania.", "The Lithuania national basketball team has had significant success in international basketball events, having won the EuroBasket on three occasions (1937, 1939 and 2003), as well a total of 8 other medals in the Eurobasket, the World Championships and the Olympic Games.", "The men's national team also has extremely high TV ratings as about 76% of the country's population watched their games live in 2014.Lithuania hosted the Eurobasket in 1939 and 2011.The historic Lithuanian basketball team BC Žalgiris, from Kaunas, won the European basketball league Euroleague in 1999.Lithuania has produced a number of NBA players, including Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees Arvydas Sabonis and Šarūnas Marčiulionis, and current NBA players Jonas Valančiūnas, Domantas Sabonis, and Ignas Brazdeikis.Lithuania men's national basketball team is ranked eighth worldwide in FIBA Rankings.Lithuania has won a total of 26 medals at the Olympic Games, including 6 gold medals in athletics, modern pentathlon, shooting, and swimming.", "Numerous other Lithuanians won Olympic medals representing Soviet Union.", "Discus thrower Virgilijus Alekna is the most successful Olympic athlete of independent Lithuania, having won gold medals in the 2000 Sydney and 2004 Athens games, as well as a bronze in 2008 Summer Olympics and numerous World Championship medals.", "More recently, the gold medal won by a then 15-year-old swimmer Rūta Meilutytė at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London sparked a rise in popularity for the sport in Lithuania.Lithuania has produced prominent athletes in athletics, modern pentathlon, road and track cycling, chess, rowing, aerobatics, strongman, wrestling, boxing, mixed martial arts, Kyokushin Karate, and other sports.Lithuania hosted the 2021 FIFA Futsal World Cup, the first time Lithuania had hosted a FIFA tournament.Few Lithuanian athletes have found success in winter sports, although facilities are provided by several ice rinks and skiing slopes, including Snow Arena, the first indoor ski slope in the Baltics.", "In 2018 Lithuania men's national ice hockey team won gold medals at the 2018 IIHF World Championship Division I." ], [ "See also", "* Index of Lithuania-related articles* List of Lithuanians* Outline of Lithuania" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "; Government* The Lithuanian President – Official site of the President of the Republic of Lithuania* The Lithuanian Parliament – Official site of the Parliament of the Republic of Lithuania* The Lithuanian Government – Official site of the Government of the Republic of Lithuania* Statistics Lithuania – Official site of Department of Statistics to the Government of Lithuania* Lithuania – Real is Beautiful – The Official Travel Guide by the Lithuanian National Tourism Development Agency; General information* The Baltic States and geopolitics * Lithuania – Lithuanian internet gates* Lithuania.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Lithuania.", "CIA Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members of Foreign Governments * Lithuania from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''* * Lithuania from the BBC News* ; Other* Key Development Forecasts for Lithuania from International Futures* Heraldry of Lithuania*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Relativist fallacy" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''relativist fallacy''', also known as the '''subjectivist fallacy''', is claiming that something is true for one person but not true for someone else, when in fact that thing is an objective fact.", "The fallacy rests on the law of noncontradiction.", "The fallacy applies only to objective facts, or what are alleged to be objective facts, rather than to facts about personal tastes or subjective experiences, and only to facts regarded in the same sense and at the same time." ], [ "Interpretations", "There are at least two ways to interpret the relativist fallacy: either as identical to relativism (generally), or as the ad hoc adoption of a relativist stance purely to defend a controversial position.On the one hand, discussions of the relativist fallacy that portray it as ''identical to'' relativism (e.g., linguistic relativism or cultural relativism) are themselves committing a commonly identified fallacy of informal logic—namely, begging the question against an earnest, intelligent, logically competent relativist.", "It is itself a fallacy to describe a controversial view as a \"fallacy\"—not, at least, without arguing that it is a fallacy.", "In any event, it does not do to argue as follows:# To advocate relativism, even some sophisticated relativism, is to commit the relativist fallacy.# If one commits a fallacy, one says something false or not worth serious consideration.# Therefore, to advocate relativism, even some sophisticated relativism, is to say something false or not worth serious consideration.This is an example of circular reasoning.", "The second step includes an argument from fallacy.On the other hand, if someone adopts a simple relativist stance as an ad hoc defense of a controversial or otherwise compromised position—saying, in effect, that \"what is true for you is not necessarily true for me,\" and thereby attempting to avoid having to mount any further defense of the position—one might be said to have committed a fallacy.", "The accusation of having committed a fallacy might rest on either of two grounds: (1) the relativism on which the bogus defense rests is so simple and meritless that it straightforwardly contradicts the law of noncontradiction; or (2) the defense (and thus the fallacy itself) is an example of ad hoc reasoning.", "It puts one in the position of asserting or implying that truth or standards of logical consistency are relative to a particular thinker or group and that under some other standard, the position is correct despite its failure to stand up to logic.Determining whether someone has committed a relativist fallacy—by any interpretation—requires distinguishing between things that are true ''for'' a particular person, and things that are true ''about'' that person.", "Take, for example, the statement proffered by Alice: \"More Americans than ever are overweight.\"", "One may introduce arguments for and against this proposition, based upon such things as standards of statistical analysis, the definition of \"overweight,\" etc.", "The position answers to objective logical debate.", "If Bob answers Alice, saying \"That may be true for you, but it is not true for me,\" he has given an answer that is fallacious as well as somewhat meaningless in the context of Alice's original statement.Conversely, take the new statement by Alice, who is tall, \" is grossly overweight.\"", "Bob, who is , and weighs an exact, well-conditioned , replies, \"That may be true for you, but it is not true for me.\"", "In this context, Bob's reply is both meaningful and arguably accurate.", "As he is discussing something that is true ''about'' himself, he is not barred from making an argument that considers subjective facts, and so he does not commit the fallacy." ], [ "See also", "* I'm entitled to my opinion* Special pleading* Informal fallacy" ], [ "References", "* Law, Stephen (2005) Thinking Tools: The Relativist Fallacy, ''Think: Philosophy for everyone'' (A journal of the Royal Institute of Philosophy) 3: 57-58 y*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "False dilemma" ], [ "Introduction", "Young America's dilemma: Shall I be wise and great, or rich and powerful?", "(poster from 1901)A '''false dilemma''', also referred to as '''false dichotomy''' or '''false binary''', is an informal fallacy based on a premise that erroneously limits what options are available.", "The source of the fallacy lies not in an invalid form of inference but in a false premise.", "This premise has the form of a disjunctive claim: it asserts that one among a number of alternatives must be true.", "This disjunction is problematic because it oversimplifies the choice by excluding viable alternatives, presenting the viewer with only two absolute choices when in fact, there could be many.False dilemmas often have the form of treating two contraries, which may both be false, as contradictories, of which one is necessarily true.", "Various inferential schemes are associated with false dilemmas, for example, the constructive dilemma, the destructive dilemma or the disjunctive syllogism.", "False dilemmas are usually discussed in terms of deductive arguments, but they can also occur as defeasible arguments.The human liability to commit false dilemmas may be due to the tendency to simplify reality by ordering it through either-or-statements, which is to some extent already built into human language.", "This may also be connected to the tendency to insist on clear distinction while denying the vagueness of many common expressions." ], [ "Definition", "A ''false dilemma'' is an informal fallacy based on a premise that erroneously limits what options are available.", "In its most simple form, called the ''fallacy of bifurcation'', all but two alternatives are excluded.", "A fallacy is an argument, i.e.", "a series of premises together with a conclusion, that is unsound, i.e.", "not both valid and true.", "Fallacies are usually divided into ''formal'' and ''informal'' fallacies.", "Formal fallacies are unsound because of their structure, while informal fallacies are unsound because of their content.", "The problematic content in the case of the ''false dilemma'' has the form of a disjunctive claim: it asserts that one among a number of alternatives must be true.", "This disjunction is problematic because it oversimplifies the choice by excluding viable alternatives.", "Sometimes a distinction is made between a ''false dilemma'' and a ''false dichotomy''.", "On this view, the term \"false dichotomy\" refers to the false disjunctive claim while the term \"false dilemma\" refers not just to this claim but to the argument based on this claim." ], [ "Types", "=== Disjunction with contraries ===In its most common form, a ''false dilemma'' presents the alternatives as contradictories, while in truth they are merely contraries.", "Two propositions are contradictories if it has to be the case that one is true and the other is false.", "Two propositions are contraries if at most one of them can be true.", "But this leaves open the option that both of them might be false, which is not possible in the case of contradictories.", "Contradictories follow the law of the excluded middle but contraries do not.", "For example, the sentence \"the exact number of marbles in the urn is either 10 or not 10\" presents two contradictory alternatives.", "The sentence \"the exact number of marbles in the urn is either 10 or 11\" presents two contrary alternatives: the urn could also contain 2 marbles or 17 marbles or... A common form of using contraries in ''false dilemmas'' is to force a choice between extremes on the agent: someone is either good or bad, rich or poor, normal or abnormal.", "Such cases ignore that there is a continuous spectrum between the extremes that is excluded from the choice.", "While ''false dilemmas'' involving contraries, i.e.", "exclusive options, are a very common form, this is just a special case: there are also arguments with non-exclusive disjunctions that are false dilemmas.", "For example, a choice between security and freedom does not involve contraries since these two terms are compatible with each other.=== Logical forms ===In logic, there are two main types of inferences known as dilemmas: the constructive dilemma and the destructive dilemma.", "In their most simple form, they can be expressed in the following way:* simple constructive: * simple destructive: The source of the fallacy is found in the disjunctive claim in the third premise, i.e.", "and respectively.", "The following is an example of a ''false dilemma'' with the ''simple constructive form'': (1) \"If you tell the truth, you force your friend into a social tragedy; and therefore, are an immoral person\".", "(2) \"If you lie, you are an immoral person (since it is immoral to lie)\".", "(3) \"Either you tell the truth, or you lie\".", "Therefore \"you are an immoral person (whatever choice you make in the given situation)\".", "This example constitutes a false dilemma because there are other choices besides telling the truth and lying, like keeping silent.A false dilemma can also occur in the form of a disjunctive syllogism:* disjunctive syllogism: In this form, the first premise () is responsible for the fallacious inference.", "Lewis's trilemma is a famous example of this type of argument involving three disjuncts: \"Jesus was either a liar, a lunatic, or Lord\".", "By denying that Jesus was a liar or a lunatic, one is forced to draw the conclusion that he was God.", "But this leaves out various other alternatives, for example, that Jesus was a prophet, as claimed by the Muslims.=== Deductive and defeasible arguments ===False dilemmas are usually discussed in terms of deductive arguments.", "But they can also occur as defeasible arguments.", "A valid argument is deductive if the truth of its premises ensures the truth of its conclusion.", "For a valid defeasible argument, on the other hand, it is possible for all its premises to be true and the conclusion to be false.", "The premises merely offer a certain degree of support for the conclusion but do not ensure it.", "In the case of a defeasible false dilemma, the support provided for the conclusion is overestimated since various alternatives are not considered in the disjunctive premise." ], [ "Explanation and avoidance", "Part of understanding ''fallacies'' involves going beyond logic to empirical psychology in order to ''explain'' why there is a tendency to commit or fall for the fallacy in question.", "In the case of the ''false dilemma'', the tendency to simplify reality by ordering it through either-or-statements may play an important role.", "This tendency is to some extent built into human language, which is full of pairs of opposites.", "This type of simplification is sometimes necessary to make decisions when there is not enough time to get a more detailed perspective.In order to ''avoid'' false dilemmas, the agent should become aware of additional options besides the prearranged alternatives.", "Critical thinking and creativity may be necessary to see through the ''false dichotomy'' and to discover new alternatives." ], [ "Relation to distinctions and vagueness", "Some philosophers and scholars believe that \"unless a distinction can be made rigorous and precise it isn't really a distinction\".", "An exception is analytic philosopher John Searle, who called it an incorrect assumption that produces false dichotomies.", "Searle insists that \"it is a condition of the adequacy of a precise theory of an indeterminate phenomenon that it should precisely characterize that phenomenon as indeterminate; and a distinction is no less a distinction for allowing for a family of related, marginal, diverging cases.\"", "Similarly, when two options are presented, they often are, although not always, two extreme points on some spectrum of possibilities; this may lend credence to the larger argument by giving the impression that the options are mutually exclusive, even though they need not be.", "Furthermore, the options in false dichotomies typically are presented as being collectively exhaustive, in which case the fallacy may be overcome, or at least weakened, by considering other possibilities, or perhaps by considering a whole spectrum of possibilities, as in fuzzy logic.This issue arises from real dichotomies in nature, the most prevalent example is the occurrence of an event.", "It either happened or it did not happen.", "This ontology sets a logical construct that cannot be reasonably applied to epistemology." ], [ "Examples", "===False choice===The presentation of a '''false choice''' often reflects a deliberate attempt to eliminate several options that may occupy the middle ground on an issue.", "A common argument against noise pollution laws involves a false choice.", "It might be argued that in New York City noise should not be regulated, because if it were, a number of businesses would be required to close.", "This argument assumes that, for example, a bar must be shut down to prevent disturbing levels of noise emanating from it after midnight.", "This ignores the fact that law could require the bar to lower its noise levels, or install soundproofing structural elements to keep the noise from excessively transmitting onto others' properties.===Black-and-white thinking===In psychology, a phenomenon related to the false dilemma is \"black-and-white thinking\" or \"thinking in black and white\".", "There are people who routinely engage in black-and-white thinking, an example of which is someone who categorizes other people as all good or all bad." ], [ "Similar concepts", "Various different terms are used to refer to ''false dilemmas''.", "Some of the following terms are equivalent to the term \"false dilemma\", some refer to special forms of false dilemmas and others refer to closely related concepts.", "* '''bifurcation fallacy'''* '''black-or-white fallacy'''* '''denying a conjunct''' (similar to a false dichotomy: see )* double bind* '''either/or fallacy'''* '''fallacy of exhaustive hypotheses'''* '''fallacy of the excluded middle'''* fallacy of the '''false alternative'''* '''false binary'''* '''false choice'''* '''false dichotomy'''* '''invalid disjunction'''* '''no middle ground'''" ], [ "See also", "* Attention theft* Bivalence* Choice architecture* Degrees of truth* Dichotomy* Euthyphro dilemma* Fallacy of the single cause* Half-truth* Hobson's choice* Law of excluded middle* Lewis' trilemma* Loaded question* Love–hate relationship* Many-valued logic* Mise-en-scène* Morton's fork* Mutually exclusive* Narrowcasting* Nolan Chart* Nondualism* None of the above* Obscurantism* Pascal's Wager* Perspectivism* Political systems One-party system Two-party system* Rogerian argument* Show election* Slippery slope* Sorites paradox* Splitting (psychology)* Trick question* Straw man* Thinking outside the box* Unreasonable* You're either with us, or against us* Zero-sum thinking" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Black-or-White Fallacy entry in ''The Fallacy Files''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Loaded question" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''loaded question''' is a form of complex question that contains a controversial assumption (e.g., a presumption of guilt).Such questions may be used as a rhetorical tool: the question attempts to limit direct replies to be those that serve the questioner's agenda.", "The traditional example is the question \"Have you stopped beating your wife?\"", "Whether the respondent answers yes or no, they will admit to having beaten their wife at some time in the past.", "Thus, these facts are ''presupposed'' by the question, and in this case an entrapment, because it narrows the respondent to a single answer, and the fallacy of many questions has been committed.", "The fallacy relies upon context for its effect: the fact that a question presupposes something does not in itself make the question fallacious.", "Only when some of these presuppositions are not necessarily agreed to by the person who is asked the question does the argument containing them become fallacious.", "Hence, the same question may be loaded in one context, but not in the other.", "For example, the previous question would not be loaded if it were asked during a trial in which the defendant had already admitted to beating his wife.This informal fallacy should be distinguished from that of begging the question, which offers a premise whose plausibility depends on the truth of the proposition asked about, and which is often an implicit restatement of the proposition." ], [ "Defense", "A common way out of this argument is not to answer the question (e.g.", "with a simple 'yes' or 'no'), but to challenge the assumption behind the question.", "To use an earlier example, a good response to the question \"Have you stopped beating your wife?\"", "would be \"I have ''never'' beaten my wife\".", "This removes the ambiguity of the expected response, therefore nullifying the tactic.", "However, the asker may respond to a challenge by accusing the one who answers of dodging the question." ], [ "Historical examples", "Diogenes Laërtius wrote a brief biography of the philosopher Menedemus in which he relates that: For another example, the 2009 referendum on corporal punishment in New Zealand asked: \"Should a smack as part of good parental correction be a criminal offence in New Zealand?\"", "Murray Edridge, of Barnardos New Zealand, criticized the question as \"loaded and ambiguous\" and claimed \"the question presupposes that smacking is a part of good parental correction\"." ], [ "See also", "* Barber paradox* Complex question* Entailment (pragmatics)* False dilemma* Gotcha journalism* Implicature* Leading question* Mu (negative)* Presupposition* Suggestive question* List of fallacies" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Fallacy: Loaded Questions and Complex Claims Critical Thinking exercises.", "San Jose State University.", "* Logical Fallacy: Loaded Question The Fallacy Files* What Is The Loaded Question Fallacy?", "Definition and Examples Fallacy in Logic" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Irrelevant conclusion" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''irrelevant conclusion''', also known as or '''missing the point''', is the informal fallacy of presenting an argument that may or may not be logically valid and sound, but (whose conclusion) fails to address the issue in question.", "It falls into the broad class of relevance fallacies.The irrelevant conclusion should not be confused with formal fallacy, an argument whose conclusion does not follow from its premises; instead, it is that despite its formal consistency it is not relevant to the subject being talked about." ], [ "Overview", "''Ignoratio elenchi'' is one of the fallacies identified by Aristotle in his ''Organon''.", "In a broader sense he asserted that all fallacies are a form of ''ignoratio elenchi''.● '''Example 1''': A and B are debating as to whether criticizing indirectly has any merit in general.", "attempts to support their position with an argument that politics ought not to be criticized on social media because the message is not directly being heard by the head of state; this would make them guilty of ''ignoratio elenchi'', as people such as B may be criticizing politics because they have a strong message for their peers, or because they wish to bring attention to political matters, rather than ever intending that their views would be directly read by the president.● '''Example 2''': A and B are debating about the law.B missed the point.", "The question was not if B's neighbor believes that law should allow, but rather if the law does allow it or not.Samuel Johnson's unique \"refutation\" of Bishop Berkeley's immaterialism, his claim that matter did not actually exist but only seemed to exist, has been described as ''ignoratio elenchi'': during a conversation with Boswell, Johnson powerfully kicked a nearby stone and proclaimed of Berkeley's theory, \"I refute it ''thus''!\"", "(See also ''argumentum ad lapidem''.", ")A related concept is that of the red herring, which is a deliberate attempt to divert a process of enquiry by changing the subject.", "''Ignoratio elenchi'' is sometimes confused with straw man argument." ], [ "Etymology", "The phrase ''ignoratio elenchi'' is .", "Here ''elenchi'' is the genitive singular of the Latin noun ''elenchus'', which is .", "The translation in English of the Latin expression has varied somewhat.", "Hamblin proposed \"misconception of refutation\" or \"ignorance of refutation\" as a literal translation, John Arthur Oesterle preferred \"ignoring the issue\", and Irving Copi, Christopher Tindale and others used \"irrelevant conclusion\"." ], [ "See also", "* ''Ad hominem''* Begging the question* Chewbacca defense* Enthymeme* Evasion (ethics)* Genetic fallacy* List of fallacies* ''Non sequitur'' (logic)* Sophism* Tone policing" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===* " ], [ "External links", " Appeal to Authority Breakdown, Examples, Definitions, & More* Nizkor Project: Red Herring* Fallacy Files: Red Herring* The Phrase Finder: Red Herring* The Art of Controversy: Diversion (bilingual with the original German) by Arthur Schopenhauer* Red herring in political speech" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Equivocation" ], [ "Introduction", "In logic, '''equivocation''' (\"calling two different things by the same name\") is an informal fallacy resulting from the use of a particular word/expression in multiple senses within an argument.It is a type of ambiguity that stems from a phrase having two or more distinct meanings, not from the grammar or structure of the sentence." ], [ "Fallacy of four terms", "Equivocation in a syllogism (a chain of reasoning) produces a fallacy of four terms ().", "Below is an example:: Since only man human is rational.", ": And no woman is a man male.", ": Therefore, no woman is rational.The first instance of \"man\" implies the entire human species, while the second implies just those who are male." ], [ "Motte-and-bailey fallacy", "Equivocation can also be used to conflate two positions which share similarities, one modest and easy to defend and one much more controversial.", "The arguer advances the controversial position, but when challenged, they insist that they are only advancing the more modest position." ], [ "See also", "* Antanaclasis: a related purposeful rhetorical device* Circumlocution: phrasing to explain something without saying it* Etymological fallacy: a kind of linguistic misconception* Evasion (ethics): tell the truth while deceiving* False equivalence: fallacy based on flawed reasoning* If-by-whiskey: an example* Mental reservation: a doctrine in moral theology* No true Scotsman: changing a definition to exclude a counter-example* Persuasive definition: skewed definition of term* Plausible deniability: a blame-shifting technique* Polysemy: the property of word or phrase having certain type of multiple meanings* Principle of explosion: one of the fundamental laws in logic* Syntactic ambiguity, Amphiboly, Amphibology: ambiguity of a sentence by its grammatical structure* When a white horse is not a horse: an example* Map-territory relation: concept that words used to describe an underlying reality are arbitrary abstractions not to be confused with the reality itself" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Sampling bias" ], [ "Introduction", "In statistics, '''sampling bias''' is a bias in which a sample is collected in such a way that some members of the intended population have a lower or higher sampling probability than others.", "It results in a '''biased sample''' of a population (or non-human factors) in which all individuals, or instances, were not equally likely to have been selected.", "If this is not accounted for, results can be erroneously attributed to the phenomenon under study rather than to the method of sampling.Medical sources sometimes refer to sampling bias as '''ascertainment bias'''.", "Ascertainment bias has basically the same definition, but is still sometimes classified as a separate type of bias." ], [ "Distinction from selection bias", "Sampling bias is usually classified as a subtype of selection bias, sometimes specifically termed '''sample selection bias''', but some classify it as a separate type of bias.A distinction, albeit not universally accepted, of sampling bias is that it undermines the external validity of a test (the ability of its results to be generalized to the entire population), while selection bias mainly addresses internal validity for differences or similarities found in the sample at hand.", "In this sense, errors occurring in the process of gathering the sample or cohort cause sampling bias, while errors in any process thereafter cause selection bias.However, selection bias and sampling bias are often used synonymously." ], [ "Types", "* Selection from a '''specific real area'''.", "For example, a survey of high school students to measure teenage use of illegal drugs will be a biased sample because it does not include home-schooled students or dropouts.", "A sample is also biased if certain members are underrepresented or overrepresented relative to others in the population.", "For example, a \"man on the street\" interview which selects people who walk by a certain location is going to have an overrepresentation of healthy individuals who are more likely to be out of the home than individuals with a chronic illness.", "This may be an extreme form of biased sampling, because certain members of the population are totally excluded from the sample (that is, they have zero probability of being selected).", "* '''Self-selection''' bias (see also Non-response bias), which is possible whenever the group of people being studied has any form of control over whether to participate (as current standards of human-subject research ethics require for many real-time and some longitudinal forms of study).", "Participants' decision to participate may be correlated with traits that affect the study, making the participants a non-representative sample.", "For example, people who have strong opinions or substantial knowledge may be more willing to spend time answering a survey than those who do not.", "Another example is online and phone-in polls, which are biased samples because the respondents are self-selected.", "Those individuals who are highly motivated to respond, typically individuals who have strong opinions, are overrepresented, and individuals that are indifferent or apathetic are less likely to respond.", "This often leads to a polarization of responses with extreme perspectives being given a disproportionate weight in the summary.", "As a result, these types of polls are regarded as unscientific.", "* '''Exclusion''' bias results from exclusion of particular groups from the sample, e.g.", "exclusion of subjects who have recently migrated into the study area (this may occur when newcomers are not available in a register used to identify the source population).", "Excluding subjects who move out of the study area during follow-up is rather equivalent of dropout or nonresponse, a selection bias in that it rather affects the internal validity of the study.", "* '''Healthy user bias''', when the study population is likely healthier than the general population.", "For example, someone in poor health is unlikely to have a job as manual laborer, so if a study is conducted on manual laborers, the health of the general population will likely be overestimated.", "* '''Berkson's fallacy''', when the study population is selected from a hospital and so is less healthy than the general population.", "This can result in a spurious negative correlation between diseases: a hospital patient without diabetes is ''more'' likely to have another given disease such as cholecystitis, since they must have had some reason to enter the hospital in the first place.", "* '''Overmatching''', matching for an apparent confounder that actually is a result of the exposure.", "The control group becomes more similar to the cases in regard to exposure than does the general population.", "* '''Survivorship bias''', in which only \"surviving\" subjects are selected, ignoring those that fell out of view.", "For example, using the record of current companies as an indicator of business climate or economy ignores the businesses that failed and no longer exist.", "* '''Malmquist bias''', an effect in observational astronomy which leads to the preferential detection of intrinsically bright objects.", "* '''Spotlight fallacy''', the uncritical assumption that all members or cases of a certain class or type are like those that receive the most attention or coverage in the media.===Symptom-based sampling===The study of medical conditions begins with anecdotal reports.", "By their nature, such reports only include those referred for diagnosis and treatment.", "A child who can't function in school is more likely to be diagnosed with dyslexia than a child who struggles but passes.", "A child examined for one condition is more likely to be tested for and diagnosed with other conditions, skewing comorbidity statistics.", "As certain diagnoses become associated with behavior problems or intellectual disability, parents try to prevent their children from being stigmatized with those diagnoses, introducing further bias.", "Studies carefully selected from whole populations are showing that many conditions are much more common and usually much milder than formerly believed.===Truncate selection in pedigree studies===Simple pedigree example of sampling biasGeneticists are limited in how they can obtain data from human populations.", "As an example, consider a human characteristic.", "We are interested in deciding if the characteristic is inherited as a simple Mendelian trait.", "Following the laws of Mendelian inheritance, if the parents in a family do not have the characteristic, but carry the allele for it, they are carriers (e.g.", "a non-expressive heterozygote).", "In this case their children will each have a 25% chance of showing the characteristic.", "The problem arises because we can't tell which families have both parents as carriers (heterozygous) unless they have a child who exhibits the characteristic.", "The description follows the textbook by Sutton.The figure shows the pedigrees of all the possible families with two children when the parents are carriers (Aa).", "* '''Nontruncate selection'''.", "In a perfect world we should be able to discover all such families with a gene including those who are simply carriers.", "In this situation the analysis would be free from ascertainment bias and the pedigrees would be under \"nontruncate selection\" In practice, most studies identify, and include, families in a study based upon them having affected individuals.", "* '''Truncate selection'''.", "When afflicted ''individuals'' have an equal chance of being included in a study this is called truncate selection, signifying the inadvertent exclusion (truncation) of families who are carriers for a gene.", "Because selection is performed on the individual level, families with two or more affected children would have a higher probability of becoming included in the study.", "* '''Complete truncate selection''' is a special case where each ''family'' with an affected child has an equal chance of being selected for the study.The probabilities of each of the families being selected is given in the figure, with the sample frequency of affected children also given.", "In this simple case, the researcher will look for a frequency of or for the characteristic, depending on the type of truncate selection used.===The caveman effect===An example of selection bias is called the \"caveman effect\".", "Much of our understanding of prehistoric peoples comes from caves, such as cave paintings made nearly 40,000 years ago.", "If there had been contemporary paintings on trees, animal skins or hillsides, they would have been washed away long ago.", "Similarly, evidence of fire pits, middens, burial sites, etc.", "are most likely to remain intact to the modern era in caves.", "Prehistoric people are associated with caves because that is where the data still exists, not necessarily because most of them lived in caves for most of their lives." ], [ "Problems due to sampling bias", "Sampling bias is problematic because it is possible that a statistic computed of the sample is systematically erroneous.", "Sampling bias can lead to a systematic over- or under-estimation of the corresponding parameter in the population.", "Sampling bias occurs in practice as it is practically impossible to ensure perfect randomness in sampling.", "If the degree of misrepresentation is small, then the sample can be treated as a reasonable approximation to a random sample.", "Also, if the sample does not differ markedly in the quantity being measured, then a biased sample can still be a reasonable estimate.The word bias has a strong negative connotation.", "Indeed, biases sometimes come from deliberate intent to mislead or other scientific fraud.", "In statistical usage, bias merely represents a mathematical property, no matter if it is deliberate or unconscious or due to imperfections in the instruments used for observation.", "While some individuals might deliberately use a biased sample to produce misleading results, more often, a biased sample is just a reflection of the difficulty in obtaining a truly representative sample, or ignorance of the bias in their process of measurement or analysis.", "An example of how ignorance of a bias can exist is in the widespread use of a ratio (a.k.a.", "fold change) as a measure of difference in biology.", "Because it is easier to achieve a large ratio with two small numbers with a given difference, and relatively more difficult to achieve a large ratio with two large numbers with a larger difference, large significant differences may be missed when comparing relatively large numeric measurements.", "Some have called this a 'demarcation bias' because the use of a ratio (division) instead of a difference (subtraction) removes the results of the analysis from science into pseudoscience (See Demarcation Problem).Some samples use a biased statistical design which nevertheless allows the estimation of parameters.", "The U.S. National Center for Health Statistics, for example, deliberately oversamples from minority populations in many of its nationwide surveys in order to gain sufficient precision for estimates within these groups.", "These surveys require the use of sample weights (see later on) to produce proper estimates across all ethnic groups.", "Provided that certain conditions are met (chiefly that the weights are calculated and used correctly) these samples permit accurate estimation of population parameters." ], [ "Historical examples", "Example of biased sample: as of June 2008 55% of web browsers (Internet Explorer) in use did not pass the Acid2 test.", "Due to the nature of the test, the sample consisted mostly of web developers.A classic example of a biased sample and the misleading results it produced occurred in 1936.In the early days of opinion polling, the American ''Literary Digest'' magazine collected over two million postal surveys and predicted that the Republican candidate in the U.S. presidential election, Alf Landon, would beat the incumbent president, Franklin Roosevelt, by a large margin.", "The result was the exact opposite.", "The Literary Digest survey represented a sample collected from readers of the magazine, supplemented by records of registered automobile owners and telephone users.", "This sample included an over-representation of wealthy individuals, who, as a group, were more likely to vote for the Republican candidate.", "In contrast, a poll of only 50 thousand citizens selected by George Gallup's organization successfully predicted the result, leading to the popularity of the Gallup poll.Another classic example occurred in the 1948 presidential election.", "On election night, the Chicago Tribune printed the headline ''DEWEY DEFEATS TRUMAN'', which turned out to be mistaken.", "In the morning the grinning president-elect, Harry S. Truman, was photographed holding a newspaper bearing this headline.", "The reason the Tribune was mistaken is that their editor trusted the results of a phone survey.", "Survey research was then in its infancy, and few academics realized that a sample of telephone users was not representative of the general population.", "Telephones were not yet widespread, and those who had them tended to be prosperous and have stable addresses.", "(In many cities, the Bell System telephone directory contained the same names as the Social Register).", "In addition, the Gallup poll that the Tribune based its headline on was over two weeks old at the time of the printing.In air quality data, pollutants (such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, or ozone) frequently show high correlations, as they stem from the same chemical process(es).", "These correlations depend on space (i.e., location) and time (i.e., period).", "Therefore, a pollutant distribution is not necessarily representative for every location and every period.", "If a low-cost measurement instrument is calibrated with field data in a multivariate manner, more precisely by collocation next to a reference instrument, the relationships between the different compounds are incorporated into the calibration model.", "By relocation of the measurement instrument, erroneous results can be produced.A twenty-first century example is the COVID-19 pandemic, where variations in sampling bias in COVID-19 testing have been shown to account for wide variations in both case fatality rates and the age distribution of cases across countries." ], [ "Statistical corrections for a biased sample", "If entire segments of the population are excluded from a sample, then there are no adjustments that can produce estimates that are representative of the entire population.", "But if some groups are underrepresented and the degree of underrepresentation can be quantified, then sample weights can correct the bias.", "However, the success of the correction is limited to the selection model chosen.", "If certain variables are missing the methods used to correct the bias could be inaccurate.For example, a hypothetical population might include 10 million men and 10 million women.", "Suppose that a biased sample of 100 patients included 20 men and 80 women.", "A researcher could correct for this imbalance by attaching a weight of 2.5 for each male and 0.625 for each female.", "This would adjust any estimates to achieve the same expected value as a sample that included exactly 50 men and 50 women, unless men and women differed in their likelihood of taking part in the survey." ], [ "See also", "* Censored regression model* Cherry picking (fallacy)* File drawer problem* Friendship paradox* Reporting bias* Sampling probability* Selection bias* Common source bias* Spectrum bias* Truncated regression model" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Post hoc" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Post hoc''''' (sometimes written as '''''post-hoc''''') is a Latin phrase, meaning \"after this\" or \"after the event\".", "'''''Post hoc''''' may refer to:''Post hoc'' analysis or ''post hoc'' test, statistical analyses that were not specified before the data were seen''Post hoc'' theorizing, generating hypotheses based on data already observed''Post hoc ergo propter hoc'' (after this, therefore because of this), a logical fallacy of causation \"Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc\" (''The West Wing''), an episode of the television series ''The West Wing''" ], [ "See also", "* ''Propter hoc'' (disambiguation)* ''A priori'' and ''a posteriori'', Latin phrases used in philosophy meaning \"from earlier\" and \"from later\"''Ex post'', Latin phrase meaning \"after the event\"''Ad hoc'', a solution designed for a specific problem or task, Latin meaning \"for this\"" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "No true Scotsman" ], [ "Introduction", "'''No true Scotsman''' or '''appeal to purity''' is an informal fallacy in which one attempts to protect their generalized statement from a falsifying counterexample by excluding the counterexample improperly.", "Rather than abandoning the falsified universal generalization or providing evidence that would disqualify the falsifying counterexample, a slightly modified generalization is constructed ad-hoc to definitionally exclude the undesirable specific case and similar counterexamples by appeal to rhetoric.", "This rhetoric takes the form of emotionally charged but nonsubstantive purity platitudes such as \"true\", \"pure\", \"genuine\", \"authentic\", \"real\", etc.Philosophy professor Bradley Dowden explains the fallacy as an \"ad hoc rescue\" of a refuted generalization attempt.", "The following is a simplified rendition of the fallacy:Person A: \"No Scotsman puts sugar on his porridge.", "\"Person B: \"But my uncle Angus is a Scotsman and he puts sugar on his porridge.", "\"Person A: \"But no Scotsman puts sugar on his porridge.\"" ], [ "Occurrence", "The \"no true Scotsman\" fallacy is committed when the arguer satisfies the following conditions: * not publicly retreating from the initial, falsified assertion* offering a modified assertion that definitionally excludes a targeted unwanted counterexample* using rhetoric to hide the modificationAn appeal to purity is commonly associated with protecting a preferred group.", "Scottish national pride may be at stake if someone regularly considered to be Scottish commits a heinous crime.", "To protect people of Scottish heritage from a possible accusation of guilt by association, one may use this fallacy to deny that the group is associated with this undesirable member or action.", "\"No Scotsman would do something so undesirable\"; i.e., the people who would do such a thing are tautologically (definitionally) excluded from being part of our group such that they cannot serve as a counterexample to the group's good nature." ], [ "Origin and other examples", "The description of the fallacy in this form is attributed to British philosopher Antony Flew, who wrote, in his 1966 book ''God & Philosophy'', In his 1975 book ''Thinking About Thinking'', Flew wrote:The essayist David P. Goldman, writing under his pseudonym \"Spengler\", compared distinguishing between \"mature\" democracies, which never start wars, and \"emerging democracies\", which may start them, with the \"no true Scotsman\" fallacy.", "Spengler alleges that political scientists have attempted to save the \"US academic dogma\" that democracies never start wars against other democracies from counterexamples by declaring any democracy which does indeed start a war against another democracy to be flawed, thus maintaining that no democracy starts a war against a fellow democracy.Author Steven Pinker suggested that phrases like \"no true Christian ever kills, no true communist state is repressive and no true Trump supporter endorses violence\" exemplify the fallacy." ], [ "See also", "* ''Ad hoc'' hypothesis* Begging the question* Democrat In Name Only* Epistemic commitment* Equivocation* Gatekeeping* List of fallacies* Loaded language* Moving the goalposts* Persuasive definition* Reification (fallacy)* Republican In Name Only* Special pleading* Tautology (language)* True Pole* Whataboutism" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Slippery slope" ], [ "Introduction", "women got the right to vote.\|alt=Black and white cartoon of a tall woman in a dress reaching her knees and a shorter man holding a bouquet.", "Both are in front of a robed figure.", "Each of the marrying couples has a couple of their same-sex and similar attire behind.In a '''slippery slope argument''', a course of action is rejected because the slippery slope advocate believes it will lead to a chain reaction resulting in an undesirable end or ends.", "The core of the slippery slope argument is that a specific decision under debate is likely to result in unintended consequences.", "The strength of such an argument depends on whether the small step really is likely to lead to the effect.", "This is quantified in terms of what is known as the warrant (in this case, a demonstration of the process that leads to the significant effect).", "This type of argument is often used as a form of fearmongering in which the probable consequences of a given action are exaggerated in an attempt to scare the audience.When the initial step is not demonstrably likely to result in the claimed effects, this is called the '''slippery slope fallacy'''.", "This is a type of informal fallacy, and is a subset of continuum fallacy, in that it ignores the possibility of middle ground and assumes a discrete transition from category A to category B.", "Other idioms for the slippery slope fallacy are the '''thin edge of the wedge''', '''domino fallacy''' (as a form of domino effect argument) or ''dam burst'', and various other terms that are sometimes considered distinct argument types or reasoning flaws, such as the ''camel's nose in the tent'', ''parade of horribles'', ''boiling frog'', and ''snowball effect''." ], [ "Slopes, arguments, and fallacies", "Some writers distinguish between a slippery slope and a slippery slope .", "A slippery slope can be represented by a series of conditional statements, namely:The idea being that through a series of intermediate steps, will imply .", "Some writers point out that strict necessity isn't required and it can still be characterized as a slippery slope if at each stage the next step is plausible.", "With strict implication, will imply , but if at each step the probability is 90%, for example, then the more steps there are, the less likely it becomes that will cause .A slippery slope is typically a negative argument where there is an attempt to discourage someone from taking a course of action because if they do it will lead to some unacceptable conclusion.", "Some writers point out that an argument with the same structure might be used in a positive way in which someone is encouraged to take the first step because it leads to a desirable conclusion.If someone is of using a slippery slope argument then it is being suggested they are guilty of fallacious reasoning, and while they are claiming that implies , for whatever reason, this is not the case.", "In logic and critical thinking textbooks, slippery slopes and slippery slope arguments are normally discussed as a form of , although there may be an acknowledgement that non-fallacious forms of the argument can also exist." ], [ "Types of argument", "Different writers have classified slippery slope arguments in different and often contradictory ways, but there are two basic types of argument that have been described as slippery slope arguments.", "One type has been called ''the causal slippery slope'', and the distinguishing feature of this type is that the various steps leading from p to z are events with each event being the cause of the next in the sequence.", "The second type might be called ''the judgmental slippery slope'' with the idea being that the 'slope' does not consist of a series of events but is such that, for whatever reason, if a person makes one particular judgment they will rationally have to make another and so on.", "The judgmental type may be further sub-divided into conceptual slippery slopes and decisional slippery slopes.Conceptual slippery slopes, which Trudy Govier calls ''the fallacy of slippery assimilation'', are closely related to the sorites paradox.", "So, in the context of talking about slippery slopes, Merilee Salmon writes: \"The slippery slope is an ancient form of reasoning.", "According to van Fraassen (''The Scientific Image''), the argument is found in Sextus Empiricus that incest is not immoral, on the grounds that 'touching your mother's big toe with your little finger is not immoral, and all the rest differs only by degree.Decisional slippery slopes are similar to conceptual slippery slopes in that they rely on there being a continuum with no clear dividing lines such that if you decide to accept one position or course of action then there will, either now or in the future, be no rational grounds for not accepting the next position or course of action in the sequence.The difficulty in classifying slippery slope arguments is that there is no clear consensus in the literature as to how terminology should be used.", "It has been said that whilst these two fallacies \"have a relationship which may justify treating them together\", they are also distinct, and \"the fact that they share a name is unfortunate\".", "Some writers treat them side by side but emphasize how they differ.", "Some writers use the term ''slippery slope'' to refer to one kind of argument but not the other, but don't agree on which one, whilst others use the term to refer to both.", "So, for example: Christopher Tindale gives a definition that only fits the causal type.", "He says: \"Slippery Slope reasoning is a type of negative reasoning from consequences, distinguished by the presence of a causal chain leading from the proposed action to the negative outcome.", "\"Merrilee Salmon describes the fallacy as a failure to recognise that meaningful distinctions can be drawn and even casts the \"domino theory\" in that light.", "Douglas N. Walton says that an essential feature of slippery slopes is a \"loss of control\" and this only fits with the decisional type of slippery slope.", "He says that, \"The domino argument has a sequence of events in which each one in the sequence causes the next one to happen in such a manner that once the first event occurs it will lead to the next event, and so forth, until the last event in the sequence finally occurs…(and)…is clearly different from the slippery slope argument, but can be seen as a part of it, and closely related to it.\"" ], [ "Metaphor and its alternatives", "The metaphor of the \"slippery slope\" dates back at least to Cicero's essay ''Laelius de Amicitia'' (XII.41).", "The title character Gaius Laelius Sapiens uses the metaphor to describe the decline of the Republic upon the impending election of Gaius Gracchus: \"Affairs soon move on, for they glide readily down the path of ruin when once they have taken a start.", "\"===Thin end of a wedge===Walton suggests Alfred Sidgwick should be credited as the first writer on informal logic to describe what would today be called a slippery slope argument.", "Sidgwick wrote in 1910: Sidgwick says this is \"popularly known as the objection to a thin end of a wedge\" but might be classified now as a decisional slippery slope.", "However, the wedge metaphor also captures the idea that unpleasant end result is a wider application of a principle associated with the initial decision which is often a feature of decisional slippery slopes due to their incremental nature but may be absent from causal slippery slopes.===Domino fallacy===T.", "Edward Damer, in his book ''Attacking Faulty Reasoning'', describes what others might call a causal slippery slope but says:Instead Damer prefers to call it the ''domino fallacy''.", "Howard Kahane suggests that the domino variation of the fallacy has gone out of fashion because it was tied to the domino theory for the United States becoming involved in the war in Vietnam and although the U.S. lost that war, \"it is primarily communist dominoes that have fallen\".===Dam burst===Frank Saliger notes that \"in the German-speaking world the dramatic image of ''the dam burst'' seems to predominate, in English speaking circles talk is more of the slippery slope argument\", and that \"in German writing dam burst and slippery slope arguments are treated as broadly synonymous.", "In particular the structural analyses of slippery slope arguments derived from English writing are largely transferred directly to the dam burst argument.\"", "In exploring the differences between the two metaphors, he comments that in the dam burst the initial action is clearly in the foreground and there is a rapid movement towards the resulting events whereas in the slippery slope metaphor the downward slide has at least equal prominence to the initial action and it \"conveys the impression of a slower 'step-by-step' process where the decision maker as participant slides inexorably downwards under the weight of its own successive (erroneous) decisions\".", "Despite these differences Saliger continues to treat the two metaphors as being synonymous.", "Walton argues that although the two are comparable \"the metaphor of the dam bursting carries with it no essential element of a sequence of steps from an initial action through a gray zone with its accompanying loss of control eventuated in the ultimate outcome of the ruinous disaster.", "For these reasons, it seems best to propose drawing a distinction between dam burst arguments and slippery slope arguments.", "\"===Other metaphors===Eric Lode notes that:Bruce Waller says it is lawyers who often call it the \"parade of horribles\" argument while politicians seem to favor \"the camel's nose is in the tent\".The 1985 best-selling children's book ''If You Give a Mouse a Cookie'' by Laura Joffe Numeroff and Felicia Bond popularized the general idea of the slippery slope for recent generations." ], [ "Defining features of slippery slope arguments", "Given the disagreement over what constitutes a genuine slippery slope argument, it is to be expected that there are differences in the way they are defined.", "Lode says that \"although all SSAs share certain features, they are a family of related arguments rather than a class of arguments whose members all share the same form.", "\"Various writers have attempted to produce a general taxonomy of these different kinds of slippery slope.", "Other writers have given a general definition that will encompass the diversity of slippery slope arguments.", "Eugene Volokh says, \"I think the most useful definition of a slippery slope is one that covers all situations where decision A, which you might find appealing, ends up materially increasing the probability that others will bring about decision B, which you oppose.", "\"Those who hold that slippery slopes are causal generally give a simple definition, provide some appropriate examples and perhaps add some discussion as to the difficulty of determining whether the argument is reasonable or fallacious.", "Most of the more detailed analysis of slippery slopes has been done by those who hold that genuine slippery slopes are of the decisional kind.Lode, having claimed that SSAs are not a single class of arguments whose members all share the same form, nevertheless goes on to suggest the following common features.Rizzo and Whitman identify slightly different features.", "They say, \"Although there is no paradigm case of the slippery slope argument, there are characteristic features of all such arguments.", "The key components of slippery slope arguments are three:#An initial, seemingly acceptable argument and decision;#A \"danger case\"—a later argument and decision that are clearly unacceptable;#A \"process\" or \"mechanism\" by which accepting the initial argument and making the initial decision raise the likelihood of accepting the later argument and making the later decision.", "\"Walton notes that these three features will be common to all slippery slopes but objects that there needs to be more clarity on the nature of the 'mechanism' and a way of distinguishing between slippery slope arguments and arguments from negative consequences.Corner et al.", "say that a slippery slope has \"four distinct components:The alleged danger lurking on the slippery slope is the fear that a presently unacceptable proposal (C) will (by any number of psychological processes—see, e.g., ) in the future be re-evaluated as acceptable.", "\"Walton adds the requirement that there must be a loss of control.", "He says, there are four basic components:" ], [ "See also", " Boiling frog* Broccoli mandate* Broken windows theory* Butterfly effect* Creeping normality* Euthanasia and the slippery slope* First they came ...* Foot-in-the-door technique* Gateway drug theory* Overton window* Precautionary principle* Precedent* ''Reductio ad absurdum''* Salami slicing tactics* Snowball effect* Splitting (psychology)* Trivial objections" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Argument from ignorance" ], [ "Introduction", "John Locke'''Argument from ignorance''' (from ), also known as '''appeal to ignorance''' (in which ''ignorance'' represents \"a lack of contrary evidence\"), is a fallacy in informal logic.", "It asserts that a proposition is true because it has not yet been proven false or a proposition is false because it has not yet been proven true.", "This represents a type of false dichotomy in that it excludes the possibility that there may have been an insufficient investigation to prove that the proposition is either true or false.", "It also does not allow for the possibility that the answer is unknowable, only knowable in the future, or neither completely true nor completely false.", "In debates, appealing to ignorance is sometimes an attempt to shift the burden of proof.", "The term was likely coined by philosopher John Locke in the late 17th century." ], [ "Examples", "* \"I take the view that this lack (of enemy subversive activity in the west coast) is the most ominous sign in our whole situation.", "It convinces me more than perhaps any other factor that the sabotage we are to get, the Fifth Column activities are to get, are timed just like Pearl Harbor ...", "I believe we are just being lulled into a false sense of security.\"", "– Earl Warren, then California's Attorney General (before a congressional hearing in San Francisco on 21 February 1942).", "* This example clearly states what appeal to ignorance is: \"Although we have proven that the moon is not made of spare ribs, we have not proven that its core cannot be filled with them; therefore, the moon’s core is filled with spare ribs.", "\"* Donald Rumsfeld, then US Secretary of Defense, argued against the argument from ignorance when discussing the lack of evidence for WMDs in Iraq prior to the invasion:* The aphorism \"No news is good news\".", "The usefulness of this as a heuristic may vary by context.", "* Carl Sagan explains in his book ''The Demon-Haunted World'':" ], [ "Related terms", "=== Contraposition and transposition ===Contraposition is a logically valid rule of inference that allows the creation of a new proposition from the negation and reordering of an existing one.", "The method applies to any proposition of the type \"If A then B\" and says that negating all the variables and switching them back to front leads to a new proposition i.e.", "\"If Not-B then Not-A\" that is just as true as the original one and that the first implies the second and the second implies the first.Transposition is exactly the same thing as Contraposition, described in a different language.=== Null result ===''Null result'' is a term often used in science to indicate ''evidence of absence''.", "A search for water on the ground may yield a null result (the ground is dry); therefore, it probably did not rain." ], [ "Related arguments", "=== Argument from self-knowing ===Arguments from self-knowing take the form:# If P were true then I would know it; in fact I do not know it; therefore P cannot be true.# If Q were false then I would know it; in fact I do not know it; therefore Q cannot be false.In practice these arguments are often unsound and rely on the truth of the supporting premise.", "For example, the claim that ''If I had just sat on a wild porcupine then I would know it'' is probably not fallacious and depends entirely on the truth of the first premise (the ability to know it)." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * " ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " * * * " ], [ "External links", " Fallacy Files – article on Appeal to Ignorance" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Leo (constellation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Leo''' is one of the constellations of the zodiac, between Cancer the crab to the west and Virgo the maiden to the east.", "It is located in the Northern celestial hemisphere.", "Its name is Latin for lion, and to the ancient Greeks represented the Nemean Lion killed by the mythical Greek hero Heracles as one of his twelve labors.", "Its old astronomical symbol is 20px (♌︎).", "One of the 48 constellations described by the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy, Leo remains one of the 88 modern constellations today, and one of the most easily recognizable due to its many bright stars and a distinctive shape that is reminiscent of the crouching lion it depicts.", "The lion's mane and shoulders also form an asterism known as \"The Sickle,\" which to modern observers may resemble a backwards \"question mark.\"" ], [ "Features", "The constellation Leo as it can be seen by the naked eye (the bright object in the center of the picture is the planet, Jupiter)===Stars===Leo contains many bright stars, many of which were individually identified by the ancients.", "There are four stars of the first or second magnitude, which render this constellation especially prominent:* Regulus, designated Alpha Leonis, is a blue-white main-sequence star of magnitude 1.34, 77.5 light-years from Earth.", "It is a double star divisible in binoculars, with a secondary of magnitude 7.7.Its traditional name (Regulus) means \"the little king\".", "* Beta Leonis, called Denebola, is at the opposite end of the constellation to Regulus.", "It is a blue-white star of magnitude 2.23, 36 light-years from Earth.", "The name Denebola means \"the lion's tail\".", "* Algieba, Gamma Leonis, is a binary star with a third optical component; the primary and secondary are divisible in small telescopes and the tertiary is visible in binoculars.", "The primary is a gold-yellow giant star of magnitude 2.61 and the secondary is similar but at magnitude 3.6; they have a period of 600 years and are 126 light-years from Earth.", "The unrelated tertiary, 40 Leonis, is a yellow-tinged star of magnitude 4.8.Its traditional name, Algieba, means \"the forehead\".", "* Delta Leonis, called Zosma, is a blue-white star of magnitude 2.58, 58 light-years from Earth.Other named stars in Leo include Mu Leonis, Rasalas (an abbreviation of \"Al Ras al Asad al Shamaliyy\", meaning \"The Lion's Head Toward the South\"); and Theta Leonis, Chertan.+11 Brightest Stars of LeoProper nameBayer designationLight yearsApparent magnitudeRegulusα Leonis791.35Denebolaβ Leonis362.14Algiebaγ Leonis1302.08Zosmaδ Leonis582.56Algenubiε Leonis2472.98Adhaferaζ Leonis2743.33Al Jabhahη Leonis1,2703.49Chertanθ Leonis1653.32Subraο Leonis1163.52ρ Leonisρ Leonis5,7193.84Rasalasμ Leonis1243.88Leo is also home to a bright variable star, the red giant R Leonis.", "It is a Mira variable with a minimum magnitude of 10 and normal maximum magnitude of 6; it periodically brightens to magnitude 4.4.R Leonis, 330 light-years from Earth, has a period of 310 days and a diameter of 450 solar diameters.The star Wolf 359 (CN Leonis), one of the nearest stars to Earth at 7.8 light-years away, is in Leo.", "Wolf 359 is a red dwarf of magnitude 13.5; it periodically brightens by one magnitude or less because it is a flare star.", "Gliese 436, a faint star in Leo about 33 light-years away from the Sun, is orbited by a transiting Neptune-mass extrasolar planet.The carbon star CW Leo (IRC +10216) is the brightest star in the night sky at the infrared N-band (10 μm wavelength).The star SDSS J102915+172927 (Caffau's star) is a population II star in the galactic halo seen in Leo.", "It is about 13 billion years old, making it one of the oldest stars in the Galaxy.", "It has the lowest metallicity of any known star.Modern astronomers, including Tycho Brahe in 1602, excised a group of stars that once made up the \"tuft\" of the lion's tail and used them to form the new constellation Coma Berenices (Berenice's hair), although there was precedent for that designation among the ancient Greeks and Romans.===Deep-sky objects===Leo contains many bright galaxies; Messier 65, Messier 66, Messier 95, Messier 96, Messier 105, and NGC 3628 are the most famous, the first two being part of the Leo Triplet.The Leo Ring, a cloud of hydrogen, helium gas, is found in the orbit of two galaxies found within this constellation.Messier 66 M66 is a spiral galaxy that is part of the Leo Triplet, whose other two members are M65 and NGC 3628.It is at a distance of 37 million light-years and has a somewhat distorted shape due to gravitational interactions with the other members of the Triplet, which are pulling stars away from M66.Eventually, the outermost stars may form a dwarf galaxy orbiting M66.Both M65 and M66 are visible in large binoculars or small telescopes, but their concentrated nuclei and elongation are only visible in large amateur instruments.The notable gravitational lens known as the Cosmic HorseshoeM95 and M96 are both spiral galaxies 20 million light-years from Earth.", "Though they are visible as fuzzy objects in small telescopes, their structure is only visible in larger instruments.", "M95 is a barred spiral galaxy.", "M105 is about a degree away from the M95/M96 pair; it is an elliptical galaxy of the 9th magnitude, also about 20 million light-years from Earth.", "NGC 2903 is a barred spiral galaxy discovered by William Herschel in 1784.It is very similar in size and shape to the Milky Way and is located 25 million light-years from Earth.", "In its core, NGC 2903 has many \"hotspots\", which have been found to be near regions of star formation.", "The star formation in this region is thought to be due to the presence of the dusty bar, which sends shock waves through its rotation to an area with a diameter of 2,000 light-years.", "The outskirts of the galaxy have many young open clusters.Leo is also home to some of the largest structures in the observable universe.", "Some of the structures found in the constellation are the Clowes–Campusano LQG, U1.11, U1.54, and the Huge-LQG, which are all large quasar groups; the latter being the second largest structure known (see also NQ2-NQ4 GRB overdensity).===Meteor showers===The Leonids occur in November, peaking on November 14–15, and have a radiant close to Gamma Leonis.", "Its parent body is Comet Tempel-Tuttle, which causes significant outbursts every 35 years.", "The normal peak rate is approximately 10 meteors per hour.The January Leonids are a minor shower that peaks between January 1 and 7." ], [ "History and mythology", "Leo from a western scientific manuscript, c.1000Leo was one of the earliest recognized constellations, with archaeological evidence that the Mesopotamians had a similar constellation as early as 4000 BCE.", "The Persians called Leo ''Ser'' or ''Shir''; the Turks, ''Artan''; the Syrians, ''Aryo''; the Jews, ''Arye''; the Indians, ''Simha'', all meaning \"lion\".Cypriot stamp depicting a mosaical image of the encounter between Hercules and Leo, the Nemean LionSome mythologists believe that in Sumeria, Leo represented the monster Humbaba, who was killed by Gilgamesh.In Babylonian astronomy, the constellation was called UR.GU.LA, the \"Great Lion\"; the bright star Regulus was known as \"the star that stands at the Lion's breast.\"", "Regulus also had distinctly regal associations, as it was known as the King Star.In Greek mythology, Leo was identified as the Nemean Lion which was killed by Heracles (Hercules to the Romans) during the first of his twelve labours.", "The Nemean Lion would take women as hostages to its lair in a cave, luring warriors from nearby towns to save the damsel in distress, to their misfortune.", "The Lion was impervious to any weaponry; thus, the warriors' clubs, swords, and spears were rendered useless against it.", "Realizing that he must defeat the Lion with his bare hands, Hercules slipped into the Lion's cave and engaged it at close quarters.", "When the Lion pounced, Hercules caught it in midair, one hand grasping the Lion's forelegs and the other its hind legs, and bent it backwards, breaking its back and freeing the trapped maidens.", "Zeus commemorated this labor by placing the Lion in the sky.The Roman poet Ovid called it ''Herculeus Leo'' and ''Violentus Leo''.", "''Bacchi Sidus'' (star of Bacchus) was another of its titles, the god Bacchus always being identified with this animal.", "However, Manilius called it ''Jovis et Junonis Sidus'' (Star of Jupiter and Juno)." ], [ "Visualizations", "Leo, with Leo Minor above, as depicted in ''Urania's Mirror'', a set of constellation cards published in London c.1825Leo is commonly represented as if the sickle-shaped asterism of stars is the back of the Lion's head.", "The sickle is marked by six stars: Epsilon Leonis, Mu Leonis, Zeta Leonis, Gamma Leonis, Eta Leonis, and Alpha Leonis.", "The lion's tail is marked by Beta Leonis (Denebola) and the rest of his body is delineated by Delta Leonis and Theta Leonis." ], [ "Astrology", ", the Sun appears in the constellation Leo from August 10 to September 16.In tropical astrology, the Sun is considered to be in the sign Leo from July 23 to August 22, and in sidereal astrology, from August 16 to September 17." ], [ "Namesakes", "USS Leonis (AK-128) was a United States Navy Crater class cargo ship." ], [ "See also", "* Leo (Chinese astronomy)" ], [ "References", "* ''Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning'', by Richard Allen Hinckley, Dover.", "* * Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007).", "''Stars and Planets Guide'', Collins, London.", ".", "Princeton University Press, Princeton.", ".", "* ''Dictionary of Symbols'', by Carl G. Liungman, W. W. Norton & Company." ], [ "External links", "* The clickable Leo* The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early-modern images of Leo) * Information from StarDate Online* Ian Ridpath's Star Tales – Leo" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Libra (constellation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Libra''' is a constellation of the zodiac and is located in the Southern celestial hemisphere.", "Its name is Latin for weighing scales.", "Its old astronomical symbol is 20px (♎︎).", "It is fairly faint, with no first magnitude stars, and lies between Virgo to the west and Scorpius to the east.", "Beta Librae, also known as Zubeneschamali, is the brightest star in the constellation.", "Three star systems are known to have planets." ], [ "Features", "===Stars===The constellation Libra marked on a naked eye view.Overall, there are 83 stars within the constellation's borders brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6.5.The brightest stars in Libra form a quadrangle that distinguishes it for the unaided observer.", "Traditionally, Alpha and Beta Librae are considered to represent the scales' balance beam, while Gamma and Sigma are the weighing pans.Alpha Librae, called Zubenelgenubi, is a multiple star system divisible into two stars when seen through binoculars, The primary (Alpha2 Librae) is a blue-white star of magnitude 2.7 and the secondary (Alpha1 Librae) is a white star of magnitude 5.2 and spectral type F3V that is 74.9 ± 0.7 light-years from Earth.", "Its traditional name means \"the southern claw\".", "Zubeneschamali (Beta Librae) is the corresponding \"northern claw\" to Zubenelgenubi.", "The brightest star in Libra, Zubeneschamali is a green-tinged star of magnitude 2.6, 160 (or 185 ± 2) light-years from Earth.", "Gamma Librae is called Zubenelakrab, which means \"the scorpion's claw\", completing the suite of names referring to Libra's archaic status.", "It is an orange giant of magnitude 3.9, 152 light-years from Earth.Iota Librae is a complex multiple star, 377 light-years from Earth, with both optical and true binary components.", "The primary appears as a blue-white star of magnitude 4.5; it is a binary star indivisible in even the largest amateur instruments with a period of 23 years.", "The secondary, visible in small telescopes as a star of magnitude 9.4, is a binary with two components, magnitudes 10 and 11.There is an optical companion to Iota Librae; 25 Librae is a star of magnitude 6.1, 219 light-years from Earth and visible in binoculars.", "Mu Librae is a binary star divisible in medium-aperture amateur telescopes, 235 light-years from Earth.", "The primary is of magnitude 5.7 and the secondary is of magnitude 6.8.Delta Librae is an Algol-type eclipsing variable star, 304 lightyears from Earth.", "It has a period of 2 days, 8 hours; its minimum magnitude of 5.9 and its maximum magnitude is 4.9.FX Librae, designated 48 Librae, is a shell star of magnitude 4.9.Shell stars, like Pleione and Gamma Cassiopeiae, are blue supergiants with irregular variations caused by their abnormally high speed of rotation.", "This ejects gas from the star's equator.Sigma Librae (the proper name is Brachium) was formerly known as Gamma Scorpii despite being well inside the boundaries of Libra.", "It was not redesignated as Sigma Librae until 1851 by Benjamin A. Gould." ], [ "History and mythology", "Libra as depicted in ''Urania's Mirror'', a set of constellation cards published in London c.1825Libra was known in Babylonian astronomy as ''MUL Zibanu'' (the \"scales\" or \"balance\"), or alternatively as the Claws of the Scorpion.", "The scales were held sacred to the sun god Shamash, who was also the patron of truth and justice.It was also seen as the Scorpion's Claws in ancient Greece.", "Since these times, Libra has been associated with law, fairness and civility.", "In Arabic ''zubānā'' means \"scorpion's claws\", and likely similarly in other Semitic languages: this resemblance of words may be why the Scorpion's claws became the Scales.", "Indeed, Zubenelgenubi and Zubeneschamali, the names of the constellation's two main stars, in Arabic mean \"southern claw\" and \"northern claw\" respectively.", "It has also been suggested that the scales are an allusion to the fact that when the sun entered this part of the ecliptic at the autumnal equinox, the days and nights are equal.", "Libra's status as the location of the equinox earned the equinox the name \"First Point of Libra\", though this location ceased to coincide with the constellation in 730 BC because of the precession of the equinoxes.In ancient Egypt the three brightest stars of Libra (α, β, and σ Librae) formed a constellation that was viewed as a boat.", "Libra is a constellation not mentioned by Eudoxus or Aratus.", "Libra is mentioned by Manetho (3rd century B.C.)", "and Geminus (1st century B.C.", "), and included by Ptolemy in his 48 asterisms.", "Ptolemy catalogued 17 stars, Tycho Brahe 10, and Johannes Hevelius 20.It only became a constellation in ancient Rome, when it began to represent the scales held by Astraea, the goddess of justice, associated with Virgo in the Greek mythology." ], [ "The constellation", "Libra constellation mapNGC 5897NGC 5885Libra is bordered by the head of Serpens to the north, Virgo to the northwest, Hydra to the southwest, the corner of Centaurus to the southwest, Lupus to the south, Scorpius to the east and Ophiuchus to the northeast.", "Covering 538.1 square degrees and 1.304% of the night sky, it ranks 29th of the 88 constellations in size.", "The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is \"Lib\".", "The official constellation boundaries, as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of 12 segments (''illustrated in infobox'').", "In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −0.47° and −30.00°.", "The whole constellation is visible to observers south of latitude 60°N.===Planetary systems===Libra is home to the Gliese 581 planetary system, which consists of the star Gliese 581, three confirmed planets, and two unconfirmed planets.", "Both Gliese 581d, and Gliese 581g are debatably the most promising candidates for life, although Gliese 581g's existences has been disputed and has not been entirely confirmed or agreed on in the scientific community.", "Gliese 581c is considered to be the first Earth-like extrasolar planet to be found within its parent star's habitable zone.", "Gliese 581e is possibly the smallest mass exoplanet orbiting a normal star found to date All of these exoplanets are of significance for establishing the likelihood of life outside of the Solar System.The family of candidate habitable planets was extended in late September 2010 to include exoplanets around red dwarf stars because of Gliese 581g, which is a tidally locked planet in the middle of the habitable zone.", "Weather studies show that tidally locked planets may still have the ability to support life.===Deep-sky objects===Libra is home to one bright globular cluster, NGC 5897.It is a loose cluster, 50,000 light-years from Earth; it is fairly large and has an integrated magnitude of 9.IC 1059 is a galaxy in the constellation Libra." ], [ "Astrology", ", the Sun appears in the constellation Libra from October 31 to November 22.In tropical astrology, the Sun is considered to be in the sign Libra from the northern autumnal equinox (c. September 23) to on or about October 23, and in sidereal astrology, from October 16 to November 15." ], [ "Namesakes", "* ''Libra'' (AKA-12) was a United States navy ship named after the constellation.", "* Tropical Storm Tembin - Four tropical cyclones in the western Pacific have been given its Japanese name." ], [ "See also", "* Constellation family* Former constellations* Libra (Chinese astronomy)* Lists of stars by constellation" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007).", "''Stars and Planets Guide'', Collins, London.", ".", "Princeton University Press, Princeton.", "." ], [ "External links", "* The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Libra* Libra constellation* Ian Ridpath's Star Tales – Libra* Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Libra)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Law of nature" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Law of nature''' or '''laws of nature''' may refer to:" ], [ "Science", "Scientific law, statements based on experimental observations that describe some aspect of the worldNatural law, any of a number of doctrines in moral, political, and legal theory" ], [ "Media", "\"Laws of Nature\" (''Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.", "''), episode of television series ''Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.''" ], [ "Other", "Law of the jungle, the idea that in nature, the only \"law\" is to do whatever is needed for survival" ], [ "See also", "The Law of Nature (disambiguation)Natural law (disambiguation)*Crime against nature (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Roxen (lake)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Roxen''' () is a medium-sized lake in south-central Sweden, east of Lake Vättern, part of the waterpath Motala ström and the Göta Canal.", "South of Lake Roxen is the city Linköping.Roxen, especially the western parts, is very good for birdwatching.", "There are natural reserves at Kungsbro and Svartåmynningen.The lake develops in a graben depression." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Locomotive" ], [ "Introduction", "Pacific National diesel locomotives in Australia showing three body types, cab unit (front), hood unit (middle) and box cab (rear)A Victorian Railways R class steam locomotive in AustraliaA China Railways HXD1D electric locomotive in ChinaA '''locomotive''' or '''engine''' is a rail transport vehicle that provides the motive power for a train.", "If a locomotive is capable of carrying a payload, it is usually rather referred to as a multiple unit, motor coach, railcar or power car;Traditionally, locomotives pulled trains from the front.", "However, push-pull operation has become common, where the train may have a locomotive (or locomotives) at the front, at the rear, or at each end.", "Most recently railroads have begun adopting DPU or distributed power.", "The front may have one or two locomotives followed by a mid-train locomotive that is controlled remotely from the lead unit.", "__TOC__" ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''locomotive'' originates from the Latin 'from a place', ablative of 'place', and the Medieval Latin 'causing motion', and is a shortened form of the term ''locomotive engine'', which was first used in 1814 to distinguish between self-propelled and stationary steam engines." ], [ "Classifications", "Prior to locomotives, the motive force for railways had been generated by various lower-technology methods such as human power, horse power, gravity or stationary engines that drove cable systems.", "Few such systems are still in existence today.", "Locomotives may generate their power from fuel (wood, coal, petroleum or natural gas), or they may take power from an outside source of electricity.", "It is common to classify locomotives by their source of energy.", "The common ones include:===Steam===Wainwright SECR Class P on the Bluebell Railway, EnglandVR Class Tk3 steam locomotive in the town of Kokkola in Central Ostrobothnia, FinlandA steam locomotive is a locomotive whose primary power source is a steam engine.", "The most common form of steam locomotive also contains a boiler to generate the steam used by the engine.", "The water in the boiler is heated by burning combustible material – usually coal, wood, or oil – to produce steam.", "The steam moves reciprocating pistons which are connected to the locomotive's main wheels, known as the \"driving wheels\".", "Both fuel and water supplies are carried with the locomotive, either on the locomotive itself, in bunkers and tanks, (this arrangement is known as a \"tank locomotive\") or pulled behind the locomotive, in tenders, (this arrangement is known as a \"tender locomotive\").Trevithick's 1802 locomotiveThe first full-scale working railway steam locomotive was built by Richard Trevithick in 1802.It was constructed for the Coalbrookdale ironworks in Shropshire in England though no record of it working there has survived.", "On 21 February 1804, the first recorded steam-hauled railway journey took place as another of Trevithick's locomotives hauled a train from the Penydarren ironworks, in Merthyr Tydfil, to Abercynon in South Wales.", "Accompanied by Andrew Vivian, it ran with mixed success.", "The design incorporated a number of important innovations including the use of high-pressure steam which reduced the weight of the engine and increased its efficiency.The ''Locomotion No.", "1'' at Darlington Railway Centre and MuseumIn 1812, Matthew Murray's twin-cylinder rack locomotive ''Salamanca'' first ran on the edge-railed rack-and-pinion Middleton Railway; this is generally regarded as the first commercially successful locomotive.", "Another well-known early locomotive was ''Puffing Billy'', built 1813–14 by engineer William Hedley for the Wylam Colliery near Newcastle upon Tyne.", "This locomotive is the oldest preserved, and is on static display in the Science Museum, London.", "George Stephenson built ''Locomotion No.", "1'' for the Stockton & Darlington Railway in the north-east of England, which was the first public steam railway in the world.", "In 1829, his son Robert built ''The Rocket'' in Newcastle upon Tyne.", "Rocket was entered into, and won, the Rainhill Trials.", "This success led to the company emerging as the pre-eminent early builder of steam locomotives used on railways in the UK, US and much of Europe.", "The Liverpool & Manchester Railway, built by Stephenson, opened a year later making exclusive use of steam power for passenger and goods trains.The steam locomotive remained by far the most common type of locomotive until after World War II.", "Steam locomotives are less efficient than modern diesel and electric locomotives, and a significantly larger workforce is required to operate and service them.", "British Rail figures showed that the cost of crewing and fuelling a steam locomotive was about two and a half times larger than the cost of supporting an equivalent diesel locomotive, and the daily mileage they could run was lower.", "Between about 1950 and 1970, the majority of steam locomotives were retired from commercial service and replaced with electric and diesel-electric locomotives.", "While North America transitioned from steam during the 1950s, and continental Europe by the 1970s, in other parts of the world, the transition happened later.", "Steam was a familiar technology that used widely-available fuels and in low-wage economies did not suffer as wide a cost disparity.", "It continued to be used in many countries until the end of the 20th century.", "By the end of the 20th century, almost the only steam power remaining in regular use around the world was on heritage railways.=== Internal combustion ===Internal combustion locomotives use an internal combustion engine, connected to the driving wheels by a transmission.", "Typically they keep the engine running at a near-constant speed whether the locomotive is stationary or moving.", "Internal combustion locomotives are categorised by their fuel type and sub-categorised by their transmission type.==== Benzene ====Benzene locomotives have an internal combustion engines that use benzene as fuel.", "Between the late 1890's and 1900's, a number of commercial manufacturers for Benzene Locomotives had been operating.", "This began with Deutz, that produced an operating system based upon a design prototype for a manganese mine in Giessen.", "Following, in the early 1900's, they had been sold for multiple mining and Tunnelling operations.", "Post the 1900's, no wide spread use was necessary or required, their inadequacy had increased with the existence of petrol and diesel locomotives.====Kerosene====The 1887 Daimler draisineKerosene locomotives use kerosene as the fuel.", "They were the world's first internal combustion locomotives, preceding diesel and other oil locomotives by some years.", "The first known kerosene rail vehicle was a draisine built by Gottlieb Daimler in 1887, but this was not technically a locomotive as it carried a payload.A kerosene locomotive was built in 1894 by the Priestman Brothers of Kingston upon Hull for use on Hull docks.", "This locomotive was built using a 12 hp double-acting marine type engine, running at 300 rpm, mounted on a 4-wheel wagon chassis.", "It was only able to haul one loaded wagon at a time, due to its low power output, and was not a great success.", "The first successful kerosene locomotive was \"Lachesis\" built by Richard Hornsby & Sons and delivered to Woolwich Arsenal railway in 1896.The company built four kerosene locomotives between 1896 and 1903, for use at the Arsenal.====Petrol====The 1902 Maudslay Petrol LocomotivePetrol locomotives (US: gasoline locomotives) use petrol (gasoline) as their fuel.", "The first commercially successful petrol locomotive was a petrol-mechanical locomotive built by the Maudslay Motor Company in 1902, for the Deptford Cattle Market in London.", "It was an 80 hp locomotive using a 3-cylinder vertical petrol engine, with a two speed mechanical gearbox.=====Petrol-mechanical=====The most common type of petrol locomotive are '''petrol-mechanical locomotives''', which use mechanical transmission in the form of gearboxes (sometimes in conjunction with chain drives) to deliver the power output of the engine to the driving wheels, in the same way as a car.", "The second petrol-mechanical locomotive was built by F.C.", "Blake of Kew in January 1903 for the Richmond Main Sewerage Board.=====Petrol-electric====='''Petrol-electric locomotives''' are petrol locomotives which use electric transmission to deliver the power output of the engine to the driving wheels.", "This avoids the need for gearboxes by converting the rotary mechanical force of the engine into electrical energy by a dynamo, and then powering the wheels by multi-speed electric traction motors.", "This allows for smoother acceleration, as it avoids the need for gear changes, however, it is more expensive, heavier, and sometimes bulkier than mechanical transmission.A notable early petrol-electric locomotive was built in 1913 for the Minneapolis, St. Paul, Rochester and Dubuque Electric Traction Company.", "It weighed 60 tons, generated 350 hp and drove through a pair of bogies in a Bo-Bo arrangement.==== Diesel ====Diesel locomotives are powered by diesel engines.", "In the early days of diesel propulsion development, various transmission systems were employed with varying degrees of success, with electric transmission proving to be the most popular.=====Diesel-mechanical=====An early Diesel-mechanical locomotive at the North Alabama Railroad MuseumA diesel–mechanical locomotive uses mechanical transmission to transfer power to the wheels.", "This type of transmission is generally limited to low-powered, low speed shunting (switching) locomotives, lightweight multiple units and self-propelled railcars.", "The earliest diesel locomotives were diesel-mechanical.", "In 1906, Rudolf Diesel, Adolf Klose and the steam and diesel engine manufacturer Gebrüder Sulzer founded Diesel-Sulzer-Klose GmbH to manufacture diesel-powered locomotives.", "The Prussian State Railways ordered a diesel locomotive from the company in 1909.The world's first diesel-powered locomotive (a diesel-mechanical locomotive) was operated in the summer of 1912 on the Winterthur–Romanshorn railway in Switzerland, but was not a commercial success.", "Small numbers of prototype diesel locomotives were produced in a number of countries through the mid-1920s.=====Diesel-electric=====SŽD Eel2, 1924 in KyivDiesel–electric locomotives are diesel locomotives using electric transmission.", "The diesel engine drives either an electrical DC generator (generally, less than net for traction), or an electrical AC alternator-rectifier (generally net or more for traction), the output of which provides power to the traction motors that drive the locomotive.", "There is no mechanical connection between the diesel engine and the wheels.", "The vast majority of diesel locomotives today are diesel-electric.In 1914, Hermann Lemp, a General Electric electrical engineer, developed and patented a reliable direct current electrical control system (subsequent improvements were also patented by Lemp).", "Lemp's design used a single lever to control both engine and generator in a coordinated fashion, and was the prototype for all diesel–electric locomotive control.", "In 1917–18, GE produced three experimental diesel–electric locomotives using Lemp's control design.", "In 1924, a diesel-electric locomotive (Eel2 original number Юэ 001/Yu-e 001) started operations.", "It had been designed by a team led by Yury Lomonosov and built 1923–1924 by Maschinenfabrik Esslingen in Germany.", "It had 5 driving axles (1'E1').", "After several test rides, it hauled trains for almost three decades from 1925 to 1954.=====Diesel-hydraulic=====A German DB Class V 200 diesel-hydraulic locomotive at Technikmuseum, BerlinDiesel–hydraulic locomotives are diesel locomotives using hydraulic transmission.", "In this arrangement, they use one or more torque converters, in combination with gears, with a mechanical final drive to convey the power from the diesel engine to the wheels.The main worldwide user of main-line hydraulic transmission locomotives was Deutsche Bundesbahn, with designs including the DB Class V 200 and the DB V 160 family.", "British Rail introduced a number of diesel hydraulic designs during its 1955 Modernisation Plan: initially licence-built versions of German designs.", "In Spain, Renfe used high power-to-weight ratio twin-engined German designs to haul high-speed trains from the 1960s to 1990s (see Renfe Classes 340, 350, 352, 353, 354).Hydrostatic drive systems have also been applied to rail use, for example shunting locomotives by CMI Group (Belgium).", "Hydrostatic drives are also used in railway maintenance machines such as tampers and rail grinders.====Gas turbine====Union Pacific 18, a gas turbine-electric locomotive preserved at the Illinois Railway MuseumA gas turbine locomotive is an internal combustion engine locomotive consisting of a gas turbine.", "ICE engines require a transmission to power the wheels.", "The engine must be allowed to continue to run when the locomotive is stopped.Gas turbine-mechanical locomotives use a mechanical transmission to deliver the power output of gas turbines to the wheels.", "A gas turbine locomotive was patented in 1861 by Marc Antoine Francois Mennons (British patent no.", "1633).", "There is no evidence that the locomotive was actually built but the design includes the essential features of gas turbine locomotives, including compressor, combustion chamber, turbine and air pre-heater.", "In 1952, Renault delivered a prototype four-axle 1150 hp gas-turbine-mechanical locomotive fitted with the Pescara \"free turbine\" gas- and compressed-air producing system, rather than a co-axial multi-stage compressor integral to the turbine.", "This model was succeeded by a pair of six-axle 2400 hp locomotives with two turbines and Pescara feeds in 1959.Several similar locomotives were built in USSR by Kharkov Locomotive Works.Gas turbine-electric locomotives, use a gas turbine to drive an electrical generator or alternator which produced electric current powers the traction motor which drive the wheels.", "In 1939 the Swiss Federal Railways ordered Am 4/6, a GTEL with a of maximum engine power from Brown Boveri.", "It was completed in 1941, and then underwent testing before entering regular service.", "The Am 4/6 was the first gas turbine – electric locomotive.", "British Rail 18000 was built by Brown Boveri and delivered in 1949.British Rail 18100 was built by Metropolitan-Vickers and delivered in 1951.A third locomotive, the British Rail GT3, was constructed in 1961.Union Pacific ran a large fleet of turbine-powered freight locomotives starting in the 1950s.", "These were widely used on long-haul routes, and were cost-effective despite their poor fuel economy due to their use of \"leftover\" fuels from the petroleum industry.", "At their height the railroad estimated that they powered about 10% of Union Pacific's freight trains, a much wider use than any other example of this class.A gas turbine offers some advantages over a piston engine.", "There are few moving parts, decreasing the need for lubrication and potentially reducing maintenance costs, and the power-to-weight ratio is much higher.", "A turbine of a given power output is also physically smaller than an equally powerful piston engine, allowing a locomotive to be very powerful without being inordinately large.", "However, a turbine's power output and efficiency both drop dramatically with rotational speed, unlike a piston engine, which has a comparatively flat power curve.", "This makes GTEL systems useful primarily for long-distance high-speed runs.", "Additional problems with gas turbine-electric locomotives included that they were very noisy.====Wood Gas Generation====Some locomotives, usually in France and Italy ran on a Wood gas generator.===Electric===An electric locomotive is a locomotive powered only by electricity.", "Electricity is supplied to moving trains with a (nearly) continuous conductor running along the track that usually takes one of three forms: an overhead line, suspended from poles or towers along the track or from structure or tunnel ceilings; a third rail mounted at track level; or an onboard battery.", "Both overhead wire and third-rail systems usually use the running rails as the return conductor but some systems use a separate fourth rail for this purpose.", "The type of electrical power used is either direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC).Southern Railway (UK) 20002 was equipped with both pantograph and contact shoesVarious collection methods exist: a trolley pole, which is a long flexible pole that engages the line with a wheel or shoe; a bow collector, which is a frame that holds a long collecting rod against the wire; a pantograph, which is a hinged frame that holds the collecting shoes against the wire in a fixed geometry; or a contact shoe, which is a shoe in contact with the third rail.", "Of the three, the pantograph method is best suited for high-speed operation.Electric locomotives almost universally use axle-hung traction motors, with one motor for each powered axle.", "In this arrangement, one side of the motor housing is supported by plain bearings riding on a ground and polished journal that is integral to the axle.", "The other side of the housing has a tongue-shaped protuberance that engages a matching slot in the truck (bogie) bolster, its purpose being to act as a torque reaction device, as well as a support.", "Power transfer from motor to axle is effected by spur gearing, in which a pinion on the motor shaft engages a bull gear on the axle.", "Both gears are enclosed in a liquid-tight housing containing lubricating oil.", "The type of service in which the locomotive is used dictates the gear ratio employed.", "Numerically high ratios are commonly found on freight units, whereas numerically low ratios are typical of passenger engines.Electricity is typically generated in large and relatively efficient generating stations, transmitted to the railway network and distributed to the trains.", "Some electric railways have their own dedicated generating stations and transmission lines but most purchase power from an electric utility.", "The railway usually provides its own distribution lines, switches and transformers.Electric locomotives usually cost 20% less than diesel locomotives, their maintenance costs are 25–35% lower, and cost up to 50% less to run.====Direct current====Werner von Siemens experimental DC electric train, 1879Baltimore & Ohio electric engine, 1895The earliest systems were DC systems.", "The first electric passenger train was presented by Werner von Siemens at Berlin in 1879.The locomotive was driven by a 2.2 kW, series-wound motor, and the train, consisting of the locomotive and three cars, reached a speed of 13 km/h.", "During four months, the train carried 90,000 passengers on a 300-metre-long (984 feet) circular track.", "The electricity (150 V DC) was supplied through a third insulated rail between the tracks.", "A contact roller was used to collect the electricity.", "The world's first electric tram line opened in Lichterfelde near Berlin, Germany, in 1881.It was built by Werner von Siemens (see Gross-Lichterfelde Tramway and Berlin Straßenbahn).", "The Volk's Electric Railway opened in 1883 in Brighton, and is the oldest surviving electric railway.", "Also in 1883, Mödling and Hinterbrühl Tram opened near Vienna in Austria.", "It was the first in the world in regular service powered from an overhead line.", "Five years later, in the U.S. electric trolleys were pioneered in 1888 on the Richmond Union Passenger Railway, using equipment designed by Frank J. Sprague.The first electrically worked underground line was the City & South London Railway, prompted by a clause in its enabling act prohibiting use of steam power.", "It opened in 1890, using electric locomotives built by Mather & Platt.", "Electricity quickly became the power supply of choice for subways, abetted by the Sprague's invention of multiple-unit train control in 1897.The first use of electrification on a main line was on a four-mile stretch of the Baltimore Belt Line of the Baltimore & Ohio (B&O) in 1895 connecting the main portion of the B&O to the new line to New York through a series of tunnels around the edges of Baltimore's downtown.", "Three Bo+Bo units were initially used, at the south end of the electrified section; they coupled onto the locomotive and train and pulled it through the tunnels.DC was used on earlier systems.", "These systems were gradually replaced by AC.", "Today, almost all main-line railways use AC systems.", "DC systems are confined mostly to urban transit such as metro systems, light rail and trams, where power requirement is less.====Alternating current====A prototype of a Ganz AC electric locomotive in Valtellina, Italy, 1901The first practical AC electric locomotive was designed by Charles Brown, then working for Oerlikon, Zürich.", "In 1891, Brown had demonstrated long-distance power transmission, using three-phase AC, between a hydro-electric plant at Lauffen am Neckar and Frankfurt am Main West, a distance of 280 km.", "Using experience he had gained while working for Jean Heilmann on steam-electric locomotive designs, Brown observed that three-phase motors had a higher power-to-weight ratio than DC motors and, because of the absence of a commutator, were simpler to manufacture and maintain.", "However, they were much larger than the DC motors of the time and could not be mounted in underfloor bogies: they could only be carried within locomotive bodies.In 1894, Hungarian engineer Kálmán Kandó developed a new type 3-phase asynchronous electric drive motors and generators for electric locomotives.", "Kandó's early 1894 designs were first applied in a short three-phase AC tramway in Evian-les-Bains (France), which was constructed between 1896 and 1898.In 1918, Kandó invented and developed the rotary phase converter, enabling electric locomotives to use three-phase motors whilst supplied via a single overhead wire, carrying the simple industrial frequency (50 Hz) single phase AC of the high voltage national networks.In 1896, Oerlikon installed the first commercial example of the system on the Lugano Tramway.", "Each 30-tonne locomotive had two motors run by three-phase 750 V 40 Hz fed from double overhead lines.", "Three-phase motors run at constant speed and provide regenerative braking, and are well suited to steeply graded routes, and the first main-line three-phase locomotives were supplied by Brown (by then in partnership with Walter Boveri) in 1899 on the 40 km Burgdorf—Thun line, Switzerland.", "The first implementation of industrial frequency single-phase AC supply for locomotives came from Oerlikon in 1901, using the designs of Hans Behn-Eschenburg and Emil Huber-Stockar; installation on the Seebach-Wettingen line of the Swiss Federal Railways was completed in 1904.The 15 kV, 50 Hz , 48 tonne locomotives used transformers and rotary converters to power DC traction motors.Italian railways were the first in the world to introduce electric traction for the entire length of a main line rather than just a short stretch.", "The 106 km Valtellina line was opened on 4 September 1902, designed by Kandó and a team from the Ganz works.", "The electrical system was three-phase at 3 kV 15 Hz.", "The voltage was significantly higher than used earlier and it required new designs for electric motors and switching devices.", "The three-phase two-wire system was used on several railways in Northern Italy and became known as \"the Italian system\".", "Kandó was invited in 1905 to undertake the management of Società Italiana Westinghouse and led the development of several Italian electric locomotives.====Battery-electric====A London Underground battery-electric locomotive at West Ham station used for hauling engineers' trainsA narrow gauge battery-electric locomotive used for miningA battery-electric locomotive (or battery locomotive) is an electric locomotive powered by onboard batteries; a kind of battery electric vehicle.Such locomotives are used where a conventional diesel or electric locomotive would be unsuitable.", "An example is maintenance trains on electrified lines when the electricity supply is turned off.", "Another use is in industrial facilities where a combustion-powered locomotive (i.e., steam- or diesel-powered) could cause a safety issue due to the risks of fire, explosion or fumes in a confined space.", "Battery locomotives are preferred for mines where gas could be ignited by trolley-powered units arcing at the collection shoes, or where electrical resistance could develop in the supply or return circuits, especially at rail joints, and allow dangerous current leakage into the ground.", "Battery locomotives in over-the-road service can recharge while absorbing dynamic-braking energy.The first known electric locomotive was built in 1837 by chemist Robert Davidson of Aberdeen, and it was powered by galvanic cells (batteries).", "Davidson later built a larger locomotive named ''Galvani'', exhibited at the Royal Scottish Society of Arts Exhibition in 1841.The seven-ton vehicle had two direct-drive reluctance motors, with fixed electromagnets acting on iron bars attached to a wooden cylinder on each axle, and simple commutators.", "It hauled a load of six tons at four miles per hour (6 kilometers per hour) for a distance of .", "It was tested on the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway in September of the following year, but the limited power from batteries prevented its general use.Another example was at the Kennecott Copper Mine, Latouche, Alaska, where in 1917 the underground haulage ways were widened to enable working by two battery locomotives of tons.", "In 1928, Kennecott Copper ordered four 700-series electric locomotives with on-board batteries.", "These locomotives weighed 85 tons and operated on 750-volt overhead trolley wire with considerable further range whilst running on batteries.", "The locomotives provided several decades of service using Nickel–iron battery (Edison) technology.", "The batteries were replaced with lead-acid batteries, and the locomotives were retired shortly afterward.", "All four locomotives were donated to museums, but one was scrapped.", "The others can be seen at the Boone and Scenic Valley Railroad, Iowa, and at the Western Railway Museum in Rio Vista, California.", "The Toronto Transit Commission previously operated a battery electric locomotive built by Nippon Sharyo in 1968 and retired in 2009.London Underground regularly operates battery-electric locomotives for general maintenance work.===Other types=======Fireless==== ====Atomic-electric====In the early 1950s, Lyle Borst of the University of Utah was given funding by various US railroad line and manufacturers to study the feasibility of an electric-drive locomotive, in which an onboard atomic reactor produced the steam to generate the electricity.", "At that time, atomic power was not fully understood; Borst believed the major stumbling block was the price of uranium.", "With the Borst atomic locomotive, the center section would have a 200-ton reactor chamber and steel walls 5 feet thick to prevent releases of radioactivity in case of accidents.", "He estimated a cost to manufacture atomic locomotives with 7000 h.p.", "engines at approximately $1,200,000 each.", "Consequently, trains with onboard nuclear generators were generally deemed unfeasible due to prohibitive costs.====Fuel cell-electric====In 2002, the first 3.6 tonne, 17 kW hydrogen (fuel cell) -powered mining locomotive was demonstrated in Val-d'Or, Quebec.", "In 2007 the educational mini-hydrail in Kaohsiung, Taiwan went into service.", "The Railpower GG20B finally is another example of a fuel cell-electric locomotive.====Hybrid locomotives====Bombardier ALP-45DP at the Innotrans convention in BerlinThere are many different types of hybrid or dual-mode locomotives using two or more types of motive power.", "The most common hybrids are electro-diesel locomotives powered either from an electricity supply or else by an onboard diesel engine.", "These are used to provide continuous journeys along routes that are only partly electrified.", "Examples include the EMD FL9 and Bombardier ALP-45DP" ], [ "Use", "There are three main uses of locomotives in rail transport operations: for hauling passenger trains, freight trains, and for switching (UK English: shunting).Freight locomotives are normally designed to deliver high starting tractive effort and high sustained power.", "This allows them to start and move long, heavy trains, but usually comes at the cost of relatively low maximum speeds.", "Passenger locomotives usually develop lower starting tractive effort but are able to operate at the high speeds required to maintain passenger schedules.", "Mixed-traffic locomotives (US English: general purpose or road switcher locomotives) meant for both passenger and freight trains do not develop as much starting tractive effort as a freight locomotive but are able to haul heavier trains than a passenger locomotive.Most steam locomotives have reciprocating engines, with pistons coupled to the driving wheels by means of connecting rods, with no intervening gearbox.", "This means the combination of starting tractive effort and maximum speed is greatly influenced by the diameter of the driving wheels.", "Steam locomotives intended for freight service generally have smaller diameter driving wheels than passenger locomotives.In diesel-electric and electric locomotives the control system between the traction motors and axles adapts the power output to the rails for freight or passenger service.", "Passenger locomotives may include other features, such as head-end power (also referred to as hotel power or electric train supply) or a steam generator.Some locomotives are designed specifically to work steep grade railways, and feature extensive additional braking mechanisms and sometimes rack and pinion.", "Steam locomotives built for steep rack and pinion railways frequently have the boiler tilted relative to the locomotive frame, so that the boiler remains roughly level on steep grades.Locomotives are also used on some high-speed trains.", "Some of them are operated in push-pull formation with trailer control cars at another end of a train, which often have a cabin with the same design as a cabin of locomotive; examples of such trains with conventional locomotives are Railjet and Intercity 225.Also many high-speed trains, including all TGV, many Talgo (250 / 350 / Avril / XXI), some Korea Train Express, ICE 1/ICE 2 and Intercity 125, use dedicated power cars, which do not have places for passengers and technically are special single-ended locomotives.", "The difference from conventional locomotives is that these power cars are integral part of a train and are not adapted for operation with any other types of passenger coaches.", "On the other hand, many high-speed trains such as the Shinkansen network never use locomotives.", "Instead of locomotive-like power-cars, they use electric multiple units (EMUs) or diesel multiple units (DMUs) – passenger cars that also have traction motors ans power equipment.", "Using dedicated locomotive-like power cars allows for a high ride quality and less electrical equipment;but EMUs have less axle weight, which reduces maintenance costs, and EMUs also have higher acceleration and higher seating capacity.Also some trains, including TGV PSE, TGV TMST and TGV V150, use both non-passenger power cars and additional passenger motor cars." ], [ "Operational role {{anchor\|role}}", "Locomotives occasionally work in a specific role, such as:* '''Train engine''' is the technical name for a locomotive attached to the front of a railway train to haul that train.", "Alternatively, where facilities exist for push-pull operation, the train engine might be attached to the rear of the train;* Pilot engine – a locomotive attached in front of the train engine, to enable double-heading;* Banking engine – a locomotive temporarily assisting a train from the rear, due to a difficult start or a sharp incline gradient;* Light engine – a locomotive operating without a train behind it, for relocation or operational reasons.", "Occasionally, a light engine is referred to as a train in and of itself.", "* Station pilot – a locomotive used to shunt passenger trains at a railway station." ], [ "Wheel arrangement", "The wheel arrangement of a locomotive describes how many wheels it has; common methods include the AAR wheel arrangement, UIC classification, and Whyte notation systems." ], [ "Remote control locomotives", "In the second half of the twentieth century remote control locomotives started to enter service in switching operations, being remotely controlled by an operator outside of the locomotive cab.The main benefit is one operator can control the loading of grain, coal, gravel, etc.", "into the cars.", "In addition, the same operator can move the train as needed.", "Thus, the locomotive is loaded or unloaded in about a third of the time." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * " ], [ "External links", " An engineer's guide from 1891* Locomotive cutaways and historical locomotives of several countries ordered by dates* Pickzone Locomotive Model* International Steam Locomotives* ''Turning a Locomotive into a Stationary Engine'', Popular Science monthly, February 1919, page 72, Scanned by Google Books: Popular Science" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lars Magnus Ericsson" ], [ "Introduction", "Bust of L. M. Ericsson at Telefonplan in Stockholm'''Lars Magnus Ericsson''' (; 5 May 1846 – 17 December 1926) was a Swedish inventor, entrepreneur and founder of telephone equipment manufacturer Ericsson (incorporated as ''Telefonaktiebolaget LM Ericsson'')." ], [ "Early life", "Lars Magnus was born in Värmskog, Värmland, and grew up in the small village of Vegerbol located between Karlstad and Arvika.", "At the age of 12, Ericsson's father died forcing him to seek work as a miner.", "He worked until he had enough money to leave the village and move to Stockholm in 1867.He then worked for six years for an instrument maker named ''Öllers & Co.'' who mainly created telegraph equipment.", "Because of his skills, he was given two state scholarships to study instrument making abroad between 1872 and 1875.One of the companies he worked at was Siemens & Halske." ], [ "Career", "Upon his return to Sweden in 1876, he founded a small mechanical workshop together with his friend Carl Johan Andersson who had also worked at ''Öllers & Co.''.", "This workshop was actually a former kitchen of some 13 m2 situated at Drottninggatan 15 in the most central part of Stockholm.", "Here, he started a telephone company by analyzing Bell company and Siemens telephones and creating his own copies in their image.", "It was not until they started cooperating with Henrik Tore Cedergren in 1883 that the company would start to grow into the Ericsson corporation.In the year 1900 Lars Magnus retired from Ericsson at the age of 54.He kept his shares in the company until 1905 and then sold them all.He is said to have been a demanding person, and disliked any direct publicity about his personality and did not wish to be idolized.", "He was, however, deeply respected by his employees.", "He was always a skeptic and cautious in business.", "He was also somewhat opposed to patents, as many of the products he made would not have been possible to do if the patent legislation had been overly effective.", "When his phones were copied by Norwegian companies he did not care, as his phones had in turn been largely copied from Siemens.", "He initially did not believe in a mass market for telephones, and saw it as a toy for the leisure class." ], [ "Personal life", "Ericsson married Hilda Simonsson in 1878.They had four children together: Johan (1879–1881), Gustaf (1880–1965), Anna (1881–1967) and Lars Magnus Jr. \"Lalle\" (1892–1921).", "When their daughter Anna was only six weeks old, their eldest son John died from pulmonary oedema.", "The couple also lost their son Lalle at a young age to tuberculosis." ], [ "Death", "After his death in 1926, he was buried at Hågelby gård in Botkyrka.", "At his explicit request, there is no headstone marking his grave." ], [ "See also", "*Simone Giertz" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lysator" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lysator''' is an academic computer club at Linköping University, Sweden with almost 600 members.", "It is an independent non-profit society, separate from the students' union and the faculties of the university." ], [ "History", "Lysator was founded on 29 March 1973.The first computer used at Lysator was a Datasaab D21, delivered to Lysator on 25 May 1973.Later in the decade, members of Lysator developed and initially built a microcomputer, the LYS-16, which was advanced for its time due to its 16-bit word size.In February 1993, Lysator put up the first web server in Sweden, among the first 10–15 in the world.On 30 July 2010, Lysator began migrating to a new 3U home rack, increasing their available storage space from 700GB to 13TB." ], [ "Projects hosted by Lysator", "Lysator has been a starting ground for many notable projects, some of which have since become independent from the club:* Project Runeberg* LysKOM* Elfwood* ''SvenskMud''* ''NannyMUD''* Sprite Animation Toolkit* Pike (programming language)" ], [ "See also", "* History of the Internet in Sweden" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Homepage of Lysator* History of Lysator" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Latin hip hop" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Latin hip hop''' (also known as '''Latin rap''') is hip hop music that is recorded by artists in the United States of Hispanic and Latino descent, along with Spanish-speaking countries in the Caribbean, North America, Central America, South America, and Spain." ], [ "Latino hip hop in the United States", "===Latin rap===In the late 1980s and early 1990s, most Latin rap came from New York and the West Coast of the United States.", "Due to the heaviest Puerto Rican migration to New York City in the '50s, during the 70s, the birth of hip hop involved Latinos from the Caribbean islands.", "DJ Kool Herc was from Jamaica.", "Puerto Rico loved Hip Hop from America.", "Among the first rappers from the island were Ruben DJ, Vico-C, TNT, Brewley MC.", "Later generations saw talented MCs, DJs and groups emerge all over the island.", "Mellow Man Ace was the first Latino artist to have a major bilingual single, the 1989 track \"Mentirosa\".", "This song went platinum, leading Mellow Man Ace to be described as the \"Godfather of Latin rap\" and inducted into the Hip Hop Hall of Fame inductee.", "In 1990, fellow West Coast artist Kid Frost further brought Latinos to the rap forefront with his hit song \"La Raza (song).\"", "In 1991, Kid Frost, Mellow Man, A.L.T.", "and several other Latin rappers formed the rap super group Latin Alliance and released a self-titled album which featured the hit \"Lowrider (On the Boulevard)\".", "The remake of the song Tequila was a A.L.T.", "hit later that year.", "Cypress Hill, of which Mellow Man Ace was a member before going solo, would become the first Latino rap group to reach platinum status in 1991.The group was also the first major hip-hop music group to include Spanish and Latin slang in their lyrics.", "Cypress Hill has since continued to release other Gold and Platinum albums.", "Ecuadorian born rapper Gerardo received heavy rotation on video and radio for his single \"Rico, Suave\".", "While commercially watered-down, his album enjoyed a status of being one of the first mainstream Spanglish CDs on the market.", "Johnny J was a multi-platinum songwriter, music producer, and rapper who was perhaps best known for his production on Tupac Shakur's albums All Eyez on Me and Me Against the World.", "He also produced the 1990 single Knockin' Boots for his classmate Candyman's album ''Ain't No Shame in My Game'', which eventually went platinum thanks to the single.In the mid-1990s, the success of LA's Cypress Hill led to additional Latin hip-hop artists finding label support.", "Delinquent Habits were a horn-sampling trio that found MTV support for their breakout bilingual single \"Tres Delinquentes\" in 1996.By the early 2000's, two Mexico-born, United States-raised Latin hip hop acts found success on major labels.", "LA's Akwid fused banda with hip-hop on hits like \"No Hay Manera\" while Milwaukee's Kinto Sol told tales of Mexican immigrant life over more minimalist beats.", "The genre even spawned a bicultural novelty, the Brooklyn-based crew Hip Hop Hoodíos, who fused their dual Jewish and Latino cultures on songs like \"Havana Nagila\" and \"Raza Hoodía.", "\"===Latin rap in the East Coast and Miami===DJ Charlie Chase fused hip-hop with salsa and other music genres.", "Chase was the DJ for the New York hip-hop group the Cold Crush Brothers, from 1978 and through the '80s.", "East Coast Latin artists such as the Beatnuts emerged in the early 1990s, with New Jersey native Chino XL earning recognition for his lyricism and equal controversy for his subject matter.", "In 1992, Mesanjarz of Funk, led by the Spanish/English flow of Mr. Pearl, became the first Spanish rap group signed to a major label (Atlantic Records).", "In 1994, Platinum Producer and DJ Frankie Cutlass used his own label, Hoody Records, to produce his single “Puerto Rico” which became a classic.", "In the late 1990s, Puerto Rican rapper Big Punisher became the first Latino solo artist to reach platinum sales for an LP with his debut album ''Capital Punishment'', which included hit song \"Still Not a Player\".===Southwest and Chicano rap===Latin rap (as well as its subgenre of Chicano rap) has thrived along the West Coast, Southwest and Midwestern states with little promotion due to the large Latino populations of those regions.", "Jonny Z is considered to be a pioneer of Latin hip-hop, due to him being one of the first Latinos combining Spanglish lyrics with freestyle, salsa, mambo, and regional Mexican banda.", "He scored four Billboard Hot Dance singles between 1993 and 1997, including one of the greatest Miami bass songs of all time, \"Shake Shake (Shake That Culo)\".", "Besides bass music, he also recorded the Chicano anthem \"Orale\".", "''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Latinos and Latinas in the United States'' Volume 2, Page 301 states: \"A new style of Latina and Latino hip-hop was created in Miami and Texas by the bass rappers DJ Laz and Jonny Z, who mixed Latin styles with bass music\"." ], [ "Latin hip hop in other countries", "Latin rap in Puerto Rico has had a substantial impact on the genres (rap, and Latin rap) and relate a certain message to their respective audiences.", "Puerto Rican rap emerged as a form of cultural and social protest within the Puerto Rican context.", "This is similar to the way American and Jamaican youth used rap and reggae/dancehall as a means to communicate their feelings on social, cultural, and political issues.", "In essence, Puerto Rican rap became the voice of the Puerto Rican youth in which they use dancehall and rap music as methods of expression for the Jamaican and working-class American youth counterparts as they made it in France too since 2003 \"1492 Army\".In the late 1990s, hip-hop took hold in Mexico, especially with the platinum success of Mexican rap pioneers Control Machete.", "The genre also found prominence with Latin alternative artists who fused hip-hop rhymes with live instrumentation, including rap-rockers Molotov and cumbia-rockers El Gran Silencio.There are many hip-hop scenes in Latin America, including a growing rap movement in Buenos Aires and Montevideo.", "Hip hop in Uruguay has had a significant presence since the late 1990s, with groups such as Sudacas en Guerra, Oeste Pro Funk, Plátano Macho and El Peyote Asesino.", "Starting in 2003, the genre began to develop progressively in the country, especially after latejapride* joined Bizarro Records.", "Since then, numerous groups and artists have emerged on the Uruguayan hip hop scene, including Beat Urbano, Arrajatabla Flow Club & The Warriors, Magia Negra Squad, Primate and Cubaguayo, among others.", "Introduction: Since the late 1990s, Uruguay has witnessed the development of a thriving hip hop scene, marked by the contributions of early pioneers and a variety of influential groups.Uruguayan Hip-Hop: Development and ResilienceEarly Stages: Beginning in the late 1990s, Uruguay's hip hop scene has been shaped by artists like Jazzy Mel and groups such as Sudacas en Guerra, Oeste Pro Funk, Plátano Macho, and El Peyote Asesino.2003 Onwards: A significant turning point was latejapride's signing with Bizarro Records, which led to a progressive development of the genre.New Artists and Challenges: The emergence of acts like Beat Urbano, Arrajatabla Flow Club & The Warriors, and Magia Negra Squad, as well as the challenges faced, including the tragic murder of rapper Plef, illustrate the scene's evolution and resilience.ConclusionEach of these countries' hip-hop scenes reflects their unique cultural contexts and social issues.", "While facing distinct challenges, these communities continue to use hip-hop as a powerful tool for expression and social commentary.===Narco-rap===A music scene, similar to the early underground gangsta rap scene, has emerged in northeastern Mexico (Nuevo León, Tamaulipas and Coahuila), where the musical phenomenon of hip-hop is being co-opted by the influence of organized crime and the drug war in the region.Some of the main exponents of the genre are Cano y Blunt, DemenT and Big Los." ], [ "Freestyle", "In the mid-1980s, freestyle music was initially called \"Latin hip hop\".", "This dance music genre, not to be confused with improvised freestyle rapping, was dominated, at the time, by electro funk beats and electronic Latin melodic and percussion elements, over which Latino vocalists sang melodramatic pop vocals, usually in English even though it was started by Nuyorican natives and African-Americans primarily.", "Freestyle has been primarily popular among Latinos in the New York City, Miami, Chicago and California club scenes, but achieved national mainstream pop success with hits by Lisa Lisa, the Cover Girls, George Lamond, Stevie B, TKA and Exposé, among others." ], [ "Latin trap", "In 2015, a new movement of trap music referred to as \"Latin trap\" began to emerge.", "Also known as Spanish-language trap, Latin trap similar to mainstream trap which details \"'la calle,' or the streets — hustling, sex, and drugs\".", "Prominent artists of Latin trap include Messiah, Fuego, Anuel AA and Bad Bunny.", "In July 2017, ''The Fader'' wrote \"Rappers and reggaetoneros from Puerto Rico to Colombia have taken elements of trap — the lurching bass lines, jittering 808s and the eyes-half-closed vibe — and infused them into banger after banger.\"", "In an August 2017 article for ''Billboard'''s series, \"A Brief History Of,\" they enlisted some of the key artists of Latin trap—including Ozuna, De La Ghetto, Bad Bunny, Farruko and Messiah—to narrate a brief history on the genre.", "Elias Leight of ''Rolling Stone'' noted \"Jorge Fonseca featured Puerto Rican artists like Anuel AA, Bryant Myers and Noriel on the compilation ''Trap Capos: Season 1'', which became the first \"Latin trap\" LP to reach Number One on ''Billboard'''s Latin Rhythm Albums chart.\"", "A remixed version of Cardi B's hit single \"Bodak Yellow\" (which reached number one on the US ''Billboard'' Hot 100 chart), dubbed the \"Latin Trap Remix\", was officially released on August 18, 2017 and features Cardi B rapping in the Spanish language with Dominican hip hop recording artist Messiah contributing a guest verse.", "In November 2017, ''Rolling Stone'' wrote that \"a surging Latin trap sound is responding to more recent developments in American rap, embracing the slow-rolling rhythms and gooey vocal delivery popularized by Southern hip-hop.\"" ], [ "See also", " Avanzada Regia* Brazilian hip hop* Chicano rap* Cuban hip hop* Dominican hip hop* Merenrap* Mexican hip hop* Nuyorican rap* Uruguayan hip hop* Salvadoran hip hop* Spanish hip hop* Argentinian hip hop" ], [ "Further reading", "* Flores, Juan. ''", "From Bomba to Hip-Hop Puerto Rican Culture and Latino Identity''.", "New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.", "* George, Nelson. ''", "Hip Hop America''.", "New York: Penguin, 1998.", "* Kitwana, Bakari. ''", "The Hip Hop Generation''.", "Basic Books, 2002.", "* Rivera, Raquel. ''", "New Yorkricans from the Hip Hop Zone''.", "New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* LatinRapper.com—Source for Latin rap news and interviews* BrownPride.com at BrownPride.com—a collection of texts and links about Latin rap" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lighthouse of Alexandria" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Lighthouse of Alexandria''', sometimes called the '''Pharos of Alexandria''' ( ; , contemporary Koine ; ), was a lighthouse built by the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Ancient Egypt, during the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (280–247 BC).", "It has been estimated to have been at least in overall height.", "One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, for many centuries it was one of the tallest man-made structures in the world.The lighthouse was severely damaged by three earthquakes between 956 and 1323 AD and became an abandoned ruin.", "It was the third-longest surviving ancient wonder, after the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus and the extant Great Pyramid of Giza, surviving in part until 1480, when the last of its remnant stones were used to build the Citadel of Qaitbay on the site.In 1994, a team of French archaeologists dove into the water of Alexandria's Eastern Harbor and discovered some remains of the lighthouse on the sea floor.", "In 2016 the Ministry of State of Antiquities in Egypt had plans to turn submerged ruins of ancient Alexandria, including those of the Pharos, into an underwater museum.__TOC__" ], [ "Origin", "Pharos was a small island located on the western edge of the Nile Delta.", "In 332 BC Alexander the Great founded the city of Alexandria on an isthmus opposite Pharos.", "Alexandria and Pharos were later connected by a mole spanning more than , which was called the ''Heptastadion'' (\"seven stadia\"—a ''stadion'' was a Greek unit of length measuring approximately 180 m).The etymology of \"Pharos\" is uncertain.", "The word became generalized in modern Greek (φάρος 'fáros'), and was borrowed by Italian and Spanish ('faro') and French ('phare').The east side of the mole became the Great Harbor, now an open bay; on the west side lay the port of Eunostos, with its inner basin Kibotos now vastly enlarged to form the modern harbor.", "Today's city development lying between the present Grand Square and the modern Ras el-Tin quarter is built on the silt which gradually widened and obliterated this mole.", "The Ras el-Tin promontory, where Ras el-Tin Palace was built in the 19th century, represents all that is left of the island of Pharos, the site of the lighthouse at its eastern point having been weathered away by the sea." ], [ "Construction", "''Lighthouse of Alexandria'' by Philip Galle; 1572, RijksmuseumThe lighthouse was constructed in the third century BC.", "After Alexander the Great died, the first Ptolemy (Ptolemy I Soter) declared himself king in 305 BC, and commissioned its construction shortly thereafter.", "The building was finished during the reign of his son, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, and took twelve years to complete at a total cost of 800 talents of silver.", "The light was produced by a furnace at the top, and the tower was said to have been built mostly with solid blocks of limestone and granite.In his encyclopedic manuscript ''Geographica'', Strabo, who visited Alexandria in the late first century BC, reported that Sostratus of Cnidus had a dedication to the \"Saviour Gods\" inscribed in metal letters on the lighthouse.", "Writing in the first century AD, Pliny the Elder stated in his ''Natural History'' that Sostratus was the architect, although this conclusion is disputed.", "In his second century AD educational treatise ''How to Write History'', Lucian claimed that Sostratus hid his name under plaster which bore the name of Ptolemy, so that when the plaster eventually fell off, Sostratus's name would be visible in the stone.The blocks of sandstone and limestone used in the construction of the lighthouse have been scientifically analysed in order to discover where they originated, with mineralogical and chemical analysis pointing to the Wadi Hammamat quarries, which are located in the desert to the east of Alexandria." ], [ "Height and description", "A size comparison between a 1909 (inner shape) and a 2006 study (outer shape) of the buildingArab descriptions of the lighthouse are consistent despite it undergoing several repairs after earthquake damage.", "Given heights vary only fifteen percent from , on a square base.The Arab authors indicate that the lighthouse was constructed from large blocks of light-coloured stone.", "The tower was made up of three tapering tiers: a lower square section with a central core; a middle octagonal section; and, at the top, a circular section.", "Al-Masudi wrote in the 10th century that the seaward-facing side featured an inscription dedicated to Zeus.", "Geographer Al-Idrisi visited the lighthouse in 1154 and noted openings in the walls throughout the rectangular shaft with lead used as a filling agent in between the masonry blocks at the base.", "He reckoned the total height of the lighthouse to be 300 dhira rashashl (162 m).At its apex was a mirror which reflected sunlight during the day; a fire was lit at night.", "Extant Roman coins struck by the Alexandrian mint show that a statue of Triton was positioned on each of the building's four corners, and a statue of Poseidon or Zeus stood atop.The fullest description of the lighthouse comes from Arab traveler Abou Haggag Youssef Ibn Mohammed el-Balawi el-Andaloussi, who visited Alexandria in 1166 AD.", "Balawi provided description and measurement of the interior of the lighthouse's rectangular shaft.", "The inner ramp was described as roofed with masonry at 7 shibr (189 cm, 6.2 ft) noted as to allow two horsemen to pass at once.", "In clockwise rotation, the ramp held four stories with eighteen, fourteen, and seventeen rooms on the second, third, and fourth floors, respectively.Balawi accounted the base of the lighthouse to be 45 ba (30 m, 100 ft) long on each side with connecting ramp 600 dhira (300 m, 984 ft) long by 20 dhira (10 m, 32 ft) wide.", "The octagonal section is accounted at 24 ba (16.4 m, 54 ft) in width, and the diameter of the cylindrical section is accounted at 12.73 ba (8.7 m, 28.5 ft).", "The apex of the lighthouse's oratory was measured with diameter 6.4 ba (4.3 m 20.9 ft).Late accounts of the lighthouse after the destruction by the 1303 Crete earthquake include Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan scholar and explorer, who passed through Alexandria in 1326 and 1349.Battuta noted that the wrecked condition of the lighthouse was then only noticeable by the rectangle tower and entrance ramp.", "He stated the tower to be 140 shibr (30.8 m, 101 ft) on either side.", "Battuta detailed Sultan An-Nasir Muhammad's plan to build a new lighthouse near the site of the collapsed one, but these went unfulfilled after the Sultan's death in 1341.File:PhareAlexandrie.jpg\|The lighthouse on coins minted in Alexandria in the second century AD (1: reverse of a coin of Antoninus Pius, and 2: reverse of a coin of Commodus)File:Leuchtturm von Alexandria.png\|A 3D reconstruction of the Lighthouse of Alexandria" ], [ "Destruction", "The lighthouse was partially cracked and damaged by earthquakes in 796 and 951, followed by structural collapse in the earthquake of 956, and then again in 1303 and 1323.Earthquakes propagate from two well known tectonic boundaries, the African–Arabian and Red Sea Rift zones, respectively 350 and 520 km from the lighthouse's location.", "Documentation shows the 956 earthquake to be the first to cause structural collapse of the top 20+ metres of the construction.Documented repairs after the 956 earthquake include the installment of an Islamic-style dome after the collapse of the statue that previously topped the monument.", "The most destructive earthquake in 1303 was an estimated intensity of VIII+ originating from the Greek island of Crete (280–350 km from Alexandria).", "The stubby remnant disappeared in 1480, when the then-Sultan of Egypt, Qaitbay, built a medieval fort on the larger platform of the lighthouse site using some of the fallen stone.The 10th-century writer al-Mas'udi reports a legendary tale on the lighthouse's destruction, according to which at the time of Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan () the Byzantines sent a eunuch agent, who adopted Islam, gained the Caliph's confidence and secured permission to search for hidden treasure at the base of the lighthouse.", "The search was cunningly made in such a manner that the foundations were undermined, and the Pharos collapsed.", "The agent managed to escape in a ship waiting for him." ], [ "Archaeological research and rediscovery", "Lighthouse remains found in the Mediterranean SeaGaston Jondet made in 1916 the first detailed description of the submerged ruins of the old port of Alexandria.", "He was followed by Raymond Weill in the same year, and by Sir Leopold Halliday Savile in 1940.In 1968, the lighthouse was rediscovered.", "UNESCO sponsored an expedition to send a team of marine archaeologists, led by Honor Frost, to the site.", "She confirmed the existence of ruins representing part of the lighthouse.", "Due to the lack of specialized archaeologists and the area becoming a military zone, exploration was put on hold.A team of French archaeologists led by Jean-Yves Empereur re-discovered the physical remains of the lighthouse in late 1994 on the floor of Alexandria's Eastern Harbour.", "He worked with cinematographer Asma el-Bakri who used a 35 mm camera to capture the first underwater pictures of the scattered remains of collapsed columns and statues.", "Empereur's most significant findings consisted of blocks of granite 49–60 tonnes in mass often broken into multiple pieces, 30 sphinxes, 5 obelisks and columns with carvings dating back to Ramses II (1279–1213 BC).The cataloging of over 3,300 pieces was completed by Empereur and his team at the end of 1995 using a combination of photography and mapping.", "Thirty-six pieces of Empereur's granite blocks and other discoveries have been restored and are currently on display in Alexandria museums.", "Satellite imaging has revealed further remains.", "In the early 1990s, the underwater archaeologist Franck Goddio began exploration at the opposite side of the harbor from where Empereur's team had worked.Satellite and sonar imaging has revealed the additional remains of wharves, houses and temples which had all fallen into the Mediterranean sea as a result of earthquakes and other natural disasters.", "It is possible to go diving and see the ruins.", "The secretariat of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage is currently working with the Government of Egypt on an initiative to add the Bay of Alexandria (including the remains of the lighthouse) to a World Heritage List of submerged cultural sites." ], [ "Significance", "A mosaic depicting the Pharos of Alexandria (labeled \"\"), from Olbia, Libya, ''c''.", "4th century ADLegend has it that the people of the island of Pharos were wreckers; hence, Ptolemy I Soter had the lighthouse built to help guide ships into port at night.", "''Pharos'' became the etymological origin of the word \"lighthouse\" in Greek (''φάρος''), many Romance languages such as French (''phare''), Italian and Spanish (''faro'') – and thence into Esperanto (''faro'') – Catalan, Romanian (''far'') and Portuguese (''farol''), and even some Slavic languages like Bulgarian (''far'').", "In French, Portuguese, Turkish, Serbian and Russian, a derived word means \"headlight\" (''phare'', ''farol'', ''far'', ''фар'', ''фара'')." ], [ "Proposed reconstruction", "Since 1978 a number of proposals have been made to replace the lighthouse with a modern reconstruction.", "In 2015, the Egyptian government and the Alexandria governorate suggested building a skyscraper on the site of the lighthouse as part of the regeneration of the eastern harbour of Alexandria Port." ], [ "Pharos in culture", "The lighthouse as depicted in the ''Book of Wonders'', a late 14th-century Arabic textAbusir, an ancient funerary monument thought to be modelled after the Pharos at Alexandria, with which it is approximately contemporaneousThe lighthouse remains a civic symbol of the city of Alexandria and of the Alexandria Governorate with which the city is more or less coterminous.", "A stylised representation of the lighthouse appears on the flag and seal of the Governorate and on many public services of the city, including the seal of Alexandria University.===In architecture===* A well-preserved ancient tomb in the town of Abusir, southwest of Alexandria, is thought to be a scaled-down model of the Alexandria Pharos.", "Known colloquially under various names – the ''Pharos of Abusir'', the ''Abusir funerary monument'' and Burg al-Arab (Arab's Tower) – it consists of a 3-storey tower, approximately in height, with a square base, an octagonal midsection and cylindrical upper section, like the building upon which it was apparently modelled.", "It dates to the reign of Ptolemy II (285–246 BC), and is therefore likely to have been built at about the same time as the Alexandria Pharos.", "* The design of minarets in many early Egyptian Islamic mosques followed a three-stage design similar to that of the Pharos, attesting to the building's broader architectural influence.", "* The George Washington Masonic National Memorial, located in Alexandria, Virginia, is fashioned after the ancient Lighthouse.", "A fictionalized version of the structure – known as the \"Pharos Lighthouse\" – serves as the park icon, centerpiece, and identifier of Universal Islands of Adventure theme park, opened in 1999 at the Universal Orlando Resort.", "The real, functioning lighthouse resides in the park's Port of Entry area.===In literature===Julius Caesar, in his ''Civil Wars'' (Part III, 111–112), describes the Pharos and its strategic importance.", "Gaining control of the lighthouse helped him subdue Ptolemy XIII's armies (48 BC):The Romano-Jewish historian Josephus (37 – c. 100 AD) describes it in his book ''The Jewish War'' (4.10.5) when he gives a geographical overview of Egypt.", "It was described in the ''Zhu fan zhi'' (\"Records of Foreign Peoples\") by Zhao Rugua (1170–1228), a Chinese customs inspector for the southern port city of Quanzhou during the Song dynasty.", "Ibn Battuta visited the lighthouse in 1326, finding \"one of its faces in ruins,\" yet he could enter and noted a place for the guardian of the lighthouse to sit and many other chambers.", "When he returned in 1349, he \"found that it had fallen into so ruinous a condition that it was impossible to enter it or to climb up to the doorway\"." ], [ "See also", "Tower of Hercules, a Roman lighthouse in SpainMinar (Firuzabad)List of tallest structures built before the 20th century" ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''Bibliography'''* * * * * * * '''Further reading'''Harris, William V., and Giovanni Ruffini.", "2004.", "''Ancient Alexandria Between Egypt and Greece''.", "Leiden: Brill.", " Jordan, Paul.", "2002.", "''The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World''.", "Harlow: Longman.", "Polyzōidēs, Apostolos.", "2014.", "''Alexandria: City of Gifts and Sorrows: From Hellenistic Civilization to Multiethnic Metropolis''.", "Chicago: Sussex Academic Press, 2014.", "Thompson, Alice.", "2002.''Pharos''.", "London: Virago.", "Tkaczow, Barbara, and Iwona Zych.", "1993.", "''The Topography of Ancient Alexandria: An Archaeological Map''.", "Warszawa: Zaklad Archeologii Śródziemnomorskiej, Polskiej Akadmii Nauk." ], [ "External links", "* World History Encyclopedia – Lighthouse of Alexandria* Description of Alexandria and the Pharos in the ''Zhu fan zhi''* A frightening vision: on plans to rebuild the Alexandria Lighthouse * PBS Nova program about the recovery of artifacts from the site" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lighthouse" ], [ "Introduction", "The Lighthouse of Praia da Barra, on the west coast of PortugalAerial drone footage of the Roman Rock Lighthouse off the southern coast of South Africa.A '''lighthouse''' is a tower, building, or other type of physical structure designed to emit light from a system of lamps and lenses and to serve as a beacon for navigational aid, for maritime pilots at sea or on inland waterways.", "Lighthouses mark dangerous coastlines, hazardous shoals, reefs, rocks, and safe entries to harbors; they also assist in aerial navigation.", "Once widely used, the number of operational lighthouses has declined due to the expense of maintenance and has become uneconomical since the advent of much cheaper, more sophisticated and effective electronic navigational systems." ], [ "History", "===Ancient lighthouses===The Tower of Hercules lighthouse in northwest SpainBefore the development of clearly defined ports, mariners were guided by fires built on hilltops.", "Since elevating the fire would improve visibility, placing the fire on a platform became a practice that led to the development of the lighthouse.", "In antiquity, the lighthouse functioned more as an entrance marker to ports than as a warning signal for reefs and promontories, unlike many modern lighthouses.", "The most famous lighthouse structure from antiquity was the Pharos of Alexandria, Egypt, which collapsed following a series of earthquakes between 956 CE and 1323 CE.The intact Tower of Hercules at A Coruña, Spain gives insight into ancient lighthouse construction; other evidence about lighthouses exists in depictions on coins and mosaics, of which many represent the lighthouse at Ostia.", "Coins from Alexandria, Ostia, and Laodicea in Syria also exist.===Modern construction===The modern era of lighthouses began at the turn of the 18th century, as the number of lighthouses being constructed increased significantly due to much higher levels of transatlantic commerce.", "Advances in structural engineering and new and efficient lighting equipment allowed for the creation of larger and more powerful lighthouses, including ones exposed to the sea.", "The function of lighthouses was gradually changed from indicating ports to the providing of a visible warning against shipping hazards, such as rocks or reefs.Winstanley lighthouse, Eddystone Rock, by Jaaziell Johnston, 1813.The Eddystone Rocks were a major shipwreck hazard for mariners sailing through the English Channel.", "The first lighthouse built there was an octagonal wooden structure, anchored by 12 iron stanchions secured in the rock, and was built by Henry Winstanley from 1696 to 1698.His lighthouse was the first tower in the world to have been fully exposed to the open sea.The civil engineer John Smeaton rebuilt the lighthouse from 1756 to 1759; his tower marked a major step forward in the design of lighthouses and remained in use until 1877.He modeled the shape of his lighthouse on that of an oak tree, using granite blocks.", "He rediscovered and used \"hydraulic lime\", a form of concrete that will set under water used by the Romans, and developed a technique of securing the granite blocks together using dovetail joints and marble dowels.", "The dovetailing feature served to improve the structural stability, although Smeaton also had to taper the thickness of the tower towards the top, for which he curved the tower inwards on a gentle gradient.", "This profile had the added advantage of allowing some of the energy of the waves to dissipate on impact with the walls.", "His lighthouse was the prototype for the modern lighthouse and influenced all subsequent engineers.John Smeaton's rebuilt version of the Eddystone Lighthouse, 1759.This represented a great step forward in lighthouse design.One such influence was Robert Stevenson, himself a seminal figure in the development of lighthouse design and construction.", "His greatest achievement was the construction of the Bell Rock Lighthouse in 1810, one of the most impressive feats of engineering of the age.", "This structure was based upon Smeaton's design, but with several improved features, such as the incorporation of rotating lights, alternating between red and white.", "Stevenson worked for the Northern Lighthouse Board for nearly fifty years during which time he designed and oversaw the construction and later improvement of numerous lighthouses.", "He innovated in the choice of light sources, mountings, reflector design, the use of Fresnel lenses, and in rotation and shuttering systems providing lighthouses with individual signatures allowing them to be identified by seafarers.", "He also invented the movable jib and the balance-crane as a necessary part for lighthouse construction.Marjaniemi Lighthouse, the 19th-century lighthouse in the Hailuoto island, neighbouring municipality of Oulu, FinlandAlexander Mitchell designed the first screw-pile lighthouse – his lighthouse was built on piles that were screwed into the sandy or muddy seabed.", "Construction of his design began in 1838 at the mouth of the Thames and was known as the Maplin Sands lighthouse, and first lit in 1841.Although its construction began later, the Wyre Light in Fleetwood, Lancashire, was the first to be lit (in 1840).===Lighting improvements===Until 1782 the source of illumination had generally been wood pyres or burning coal.", "The Argand lamp, invented in 1782 by the Swiss scientist Aimé Argand revolutionized lighthouse illumination with its steady smokeless flame.", "Early models used ground glass which was sometimes tinted around the wick.", "Later models used a mantle of thorium dioxide suspended over the flame, creating a bright, steady light.", "The Argand lamp used whale oil, colza, olive oil or other vegetable oil as fuel, supplied by a gravity feed from a reservoir mounted above the burner.", "The lamp was first produced by Matthew Boulton, in partnership with Argand, in 1784, and became the standard for lighthouses for over a century.South Foreland Lighthouse was the first tower to successfully use an electric light in 1875.The lighthouse's carbon arc lamps were powered by a steam-driven magneto.", "John Richardson Wigham was the first to develop a system for gas illumination of lighthouses.", "His improved gas 'crocus' burner at the Baily Lighthouse near Dublin was 13 times more powerful than the most brilliant light then known.An Chance Brothers ''Incandescent Petroleum Vapour Installation'' which produced the light for the Sumburgh Head lighthouse until 1976.The lamp (made in approx.", "1914) burned vaporized kerosene (paraffin); the vaporizer was heated by a denatured alcohol (methylated spirit) burner to light.", "When lit, some of the vaporised fuel was diverted to a Bunsen burner to keep the vaporizer warm and the fuel in vapor form.", "The fuel was forced up to the lamp by air; the keepers had to pump the air container up every hour or so, pressurizing the paraffin container to force the fuel to the lamp.", "The \"white sock\" pictured is an unburnt mantle on which the vapor burned.The vaporized oil burner was invented in 1901 by Arthur Kitson, and improved by David Hood at Trinity House.", "The fuel was vaporized at high pressure and burned to heat the mantle, giving an output of over six times the luminosity of traditional oil lights.", "The use of gas as illuminant became widely available with the invention of the Dalén light by Swedish engineer Gustaf Dalén.", "He used Agamassan (Aga), a substrate, to absorb the gas, allowing the gas to be stored, and hence used, safely.", "Dalén also invented the 'sun valve', which automatically regulated the light and turned it off during the daytime.", "The technology was the predominant light source in lighthouses from the 1900s to the 1960s, when electric lighting had become dominant.===Optical systems===Diagram depicting how a spherical Fresnel lens collimates lightWith the development of the steady illumination of the Argand lamp, the application of optical lenses to increase and focus the light intensity became a practical possibility.", "William Hutchinson developed the first practical optical system in 1763, known as a catoptric system.", "This rudimentary system effectively collimated the emitted light into a concentrated beam, thereby greatly increasing the light's visibility.", "The ability to focus the light led to the first revolving lighthouse beams, where the light would appear to the mariners as a series of intermittent flashes.", "It also became possible to transmit complex signals using the light flashes.French physicist and engineer Augustin-Jean Fresnel developed the multi-part Fresnel lens for use in lighthouses.", "His design allowed for the construction of lenses of large aperture and short focal length, without the mass and volume of material that would be required by a lens of conventional design.", "A Fresnel lens can be made much thinner than a comparable conventional lens, in some cases taking the form of a flat sheet.", "A Fresnel lens can also capture more oblique light from a light source, thus allowing the light from a lighthouse equipped with one to be visible over greater distances.The first Fresnel lens was used in 1823 in the Cordouan lighthouse at the mouth of the Gironde estuary; its light could be seen from more than out.", "Fresnel's invention increased the luminosity of the lighthouse lamp by a factor of four and his system is still in common use.===Modern lighthouses===The introduction of electrification and automatic lamp changers began to make lighthouse keepers obsolete.", "For many years, lighthouses still had keepers, partly because lighthouse keepers could serve as a rescue service if necessary.", "Improvements in maritime navigation and safety such as satellite navigation systems such as GPS led to the phasing out of non-automated lighthouses across the world.", "In Canada, this trend has been stopped and there are still 50 staffed light stations, with 27 on the west coast alone.Remaining modern lighthouses are usually illuminated by a single stationary flashing light powered by solar-charged batteries mounted on a steel skeleton tower.", "Where the power requirement is too great for solar power, ''cycle charging'' by diesel generator is used: to save fuel and to increase periods between maintenance the light is battery powered, with the generator only coming into use when the battery has to be charged.===Famous lighthouse builders===John Smeaton is noteworthy for having designed the third and most famous Eddystone Lighthouse, but some builders are well known for their work in building multiple lighthouses.", "The Stevenson family (Robert, Alan, David, Thomas, David Alan, and Charles) made lighthouse building a three-generation profession in Scotland.", "Richard Henry Brunton designed and built 26 Japanese lighthouses in Meiji Era Japan, which became known as Brunton's \"children\".", "Blind Irishman Alexander Mitchell invented and built a number of screw-pile lighthouses.", "Englishman James Douglass was knighted for his work on the fourth Eddystone Lighthouse.United States Army Corps of Engineers Lieutenant George Meade built numerous lighthouses along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts before gaining wider fame as the winning general at the Battle of Gettysburg.", "Colonel Orlando M. Poe, engineer to General William Tecumseh Sherman in the siege of Atlanta, designed and built some of the most exotic lighthouses in the most difficult locations on the U.S. Great Lakes.French merchant navy officer Marius Michel Pasha built almost a hundred lighthouses along the coasts of the Ottoman Empire in a period of twenty years after the Crimean War (1853–1856)." ], [ "Technology", "In a lighthouse, the source of light is called the \"lamp\" (whether electric or fuelled by oil) and the light is concentrated, if needed, by the \"lens\" or \"optic\".", "Power sources for lighthouses in the 20th–21st centuries vary.===Power===Originally lit by open fires and later candles, the Argand hollow wick lamp and parabolic reflector were introduced in the late 18th century.Whale oil was also used with wicks as the source of light.", "Kerosene became popular in the 1870s and electricity and carbide (acetylene gas) began replacing kerosene around the turn of the 20th century.", "Carbide was promoted by the Dalén light which automatically lit the lamp at nightfall and extinguished it at dawn.In the second half of the 20th century, many remote lighthouses in Russia (then Soviet Union) were powered by radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs).", "These had the advantage of providing power day or night and did not need refuelling or maintenance.", "However, after the collapse of the Soviet government in 1990s, most of the official records on the locations, and condition, of these lighthouses were reportedly lost.", "Over time, the condition of RTGs in Russia degraded; many of the fell victim to vandalism and scrap metal thieves, who may not have been aware of the dangerous radioactive contents.Energy-efficient LED lights can be powered by solar panels, with batteries instead of a diesel generator for backup.===Light source===Many Fresnel lens installations have been replaced by rotating aerobeacons which require less maintenance.In modern automated lighthouses, the system of rotating lenses is often replaced by a high intensity light that emits brief omnidirectional flashes, concentrating the light in time rather than direction.", "These lights are similar to obstruction lights used to warn aircraft of tall structures.", "Later innovations were \"Vega Lights\", and experiments with light-emitting diode (LED) panels.LED lights, which use less energy and are easier to maintain, had come into widespread use by 2020.In the United Kingdom and Ireland about a third of lighthouses had been converted from filament light sources to use LEDs, and conversion continued with about three per year.", "The light sources are designed to replicate the colour and character of the traditional light as closely as possible.", "The change is often not noticed by people in the region, but sometimes a proposed change leads to calls to preserve the traditional light, including in some cases a rotating beam.", "A typical LED system designed to fit into the traditional 19th century Fresnel lens enclosure was developed by Trinity House and two other lighthouse authorities and costs about €20,000, depending on configuration, according to a supplier; it has large fins to dissipate heat.", "Lifetime of the LED light source is 50,000 to 100,000 hours, compared to about 1,000 hours for a filament source.====Laser light====Point Danger lighthouse, Queensland, 1971Experimental installations of laser lights, either at high power to provide a \"line of light\" in the sky or, utilising low power, aimed towards mariners have identified problems of increased complexity in installation and maintenance, and high power requirements.", "The first practical installation, in 1971 at Point Danger lighthouse, Queensland, was replaced by a conventional light after four years because the beam was too narrow to be seen easily.====Light characteristics====In any of these designs an observer, rather than seeing a continuous weak light, sees a brighter light during short time intervals.", "These instants of bright light are arranged to create a light characteristic or pattern specific to a lighthouse.", "For example, the Scheveningen Lighthouse flashes are alternately 2.5 and 7.5 seconds.", "Some lights have sectors of a particular color (usually formed by colored panes in the lantern) to distinguish safe water areas from dangerous shoals.", "Modern lighthouses often have unique reflectors or Racon transponders so the radar signature of the light is also unique.===Lens===Cape Meares Lighthouse in Oregon; first-order Fresnel lensBefore modern strobe lights, lenses were used to concentrate the light from a continuous source.", "Vertical light rays of the lamp are redirected into a horizontal plane, and horizontally the light is focused into one or a few directions at a time, with the light beam swept around.", "As a result, in addition to seeing the side of the light beam, the light is directly visible from greater distances, and with an identifying light characteristic.This concentration of light is accomplished with a rotating lens assembly.", "In early lighthouses, the light source was a kerosene lamp or, earlier, an animal or vegetable oil Argand lamp, and the lenses rotated by a weight driven clockwork assembly wound by lighthouse keepers, sometimes as often as every two hours.", "The lens assembly sometimes floated in liquid mercury to reduce friction.", "In more modern lighthouses, electric lights and motor drives were used, generally powered by diesel electric generators.", "These also supplied electricity for the lighthouse keepers.Efficiently concentrating the light from a large omnidirectional light source requires a very large diameter lens.", "This would require a very thick and heavy lens if a conventional lens were used.", "The Fresnel lens (pronounced ) focused 85% of a lamp's light versus the 20% focused with the parabolic reflectors of the time.", "Its design enabled construction of lenses of large size and short focal length without the weight and volume of material in conventional lens designs.Fresnel lighthouse lenses are ranked by ''order'', a measure of refracting power, with a first order lens being the largest, most powerful and expensive; and a sixth order lens being the smallest.", "The order is based on the focal length of the lens.", "A first order lens has the longest focal length, with the sixth being the shortest.", "Coastal lighthouses generally use first, second, or third order lenses, while harbor lights and beacons use fourth, fifth, or sixth order lenses.Some lighthouses, such as those at Cape Race, Newfoundland, and Makapuu Point, Hawaii, used a more powerful hyperradiant Fresnel lens manufactured by the firm of Chance Brothers." ], [ "Building", "===Components===Lighthouse lantern room from mid-1800sWhile lighthouse buildings differ depending on the location and purpose, they tend to have common components.A light station comprises the lighthouse tower and all outbuildings, such as the keeper's living quarters, fuel house, boathouse, and fog-signaling building.", "The Lighthouse itself consists of a tower structure supporting the lantern room where the light operates.The lantern room is the glassed-in housing at the top of a lighthouse tower containing the lamp and lens.", "Its glass storm panes are supported by metal muntins (glazing bars) running vertically or diagonally.", "At the top of the lantern room is a stormproof ventilator designed to remove the smoke of the lamps and the heat that builds in the glass enclosure.", "A lightning rod and grounding system connected to the metal cupola roof provides a safe conduit for any lightning strikes.Immediately beneath the lantern room is usually a Watch Room or Service Room where fuel and other supplies were kept and where the keeper prepared the lanterns for the night and often stood watch.", "The clockworks (for rotating the lenses) were also located there.", "On a lighthouse tower, an open platform called the gallery is often located outside the watch room (called the Main Gallery) or Lantern Room (Lantern Gallery).", "This was mainly used for cleaning the outside of the windows of the Lantern Room.Lighthouses near to each other that are similar in shape are often painted in a unique pattern so they can easily be recognized during daylight, a marking known as a daymark.", "The black and white barber pole spiral pattern of Cape Hatteras Lighthouse is one example.", "Race Rocks Light in western Canada is painted in horizontal black and white bands to stand out against the horizon.===Design===For effectiveness, the lamp must be high enough to be seen before the danger is reached by a mariner.", "The minimum height is calculated by trigonometry (see Distance to the horizon) as , where ''H'' is the height above water in feet, and ''D'' is the distance from the lighthouse to the horizon in nautical miles, the '''lighthouse range'''.Where dangerous shoals are located far off a flat sandy beach, the prototypical tall masonry coastal lighthouse is constructed to assist the navigator making a landfall after an ocean crossing.", "Often these are cylindrical to reduce the effect of wind on a tall structure, such as Cape May Light.", "Smaller versions of this design are often used as harbor lights to mark the entrance into a harbor, such as New London Harbor Light.Where a tall cliff exists, a smaller structure may be placed on top such as at Horton Point Light.", "Sometimes, such a location can be too high, for example along the west coast of the United States, where frequent low clouds can obscure the light.", "In these cases, lighthouses are placed below the clifftop to ensure that they can still be seen at the surface during periods of fog or low clouds, as at Point Reyes Lighthouse.", "Another example is in San Diego, California: the Old Point Loma lighthouse was too high up and often obscured by fog, so it was replaced in 1891 with a lower lighthouse, New Point Loma lighthouse.As technology advanced, prefabricated skeletal iron or steel structures tended to be used for lighthouses constructed in the 20th century.", "These often have a narrow cylindrical core surrounded by an open lattice work bracing, such as Finns Point Range Light.Sometimes a lighthouse needs to be constructed in the water itself.", "Wave-washed lighthouses are masonry structures constructed to withstand water impact, such as Eddystone Lighthouse in Britain and the St. George Reef Light of California.", "In shallower bays, Screw-pile lighthouse ironwork structures are screwed into the seabed and a low wooden structure is placed above the open framework, such as Thomas Point Shoal Lighthouse.", "As screw piles can be disrupted by ice, steel caisson lighthouses such as Orient Point Light are used in cold climates.", "Orient Long Beach Bar Light (Bug Light) is a blend of a screw pile light that was converted to a caisson light because of the threat of ice damage.", "Skeletal iron towers with screw-pile foundations were built on the Florida Reef along the Florida Keys, beginning with the Carysfort Reef Light in 1852.In waters too deep for a conventional structure, a lightship might be used instead of a lighthouse, such as the former lightship ''Columbia''.", "Most of these have now been replaced by fixed light platforms (such as Ambrose Light) similar to those used for offshore oil exploration.===Range lights===Range Lights in Margaree Harbour, Nova Scotia.", "When a vessel is on the correct course, the two lights align one above the other.Aligning two fixed points on land provides a navigator with a line of position called a range in North America and a transit in Britain.", "Ranges can be used to precisely align a vessel within a narrow channel such as a river.", "With landmarks of a range illuminated with a set of fixed lighthouses, nighttime navigation is possible.Such paired lighthouses are called range lights in North America and leading lights in the United Kingdom.", "The closer light is referred to as the beacon or front range; the further light is called the rear range.", "The rear range light is almost always taller than the front.When a vessel is on the correct course, the two lights align vertically, but when the observer is out of position, the difference in alignment indicates the direction of travel to correct the course.===Location===The Les Eclaireurs Lighthouse in Ushuaia, Argentina.Lighthouse located on a higher mound in IndiaThere are two types of lighthouses: ones that are located on land, and ones that are offshore.", "''Offshore Lighthouses'' are lighthouses that are not close to land.", "There can be a number of reasons for these lighthouses to be built.", "There can be a shoal, reef or submerged island several miles from land.The current Cordouan Lighthouse was completed in 1611, from the shore on a small islet, but was built on a previous lighthouse that can be traced back to the 880s and is the oldest surviving lighthouse in France.", "It is connected to the mainland by a causeway.", "The oldest surviving oceanic offshore lighthouse is Bell Rock Lighthouse in the North Sea, off the coast of Scotland." ], [ "Maintenance", "===Asia and Oceania===In Australia, lighthouses are conducted by the Australian Maritime Safety Authority.In India, lighthouses are maintained by the Directorate General of Lighthouses and Lightships, an office of the Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways.===Europe===The former Soviet government built a number of automated lighthouses powered by radioisotope thermoelectric generators in remote locations in northern Russia.", "They operated for long periods without external support with great reliability.", "However, numerous installations deteriorated, were stolen, or vandalized.", "Some cannot be found due to poor record-keeping.The United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland together have three bodies: lighthouses around the coasts of England and Wales are looked after by Trinity House, those around Scotland and the Isle of Man by the Northern Lighthouse Board and those around Ireland by the Commissioners of Irish Lights.===North America===In Canada, lighthouses are managed by the Canadian Coast Guard.In the United States, lighthouses are maintained by the United States Coast Guard, into which the United States Lighthouse Service was merged in 1939." ], [ "Preservation", "As lighthouses became less essential to navigation, many of their historic structures faced demolition or neglect.", "In the United States, the National Historic Lighthouse Preservation Act of 2000 provides for the transfer of lighthouse structures to local governments and private non-profit groups, while the USCG continues to maintain the lamps and lenses.", "In Canada, the Nova Scotia Lighthouse Preservation Society won heritage status for Sambro Island Lighthouse, and sponsored the Heritage Lighthouse Protection Act to change Canadian federal laws to protect lighthouses.Many groups formed to restore and save lighthouses around the world, including the World Lighthouse Society and the United States Lighthouse Society, as well as the Amateur Radio Lighthouse Society, which sends amateur radio operators to publicize the preservation of remote lighthouses throughout the world." ], [ "See also", "Crib lighthouseDay beaconFoghornFresnel lens sizes (orders)Lens lanternLighthouse keeperLists of lighthousesLists of lightvesselsPharologyPintsch gasSea mark" ], [ "References", ";Notes;Bibliography Bathurst, Bella.", "''The lighthouse Stevensons''.", "New York: Perennial, 2000.", "* Beaver, Patrick.", "''A History of Lighthouses''.", "London: Peter Davies Ltd, 1971..* Crompton, Samuel, W; Rhein, Michael, J.", "''The Ultimate Book of Lighthouses''.", "San Diego, CA: Thunder Bay Press, 2002..* Jones, Ray; Roberts, Bruce.", "''American Lighthouses''.", "Globe Pequot, 1998.1st ed.", ".", "* Stevenson, D. Alan.", "''The world's lighthouses before 1820''.", "London: Oxford University Press, 1959.;Further reading* Noble, Dennis.", "''Lighthouses & Keepers: U. S. Lighthouse Service and Its Legacy''.", "Annapolis: U.S.", "Naval Institute Press, 1997..* Putnam, George R. ''Lighthouses and Lightships of the United States''.", "Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1933.", "* Rawlings, William.", "2021.", "''Lighthouses of the Georgia Coast.''", "Macon, GA: Mercer University Press.", "* Weiss, George.", "''The Lighthouse Service, Its History, Activities and Organization''.", "Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1926." ], [ "External links", "* United States Lighthouses* \"Lighthouses Of Strange Designs, December 1930, Popular Science* Research tool with details of over 14,700 lighthouses and navigation lights around the world with photos and links.", "Pharology Website: Pharology: The Study of Lighthouses .", "Reference source for the history and development of lighthouses of the world.", " Includes 54 diagrams and photographs." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Library of Alexandria" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Great Library of Alexandria''' in Alexandria, Egypt, was one of the largest and most significant libraries of the ancient world.", "The library was part of a larger research institution called the Mouseion, which was dedicated to the Muses, the nine goddesses of the arts.", "The idea of a universal library in Alexandria may have been proposed by Demetrius of Phalerum, an exiled Athenian statesman living in Alexandria, to Ptolemy I Soter, who may have established plans for the Library, but the Library itself was probably not built until the reign of his son Ptolemy II Philadelphus.", "The Library quickly acquired many papyrus scrolls, owing largely to the Ptolemaic kings' aggressive and well-funded policies for procuring texts.", "It is unknown precisely how many scrolls were housed at any given time, but estimates range from 40,000 to 400,000 at its height.Alexandria came to be regarded as the capital of knowledge and learning, in part because of the Great Library.", "Many important and influential scholars worked at the Library during the third and second centuries BC, including: Zenodotus of Ephesus, who worked towards standardizing the works of Homer; Callimachus, who wrote the ''Pinakes'', sometimes considered the world's first library catalog; Apollonius of Rhodes, who composed the epic poem the ''Argonautica''; Eratosthenes of Cyrene, who calculated the circumference of the earth within a few hundred kilometers of accuracy; Hero of Alexandria, who invented the first recorded steam engine; Aristophanes of Byzantium, who invented the system of Greek diacritics and was the first to divide poetic texts into lines; and Aristarchus of Samothrace, who produced the definitive texts of the Homeric poems as well as extensive commentaries on them.", "During the reign of Ptolemy III Euergetes, a daughter library was established in the Serapeum, a temple to the Greco-Egyptian god Serapis.The influence of the Library declined gradually over the course of several centuries.", "This decline began with the purging of intellectuals from Alexandria in 145 BC during the reign of Ptolemy VIII Physcon, which resulted in Aristarchus of Samothrace, the head librarian, resigning and exiling himself to Cyprus.", "Many other scholars, including Dionysius Thrax and Apollodorus of Athens, fled to other cities, where they continued teaching and conducting scholarship.", "The Library, or part of its collection, was accidentally burned by Julius Caesar during his civil war in 48 BC, but it is unclear how much was actually destroyed and it seems to have either survived or been rebuilt shortly thereafter.", "The geographer Strabo mentions having visited the Mouseion in around 20 BC, and the prodigious scholarly output of Didymus Chalcenterus in Alexandria from this period indicates that he had access to at least some of the Library's resources.The Library dwindled during the Roman period, from a lack of funding and support.", "Its membership appears to have ceased by the 260s AD.", "Between 270 and 275 AD, Alexandria saw a Palmyrene invasion and an imperial counterattack that probably destroyed whatever remained of the Library, if it still existed.", "The daughter library in the Serapeum may have survived after the main Library's destruction.", "The Serapeum was vandalized and demolished in 391 AD under a decree issued by bishop Theophilus of Alexandria, but it does not seem to have housed books at the time, and was mainly used as a gathering place for Neoplatonist philosophers following the teachings of Iamblichus." ], [ "Historical background", "The Library of Alexandria was not the first library of its kind.", "A long tradition of libraries existed in both Greece and in the ancient Near East.", "The earliest recorded archive of written materials comes from the ancient Sumerian city-state of Uruk in around 3400 BC, when writing had only just begun to develop.", "Scholarly curation of literary texts began in around 2500 BC.", "The later kingdoms and empires of the ancient Near East had long traditions of book collecting.", "The ancient Hittites and Assyrians had massive archives containing records written in many different languages.", "The most famous library of the ancient Near East was the Library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh, founded in the seventh century BC by the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (ruled 668– 627 BC).", "A large library also existed in Babylon during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II ( 605– 562 BC).", "In Greece, the Athenian tyrant Pisistratus was said to have founded the first major public library in the sixth century BC.", "It was out of this mixed heritage of both Greek and Near Eastern book collections that the idea for the Library of Alexandria was born.Following the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, there was a power grab for his empire among his top-ranking officers.", "The empire was divided into three: the Antigonid dynasty controlled Greece; the Seleucid dynasty, who had their capitals at Antioch and Seleucia, controlled large areas of Asia Minor, Syria, and Mesopotamia; and the Ptolemaic dynasty controlled Egypt with Alexandria as its capital.", "The Macedonian kings who succeeded Alexander the Great as rulers of the Near East wanted to promote Hellenistic culture and learning throughout the known world.", "These rulers, therefore, had a vested interest in collecting and compiling information from both the Greeks and the far more ancient kingdoms of the Near East.", "Libraries enhanced a city's prestige, attracted scholars, and provided practical assistance in ruling and governing the kingdom.", "Eventually, for these reasons, every major Hellenistic urban center would have a royal library.", "The Library of Alexandria, however, was unprecedented because of the scope and scale of the Ptolemies' ambitions; unlike their predecessors and contemporaries, the Ptolemies wanted to produce a repository of all knowledge.", "To support this endeavor, they were well positioned as Egypt was the ideal habitat for the papyrus plant, which provided an abundant supply of materials needed to amass their knowledge repository." ], [ "Under Ptolemaic patronage", "===Founding===Bust excavated at the Villa of the Papyri depicting Ptolemy II Philadelphus, who is believed to have been the one to establish the Library as an actual institution, although plans for it may have been developed by his father Ptolemy I SoterThe Library was one of the largest and most significant libraries of the ancient world, but details about it are a mixture of history and legend.", "The earliest known surviving source of information on the founding of the Library of Alexandria is the pseudepigraphic ''Letter of Aristeas'', which was composed between 180 and 145 BC.", "It claims the Library was founded during the reign of Ptolemy I Soter ( 323– 283 BC) and that it was initially organized by Demetrius of Phalerum, a student of Aristotle who had been exiled from Athens and taken refuge in Alexandria within the Ptolemaic court.", "Nonetheless, the ''Letter of Aristeas'' is very late and contains information that is now known to be inaccurate.", "According to Diogenes Laertius, Demetrius was a student of Theophrastus, a student of Aristotle.", "Other sources claim that the Library was instead created under the reign of Ptolemy I's son Ptolemy II Philadelphus (283–246 BC).Modern scholars agree that, while it is possible that Ptolemy I, who was a historian and author of an account of Alexander's campaign, may have laid the groundwork for the Library, it probably did not come into being as a physical institution until the reign of Ptolemy II.", "By that time, Demetrius of Phalerum had fallen out of favor with the Ptolemaic court.", "He could not, therefore, have had any role in establishing the Library as an institution.", "Stephen V. Tracy, however, argues that it is highly probable that Demetrius played an important role in collecting at least some of the earliest texts that would later become part of the Library's collection.", "In around 295 BC, Demetrius may have acquired early texts of the writings of Aristotle and Theophrastus, which he would have been uniquely positioned to do since he was a distinguished member of the Peripatetic school.The Library was built in the Brucheion (Royal Quarter) as part of the Mouseion.", "Its main purpose was to show off the wealth of Egypt, with research as a lesser goal, but its contents were used to aid the ruler of Egypt.", "The exact layout of the library is not known, but ancient sources describe the Library of Alexandria as comprising a collection of scrolls, Greek columns, a walk, a room for shared dining, a reading room, meeting rooms, gardens, and lecture halls, creating a model for the modern university campus.", "A hall contained shelves for the collections of papyrus scrolls known as ''bibliothekai'' (''βιβλιοθῆκαι'').", "According to popular description, an inscription above the shelves read: \"The place of the cure of the soul.", "\"===Early expansion and organization===Map of ancient Alexandria.", "The Mouseion was located in the royal Broucheion quarter (listed on this map as \"Bruchium\") in the central part of the city near the Great Harbor (\"Portus Magnus\" on the map).The Ptolemaic rulers intended the Library to be a collection of all knowledge and they worked to expand the Library's collections through an aggressive and well-funded policy of book purchasing.", "They dispatched royal agents with large amounts of money and ordered them to purchase and collect as many texts as they possibly could, about any subject and by any author.", "Older copies of texts were favored over newer ones, since it was assumed that older copies had undergone less copying and that they were therefore more likely to more closely resemble what the original author had written.", "This program involved trips to the book fairs of Rhodes and Athens.", "According to the Greek medical writer Galen, under the decree of Ptolemy II, any books found on ships that came into port were taken to the library, where they were copied by official scribes.", "The original texts were kept in the library, and the copies delivered to the owners.", "The Library particularly focused on acquiring manuscripts of the Homeric poems, which were the foundation of Greek education and revered above all other poems.", "The Library therefore acquired many different manuscripts of these poems, tagging each copy with a label to indicate where it had come from.In addition to collecting works from the past, the Mouseion which housed the Library also served as home to a host of international scholars, poets, philosophers, and researchers, who, according to the first-century BC Greek geographer Strabo, were provided with a large salary, free food and lodging, and exemption from taxes.", "They had a large, circular dining hall with a high domed ceiling in which they ate meals communally.", "There were also numerous classrooms, where the scholars were expected to at least occasionally teach students.", "Ptolemy II Philadelphus is said to have had a keen interest in zoology, so it has been speculated that the Mouseion may have even had a zoo for exotic animals.", "According to classical scholar Lionel Casson, the idea was that if the scholars were completely freed from all the burdens of everyday life they would be able to devote more time to research and intellectual pursuits.", "Strabo called the group of scholars who lived at the Mouseion a σύνοδος (, \"community\").", "As early as 283 BC, they may have numbered between thirty and fifty learned men.===Early scholarship===The Library of Alexandria was not affiliated with any particular philosophical school; consequently, scholars who studied there had considerable academic freedom.", "They were, however, subject to the authority of the king.", "One likely apocryphal story is told of a poet named Sotades who wrote an obscene epigram making fun of Ptolemy II for marrying his sister Arsinoe II.", "Ptolemy II is said to have jailed him and, after he escaped, sealed him in a lead jar and dropped him into the sea.", "As a religious center, the Mouseion was directed by a priest of the Muses known as an ''epistates'', who was appointed by the king in the same manner as the priests who managed the various Egyptian temples.", "The Library itself was directed by a scholar who served as head librarian, as well as tutor to the king's son.The first recorded head librarian was Zenodotus of Ephesus (lived ).", "Zenodotus' main work was devoted to the establishment of canonical texts for the Homeric poems and the early Greek lyric poets.", "Most of what is known about him comes from later commentaries that mention his preferred readings of particular passages.", "Zenodotus is known to have written a glossary of rare and unusual words, which was organized in alphabetical order, making him the first person known to have employed alphabetical order as a method of organization.", "Since the collection at the Library of Alexandria seems to have been organized in alphabetical order by the first letter of the author's name from very early, Casson concludes that it is highly probable that Zenodotus was the one who organized it in this way.", "Zenodotus' system of alphabetization, however, only used the first letter of the word and it was not until the second century AD that anyone is known to have applied the same method of alphabetization to the remaining letters of the word.Meanwhile, the scholar and poet Callimachus compiled the ''Pinakes'', a 120-book catalogue of various authors and all their known works.", "The ''Pinakes'' has not survived, but enough references to it and fragments of it have survived to allow scholars to reconstruct its basic structure.", "The ''Pinakes'' was divided into multiple sections, each containing entries for writers of a particular genre of literature.", "The most basic division was between writers of poetry and prose, with each section divided into smaller subsections.", "Each section listed authors in alphabetical order.", "Each entry included the author's name, father's name, place of birth, and other brief biographical information, sometimes including nicknames by which that author was known, followed by a complete list of all that author's known works.", "The entries for prolific authors such as Aeschylus, Euripides, Sophocles, and Theophrastus must have been extremely long, spanning multiple columns of text.", "Although Callimachus did his most famous work at the Library of Alexandria, he never held the position of head librarian there.", "Callimachus' pupil Hermippus of Smyrna wrote biographies, Philostephanus of Cyrene studied geography, and Istros (who may have also been from Cyrene) studied Attic antiquities.", "In addition to the Great Library, many other smaller libraries also began to spring up all around the city of Alexandria.According to legend, the Syracusan inventor Archimedes invented the Archimedes' screw, a pump for transporting water, while studying at the Library of Alexandria.After Zenodotus either died or retired, Ptolemy II Philadelphus appointed Apollonius of Rhodes (lived ), a native of Alexandria and a student of Callimachus, as the second head librarian of the Library of Alexandria.", "Philadelphus also appointed Apollonius of Rhodes as the tutor to his son, the future Ptolemy III Euergetes.", "Apollonius of Rhodes is best known as the author of the ''Argonautica'', an epic poem about the voyages of Jason and the Argonauts, which has survived to the present in its complete form.", "The ''Argonautica'' displays Apollonius' vast knowledge of history and literature and makes allusions to a vast array of events and texts while simultaneously imitating the style of the Homeric poems.", "Some fragments of his scholarly writings have also survived, but he is generally more famous today as a poet than as a scholar.According to legend, during the librarianship of Apollonius, the mathematician and inventor Archimedes (lived 287 – 212 BC) came to visit the Library of Alexandria.", "During his time in Egypt, Archimedes is said to have observed the rise and fall of the Nile, leading him to invent the Archimedes' screw, which can be used to transport water from low-lying bodies into irrigation ditches.", "Archimedes later returned to Syracuse, where he continued making new inventions.According to two late and largely unreliable biographies, Apollonius was forced to resign from his position as head librarian and moved to the island of Rhodes (after which he takes his name) on account of the hostile reception he received in Alexandria to the first draft of his ''Argonautica''.", "It is more likely that Apollonius' resignation was on account of Ptolemy III Euergetes' ascension to the throne in 246 BC.===Later scholarship and expansion===The third head librarian, Eratosthenes of Cyrene (lived 280– 194 BC), is best known today for his scientific works, but he was also a literary scholar.", "Eratosthenes' most important work was his treatise ''Geographika'', which was originally in three volumes.", "The work itself has not survived, but many fragments of it are preserved through quotation in the writings of the later geographer Strabo.", "Eratosthenes was the first scholar to apply mathematics to geography and map-making and, in his treatise ''Concerning the Measurement of the Earth'', he calculated the circumference of the earth and was only off by less than a few hundred kilometers.", "Eratosthenes also produced a map of the entire known world, which incorporated information taken from sources held in the Library, including accounts of Alexander the Great's campaigns in India and reports written by members of Ptolemaic elephant-hunting expeditions along the coast of East Africa.Eratosthenes was the first person to advance geography towards becoming a scientific discipline.", "Eratosthenes believed that the setting of the Homeric poems was purely imaginary and argued that the purpose of poetry was \"to capture the soul\", rather than to give a historically accurate account of actual events.", "Strabo quotes him as having sarcastically commented, \"a man might find the places of Odysseus' wanderings if the day were to come when he would find the leatherworker who stitched the goatskin of the winds.\"", "Meanwhile, other scholars at the Library of Alexandria also displayed interest in scientific subjects.", "Bacchius of Tanagra, a contemporary of Eratosthenes, edited and commented on the medical writings of the Hippocratic Corpus.", "The doctors Herophilus (lived 335– 280 BC) and Erasistratus ( 304– 250 BC) studied human anatomy, but their studies were hindered by protests against the dissection of human corpses, which was seen as immoral.According to Galen, around this time, Ptolemy III requested permission from the Athenians to borrow the original manuscripts of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, for which the Athenians demanded the enormous amount of fifteen talents () of a precious metal as guarantee that he would return them.", "Ptolemy III had expensive copies of the plays made on the highest quality papyrus and sent the Athenians the copies, keeping the original manuscripts for the library and telling the Athenians they could keep the talents.", "This story may also be construed erroneously to show the power of Alexandria over Athens during the Ptolemaic dynasty.", "This detail arises from the fact that Alexandria was a man-made bidirectional port between the mainland and the Pharos island, welcoming trade from the East and West, and soon found itself to be an international hub for trade, the leading producer of papyrus and, soon enough, books.", "As the Library expanded, it ran out of space to house the scrolls in its collection, so, during the reign of Ptolemy III Euergetes, it opened a satellite collection in the Serapeum of Alexandria, a temple to the Greco-Egyptian god Serapis located near the royal palace.===Peak of literary criticism===Present-day ruins of the Serapeum of Alexandria, where the Library of Alexandria moved part of its collection after it ran out of storage space in the main buildingAristophanes of Byzantium (lived 257– 180 BC) became the fourth head librarian sometime around 200 BC.", "According to a legend recorded by the Roman writer Vitruvius, Aristophanes was one of seven judges appointed for a poetry competition hosted by Ptolemy III Euergetes.", "All six of the other judges favored one competitor, but Aristophanes favored the one whom the audience had liked the least.", "Aristophanes declared that all of the poets except for the one he had chosen had committed plagiarism and were therefore disqualified.", "The king demanded that he prove this, so he retrieved the texts that the authors had plagiarized from the Library, locating them by memory.", "On account of his impressive memory and diligence, Ptolemy III appointed him as head librarian.The librarianship of Aristophanes of Byzantium is widely considered to have opened a more mature phase of the Library of Alexandria's history.", "During this phase of the Library's history, literary criticism reached its peak and came to dominate the Library's scholarly output.", "Aristophanes of Byzantium edited poetic texts and introduced the division of poems into separate lines on the page, since they had previously been written out just like prose.", "He also invented the system of Greek diacritics, wrote important works on lexicography, and introduced a series of signs for textual criticism.", "He wrote introductions to many plays, some of which have survived in partially rewritten forms.The fifth head librarian was an obscure individual named Apollonius Eidographus, who is known by the epithet (\"the classifier of forms\").", "One late lexicographical source explains this epithet as referring to the classification of poetry on the basis of musical forms.During the early second century BC, several scholars at the Library of Alexandria studied works on medicine.", "Zeuxis the Empiricist is credited with having written commentaries on the Hippocratic Corpus and he actively worked to procure medical writings for the Library's collection.", "A scholar named Ptolemy Epithetes wrote a treatise on wounds in the Homeric poems, a subject straddling the line between traditional philology and medicine.", "However, it was also during the early second century BC that the political power of Ptolemaic Egypt began to decline.", "After the Battle of Raphia in 217 BC, Ptolemaic power became increasingly unstable.", "There were uprisings among segments of the Egyptian population and, in the first half of the second century BC, connection with Upper Egypt became largely disrupted.", "Ptolemaic rulers also began to emphasize the Egyptian aspect of their nation over the Greek aspect.", "Consequently, many Greek scholars began to leave Alexandria for safer countries with more generous patronages.Aristarchus of Samothrace (lived 216– 145 BC) was the sixth head librarian.", "He earned a reputation as the greatest of all ancient scholars and produced not only texts of classic poems and works of prose, but full ''hypomnemata'', or long, free-standing commentaries, on them.", "These commentaries would typically cite a passage of a classical text, explain its meaning, define any unusual words used in it, and comment on whether the words in the passage were really those used by the original author or if they were later interpolations added by scribes.", "He made many contributions to a variety of studies, but particularly the study of the Homeric poems, and his editorial opinions are widely quoted by ancient authors as authoritative.", "A portion of one of Aristarchus' commentaries on the ''Histories'' of Herodotus has survived in a papyrus fragment.", "In 145 BC, however, Aristarchus became caught up in a dynastic struggle in which he supported Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator as the ruler of Egypt.", "Ptolemy VII was murdered and succeeded by Ptolemy VIII Physcon, who immediately set about punishing all those who had supported his predecessor, forcing Aristarchus to flee Egypt and take refuge on the island of Cyprus, where he died shortly thereafter.", "Ptolemy VIII expelled all foreign scholars from Alexandria, forcing them to disperse across the Eastern Mediterranean." ], [ "Decline", "===After Ptolemy VIII's expulsions===Ptolemy VIII Physcon's expulsion of the scholars from Alexandria brought about a shift in the history of Hellenistic scholarship.", "The scholars who had studied at the Library of Alexandria and their students continued to conduct research and write treatises, but most of them no longer did so in association with the Library.", "A diaspora of Alexandrian scholarship occurred, in which scholars dispersed first throughout the eastern Mediterranean and later throughout the western Mediterranean as well.", "Aristarchus' student Dionysius Thrax ( 170– 90 BC) established a school on the Greek island of Rhodes.", "Dionysius Thrax wrote the first book on Greek grammar, a succinct guide to speaking and writing clearly and effectively.", "This book remained the primary grammar textbook for Greek schoolboys until as late as the twelfth century AD.", "The Romans based their grammatical writings on it, and its basic format remains the basis for grammar guides in many languages even today.", "Another one of Aristarchus' pupils, Apollodorus of Athens ( 180– 110 BC), went to Alexandria's greatest rival, Pergamum, where he taught and conducted research.", "This diaspora prompted the historian Menecles of Barce to sarcastically comment that Alexandria had become the teacher of all Greeks and barbarians alike.Meanwhile, in Alexandria, from the middle of the second century BC onwards, Ptolemaic rule in Egypt grew less stable than it had been previously.", "Confronted with growing social unrest and other major political and economic problems, the later Ptolemies did not devote as much attention towards the Library and the Mouseion as their predecessors had.", "The status of both the Library and the head librarian diminished.", "Several of the later Ptolemies used the position of head librarian as a mere political plum to reward their most devoted supporters.", "Ptolemy VIII appointed a man named Cydas, one of his palace guards, as head librarian and Ptolemy IX Soter II (ruled 88–81 BC) is said to have given the position to a political supporter.", "Eventually, the position of head librarian lost so much of its former prestige that even contemporary authors ceased to take interest in recording the terms of office for individual head librarians.A shift in Greek scholarship at large occurred around the beginning of the first century BC.", "By this time, all major classical poetic texts had finally been standardized and extensive commentaries had already been produced on the writings of all the major literary authors of the Greek Classical Era.", "Consequently, there was little original work left for scholars to do with these texts.", "Many scholars began producing syntheses and reworkings of the commentaries of the Alexandrian scholars of previous centuries, at the expense of their own originalities.", "Other scholars branched out and began writing commentaries on the poetic works of postclassical authors, including Alexandrian poets such as Callimachus and Apollonius of Rhodes.", "Meanwhile, Alexandrian scholarship was probably introduced to Rome in the first century BC by Tyrannion of Amisus ( 100– 25 BC), a student of Dionysius Thrax.===Burning by Julius Caesar===Julius Caesar burned his ships during the Siege of Alexandria in 48 BC.", "Ancient writers said the fire spread and destroyed part of the Library's collections; the Library seems to have partially survived or been quickly rebuilt.In 48 BC, during Caesar's Civil War, Julius Caesar was besieged at Alexandria.", "His soldiers set fire to some of the Egyptian ships docked in the Alexandrian port while trying to clear the wharves to block the fleet belonging to Cleopatra's brother Ptolemy XIV.", "This fire purportedly spread to the parts of the city nearest to the docks, causing considerable devastation.", "The first-century AD Roman playwright and Stoic philosopher Seneca the Younger quotes Livy's ''Ab Urbe Condita Libri'', which was written between 63 and 14 BC, as saying that the fire started by Caesar destroyed 40,000 scrolls from the Library of Alexandria.", "The Greek Middle Platonist Plutarch ( 46–120 AD) writes in his ''Life of Caesar'' that, \"When the enemy endeavored to cut off his communication by sea, he was forced to divert that danger by setting fire to his ships, which, after burning the docks, thence spread on and destroyed the great library.\"", "The Roman historian Cassius Dio ( 155 – 235 AD), however, writes: \"Many places were set on fire, with the result that, along with other buildings, the dockyards and storehouses of grain and books, said to be great in number and of the finest, were burned.\"", "However, Florus and Lucan only mention that the flames burned the fleet itself and some \"houses near the sea\".Scholars have interpreted Cassius Dio's wording to indicate that the fire did not actually destroy the entire Library itself, but rather only a warehouse located near the docks being used by the Library to house scrolls.", "Whatever devastation Caesar's fire may have caused, the Library was evidently not completely destroyed.", "The geographer Strabo ( 63 BC– 24 AD) mentions visiting the Mouseion, the larger research institution to which the Library was attached, in around 20 BC, several decades after Caesar's fire, indicating that it either survived the fire or was rebuilt soon afterwards.", "Nonetheless, Strabo's manner of talking about the Mouseion shows that it was nowhere near as prestigious as it had been a few centuries prior.", "Despite mentioning the Mouseion, Strabo does not mention the Library separately, perhaps indicating that it had been so drastically reduced in stature and significance that Strabo felt it did not warrant separate mention.", "It is unclear what happened to the Mouseion after Strabo's mention of it.Furthermore, Plutarch records in his ''Life of Marc Antony'' that, in the years leading up to the Battle of Actium in 33 BC, Mark Antony was rumored to have given Cleopatra all 200,000 scrolls in the Library of Pergamum.", "Plutarch himself notes that his source for this anecdote was sometimes unreliable and it is possible that the story may be nothing more than propaganda intended to show that Mark Antony was loyal to Cleopatra and Egypt rather than to Rome.", "Casson, however, argues that, even if the story was made up, it would not have been believable unless the Library still existed.", "Edward J. Watts argues that Mark Antony's gift may have been intended to replenish the Library's collection after the damage to it caused by Caesar's fire roughly a decade and a half prior.Further evidence for the Library's survival after 48 BC comes from the fact that the most notable producer of composite commentaries during the late first century BC and early first century AD was a scholar who worked in Alexandria named Didymus Chalcenterus, whose epithet () means \"bronze guts\".", "Didymus is said to have produced somewhere between 3,500 and 4,000 books, making him the most prolific known writer in all of antiquity.", "He was also given the nickname (), meaning \"book-forgetter\" because it was said that even he could not remember all the books he had written.", "Parts of some of Didymus' commentaries have been preserved in the forms of later extracts and these remains are modern scholars' most important sources of information about the critical works of the earlier scholars at the Library of Alexandria.", "Lionel Casson states that Didymus' prodigious output \"would have been impossible without at least a good part of the resources of the library at his disposal.", "\"===Roman Period and destruction===This Latin inscription regarding Tiberius Claudius Balbilus of Rome (d. c. AD 79) mentions the \"ALEXANDRINA BYBLIOTHECE\" (line eight).Very little is known about the Library of Alexandria during the time of the Roman Principate (27 BC – 284 AD).", "The emperor Claudius (ruled 41–54 AD) is recorded to have built an addition onto the Library, but it seems that the Library of Alexandria's general fortunes followed those of the city of Alexandria itself.", "After Alexandria came under Roman rule, the city's status and, consequently that of its famous Library, gradually diminished.", "While the Mouseion still existed, membership was granted not on the basis of scholarly achievement, but rather on the basis of distinction in government, the military, or even in athletics.The same was evidently the case even for the position of head librarian; the only known head librarian from the Roman Period was a man named Tiberius Claudius Balbilus, who lived in the middle of the first century AD and was a politician, administrator, and military officer with no record of substantial scholarly achievements.", "Members of the Mouseion were no longer required to teach, conduct research, or even live in Alexandria.", "The Greek writer Philostratus records that the emperor Hadrian (ruled 117–138 AD) appointed the ethnographer Dionysius of Miletus and the sophist Polemon of Laodicea as members of the Mouseion, even though neither of these men is known to have ever spent any significant amount of time in Alexandria.Meanwhile, as the reputation of Alexandrian scholarship declined, the reputations of other libraries across the Mediterranean world improved, diminishing the Library of Alexandria's former status as the most prominent.", "Other libraries also sprang up within the city of Alexandria itself and the scrolls from the Great Library may have been used to stock some of these smaller libraries.", "The Caesareum and the Claudianum in Alexandria are both known to have had major libraries by the end of the first century AD.", "The Serapeum, originally the \"daughter library\" of the Great Library, probably expanded during this period as well, according to classical historian Edward J. Watts.By the second century AD, the Roman Empire grew less dependent on grain from Alexandria and the city's prominence declined further.", "The Romans during this period also had less interest in Alexandrian scholarship, causing the Library's reputation to continue to decline as well.", "The scholars who worked and studied at the Library of Alexandria during the time of the Roman Empire were less well known than the ones who had studied there during the Ptolemaic Period.", "Eventually, the word \"Alexandrian\" itself came to be synonymous with the editing of texts, correction of textual errors, and writing of commentaries synthesized from those of earlier scholars—in other words, taking on connotations of pedantry, monotony, and lack of originality.", "Mention of both the Great Library of Alexandria and the Mouseion that housed it disappear after the middle of the third century AD.", "The last known references to scholars being members of the Mouseion date to the 260s.In 272 AD, the emperor Aurelian fought to recapture the city of Alexandria from the forces of the Palmyrene queen Zenobia.", "During the course of the fighting, Aurelian's forces destroyed the Broucheion quarter of the city in which the main library was located.", "If the Mouseion and Library still existed at this time, they were almost certainly destroyed during the attack as well.", "If they did survive the attack, then whatever was left of them would have been destroyed during the emperor Diocletian's siege of Alexandria in 297.===Arabic sources on Muslim invasion===In 642 AD, Alexandria was captured by the Muslim army of Amr ibn al-As.", "Several later Arabic sources describe the library's destruction by the order of Caliph Omar.", "Bar-Hebraeus, writing in the thirteenth century, quotes Omar as saying to Yaḥyā al-Naḥwī: \"If those books are in agreement with the Quran, we have no need of them; and if these are opposed to the Quran, destroy them.\"", "Later scholars—beginning with Father Eusèbe Renaudot's remark in 1713 in his translation of the ''History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria'' that the tale \"had something untrustworthy about it\"—are skeptical of these stories, given the range of time that had passed before they were written down and the political motivations of the various writers.", "According to Diana Delia, \"Omar's rejection of pagan and Christian wisdom may have been devised and exploited by conservative authorities as a moral exemplum for Muslims to follow in later, uncertain times, when the devotion of the faithful was once again tested by proximity to nonbelievers\"." ], [ "Successors to the Mouseion", "Drawing from the Alexandrian World Chronicle depicting Pope Theophilus I of Alexandria, gospel in hand, standing triumphantly atop the Serapeum in 391 AD===Serapeum===The Serapeum is often called the \"Daughter Library\" of Alexandria.", "For much of the late fourth century AD it was probably the largest collection of books in the city of Alexandria.", "In the 370s and 380s, the Serapeum was still a major pilgrimage site for pagans.", "It remained a fully functioning temple, and had classrooms for philosophers to teach in.", "It naturally tended to attract followers of Iamblichean Neoplatonism.", "Most of these philosophers were primarily interested in theurgy, the study of cultic rituals and esoteric religious practices.", "The Neoplatonist philosopher Damascius (lived 458–after 538) records that a man named Olympus came from Cilicia to teach at the Serapeum, where he enthusiastically taught his students the rules of traditional divine worship and ancient religious practices.", "He enjoined his students to worship the old gods in traditional ways, and he may have even taught them theurgy.Scattered references indicate that, sometime in the fourth century, an institution known as the \"Mouseion\" may have been reestablished at a different location somewhere in Alexandria.", "Nothing, however, is known about the characteristics of this organization.", "It may have possessed some bibliographic resources, but whatever they may have been, they were clearly not comparable to those of its predecessor.Under the Christian rule of Roman emperor Theodosius I, pagan rituals were outlawed, and pagan temples were destroyed.", "In 391 AD, the bishop of Alexandria, Theophilus, supervised the destruction of an old Mithraeum.", "They gave some of the cult objects to Theophilus, who had them paraded through the streets so that they could be mocked and ridiculed.", "The pagans of Alexandria were incensed by this act of desecration, especially the teachers of Neoplatonic philosophy and theurgy at the Serapeum.", "The teachers at the Serapeum took up arms and led their students and other followers in a guerrilla attack on the Christian population of Alexandria, killing many of them before being forced to retreat.", "In retaliation, the Christians vandalized and demolished the Serapeum, although some parts of the colonnade were still standing as late as the twelfth century.", "Whether an actual library still existed at this point, and if so how extensive it was, is not recorded.", "Jonathan Theodore has stated that by 391/392 AD there was \"no remaining \"Great Library\" in the sense of the iconic vast, priceless collection\", while none of the contemporary accounts explicitly mentions the destruction of a library or the burning of books or scrolls; sources written before the Serapeum's destruction speak of its collection of literature in the past tense, indicating that it probably did not contain a significant number of scrolls at the time of its destruction.===School of Theon and Hypatia===''Hypatia'' (1885) by Charles William Mitchell, believed to be a depiction of a scene in Charles Kingsley's 1853 novel ''Hypatia''The ''Suda'', a tenth-century Byzantine encyclopedia, calls the mathematician Theon of Alexandria ( AD 335– 405) a \"man of the Mouseion\".", "According to classical historian Edward J. Watts, however, Theon was probably the head of a school called the \"Mouseion\", which was named in emulation of the Hellenistic Mouseion that had once included the Library of Alexandria, but which had little other connection to it.", "Theon's school was exclusive, highly prestigious, and doctrinally conservative.", "Theon does not seem to have had any connections to the militant Iamblichean Neoplatonists who taught in the Serapeum.", "Instead, he seems to have rejected the teachings of Iamblichus and may have taken pride in teaching a pure, Plotinian Neoplatonism.", "In around 400 AD, Theon's daughter Hypatia (born c. 350–370; died 415 AD) succeeded him as the head of his school.", "Like her father, she rejected the teachings of Iamblichus and instead embraced the original Neoplatonism formulated by Plotinus.Theophilus, the bishop involved in the destruction of the Serapeum, tolerated Hypatia's school and even encouraged two of her students to become bishops in territory under his authority.", "Hypatia was extremely popular with the people of Alexandria and exerted profound political influence.", "Theophilus respected Alexandria's political structures and raised no objection to the close ties Hypatia established with Roman prefects.", "Hypatia was later implicated in a political feud between Orestes, the Roman prefect of Alexandria, and Cyril of Alexandria, Theophilus' successor as bishop.", "Rumors spread accusing her of preventing Orestes from reconciling with Cyril and, in March of 415 AD, she was murdered by a mob of Christians, led by a lector named Peter.", "She had no successor and her school collapsed after her death.===Later schools and libraries in Alexandria===Nonetheless, Hypatia was not the last pagan in Alexandria, nor was she the last Neoplatonist philosopher.", "Neoplatonism and paganism both survived in Alexandria and throughout the eastern Mediterranean for centuries after her death.", "British Egyptologist Charlotte Booth notes that many new academic lecture halls were built in Alexandria at Kom el-Dikka shortly after Hypatia's death, indicating that philosophy was clearly still taught in Alexandrian schools.", "The late fifth-century writers Zacharias Scholasticus and Aeneas of Gaza both speak of the \"Mouseion\" as occupying some kind of a physical space.", "Archaeologists have identified lecture halls dating to around this time period, located near, but not on, the site of the Ptolemaic Mouseion, which may be the \"Mouseion\" to which these writers refer." ], [ "Collection", "It is not possible to determine the collection's size in any era with certainty.", "Papyrus scrolls constituted the collection, and although codices were used after 300 BC, the Alexandrian Library is never documented as having switched to parchment, perhaps because of its strong links to the papyrus trade.", "The Library of Alexandria in fact was indirectly causal in the creation of writing on parchment, as the Egyptians refused to export papyrus to their competitor in the Library of Pergamum.", "Consequently, the Library of Pergamum developed parchment as its own writing material.A single piece of writing might occupy several scrolls, and this division into self-contained \"books\" was a major aspect of editorial work.", "King Ptolemy II Philadelphus (309–246 BC) is said to have set 500,000 scrolls as an objective for the library.", "The library's index, Callimachus' ''Pinakes'', has only survived in the form of a few fragments, and it is not possible to know with certainty how large and how diverse the collection may have been.", "At its height, the library was said to possess nearly half a million scrolls, and, although historians debate the precise number, the highest estimates claim 400,000 scrolls while the most conservative estimates are as low as 40,000, which is still an enormous collection that required vast storage space.As a research institution, the library filled its stacks with new works in mathematics, astronomy, physics, natural sciences, and other subjects.", "Its empirical standards were applied in one of the first and certainly strongest homes for serious textual criticism.", "As the same text often existed in several different versions, comparative textual criticism was crucial for ensuring their veracity.", "Once ascertained, canonical copies would then be made for scholars, royalty, and wealthy bibliophiles all over the world, this commerce bringing income to the library." ], [ "Legacy", "Yahyá al-Wasiti from 1237 depicting scholars at an Abbasid library in Baghdad===In antiquity===The Library of Alexandria was one of the largest and most prestigious libraries of the ancient world, but it was far from the only one.", "By the end of the Hellenistic Period, almost every city in the Eastern Mediterranean had a public library and so did many medium-sized towns.", "During the Roman Period, the number of libraries only proliferated.", "By the fourth century AD, there were at least two dozen public libraries in the city of Rome itself alone.", "As the Library of Alexandria declined, centers of academic excellence arose in various other capital cities.", "It is possible most of the material from the Library of Alexandria survived, by way of the Imperial Library of Constantinople, the Academy of Gondishapur, and the House of Wisdom.", "This material may then have been preserved by the Reconquista, which led to the formation of European Universities and the recompilation of ancient texts from formerly scattered fragments.In late antiquity, as the Roman Empire became Christianized, Christian libraries modeled directly on the Library of Alexandria and other great libraries of earlier pagan times began to be founded all across the Greek-speaking eastern part of the empire.", "Among the largest and most prominent of these libraries were the Theological Library of Caesarea Maritima, the Library of Jerusalem, and a Christian library in Alexandria.", "These libraries held both pagan and Christian writings side-by-side and Christian scholars applied to the Christian scriptures the same philological techniques that the scholars of the Library of Alexandria had used for analyzing the Greek classics.", "Nonetheless, the study of pagan authors remained secondary to the study of the Christian scriptures until the Renaissance.Ironically, the survival of ancient texts owes nothing to the great libraries of antiquity and instead owes everything to the fact that they were exhaustingly copied and recopied, at first by professional scribes during the Roman Period onto papyrus and later by monks during the Middle Ages onto parchment.", "Shibli Nomani published a research work in 1892 about this library named ''Kutubkhana-i-lskandriyya''.===Modern library: Bibliotheca Alexandrina===Interior of the modern Bibliotheca AlexandrinaThe idea of reviving the ancient Library of Alexandria in the modern era was first proposed in 1974, when Lotfy Dowidar was president of the University of Alexandria.", "In May 1986, Egypt requested the executive board of UNESCO to allow the international organization to conduct a feasibility study for the project.", "This marked the beginning of UNESCO and the international community's involvement in trying to bring the project to fruition.", "Starting in 1988, UNESCO and the UNDP worked to support the international architectural competition to design the Library.", "Egypt devoted four hectares of land for the building of the Library and established the National High Commission for the Library of Alexandria.", "Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak took a personal interest in the project, which greatly contributed to its advancement.", "An international architectural competition took place in 1989 with Norwegian architectural firm Snøhetta winning the competition.", "Completed in 2002, the Bibliotheca Alexandrina now functions as a modern library and cultural center, commemorating the original Library of Alexandria.", "In line with the mission of the Great Library of Alexandria, the Bibliotheca Alexandrina also houses the International School of Information Science, a school for students preparing for highly specialized post-graduate degrees, whose goal is to train professional staff for libraries in Egypt and across the Middle East." ], [ "See also", "* Book burning* Imperial Library of Constantinople* List of destroyed libraries" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======General and cited references===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * * Jochum, Uwe.", "\"The Alexandrian Library and Its Aftermath\" from ''Library History'' vol, pp. 5–12.", "* * Olesen-Bagneux, O.", "B.", "(2014).", "The Memory Library: How the library in Hellenistic Alexandria worked.", "''Knowledge Organization, 41''(1), 3–13.", "* Parsons, Edward.", "''The Alexandrian Library''.", "London, 1952.Relevant online excerpt.", "* Stille, Alexander: ''The Future of the Past'' (chapter: \"The Return of the Vanished Library\").", "New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002.pp.", "246–273." ], [ "External links", "* James Hannam: The Mysterious Fate of the Great Library of Alexandria.", "* * Papyrus fragment (P.Oxy.1241): An ancient list of head librarians.", "* The BBC Radio 4 program ''In Our Time'' discussed The Library of Alexandria 12 March 2009* The Burning of the Library of Alexandria* Hart, David B.", "\"The Perniciously Persistent Myths of Hypatia and the Great Library\", ''First Things'', 4 June 2010*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Library" ], [ "Introduction", "A modern reading room in the State and University Library, DenmarkA '''library''' is a collection of books, and possibly other materials and media, that is accessible for use by its members and members of allied institutions.", "Libraries provide physical (hard copies) or digital (soft copies) materials, and may be a physical location, a virtual space, or both.", "A library's collection normally includes printed materials which may be borrowed, and usually also includes a reference section of publications which may only be utilized inside the premises.", "Resources such as commercial releases of films, television programmes, other video recordings, radio, music and audio recordings may be available in many formats.", "These include DVDs, Blu-rays, CDs, cassettes, or other applicable formats such as microform.", "They may also provide access to information, music or other content held on bibliographic databases.Libraries can vary widely in size and may be organised and maintained by a public body such as a government, an institution (such as a school or museum), a corporation, or a private individual.", "In addition to providing materials, libraries also provide the services of librarians who are trained experts in finding, selecting, circulating and organising information while interpreting information needs and navigating and analysing large amounts of information with a variety of resources.Library buildings often provide quiet areas for studying, as well as common areas for group study and collaboration, and may provide public facilities for access to their electronic resources, such as computers and access to the Internet.", "The library's clientele and general services offered vary depending on its type: users of a public library have different needs from those of a special library or academic library, for example.", "Libraries may also be community hubs, where programmes are made available and people engage in lifelong learning.", "Modern libraries extend their services beyond the physical walls of the building by providing material accessible by electronic means, including from home via the Internet.The services that libraries offer are variously described as library services, information services, or the combination \"library and information services\", although different institutions and sources define such terminology differently." ], [ "Etymology", "The term ''library'' is based on the Latin word for 'book' or 'document', contained in Latin 'collection of books' and 'container for books'.", "Other modern languages use derivations from Ancient Greek (), originally meaning 'book container', via Latin (cf.", "French or German )." ], [ "History", "The Sistine Hall of the Vatican LibraryThe history of libraries began with the first efforts to organize collections of documents.", "The first libraries consisted of archives of the earliest form of writing—the clay tablets in cuneiform script discovered in Sumer, some dating back to 2600 BC.", "Private or personal libraries made up of written books appeared in classical Greece in the 5th century BC.", "In the 6th century, at the very close of the Classical period, the great libraries of the Mediterranean world remained those of Constantinople and Alexandria.The Fatimids (r. 909–1171) also possessed many great libraries within their domains.", "The historian Ibn Abi Tayyi’ describes their palace library, which probably contained the largest collection of literature on earth at the time, as a \"wonder of the world\".", "Throughout history, along with bloody massacres, the destruction of libraries has been critical for conquerors who wish to destroy every trace of the vanquished community's recorded memory.", "A prominent example of this can be found in the Mongol massacre of the Nizaris at Alamut in 1256 and the torching of their library, \"the fame of which\", boasts the conqueror Juwayni, \"had spread throughout the world\".The libraries of Timbuktu were established in the fourteenth century and attracted scholars from all over the world." ], [ "Functions", "Libraries may provide physical or digital access to material, and may be a physical location, virtual space, or both.", "A library's collection can include books, periodicals, newspapers, manuscripts, films, maps, prints, documents, microform, CDs, cassettes, videotapes, DVDs, Blu-ray Discs, e-books, audiobooks, databases, table games, video games, and other formats.", "Libraries range widely in size, up to millions of items.Common video selection at libraryLibraries often provide quiet spaces for private studying, common areas to facilitate group study and collaboration, and public facilities for access to their electronic resources and the Internet.", "Public and institutional collections and services may be intended for use by people who choose not to—or cannot afford to—purchase an extensive collection themselves, who need material no individual can reasonably be expected to have, or who require professional assistance with their research.Services offered by a library are variously described as library services, information services, or the combination \"library and information services\", although different institutions and sources define such terminology differently.", "Organizations or departments are often called by one of these names.=== Organization ===Library shelves in Hong Kong, showing numbers of the classification scheme to help readers locate works in that sectionMost libraries have materials arranged in a specified order according to a library classification system, so that items may be located quickly and collections browsed efficiently.", "Some libraries have additional galleries beyond the public ones, where \"reference\" materials are stored.", "These reference stacks may be open to selected members of the public while others may require patrons to submit a \"stack request\" – a request for an assistant to retrieve the material from the closed stacks: see List of closed stack libraries.Larger libraries are often divided into departments staffed by both paraprofessionals and professional librarians.", "Their department names and occupational designations may change depending on their location and the needs of the library.", "* Circulation (or Access Services/Stacks Maintenance) – Handles user accounts and the loaning/returning and shelving of materials.", "* Collection Development – Orders materials and maintains materials budgets.", "* Reference – Staffs a reference desk answering questions from users (using structured reference interviews), instructing users, and developing library programming.", "Reference may be further broken down by user groups or materials; common collections are children's literature, young adult literature, and genealogy materials.", "* Electronic Library – Responsible for providing information to users via electronic means.", "* Technical Services – Works behind the scenes cataloging and processing new materials and deaccessioning weeded materials.Basic tasks in library management include planning acquisitions (which materials the library should acquire, by purchase or otherwise), classifying and preserving items (especially rare and fragile archival materials such as manuscripts), deaccessioning materials, patron borrowing, and developing and administering library computer systems and technology.", "More long-term issues include planning the construction of new libraries or extensions to existing ones, and the development and implementation of outreach services and reading-enhancement services (such as adult literacy and children's programming).", "Library materials like books, magazines, periodicals, CDs, etc.", "are managed using a library classification system such as the Dewey Decimal Classification Theory, though libraries will usually adjust their classification system to fit their needs.The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has published several standards regarding the management of libraries through its Technical Committee 46 (TC 46), which is focused on \"libraries, documentation and information centers, publishing, archives, records management, museum documentation, indexing and abstracting services, and information science\".", "The following is a partial list of some of them:* ISO 2789:2006 Information and documentation—International library statistics* ISO 11620:1998 Information and documentation—Library performance indicators* ISO 11799:2003 Information and documentation—Document storage requirements for archive and library materials* ISO 14416:2003 Information and documentation—Requirements for binding of books, periodicals, serials, and other paper documents for archive and library use—Methods and materials* ISO/TR 20983:2003 Information and documentation—Performance indicators for electronic library services=== Usage ===card catalogues were the traditional method of organizing the list of resources and their location within a large library.Some patrons may not know how to fully utilize library resources, or feel unease in approaching a staff member.", "Ways in which a library's content is displayed or accessed may have the most impact on use.", "An antiquated or clumsy search system, or staff unwilling or not properly trained to engage their patrons, will limit a library's usefulness.", "In the public libraries of the United States, beginning in the 19th century, these problems drove the emergence of the library instruction movement, which advocated library user education.", "One of the early leaders was John Cotton Dana.", "The basic form of library instruction is sometimes known as information literacy.Libraries should inform their users of what materials are available in their collections and how to access that information.", "Before the computer age, this was accomplished by the card catalogue—a cabinet (or multiple cabinets) containing many drawers filled with index cards that identified books and other materials.", "In a large library, the card catalogue often filled a large room.The emergence of desktop computers and the Internet, however, has led to the adoption of electronic catalogue databases (often referred to as \"webcats\" or as online public access catalogues, OPACs), which allow users to search the library's holdings from any location with Internet access.", "This style of catalogue maintenance is compatible with new types of libraries, such as digital libraries and distributed libraries, as well as older libraries that have been retrofitted.", "Large libraries may be scattered within multiple buildings across a town, each having multiple floors, with multiple rooms housing their resources across a series of shelves called bays.", "Once a user has located a resource within the catalogue, they must then use navigational guidance to retrieve the resource physically, a process that may be assisted through signage, maps, GPS systems, or RFID tagging.Interior of the National Library of Finland in HelsinkiFinland has the highest number of registered book borrowers per capita in the world.", "Over half of Finland's population are registered borrowers.", "In the US, public library users have borrowed on average roughly 15 books per user per year from 1856 to 1978.From 1978 to 2004, book circulation per user declined approximately 50%.", "The growth of audiovisuals circulation, estimated at 25% of total circulation in 2004, accounts for about half of this decline.=== Relationship with the Internet ===British Museum Reading RoomA library may make use of the Internet in a number of ways, from creating its own library website to making the contents of its catalogues searchable online.", "Some specialised search engines such as Google Scholar offer a way to facilitate searching for academic resources such as journal articles and research papers.", "The Online Computer Library Center allows anyone to search the world's largest repository of library records through its WorldCat online database.", "Websites such as LibraryThing and Amazon provide abstracts, reviews, and recommendations of books.", "Libraries provide computers and Internet access to allow people to search for information online.", "Online information access is particularly attractive to younger library users.Digitization of books, particularly those that are out-of-print, in projects such as Google Books provides resources for library and other online users.", "Due to their holdings of valuable material, some libraries are important partners for search engines such as Google in realizing the potential of such projects and have received reciprocal benefits in cases where they have negotiated effectively.", "As the prominence of and reliance on the Internet has grown, library services have moved the emphasis from mainly providing print resources to providing more computers and more Internet access.", "Libraries face a number of challenges in adapting to new ways of information seeking that may stress convenience over quality, reducing the priority of information literacy skills.", "The potential decline in library usage, particularly reference services, puts the necessity for these services in doubt.Fukuchiyama Public Library, JapanLibrary scholars have acknowledged that libraries need to address the ways that they market their services if they are to compete with the Internet and mitigate the risk of losing users.", "This includes promoting the information literacy skills training considered vital across the library profession.", "Many US-based research librarians rely on the ACRL Framework for Information Literacy in order to guide students and faculty in research.", "However, marketing of services has to be adequately supported financially in order to be successful.", "This can be problematic for library services that are publicly funded and find it difficult to justify diverting tight funds to apparently peripheral areas such as branding and marketing.The privacy aspect of library usage in the Internet age is a matter of growing concern and advocacy; privacy workshops are run by the Library Freedom Project which teach librarians about digital tools (such as the Tor network) to thwart mass surveillance." ], [ "Librarians", "Libraries are usually staffed by a combination of professionally trained librarians, paraprofessional staff sometimes called library technicians, and support staff.", "Some topics related to the education of librarians and allied staff include accessibility of the collection, acquisition of materials, arrangement and finding tools, the book trade, the influence of the physical properties of the different writing materials, language distribution, role in education, rates of literacy, budgets, staffing, libraries for specially targeted audiences, architectural merit, patterns of usage, the role of libraries in a nation's cultural heritage, and the role of government, church, or private sponsorship.", "Since the 1960s, issues of computerization and digitization have arisen." ], [ "Types", "Many institutions make a distinction between a circulating or lending library, where materials are expected and intended to be loaned to patrons, institutions, or other libraries, and a reference library where material is not lent out.", "Travelling libraries, such as the early horseback libraries of eastern Kentucky and bookmobiles, are generally of the lending type.", "Modern libraries are often a mixture of both, containing a general collection for circulation, and a reference collection which is restricted to the library premises.", "Also, increasingly, digital collections enable broader access to material that may not circulate in print, and enables libraries to expand their collections even without building a larger facility.", "Lamba (2019) reinforced this idea by observing that \"today's libraries have become increasingly multi-disciplinary, collaborative and networked\" and that applying Web 2.0 tools to libraries would \"not only connect the users with their community and enhance communication but will also help the librarians to promote their library's activities, services, and products to target both their actual and potential users\".===Academic libraries===The University Library at Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, HungaryAcademic libraries are generally located on college and university campuses and primarily serve the students and faculty of that and other academic institutions.", "Some academic libraries, especially those at public institutions, are accessible to members of the general public in whole or in part.", "Library services are sometimes extended to the general public at a fee; some academic libraries create such services in order to enhance literacy levels in their communities.Academic libraries are libraries that are hosted in post-secondary educational institutions, such as colleges and universities.", "Their main functions are to provide support in research, consultancy and resource linkage for students and faculty of the educational institution.", "Academic libraries house current, reliable and relevant information resources spread through all the disciplines which serve to assuage the information requirements of students and faculty.", "In cases where not all books are housed some libraries have E-resources, where they subscribe for a given institution they are serving, in order to provide backups and additional information that is not practical to have available as hard copies.", "Furthermore, most libraries collaborate with other libraries in exchange of books.Specific course-related resources are usually provided by the library, such as copies of textbooks and article readings held on 'reserve' (meaning that they are loaned out only on a short-term basis, usually a matter of hours).", "Some academic libraries provide resources not usually associated with libraries, such as the ability to check out laptop computers, web cameras, or scientific calculators.The Robarts Library at the University of Toronto, CanadaAcademic libraries offer workshops and courses outside of formal, graded coursework, which are meant to provide students with the tools necessary to succeed in their programs.", "These workshops may include help with citations, effective search techniques, journal databases, and electronic citation software.", "These workshops provide students with skills that can help them achieve success in their academic careers (and often, in their future occupations), which they may not learn inside the classroom.The academic library provides a quiet study space for students on campus; it may also provide group study space, such as meeting rooms.", "In North America, Europe, and other parts of the world, academic libraries are becoming increasingly digitally oriented.", "The library provides a \"gateway\" for students and researchers to access various resources, both print/physical and digital.", "Academic institutions are subscribing to electronic journals databases, providing research and scholarly writing software, and usually provide computer workstations or computer labs for students to access journals, library search databases and portals, institutional electronic resources, Internet access, and course- or task-related software (i.e.", "word processing and spreadsheet software).", "Some academic libraries take on new roles, for instance, acting as an electronic repository for institutional scholarly research and academic knowledge, such as the collection and curation of digital copies of students' theses and dissertations.", "Moreover, academic libraries are increasingly acting as publishers on their own on a not-for-profit basis, especially in the form of fully Open Access institutional publishers.===Children's libraries===A children's library in Montreal, Quebec, Canada in 1943Children's libraries are special collections of books intended for juvenile readers and usually kept in separate rooms of general public libraries.", "Some children's libraries have entire floors or wings dedicated to them in bigger libraries while smaller ones may have a separate room or area for children.", "They are an educational agency seeking to acquaint the young with the world's literature and to cultivate a love for reading.", "Their work supplements that of the public schools.Services commonly provided by public libraries may include storytelling sessions for infants, toddlers, preschool children, or after-school programs, all with an intention of developing early literacy skills and a love of books.", "One of the most popular programs offered in public libraries are summer reading programs for children, families, and adults.Another popular reading program for children is PAWS TO READ or similar programs where children can read to certified therapy dogs.", "Since animals are a calming influence and there is no judgment, children learn confidence and a love of reading.", "Many states have these types of programs: parents need simply ask their librarian to see if it is available at their local library.===National libraries===National Library of Wales, AberystwythA national or state library serves as a national repository of information, and has the right of legal deposit, which is a legal requirement that publishers in the country need to deposit a copy of each publication with the library.", "Unlike a public library, a national library rarely allows citizens to borrow books.", "Often, their collections include numerous rare, valuable, or significant works.", "There are wider definitions of a national library, putting less emphasis on the repository character.", "The first national libraries had their origins in the royal collections of the sovereign or some other supreme body of the state.Many national libraries cooperate within the National Libraries Section of the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) to discuss their common tasks, define and promote common standards, and carry out projects helping them to fulfill their duties.", "The national libraries of Europe participate in The European Library which is a service of the Conference of European National Librarians (CENL).===Public lending libraries===A community library in EthiopiaPalma, Balearic IslandsA public library provides services to the general public.", "If the library is part of a countywide library system, citizens with an active library card from around that county can use the library branches associated with the library system.", "A library can serve only their city, however, if they are not a member of the county public library system.", "Much of the materials located within a public library are available for borrowing.", "The library staff decides upon the number of items patrons are allowed to borrow, as well as the details of borrowing time allotted.", "Typically, libraries issue library cards to community members wishing to borrow books.", "Often visitors to a city are able to obtain a public library card.Many public libraries also serve as community organizations that provide free services and events to the public, such as reading groups and toddler story time.", "For many communities, the library is a source of connection to a vast world, obtainable knowledge and understanding, and entertainment.", "According to a study by the Pennsylvania Library Association, public library services play a major role in fighting rising illiteracy rates among youths.", "Public libraries are protected and funded by the public they serve.Boston Public Library, Boston, Massachusetts, United StatesAs the number of books in libraries have steadily increased since their inception, the need for compact storage and access with adequate lighting has grown.", "The ''stack system'' involves keeping a library's collection of books in a space separate from the reading room.", "This arrangement arose in the 19th century.", "Book stacks quickly evolved into a fairly standard form in which the cast iron and steel frameworks supporting the bookshelves also supported the floors, which often were built of translucent blocks to permit the passage of light (but were not transparent, for reasons of modesty).", "The introduction of electric lights had a huge impact on lighting in libraries.", "The use of glass floors was largely discontinued, though floors were still often composed of metal grating to allow air to circulate in multi-story stacks.", "As more space was needed, a method of moving shelves on tracks (compact shelving) was introduced to cut down on otherwise wasted aisle space.Library 2.0, a term coined in 2005, is the library's response to the challenge of Google and an attempt to meet the changing needs of users by using Web 2.0 technology.", "Some of the aspects of Library 2.0 include, commenting, tagging, bookmarking, discussions, use of online social networks by libraries, plug-ins, and widgets.", "Inspired by Web 2.0, it is an attempt to make the library a more user-driven institution.Despite the importance ascribed to public libraries, their budgets are often cut by legislatures.", "In some cases, funding has dwindled so much that libraries have been forced to cut their hours and release employees.===Reference libraries===Main reading room of the New York City Public Library on 5th Avenue A reference library does not lend books and other items; instead, they can only be read at the library itself.", "Typically, such libraries are used for research purposes, for example at a university.", "Some items at reference libraries may be historical and even unique.", "Many lending libraries contain a \"reference section\", which holds books, such as dictionaries, which are common reference books, and are therefore not lent out.", "Such reference sections may be referred to as \"reading rooms\", which may also include newspapers and periodicals.", "An example of a reading room is the Hazel H. Ransom Reading Room at the Harry Ransom Center of the University of Texas at Austin, which maintains the papers of literary agent Audrey Wood.===Research libraries===Main reading room of the Rijksmuseum Research Library is the largest public art history research library in the Netherlands.", "The library is part of the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam.The Library of Congress is one of the largest research libraries in the world.A research library is a collection of materials on one or more subjects.", "A research library supports scholarly or scientific research and will generally include primary as well as secondary sources; it will maintain permanent collections and attempt to provide access to all necessary materials.", "A research library is most often an academic or national library, but a large special library may have a research library within its special field, and a very few of the largest public libraries also serve as research libraries.", "A large university library may be considered a research library; and in North America, such libraries may belong to the Association of Research Libraries.", "In the United Kingdom, they may be members of Research Libraries UK (RLUK).", "Particularly important collections in England may be ''designated'' by Arts Council England.A research library can be either a reference library, which does not lend its holdings, or a lending library, which does lend all or some of its holdings.", "Some extremely large or traditional research libraries are entirely reference in this sense, lending none of their materials; most academic research libraries, at least in the US and the UK, now lend books, but not periodicals or other materials.", "Many research libraries are attached to a parent organization and may serve only members of that organization.", "Examples of research libraries include the British Library, the Bodleian Library at Oxford University and the New York Public Library Main Branch on 42nd Street in Manhattan, State Public Scientific Technological Library of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Science.José Vasconcelos Library in Mexico City, Mexico=== Digital libraries ===Main article: Digital libraryDigital libraries are libraries that house digital resources, such as text, photographs, and audio.", "These are curated by digital librarians.", "In the 21st century, there has been increasing use of the internet to gather and retrieve data.", "The shift to digital libraries has greatly impacted the way people use physical libraries.", "Between 2002 and 2004, the average American academic library saw the overall number of transactions decline approximately 2.2%.", "The University of California Library System saw a 54% decline in circulation between 1991 and 2001 of 8,377,000 books to 3,832,000.Interior of the Bibliotheca Alexandrina, Alexandria, Egypt, showing both stacks and computer terminals===Special libraries===Bookshelves at the Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library.", "The top floor contains 180,000 volumes.", "Since 1977, all new acquisitions are temporarily frozen at to prevent the spread of insects and diseases.Many private businesses and public organizations, including hospitals, churches, museums, research laboratories, law firms, and many government departments and agencies, maintain their own libraries for the use of their employees in doing specialized research related to their work.", "Depending on the particular institution, special libraries may or may not be accessible to the general public or elements thereof.", "In more specialized institutions such as law firms and research laboratories, librarians employed in special libraries are commonly specialists in the institution's field rather than generally trained librarians, and often are not required to have advanced degrees in a specifically library-related field due to the specialized content and clientele of the library.Special libraries can also include women's libraries or LGBTQ libraries, which serve the needs of women and the LGBTQ community.", "Libraries and the LGBTQ community have an extensive history, and there are currently many libraries, archives, and special collections devoted to preserving and helping the LGBTQ community.", "Women's libraries, such as the Vancouver Women's Library or the Women's Library @LSE are examples of women's libraries that offer services to women and girls and focus on women's history.Some special libraries, such as governmental law libraries, hospital libraries, and military base libraries commonly are open to public visitors to the institution in question.", "Depending on the particular library and the clientele it serves, special libraries may offer services similar to research, reference, public, academic, or children's libraries, often with restrictions such as only lending books to patients at a hospital or restricting the public from parts of a military collection.", "Given the highly individual nature of special libraries, visitors to a special library are often advised to check what services and restrictions apply at that particular library.Special libraries are distinguished from special collections, which are branches or parts of a library intended for rare books, manuscripts, and other special materials, though some special libraries have special collections of their own, typically related to the library's specialized subject area.For more information on specific types of special libraries, see law libraries, medical libraries, music libraries, or transportation libraries." ], [ "Associations", "The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) is the leading international association of library organizations.", "It is the global voice of the library and information profession, and its annual conference provides a venue for librarians to learn from one another.Library associations in Asia include the Indian Library Association (ILA), Indian Association of Special Libraries and Information Centers (IASLIC), Bengal Library Association (BLA), Kolkata, Pakistan Library Association, the Pakistan Librarians Welfare Organization, the Bangladesh Association of Librarians, Information Scientists and Documentalists, the Library Association of Bangladesh, and the Sri Lanka Library Association (founded 1960).National associations of the English-speaking world include the American Library Association, the Australian Library and Information Association, the Canadian Library Association, the Library and Information Association of New Zealand Aotearoa, and the Research Libraries UK (a consortium of 30 university and other research libraries in the United Kingdom).", "Library bodies such as CILIP (formerly the Library Association, founded 1877) may advocate the role that libraries and librarians can play in a modern Internet environment, and in the teaching of information literacy skills.", "The Nigerian Library Association is the recognized group for librarians working in Nigeria.", "It was established in 1962 in Ibadan.Public library advocacy is support given to a public library for its financial and philosophical goals or needs.", "Most often this takes the form of monetary or material donations or campaigning to the institutions which oversee the library, sometimes by advocacy groups such as Friends of Libraries and community members.", "Originally, library advocacy was centered on the library itself, but current trends show libraries positioning themselves to demonstrate they provide \"economic value to the community\" in means that are not directly related to the checking out of books and other media." ], [ "Protection", "Libraries are considered part of the cultural heritage and are one of the primary objectives in many state and domestic conflicts and are at risk of destruction and looting.", "Financing is often carried out by robbing valuable library items.", "National and international coordination regarding military and civil structures for the protection of libraries is operated by Blue Shield International and UNESCO.", "From an international perspective, despite the partial dissolution of state structures and very unclear security situations as a result of the wars and unrest, robust undertakings to protect libraries are being carried out.", "The topic is also the creation of \"no-strike lists\", in which the coordinates of important cultural monuments such as libraries have been preserved." ], [ "See also", "* Document management system* Libraries in fiction* Library anxiety* Library portal* Trends in library usage* List of libraries" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Barnard, T.D.F.", "(ed.)", "(1967).", "''Library Buildings: design and fulfilment; papers read at the Week-end Conference of the London and Home Counties Branch of the Library Association, held at Hastings, 21–23 April 1967''.", "London: Library Association (London and Home Counties Branch)* Belanger, Terry.", "''Lunacy & the Arrangement of Books'', New Castle, Del.", ": Oak Knoll Books, 1983; 3rd ptg 2003, * Bieri, Susanne & Fuchs, Walther (2001).", "''Bibliotheken bauen: Tradition und Vision = Building for Books: traditions and visions''.", "Basel: Birkhäuser Buschman, John.(2022).", "\"Of Architects and Libraries: A Simple Discourse Analysis.\"", "''The Library Quarterly'' (Chicago) 92.3: 296–310.", " Copeland, Andrea J.", "(2015) '' Libraries '', International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition).", "* Ellsworth, Ralph E. (1973).", "''Academic Library Buildings: a guide to architectural issues and solutions''.", "530 pp.", "Boulder: Associated University Press* Fraley, Ruth A.", "& Anderson, Carol Lee (1985).", "''Library Space Planning: how to assess, allocate, and reorganize collections, resources, and physical facilities''.", "New York: Neal-Schuman Publishers * * Irwin, Raymond (1947).", "''The National Library Service of the United Kingdom''.", "London: Grafton & Co. x, 96 p.* Lewanski, Richard C. (1967).", "''Library Directories and Library Science Dictionaries'', in ''Bibliography and Reference Series'', no.", "4.1967 ed.", "Santa Barbara, Calif.: Clio Press.", "''N.B''.", ": Publisher also named as the \"American Bibliographical Center\".", "* Robert K. Logan with Marshall McLuhan.", "''The Future of the Library: From Electric Media to Digital Media''.", "New York: Peter Lang Publishing.", "* Mason, Ellsworth (1980).", "''Mason on Library Buildings''.", "Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press * Monypenny, Phillip, and Guy Garrison (1966).", "''The Library Functions of the States i.e.", "the US: Commentary on the Survey of Library Functions of the States'', under the auspices of the Survey and Standard Committee of the American Association of State Libraries.", "Chicago: American Library Association.", "xiii, 178 p.* * Orr, J.M.", "(1975).", "''Designing Library Buildings for Activity''; 2nd ed.", "London: Andre Deutsch * * Thompson, Godfrey (1973).", "''Planning and Design of Library Buildings''.", "London: Architectural Press" ], [ "External links", "* * LIBweb—Directory of library servers in 146 countries via WWW* Centre for the History of the Book, hss.ed.ac.uk* Libraries: Frequently Asked Questions, ibiblio.org* The Concept of Library: Definition of Library sifonia.com" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Line Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Line Islands''', '''Teraina Islands''' or '''Equatorial Islands''' (in Gilbertese, ''Aono Raina'') are a chain of 11 atolls (with partly or fully enclosed lagoons (except Vostok and Jarvis)) and coral islands (with a surrounding reef) in the central Pacific Ocean, south of the Hawaiian Islands.", "Eight of the atolls are parts of Kiribati.", "The remaining three—Jarvis Island, Kingman Reef, and Palmyra Atoll—are territories of the United States grouped with the United States Minor Outlying Islands.", "The Line Islands, all of which were formed by volcanic activity, are one of the longest island chains in the world, stretching from northwest to southeast.", "One of them, Starbuck Island, is near the geographic center of the Pacific Ocean ().", "Another, Kiritimati, has the largest land area of any atoll in the world.", "Only Kiritimati, Tabuaeran, and Teraina have a permanent population.", "Besides the 11 confirmed atolls and islands, Filippo Reef is shown on some maps, but its existence is doubted.The International Date Line passes through the Line Islands.", "The ones that are parts of Kiribati are in the world's farthest forward time zone, UTC+14:00.The time of day is (UTC-10.00), the same as in the state of Hawaii in the United States, but the date is one day ahead of Hawaii.", "The time in the Line Islands is 26 hours ahead of some other islands in Oceania, such as Baker Island, which uses UTC−12:00." ], [ "Overview", "Copra and pet fish are the islands' main export products (along with seaweed).MapArchaeologists have identified the remains of coral Marae platforms and/or village complexes on several of the islands, including the Kiritimati and Tabuaeran atolls, Teraina Island, Malden, Millennium Atoll and Flint Island.", "These remains are dateable as far back as the 14th century, and show that the inhabitants of the Line Islands were more than just castaways.Most 18th-century visitors to these isles overlooked these telltale signs of former Polynesian settlement.", "This included Captain Cook, who landed on Christmas Island (now called Kiritimati) in 1777, as well as Captain Fanning, who visited Teraina (Washington Island) and Tabuaeran (Fanning Atoll) in 1798.In the 19th century, whaling ships were regular visitors to the islands.", "They came in search of water, wood and provisions.", "The first whaler recorded to have visited one of them was the ''Coquette'', which docked at Kiritimati (then called Christmas Island) in 1822.In 1888, the United Kingdom was planning to lay the Pacific cable, and annexed the islands with a view to using Tabuaeran (then Fanning Island) as one of the relay stations for the cable.", "The cable was laid and was operational between 1902 and 1963 (except for a short period in 1914).In 1916, the British annexed Fanning and Washington islands, making them part of the British colony of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands.", "In 1919, they annexed Christmas Island to the same colony.", "The Line Islands occasionally featured briefly in the biennial reports furnished by the Colony's resident commissioner to the Colonial Office and Parliament in London (see, for example, the reports submitted in 1966 and 1967).The United States contested the British annexations, based on the U.S.", "Guano Islands Act of 1856, which allowed for very wide-ranging territorial claims.", "It relinquished these claims only in 1979, when it entered into the Treaty of Tarawa, which recognised Kiribati's sovereignty over the majority of the Line Islands chain." ], [ "List of atolls, islands and reefs", "Geographically, the Line Islands is divided into three subgroups: the Northern, Central, and Southern Line Islands (however, the Central Line Islands are sometimes grouped with the Southern Line Islands).", "The table below lists the islands from north to south.", "Atoll / Island / Reef Area (km2) Population Coordinates Status Land Lagoon '''Northern Line Islands''' (Fanning's Group) Kingman Reef 0.01 60 0 U.S. territory (unincorporated) Palmyra Atoll 3.9 8 4 U.S. territory (incorporated) Teraina(Washington Island) 9.55 2* 1,155 A part of Kiribati Tabuaeran(Fanning Island) 33.73 110 2,539 A part of Kiribati Kiritimati(Christmas Island) 388.39 217.61 5,115 A part of Kiribati '''Central Line Islands''' Jarvis Island 5 — 0 U.S. territory (unincorporated) Malden Island 39.3 13* 0 A part of Kiribati Filippo Reef(''existence uncertain'') — 1.5 0 Outside the I-Kiribati EEZ Starbuck Island 16.2 4* 0 A part of Kiribati '''Southern Line Islands''' Millenium Island(Caroline Island) 3.76 6.3 0 A part of Kiribati Vostok Island 0.24 — 0 A part of Kiribati Flint Island 3.2 0.01* 0 A part of Kiribati '''Line Islands''' 503.28 422.42 8,813 Note:The lagoon areas marked with an asterisk are included in the land areas of the previous column because, unlike typical lagoons in atolls, they are inland waters completely sealed off from the sea." ], [ "Time zone realignment", "Following a 1995 time zone realignment, Millennium Island, then Caroline Island, (''red dot at far east of map'') became the easternmost land west of the International Date Line.On 23 December 1994, the Republic of Kiribati announced a change of time zone for the Line Islands, to take effect from 31 December 1994.This adjustment effectively moved the International Date Line more than to the east within Kiribati, which placed all of Kiribati on the Asian or western side of the date line, despite the fact that Millennium Island's longitude of 150 degrees west corresponds to UTC−10:00 rather than to its official time zone of UTC+14:00.Millennium Island is now at the same time as the Hawaiian Islands (Hawaii–Aleutian Time Zone), but one day ahead.", "This move made Millennium Island (then Caroline Island) the easternmost land in the earliest time zone (by some definitions, the easternmost point on Earth), and one of the first points of land which saw sunrise on 1 January 2000 – at 5:43 am, as measured by local time.The stated reason for the move was the fulfilment of a campaign promise that Kiribati President Teburoro Tito to help unify the country by eliminating the confusion caused by Kiribati straddling the Date Line and therefore being constantly in two different days.", "Kiribati officials later capitalised on the nation's new status as owners of the first land to see sunrise in 2000.Other Pacific nations, including Tonga and New Zealand's Chatham Islands, protested the move, objecting that it interfered with their own claims to be the first land to see dawn in the year 2000.In 1999, to further capitalise upon the massive public interest in celebrations marking the arrival of the year 2000, Caroline Island was officially renamed Millennium Island.", "Although the island is uninhabited, a special celebration was held there to mark the occasion.", "It featured performances by native Kiribati entertainers and was attended by Kiribati's President Tito.", "Over 70 Kiribati singers and dancers travelled to Millennium Island from the capital, South Tarawa, accompanied by approximately 25 journalists.", "The celebration, which was broadcast worldwide by satellite, had an estimated audience size of as many as one billion viewers." ], [ "See also", " List of islands in the Pacific Ocean* Polynesian Triangle" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * National Geographic – Southern Line Islands Expedition, 2009" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Latin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Latin''' (, , or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages.", "Considered a dead language, Latin was originally spoken in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area around Rome.", "Through the expansion of the Roman Republic it became the dominant language in the Italian Peninsula and subsequently throughout the Roman Empire.", "Even after the fall of Western Rome, Latin remained the common language of international communication, science, scholarship and academia in Europe until well into the 18th century, when regional vernaculars (including its own descendants, the Romance languages) supplanted it in common academic and political usage.", "For most of the time it was used, it would be considered a dead language in the modern linguistic definition; that is, it lacked native speakers, despite being used extensively and actively.Latin is a highly inflected language, with three distinct genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter), seven noun cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative, vocative, and vestigial locative), five declensions, four verb conjugations, six tenses (present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect), three persons, three moods, two voices (passive and active), two or three aspects, and two numbers (singular and plural).", "The Latin alphabet is directly derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets.By the late Roman Republic (75 BC), Old Latin had evolved into standardized Classical Latin.", "Vulgar Latin was the colloquial register with less prestigious variations attested in inscriptions and some literary works such as those of the comic playwrights Plautus and Terence and author Petronius.", "Late Latin is the literary language from the 3rd century AD onwards, and Vulgar Latin's various regional dialects had developed by the 6th to 9th centuries into the ancestors of the modern Romance languages.In Latin's usage beyond the early medieval period, it lacked native speakers.", "Medieval Latin was used across Western and Catholic Europe during the Middle Ages as a working and literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance, which then developed a classicizing form, called Renaissance Latin.", "This was the basis for Neo-Latin which evolved during the early modern period.", "In these periods Latin was used productively and generally taught to be written and spoken, at least until the late seventeenth century, when spoken skills began to erode.", "It then became increasingly taught only to be read.Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church at the Vatican City.", "The church continues to adapt concepts from modern languages, contributing to the continued development of the Latin language.", "Latin today, however, is more often studied to be read rather than spoken or actively used.Latin has greatly influenced the English language and historically contributed many words to the English lexicon, particularly after the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons and the Norman Conquest.", "Latin (and Ancient Greek) roots are especially used in English descriptions of theology, science disciplines (especially anatomy and taxonomy), medicine, and law." ], [ "History", "The linguistic landscape of Central Italy at the beginning of Roman expansionA number of phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, and syntax.", "There are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars emphasize different features.", "As a result, the list has variants, as well as alternative names.In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to the styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church from late antiquity onward, as well as by Protestant scholars.After the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 and Germanic kingdoms took its place, the Germanic people adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other, more formal uses.===Old Latin===The Lapis Niger, probably the oldest extant Latin inscription, from Rome, during the semi-legendary Roman KingdomThe earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, also called Archaic or Early Latin, which was spoken from the Roman Kingdom, traditionally founded in 753 BC, through the later part of the Roman Republic, up to 75 BC, i.e.", "before the age of Classical Latin.", "It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of the earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence.", "The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet.", "The writing later changed from what was initially either a right-to-left or a boustrophedon script to what ultimately became a strictly left-to-right script.===Classical Latin===During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, from about 75 BC to 200 AD, a new Classical Latin arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature, which were taught in grammar and rhetoric schools.", "Today's instructional grammars trace their roots to such schools, which served as a sort of informal language academy dedicated to maintaining and perpetuating educated speech.===Vulgar Latin===Philological analysis of Archaic Latin works, such as those of Plautus, which contain fragments of everyday speech, gives evidence of an informal register of the language, Vulgar Latin (termed , \"the speech of the masses\", by Cicero).", "Some linguists, particularly in the nineteenth century, believed this to be a separate language, existing more or less in parallel with the literary or educated Latin, but this is now widely dismissed.The term 'Vulgar Latin' remains difficult to define, referring both to informal speech at any time within the history of Latin, and the kind of informal Latin that had begun to move away from the written language significantly in the post-Imperial period, that led ultimately to the Romance languages.During the Classical period, informal language was rarely written, so philologists have been left with only individual words and phrases cited by classical authors, inscriptions such as Curse tablets and those found as graffiti.", "In the Late Latin period, language changes reflecting spoken (non-classical) norms tend to be found in greater quantities in texts.As it was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically.", "On the contrary, Romanised European populations developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led to the differentiation of Romance languages.===Late Latin===Late Latin is a kind of written Latin used in the 3rd to 6th centuries.", "This began to diverge from Classical forms at a faster pace.", "It is characterised by greater use of prepositions, and word order that is closer to modern Romance languages, for example, while grammatically retaining more or less the same formal rules as Classical Latin.Ultimately, Latin diverged into a distinct written form, where the commonly spoken form was perceived as a separate language, for instance early French or Italian dialects, that could be transcribed differently.", "It took some time for these to be viewed as wholly different from Latin however.===Romance languages===While the written form of Latin was increasingly standardized into a fixed form, the spoken forms began to diverge more greatly.", "Currently, the five most widely spoken Romance languages by number of native speakers are Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, and Romanian.", "Despite dialectal variation, which is found in any widespread language, the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy have retained a remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilising influence of their common Christian (Roman Catholic) culture.It was not until the Muslim conquest of Spain in 711, cutting off communications between the major Romance regions, that the languages began to diverge seriously.", "The spoken Latin that would later become Romanian diverged somewhat more from the other varieties, as it was largely separated from the unifying influences in the western part of the Empire.Spoken Latin began to diverge into distinct languages by the 9th century at the latest, when the earliest extant Romance writings begin to appear.", "They were, throughout the period, confined to everyday speech, as Medieval Latin was used for writing.It should also be noted, however, that for many Italians using Latin, there was no complete separation between Italian and Latin, even into the beginning of the Renaissance.", "Petrarch for example saw Latin as a literary version of the spoken language.===Medieval Latin===The Latin Malmesbury Bible from 1407Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the postclassical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed, that is from around 700 to 1500 AD.", "The spoken language had developed into the various Romance languages; however, in the educated and official world, Latin continued without its natural spoken base.", "Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as the Germanic and Slavic nations.", "It became useful for international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies.Without the institutions of the Roman Empire that had supported its uniformity, Medieval Latin was much freer in its linguistic cohesion: for example, in classical Latin and are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses.", "Medieval Latin might use and instead.", "Furthermore, the meanings of many words were changed and new words were introduced, often under influence from the vernacular.", "Identifiable individual styles of classically incorrect Latin prevail.===Renaissance and Neo-Latin===Most 15th-century printed books (incunabula) were in Latin, with the vernacular languages playing only a secondary role.Renaissance Latin, 1300 to 1500, and the classicised Latin that followed through to the present are often grouped together as ''Neo-Latin'', or New Latin, which have in recent decades become a focus of renewed study, given their importance for the development of European culture, religion and science.", "The vast majority of written Latin belongs to this period, but its full extent is unknown.The Renaissance reinforced the position of Latin as a spoken and written language by the scholarship by the Renaissance humanists.", "Petrarch and others began to change their usage of Latin as they explored the texts of the Classical Latin world.", "Skills of textual criticism evolved to create much more accurate versions of extant texts through the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and some important texts were rediscovered.", "Comprehensive versions of author's works were published by Isaac Casaubon, Joseph Scaliger and others.", "Nevertheless, despite the careful work of Petrarch, Politian and others, first the demand for manuscripts, and then the rush to bring works into print, led to the circulation of inaccurate copies for several centuries following.Neo-Latin literature was extensive and prolific, but less well known or understood today.", "Works covered poetry, prose stories and early novels, occasional pieces and collections of letters, to name a few.", "Famous and well regarded writers included Petrarch, Erasmus, Salutati, Celtis, George Buchanan and Thomas More.", "Non fiction works were long produced in many subjects, including the sciences, law, philosophy, historiography and theology.", "Famous examples include Isaac Newton's ''Principia''.", "Latin was also used as a convenient medium for translations of important works first written in a vernacular, such as those of Descartes.Latin education underwent a process of reform to classicise written and spoken Latin.", "Schooling remained largely Latin medium until approximately 1700.Until the end of the 17th century, the majority of books and almost all diplomatic documents were written in Latin.", "Afterwards, most diplomatic documents were written in French (a Romance language) and later native or other languages.", "Education methods gradually shifted towards written Latin, and eventually concentrating solely on reading skills.", "The decline of Latin education took several centuries and proceeded much more slowly than the decline in written Latin output.===Contemporary Latin===Despite having no native speakers, Latin is still used for a variety of purposes in the contemporary world.==== Religious use ====The signs at Wallsend Metro station are in English and Latin, as a tribute to Wallsend's role as one of the outposts of the Roman Empire, as the eastern end of Hadrian's Wall (hence the name) at Segedunum.The largest organisation that retains Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Catholic Church.", "The Catholic Church required that Mass be carried out in Latin until the Second Vatican Council of 1962–1965, which permitted the use of the vernacular.", "Latin remains the language of the Roman Rite.", "The Tridentine Mass (also known as the Extraordinary Form or Traditional Latin Mass) is celebrated in Latin.", "Although the Mass of Paul VI (also known as the Ordinary Form or the Novus Ordo) is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, in part or in whole, especially at multilingual gatherings.", "It is the official language of the Holy See, the primary language of its public journal, the , and the working language of the Roman Rota.", "Vatican City is also home to the world's only automatic teller machine that gives instructions in Latin.", "In the pontifical universities postgraduate courses of Canon law are taught in Latin, and papers are written in the same language.There are a small number of Latin services held in the Anglican church.", "These include an annual service in Oxford, delivered with a Latin sermon; a relic from the period when Latin was the normal spoken language of the university.The polyglot European Union has adopted Latin names in the logos of some of its institutions for the sake of linguistic compromise, an \"ecumenical nationalism\" common to most of the continent and as a sign of the continent's heritage (such as the EU Council: ).==== Use of Latin for mottos ====In the Western world, many organizations, governments and schools use Latin for their mottos due to its association with formality, tradition, and the roots of Western culture.Canada's motto (\"from sea to sea\") and most provincial mottos are also in Latin.", "The Canadian Victoria Cross is modelled after the British Victoria Cross which has the inscription \"For Valour\".", "Because Canada is officially bilingual, the Canadian medal has replaced the English inscription with the Latin .Spain's motto , meaning \"even further\", or figuratively \"Further!", "\", is also Latin in origin.", "It is taken from the personal motto of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain (as Charles I), and is a reversal of the original phrase (\"No land further beyond\", \"No further!\").", "According to legend, this phrase was inscribed as a warning on the Pillars of Hercules, the rocks on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar and the western end of the known, Mediterranean world.", "Charles adopted the motto following the discovery of the New World by Columbus, and it also has metaphorical suggestions of taking risks and striving for excellence.In the United States the unofficial national motto until 1956 was ''E pluribus unum'' meaning \"Out of many, one\".", "The motto continues to be featured on the Great Seal, it also appears on the flags and seals of both houses of congress and the flags of the states of Michigan, North Dakota, New York, and Wisconsin.", "The motto's 13 letters symbolically represent the original Thirteen Colonies which revolted from the British Crown.", "The motto is featured on all presently minted coinage and has been featured in most coinage throughout the nation's history.Several states of the United States have Latin mottos, such as:* Arizona's (\"God enriches\");* Connecticut's (\"He who transplanted sustains\");* Kansas's (\"Through hardships, to the stars\");* Colorado's (\"Nothing without providence\");* Michigan's (\"If you seek a pleasant peninsula, look about you\"), is based on that of Sir Christopher Wren, in St. Paul's Cathedral;* Missouri's (\"The health of the people should be the highest law\");* New York (state)'s (\"Ever upward\");* North Carolina's (\"To be rather than to seem\");* South Carolina's (\"While still breathing, I hope\");* Virginia's (\"Thus always to tyrants\"); and* West Virginia's (\"Mountaineers are always free\").Many military organizations today have Latin mottos, such as:* (\"always ready\"), the motto of the United States Coast Guard;* (\"always faithful\"), the motto of the United States Marine Corps;* ''Semper Supra'' (\"always above\"), the motto of the United States Space Force;* (\"Through adversity/struggle to the stars\"), the motto of the Royal Air Force (RAF); and* (\"We stand on guard for thee\"), the motto of the Canadian Armed Forces.A law governing body in the Philippines have a Latin motto, such as:* (\"Justice, peace, work\"), the motto of the Department of Justice (Philippines);Some colleges and universities have adopted Latin mottos, for example Harvard University's motto is (\"truth\").", "Veritas was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn, and the mother of Virtue.==== Other modern uses ====Switzerland has adopted the country's Latin short name on coins and stamps, since there is no room to use all of the nation's four official languages.", "For a similar reason, it adopted the international vehicle and internet code ''CH'', which stands for , the country's full Latin name.Some film and television in ancient settings, such as ''Sebastiane'', ''The Passion of the Christ'' and ''Barbarians (2020 TV series)'', have been made with dialogue in Latin.", "Occasionally, Latin dialogue is used because of its association with religion or philosophy, in such film/television series as ''The Exorcist'' and ''Lost'' (\"Jughead\").", "Subtitles are usually shown for the benefit of those who do not understand Latin.", "There are also songs written with Latin lyrics.", "The libretto for the opera-oratorio by Igor Stravinsky is in Latin.The continued instruction of Latin is often seen as a highly valuable component of a liberal arts education.", "Latin is taught at many high schools, especially in Europe and the Americas.", "It is most common in British public schools and grammar schools, the Italian and , the German and the Dutch .QDP Ep 84 – De Ludo \"Mysterium\": A Latin-language podcast from the US Occasionally, some media outlets, targeting enthusiasts, broadcast in Latin.", "Notable examples include Radio Bremen in Germany, YLE radio in Finland (the Nuntii Latini broadcast from 1989 until it was shut down in June 2019), and Vatican Radio & Television, all of which broadcast news segments and other material in Latin.A variety of organisations, as well as informal Latin 'circuli' ('circles'), have been founded in more recent times to support the use of spoken Latin.", "Moreover, a number of university classics departments have begun incorporating communicative pedagogies in their Latin courses.", "These include the University of Kentucky, the University of Oxford and also Princeton University.There are many websites and forums maintained in Latin by enthusiasts.", "The Latin Wikipedia has more than 130,000 articles.Urdaneta City's motto (\"It is enough for the people to serve God\") the Latin motto can be read in the old seal of this Philippine city." ], [ "Legacy", "Italian, French, Portuguese, Spanish, Romanian, Catalan, Romansh and other Romance languages are direct descendants of Latin.", "There are also many Latin borrowings in English and Albanian, as well as a few in German, Dutch, Norwegian, Danish and Swedish.", "Latin is still spoken in Vatican City, a city-state situated in Rome that is the seat of the Catholic Church.===Literature===Julius Caesar's is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin.", "The unvarnished, journalistic style of this patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the Roman Republic.The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology.", "They are in part the subject matter of the field of classics.", "Their works were published in manuscript form before the invention of printing and are now published in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the Loeb Classical Library, published by Harvard University Press, or the Oxford Classical Texts, published by Oxford University Press.Latin translations of modern literature such as: ''The Hobbit'', ''Treasure Island'', ''Robinson Crusoe'', ''Paddington Bear'', ''Winnie the Pooh'', ''The Adventures of Tintin'', ''Asterix'', ''Harry Potter'', , ''Max and Moritz'', ''How the Grinch Stole Christmas!", "'', ''The Cat in the Hat'', and a book of fairy tales, \"\", are intended to garner popular interest in the language.", "Additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissner's Latin Phrasebook.===Inscriptions===Some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the (CIL).", "Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same: volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance and relevant information.", "The reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy.", "About 270,000 inscriptions are known.===Influence on present-day languages===The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development.", "In the Middle Ages, borrowing from Latin occurred from ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century or indirectly after the Norman Conquest, through the Anglo-Norman language.", "From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed \"inkhorn terms\", as if they had spilled from a pot of ink.", "Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, but some useful ones survived, such as 'imbibe' and 'extrapolate'.", "Many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French.", "Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and Dutch vocabularies.", "Those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included.Range of the Romance languages, the modern descendants of Latin, in Europe.The influence of Roman governance and Roman technology on the less-developed nations under Roman dominion led to the adoption of Latin phraseology in some specialized areas, such as science, technology, medicine, and law.", "For example, the Linnaean system of plant and animal classification was heavily influenced by ''Historia Naturalis'', an encyclopedia of people, places, plants, animals, and things published by Pliny the Elder.", "Roman medicine, recorded in the works of such physicians as Galen, established that today's medical terminology would be primarily derived from Latin and Greek words, the Greek being filtered through the Latin.", "Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole.", "Latin law principles have survived partly in a long list of Latin legal terms.A few international auxiliary languages have been heavily influenced by Latin.", "Interlingua is sometimes considered a simplified, modern version of the language.", "Latino sine Flexione, popular in the early 20th century, is Latin with its inflections stripped away, among other grammatical changes.The Logudorese dialect of the Sardinian language and Standard Italian are the two closest contemporary languages to Latin.===Education===A multivolume Latin dictionary in the University of Graz Library in AustriaThroughout European history, an education in the classics was considered crucial for those who wished to join literate circles.", "This also was true in the United States where many of the nation's founders obtained a classically based education in grammar schools or from tutors.", "Admission to Harvard in the Colonial era required that the applicant \"Can readily make and speak or write true Latin prose and has skill in making verse .", ".", ".\"", "Latin Study and the classics were emphasized in American secondary schools and colleges well into the Antebellum era.Instruction in Latin is an essential aspect.", "In today's world, a large number of Latin students in the US learn from ''Wheelock's Latin: The Classic Introductory Latin Course, Based on Ancient Authors''.", "This book, first published in 1956, was written by Frederic M. Wheelock, who received a PhD from Harvard University.", "''Wheelock's Latin'' has become the standard text for many American introductory Latin courses.The numbers of people studying Latin varies significantly by country.", "In the United Kingdom, Latin is available in around 2.3% of state primary schools, representing a significant increase in availability.", "In Germany, over 500,000 students study Latin each year, representing a decrease from over 800,000 in 2008.Latin is still required for some University courses, but this has become less frequent.The Living Latin movement attempts to teach Latin in the same way that living languages are taught, as a means of both spoken and written communication.", "It is available in Vatican City and at some institutions in the US, such as the University of Kentucky and Iowa State University.", "The British Cambridge University Press is a major supplier of Latin textbooks for all levels, such as the Cambridge Latin Course series.", "It has also published a subseries of children's texts in Latin by Bell & Forte, which recounts the adventures of a mouse called Minimus.In the United Kingdom, the Classical Association encourages the study of antiquity through various means, such as publications and grants.", "The University of Cambridge, the Open University, a number of independent schools, for example Eton, Harrow, Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School, Merchant Taylors' School, and Rugby, and The Latin Programme/Via Facilis, a London-based charity, run Latin courses.", "In the United States and in Canada, the American Classical League supports every effort to further the study of classics.", "Its subsidiaries include the National Junior Classical League (with more than 50,000 members), which encourages high school students to pursue the study of Latin, and the National Senior Classical League, which encourages students to continue their study of the classics into college.", "The league also sponsors the National Latin Exam.", "Classicist Mary Beard wrote in ''The Times Literary Supplement'' in 2006 that the reason for learning Latin is because of what was written in it.===Official status===Latin was or is the official language of European states:* – Latin was an official language in the Kingdom of Hungary from the 11th century to the mid 19th century, when Hungarian became the exclusive official language in 1844.The best known Latin language poet of Croatian-Hungarian origin was Janus Pannonius.", "* – Latin was the official language of Croatian Parliament (Sabor) from the 13th to the 19th century (1847).", "The oldest preserved records of the parliamentary sessions () – held in Zagreb (), Croatia – date from 19 April 1273.An extensive Croatian Latin literature exists.", "Latin was used on Croatian coins on even years until 1 January 2023, when Croatia adopted the Euro as its official currency.", "* , Kingdom of Poland – officially recognised and widely used between the 10th and 18th centuries, commonly used in foreign relations and popular as a second language among some of the nobility." ], [ "Phonology", "The ancient pronunciation of Latin has been reconstructed; among the data used for reconstruction are explicit statements about pronunciation by ancient authors, misspellings, puns, ancient etymologies, the spelling of Latin loanwords in other languages, and the historical development of Romance languages.===Consonants===The consonant phonemes of Classical Latin are as follows: Labial Dental Palatal Velar Glottal plain labial Plosive voiced voiceless Fricative voiced () voiceless Nasal () Rhotic Approximant was not native to Classical Latin.", "It appeared in Greek loanwords starting around the first century BC, when it was probably pronounced (at least by educated speakers) initially and doubled between vowels, in accordance with its pronunciation in Koine Greek.", "In Classical Latin poetry, the letter between vowels always counts as two consonants for metrical purposes.", "The consonant ⟨b⟩ usually sounds as b; however, when ⟨t⟩ or ⟨s⟩ follows ⟨b⟩ then it is pronounced as in pt or ps.", "In Latin, ⟨q⟩ is always followed by the vowel ⟨u⟩.", "Together they make a kʷ sound.In Old and Classical Latin, the Latin alphabet had no distinction between uppercase and lowercase, and the letters did not exist.", "In place of , were used, respectively; represented both vowels and consonants.", "Most of the letter forms were similar to modern uppercase, as can be seen in the inscription from the Colosseum shown at the top of the article.The spelling systems used in Latin dictionaries and modern editions of Latin texts, however, normally use in place of Classical-era .", "Some systems use for the consonant sounds except in the combinations for which is never used.Some notes concerning the mapping of Latin phonemes to English graphemes are given below:+ Notes Latingrapheme Latinphoneme English examples , Always as ''k'' in ''sky'' () As ''t'' in ''stay'' () As ''s'' in ''say'' () Always as ''g'' in ''good'' () Before , as ''ng'' in ''sing'' () As ''n'' in ''man'' () Before , , and , as ''ng'' in ''sing'' () When doubled and before , as \"light L\", in ''link'' () () In all other positions, as \"dark L\", in ''bowl'' () () Similar to ''qu'' in ''squint'' () Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, or after and , as in ''wine'' () Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, as ''y'' () in ''yard'' () \"y\" (), in between vowels, becomes \"i-y\", being pronounced as parts of two separate syllables, as in () A letter representing + : as ''x'' in English ''axe'' ()In Classical Latin, as in modern Italian, double consonant letters were pronounced as long consonant sounds distinct from short versions of the same consonants.", "Thus the ''nn'' in Classical Latin \"year\" (and in Italian ) is pronounced as a doubled as in English ''unnamed''.", "(In English, distinctive consonant length or doubling occurs only at the boundary between two words or morphemes, as in that example.", ")===Vowels=======Simple vowels==== Front Central Back Close Mid Open In Classical Latin, did not exist as a letter distinct from V; the written form was used to represent both a vowel and a consonant.", "was adopted to represent upsilon in loanwords from Greek, but it was pronounced like and by some speakers.", "It was also used in native Latin words by confusion with Greek words of similar meaning, such as and .Classical Latin distinguished between long and short vowels.", "Then, long vowels, except for , were frequently marked using the apex, which was sometimes similar to an acute accent .", "Long was written using a taller version of , called \"long I\": .", "In modern texts, long vowels are often indicated by a macron , and short vowels are usually unmarked except when it is necessary to distinguish between words, when they are marked with a breve .", "However, they would also signify a long vowel by writing the vowel larger than other letters in a word or by repeating the vowel twice in a row.", "The acute accent, when it is used in modern Latin texts, indicates stress, as in Spanish, rather than length.Although called long vowels, their exact quality in Classical Latin is different from short vowels.", "The difference is described in the table below:+ Pronunciation of Latin vowels Latingrapheme Latinphone modern examples similar to the ''a'' in ''part'' (/paɹt/) similar to the ''a'' in ''father'' (/fɑːðəɹ/) as ''e'' in ''pet'' (/pɛt/) similar to ''e'' in ''hey'' (/heɪ/) as ''i'' in ''pit'' (/pɪt/) similar to ''i'' in ''machine'' (/məʃiːn/) as ''o'' in ''port'' (/pɔɹt/) similar to ''o'' in ''post'' (/poʊst/) as ''u'' in put (/pʊt/) similar to ''ue'' in ''true'' (/tɹuː/) does not exist in English, closest approximation is the ''u'' in ''mule'' does not exist in English, closest approximation is the ''u'' in ''cute''This difference in quality is posited by W. Sidney Allen in his book ''Vox Latina''.", "However, Andrea Calabrese has disputed this assertion, based in part upon the observation that in Sardinian and some Lucanian dialects, each long and short vowel pair merged, as opposed to in Italo-Western languages in which short /i/ and /u/ merged with long /eː/ and /o:/ (c.f.", "Latin 'siccus', Italian 'secco', and Sardinian 'siccu').A vowel letter followed by at the end of a word, or a vowel letter followed by before or , represented a short nasal vowel, as in .====Diphthongs====Classical Latin had several diphthongs.", "The two most common were .", "was fairly rare, and were very rare, at least in native Latin words.", "There has also been debate over whether is truly a diphthong in Classical Latin, due to its rarity, absence in works of Roman grammarians, and the roots of Classical Latin words (i.e.", "to , to , etc.)", "not matching or being similar to the pronunciation of classical words if were to be considered a diphthong.The sequences sometimes did not represent diphthongs.", "and also represented a sequence of two vowels in different syllables in \"of bronze\" and \"began\", and represented sequences of two vowels or of a vowel and one of the semivowels , in \"beware!", "\", \"whose\", \"I warned\", \"I released\", \"I destroyed\", \"his\", and \"new\".Old Latin had more diphthongs, but most of them changed into long vowels in Classical Latin.", "The Old Latin diphthong and the sequence became Classical .", "Old Latin and changed to Classical , except in a few words whose became Classical .", "These two developments sometimes occurred in different words from the same root: for instance, Classical \"punishment\" and \"to punish\".", "Early Old Latin usually monophthongized to a later Old Latin , to Classical .By the late Roman Empire, had merged with .", "During the Classical period this sound change was present in some rural dialects, but deliberately avoided by well-educated speakers.+ Diphthongs classified by beginning sound Front Back Close ui Mid ei eu oe ou Open ae au === Syllables ===Syllables in Latin are signified by the presence of diphthongs and vowels.", "The number of syllables is the same as the number of vowel sounds.Further, if a consonant separates two vowels, it will go into the syllable of the second vowel.", "When there are two consonants between vowels, the last consonant will go with the second vowel.", "An exception occurs when a phonetic stop and liquid come together.", "In this situation, they are thought to be a single consonant, and as such, they will go into the syllable of the second vowel.==== Length ====Syllables in Latin are considered either long or short (less often called \"heavy\" and \"light\" respectively).", "Within a word, a syllable may either be long by nature or long by position.", "A syllable is long by nature if it has a diphthong or a long vowel.", "On the other hand, a syllable is long by position if the vowel is followed by more than one consonant.==== Stress ====There are two rules that define which syllable is stressed in Classical Latin.# In a word with only two syllables, the emphasis will be on the first syllable.# In a word with more than two syllables, there are two cases.#* If the second-to-last syllable is long, that syllable will have stress.#* If the second-to-last syllable is not long, the syllable before that one will be stressed instead." ], [ "Orthography", "The Duenos Inscription, from the 6th century BC, is one of the earliest known Old Latin texts.", "It was found on the Quirinal Hill in Rome.Latin was written in the Latin alphabet (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, V, X), derived from the Etruscan alphabet, which was in turn drawn from the Greek alphabet and ultimately the Phoenician alphabet.", "This alphabet has continued to be used over the centuries as the script for the Romance, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, Finnic and many Slavic languages (Polish, Slovak, Slovene, Croatian, Bosnian, Serbian and Czech); and it has been adopted by many languages around the world, including Vietnamese, the Austronesian languages, many Turkic languages, and most languages in sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas and Oceania, making it by far the world's single most widely used writing system.The number of letters in the Latin alphabet has varied.", "When it was first derived from the Etruscan alphabet, it contained only 21 letters.", "Later, ''G'' was added to represent , which had previously been spelled ''C'', and ''Z'' ceased to be included in the alphabet, as the language then had no voiced alveolar fricative.", "The letters ''Y'' and ''Z'' were later added to represent Greek letters, upsilon and zeta respectively, in Greek loanwords.", "''W'' was created in the 11th century from ''VV''.", "It represented in Germanic languages, not Latin, which still uses ''V'' for the purpose.", "''J'' was distinguished from the original ''I'' only during the late Middle Ages, as was the letter ''U'' from ''V''.", "Although some Latin dictionaries use ''J'', it is rarely used for Latin text, as it was not used in classical times, but many other languages use it.===Punctuation===Classical Latin did not contain sentence punctuation, letter case, or interword spacing, but apices were sometimes used to distinguish length in vowels and the interpunct was used at times to separate words.The first line of Catullus 3 (\"Mourn, O Venuses and Cupids\") was originally written as: simply with long I with interpunct It would be rendered in a modern edition as: simply with macrons with apices A modern Latin text written in the Old Roman Cursive inspired by the Vindolanda tablets, the oldest surviving handwritten documents in Britain.", "The word ''Romani'' ('Romans') is at bottom left.The Roman cursive script is commonly found on the many wax tablets excavated at sites such as forts, an especially extensive set having been discovered at Vindolanda on Hadrian's Wall in Britain.", "Most notable is the fact that while most of the Vindolanda tablets show spaces between words, spaces were avoided in monumental inscriptions from that era.===Alternative scripts===Occasionally, Latin has been written in other scripts:* The Praeneste fibula is a 7th-century BC pin with an Old Latin inscription written using the Etruscan script.", "* The rear panel of the early 8th-century Franks Casket has an inscription that switches from Old English in Anglo-Saxon runes to Latin in Latin script and to Latin in runes." ], [ "Grammar", "Latin is a synthetic, fusional language in the terminology of linguistic typology.", "Words involve an objective semantic element and markers (usually suffixes) specifying the grammatical use of the word, expressing gender, number, and case in adjectives, nouns, and pronouns (''declension'') and verbs to denote person, number, tense, voice, mood, and aspect (''conjugation'').", "Some words are uninflected and undergo neither process, such as adverbs, prepositions, and interjections.Latin inflection can result in words with much ambiguity: For example, , \"he/she/it will love\", is formed from , a future tense morpheme and a third person singular morpheme, , the last of which does not express masculine, feminine, or neuter gender.", "A major task in understanding Latin phrases and clauses is to clarify such ambiguities by an analysis of context.===Nouns===A regular Latin noun belongs to one of five main declensions, a group of nouns with similar inflected forms.", "The declensions are identified by the genitive singular form of the noun.", "* The first declension, with a predominant ending letter of ''a'', is signified by the genitive singular ending of ''-ae''.", "* The second declension, with a predominant ending letter of ''us'', is signified by the genitive singular ending of ''-i''.", "* The third declension, with a predominant ending letter of ''i'', is signified by the genitive singular ending of ''-is''.", "* The fourth declension, with a predominant ending letter of ''u'', is signified by the genitive singular ending of ''-ūs''.", "* The fifth declension, with a predominant ending letter of ''e'', is signified by the genitive singular ending of ''-ei''.There are seven Latin noun cases, which also apply to adjectives and pronouns and mark a noun's syntactic role in the sentence by means of inflections.", "Thus, word order is not as important in Latin as it is in English, which is less inflected.", "The general structure and word order of a Latin sentence can therefore vary.", "The cases are as follows:# Nominative – used when the noun is the subject or a predicate nominative.", "The thing or person acting: the girl ran: or # Genitive – used when the noun is the possessor of or connected with an object: \"the horse of the man\", or \"the man's horse\"; in both instances, the word ''man'' would be in the genitive case when it is translated into Latin.", "It also indicates the partitive, in which the material is quantified: \"a group of people\"; \"a number of gifts\": ''people'' and ''gifts'' would be in the genitive case.", "Some nouns are genitive with special verbs and adjectives: The cup is full of wine.", "() The master of the slave had beaten him.", "()# Dative – used when the noun is the indirect object of the sentence, with special verbs, with certain prepositions, and if it is used as agent, reference, or even possessor: The merchant hands the stola to the woman.", "()# Accusative – used when the noun is the direct object of the subject, as the object of a preposition demonstrating place to which, and sometimes to indicate a duration of time: The man killed the boy.", "()# Ablative – used when the noun demonstrates separation or movement from a source, cause, agent or instrument or when the noun is used as the object of certain prepositions, and to indicate a specific place in time.", "; adverbial: You walked with the boy.", "()# Vocative – used when the noun is used in a direct address.", "The vocative form of a noun is often the same as the nominative, with the exception of second-declension nouns ending in .", "The becomes an in the vocative singular.", "If it ends in (such as ), the ending is just (), as distinct from the nominative plural () in the vocative singular: \"Master!\"", "shouted the slave.", "()# Locative – used to indicate a location (corresponding to the English \"in\" or \"at\").", "It is far less common than the other six cases of Latin nouns and usually applies to cities and small towns and islands along with a few common nouns, such as the words (house), (ground), and (country).", "In the singular of the first and second declensions, its form coincides with the genitive ( becomes , \"in Rome\").", "In the plural of all declensions and the singular of the other declensions, it coincides with the ablative ( becomes , \"at Athens\").", "In the fourth-declension word , the locative form, (\"at home\") differs from the standard form of all other cases.Latin lacks both definite and indefinite articles so can mean either \"the boy is running\" or \"a boy is running\".===Adjectives===There are two types of regular Latin adjectives: first- and second-declension and third-declension.", "They are so-called because their forms are similar or identical to first- and second-declension and third-declension nouns, respectively.", "Latin adjectives also have comparative and superlative forms.", "There are also a number of Latin participles.Latin numbers are sometimes declined as adjectives.", "See ''Numbers'' below.First- and second-declension adjectives are declined like first-declension nouns for the feminine forms and like second-declension nouns for the masculine and neuter forms.", "For example, for (dead), is declined like a regular first-declension noun (such as (girl)), is declined like a regular second-declension masculine noun (such as (lord, master)), and is declined like a regular second-declension neuter noun (such as (help)).Third-declension adjectives are mostly declined like normal third-declension nouns, with a few exceptions.", "In the plural nominative neuter, for example, the ending is ''-ia'' ( (all, everything)), and for third-declension nouns, the plural nominative neuter ending is ''-a'' or ''-ia'' ( (heads), (animals)) They can have one, two or three forms for the masculine, feminine, and neuter nominative singular.====Participles====Latin participles, like English participles, are formed from a verb.", "There are a few main types of participles: Present Active Participles, Perfect Passive Participles, Future Active Participles, and Future Passive Participles.===Prepositions===Latin sometimes uses prepositions, depending on the type of prepositional phrase being used.", "Most prepositions are followed by a noun in either the accusative or ablative case: \"apud puerum\" (with the boy), with \"puerum\" being the accusative form of \"puer\", boy, and \"sine puero\" (without the boy), \"puero\" being the ablative form of \"puer\".", "A few adpositions, however, govern a noun in the genitive (such as \"gratia\" and \"tenus\").===Verbs===A regular verb in Latin belongs to one of four main conjugations.", "A conjugation is \"a class of verbs with similar inflected forms.\"", "The conjugations are identified by the last letter of the verb's present stem.", "The present stem can be found by omitting the - (- in deponent verbs) ending from the present infinitive form.", "The infinitive of the first conjugation ends in or (active and passive respectively): , \"to love\", , \"to exhort\"; of the second conjugation by or : , \"to warn\", , \"to fear;\" of the third conjugation by , : , \"to lead\", , \"to use\"; of the fourth by , : , \"to hear\", , \"to attempt\".", "The stem categories descend from Indo-European and can therefore be compared to similar conjugations in other Indo-European languages.Irregular verbs are verbs that do not follow the regular conjugations in the formation of the inflected form.", "Irregular verbs in Latin are ''esse'', \"to be\"; ''velle'', \"to want\"; ''ferre'', \"to carry\"; ''edere'', \"to eat\"; ''dare'', \"to give\"; ''ire'', \"to go\"; ''posse'', \"to be able\"; ''fieri'', \"to happen\"; and their compounds.There are six general tenses in Latin (present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect and future perfect), three moods (indicative, imperative and subjunctive, in addition to the infinitive, participle, gerund, gerundive and supine), three persons (first, second and third), two numbers (singular and plural), two voices (active and passive) and two aspects (perfective and imperfective).", "Verbs are described by four principal parts:# The first principal part is the first-person singular, present tense, active voice, indicative mood form of the verb.", "If the verb is impersonal, the first principal part will be in the third-person singular.# The second principal part is the present active infinitive.# The third principal part is the first-person singular, perfect active indicative form.", "Like the first principal part, if the verb is impersonal, the third principal part will be in the third-person singular.# The fourth principal part is the supine form, or alternatively, the nominative singular of the perfect passive participle form of the verb.", "The fourth principal part can show one gender of the participle or all three genders (-''us ''for masculine, -''a'' for feminine and -''um'' for neuter) in the nominative singular.", "The fourth principal part will be the future participle if the verb cannot be made passive.", "Most modern Latin dictionaries, if they show only one gender, tend to show the masculine; but many older dictionaries instead show the neuter, as it coincides with the supine.", "The fourth principal part is sometimes omitted for intransitive verbs, but strictly in Latin, they can be made passive if they are used impersonally, and the supine exists for such verbs.The six tenses of Latin are divided into two tense systems: the present system, which is made up of the present, imperfect and future tenses, and the perfect system, which is made up of the perfect, pluperfect and future perfect tenses.", "Each tense has a set of endings corresponding to the person, number, and voice of the subject.", "Subject (nominative) pronouns are generally omitted for the first (''I, we'') and second (''you'') persons except for emphasis.The table below displays the common inflected endings for the indicative mood in the active voice in all six tenses.", "For the future tense, the first listed endings are for the first and second conjugations, and the second listed endings are for the third and fourth conjugations:Tense Singular Plural 1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person 1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person Present -ō/m -s -t -mus -tis -nt Future -bō, -am -bis, -ēs -bit, -et -bimus, -ēmus -bitis, -ētis -bunt, -ent Imperfect -bam -bās -bat -bāmus -bātis -bant Perfect -ī -istī -it -imus -istis -ērunt Future Perfect -erō -eris/erīs -erit -erimus/-erīmus -eritis/-erītis -erint Pluperfect -eram -erās -erat -erāmus -erātis -erant====Deponent verbs====Some Latin verbs are deponent, causing their forms to be in the passive voice but retain an active meaning: ''hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum'' (to urge)." ], [ "Vocabulary", "As Latin is an Italic language, most of its vocabulary is likewise Italic, ultimately from the ancestral Proto-Indo-European language.", "However, because of close cultural interaction, the Romans not only adapted the Etruscan alphabet to form the Latin alphabet but also borrowed some Etruscan words into their language, including \"mask\" and \"actor\".", "Latin also included vocabulary borrowed from Oscan, another Italic language.After the Fall of Tarentum (272 BC), the Romans began Hellenising, or adopting features of Greek culture, including the borrowing of Greek words, such as (vaulted roof), (symbol), and (bath).", "This Hellenisation led to the addition of \"Y\" and \"Z\" to the alphabet to represent Greek sounds.", "Subsequently, the Romans transplanted Greek art, medicine, science and philosophy to Italy, paying almost any price to entice Greek skilled and educated persons to Rome and sending their youth to be educated in Greece.", "Thus, many Latin scientific and philosophical words were Greek loanwords or had their meanings expanded by association with Greek words, as (craft) and τέχνη (art).Because of the Roman Empire's expansion and subsequent trade with outlying European tribes, the Romans borrowed some northern and central European words, such as (beaver), of Germanic origin, and (breeches), of Celtic origin.", "The specific dialects of Latin across Latin-speaking regions of the former Roman Empire after its fall were influenced by languages specific to the regions.", "The dialects of Latin evolved into different Romance languages.During and after the adoption of Christianity into Roman society, Christian vocabulary became a part of the language, either from Greek or Hebrew borrowings or as Latin neologisms.", "Continuing into the Middle Ages, Latin incorporated many more words from surrounding languages, including Old English and other Germanic languages.Over the ages, Latin-speaking populations produced new adjectives, nouns, and verbs by affixing or compounding meaningful segments.", "For example, the compound adjective, , \"all-powerful\", was produced from the adjectives , \"all\", and , \"powerful\", by dropping the final ''s'' of and concatenating.", "Often, the concatenation changed the part of speech, and nouns were produced from verb segments or verbs from nouns and adjectives." ], [ "Conversational phrases", "The phrases are here written with macrons, from which it is easy to calculate where stress is placed.", "* to one person / to more than one person – hello* to one person / to more than one person – greetings. ''''", "is a loanword from Carthaginian and it may be spelled without the H, as in the prayer '''' (Hail Mary)* to one person / to more than one person – goodbye* – take care* , – how are you?", "* – good, I'm fine* – bad, I'm not good* – please* – please (idiomatic, the literal meaning is ''I will love you'')* – you're welcome* Latin has no words that truly translate ''yes'' or ''no'', so it is usual to just repeat the core point of the question (usually the verb), but one may also use the following adverbs as well: , , , , – All meaning ''yes'', but also more literally ''it is so'', ''indeed'' – not at all* – thank you, in singular (use '''' instead of '''' for the plural)* , – thank you very much* – how old are you?", "* – I am XX years old* – where is the toilet?", "* – do you speak ...?", "(singular and plural).", "This is then followed by an adverb of the language, some of which are listed below:** (Latin), (Greek), (English), (German), (Italian), (French), (Russian), (Spanish), (Portuguese), (Romanian), (Chinese), (Japanese), (Hebrew), (Arabic), (Hindi)* / – I love you" ], [ "Numbers", "In ancient times, numbers in Latin were written only with letters.", "Today, the numbers can be written with the Arabic numbers as well as with Roman numerals.", "The numbers 1, 2 and 3 and every whole hundred from 200 to 900 are declined as nouns and adjectives, with some differences.", "(masculine, feminine, neuter) I one (m., f., n.) II two (m./f., n.) III three IIII or IV four V five VI six VII seven IIX or VIII eight VIIII or IX nine X ten L fifty C one hundred (m., f., n.) D five hundred M one thousandThe numbers from 4 to 100 do not change their endings.", "As in modern descendants such as Spanish, the gender for naming a number in isolation is masculine, so that \"1, 2, 3\" is counted as ." ], [ "Example text", ", also called (''The Gallic War''), written by Gaius Julius Caesar, begins with the following passage:The same text may be marked for all long vowels (before any possible elisions at word boundary) with apices over vowel letters, including customarily before \"nf\" and \"ns\" where a long vowel is automatically produced:" ], [ "See also", "* Accademia Vivarium Novum* Botanical Latin* Classical compound* Contemporary Latin* Greek and Latin roots in English* Hybrid word* International Roman Law Moot Court* Latin grammar* Latin mnemonics* Latin obscenity* Latin school* Latino sine flexione (Latin without Inflections)* List of Greek and Latin roots in English* List of Latin abbreviations* List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names* List of Latin phrases* List of Latin translations of modern literature* List of Latin words with English derivatives* List of Latinised names* Lorem ipsum* Romanization (cultural)* Toponymy* Vulgar Latin" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", "===Language tools=== Searches Lewis & Short's ''A Latin Dictionary'' and Lewis's ''An Elementary Latin Dictionary''.", "Online results.", "* Search on line Latin-English and English-Latin dictionary with complete declension or conjugation.", "Online results.", "* Identifies the grammatical functions of words entered.", "Online results.", "* Identifies the grammatical functions of all the words in sentences entered, using Perseus.", "* Displays complete conjugations of verbs entered in first-person present singular form.", "* Displays conjugation of verbs entered in their infinitive form.", "* Identifies Latin words entered.", "Translates English words entered.", "* Combines Whittakers Words, Lewis and Short, Bennett's grammar and inflection tables in a browser addon.", "* * * \" Collatinus web\".", "Online lemmatizer and morphological analysis for Latin texts.===Courses===* Latin Lessons (free online through the Linguistics Research Center at UT Austin)* Free 47-Lesson Online Latin Course, Learnlangs* Learn Latin Grammar, vocabulary and audio* Latin Links and Resources, Compiled by Fr.", "Gary Coulter* * (a course in ecclesiastical Latin).", "* * Beginners' Latin on The National Archives (United Kingdom)===Grammar and study===* * * * * * ===Phonetics===* * * ===Libraries===* The latin library, ancient Latin books and writings (without translations) ordered by author* LacusCurtius, a small collection of Greek and Roman authors along with their books and writings (original texts are in Latin and Greek, translations in English and occasionally in a few other languages are available)===Latin language media===* Ephemeris, online Latin newspaper: = news in Latin of the universe (whole world)* Ephemeris archive, archived copy of online Latin newspaper* Nuntii Latini, from Finnish YLE Radio 1* Nuntii Latini, monthly review from German Radio Bremen (Bremen Zwei)* Classics Podcasts in Latin and Ancient Greek, Haverford College* Grex Latine Loquentium (Flock of those Speaking Latin)* Circulus Latinus Interretialis (Internet Latin Circle)* Latinitas Foundation, at the Vatican" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "LiveScript (programming language)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''LiveScript''' is a functional programming language that transpiles to JavaScript.", "It was created by Jeremy Ashkenas—the creator of CoffeeScript—along with Satoshi Muramaki, George Zahariev, and many others.", "(The name may be an homage to the beta name of JavaScript; for a few months in 1995, it was called LiveScript before the official release.)" ], [ "Syntax", "LiveScript is an indirect descendant of CoffeeScript.", "The following \"Hello, World!\"", "program is written in LiveScript, but is also compatible with Coffeescript:hello = -> console.log 'hello, world!", "'While calling a function can be done with empty parens, hello(), LiveScript treats the exclamation mark as a single-character shorthand for function calls with zero arguments: hello!LiveScript introduces a number of other incompatible idioms:=== Name mangling ===At compile time, the LiveScript parser implicitly converts kebab case (dashed variables and function names) to camel case.hello-world = -> console.log 'Hello, World!", "'With this definition, both the following calls are valid.", "However, calling using the same dashed syntax is recommended.hello-world!helloWorld!This does not preclude developers from using camel case explicitly or using snake case.", "Dashed naming is however, common in idiomatic LiveScript=== Pipes ===Like a number of other functional programming languages such as F# and Elixir, LiveScript supports the pipe operator, \|> which passes the result of the expression on the left of the operator as an argument to the expression on the right of it.", "Note that in F# the argument passed is the last argument, while in Elixir it is the first.\"hello!\"", "\|> capitalize \|> console.log# > Hello!=== Operators as functions ===When parenthesized, operators such as not or + can be included in pipelines or called as if they were functions.111 \|> (+) 222# > 333(+) 1 2# > 3" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Local area network" ], [ "Introduction", "A conceptual diagram of a local area network using bus network topologyA '''local area network''' ('''LAN''') is a computer network that interconnects computers within a limited area such as a residence, school, laboratory, university campus or office building.", "By contrast, a wide area network (WAN) not only covers a larger geographic distance, but also generally involves leased telecommunication circuits.Ethernet and Wi-Fi are the two most common technologies in use for local area networks.", "Historical network technologies include ARCNET, Token Ring and AppleTalk." ], [ "History", "The increasing demand and usage of computers in universities and research labs in the late 1960s generated the need to provide high-speed interconnections between computer systems.", "A 1970 report from the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory detailing the growth of their \"Octopus\" network gave a good indication of the situation.A number of experimental and early commercial LAN technologies were developed in the 1970s.", "Ethernet was developed at Xerox PARC between 1973 and 1974.Cambridge Ring was developed at Cambridge University starting in 1974.ARCNET was developed by Datapoint Corporation in 1976 and announced in 1977.It had the first commercial installation in December 1977 at Chase Manhattan Bank in New York.", "In 1979, the Electronic voting systems for the European Parliament was the first installation of a LAN connecting hundreds (420) of microprocessor-controlled voting terminals to a polling/selecting central unit with a multidrop bus with Master/slave (technology) arbitration.The development and proliferation of personal computers using the CP/M operating system in the late 1970s, and later DOS-based systems starting in 1981, meant that many sites grew to dozens or even hundreds of computers.", "The initial driving force for networking was to share storage and printers, both of which were expensive at the time.", "There was much enthusiasm for the concept, and for several years, from about 1983 onward, computer industry pundits habitually declared the coming year to be, \"The year of the LAN\".In practice, the concept was marred by the proliferation of incompatible physical layer and network protocol implementations, and a plethora of methods of sharing resources.", "Typically, each vendor would have its own type of network card, cabling, protocol, and network operating system.", "A solution appeared with the advent of Novell NetWare which provided even-handed support for dozens of competing card and cable types, and a much more sophisticated operating system than most of its competitors.Of the competitors to NetWare, only Banyan Vines had comparable technical strengths, but Banyan never gained a secure base.", "3Com produced 3+Share and Microsoft produced MS-Net.", "These then formed the basis for collaboration between Microsoft and 3Com to create a simple network operating system LAN Manager and its cousin, IBM's LAN Server.", "None of these enjoyed any lasting success; Netware dominated the personal computer LAN business from early after its introduction in 1983 until the mid-1990s when Microsoft introduced Windows NT.In 1983, TCP/IP was first shown capable of supporting actual defense department applications on a Defense Communication Agency LAN testbed located at Reston, Virginia.", "The TCP/IP-based LAN successfully supported Telnet, FTP, and a Defense Department teleconferencing application.", "This demonstrated the feasibility of employing TCP/IP LANs to interconnect Worldwide Military Command and Control System (WWMCCS) computers at command centers throughout the United States.", "However, WWMCCS was superseded by the Global Command and Control System (GCCS) before that could happen.During the same period, Unix workstations were using TCP/IP networking.", "Although the workstation market segment is now much reduced, the technologies developed in the area continue to be influential on the Internet and in all forms of networking—and the TCP/IP protocol has replaced IPX, AppleTalk, NBF, and other protocols used by the early PC LANs.Econet was Acorn Computers's low-cost local area network system, intended for use by schools and small businesses.", "It was first developed for the Acorn Atom and Acorn System 2/3/4 computers in 1981.In the 1980s, several token ring network implementations for LANs were developed.", "IBM released their own implementation of token ring in 1985, It ran at .", "IBM claimed that their token ring systems were superior to Ethernet, especially under load, but these claims were debated.", "IBM's implementation of token ring was the basis of the IEEE 802.5 standard.", "A 16 Mbit/s version of Token Ring was standardized by the 802.5 working group in 1989.IBM had market dominance over Token Ring, for example, in 1990, IBM equipment was the most widely used for Token Ring networks.Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), a LAN standard, was considered an attractive campus backbone network technology in the early to mid 1990s since existing Ethernet networks only offered 10 Mbit/s data rates and Token Ring networks only offered 4 Mbit/s or 16 Mbit/s rates.", "Thus it was a relatively high-speed choice of that era, with speeds such as 100 Mbit/s.By 1994, vendors included Cisco Systems, National Semiconductor, Network Peripherals, SysKonnect (acquired by Marvell Technology Group), and 3Com.", "FDDI installations have largely been replaced by Ethernet deployments." ], [ "Cabling", "Twisted pair LAN cableIn 1979, the Electronic voting systems for the European Parliament was using 10 kilometers of simple unshielded twisted pair category 3 cable—the same cable used for telephone systems—installed inside the benches of the European Parliament Hemicycles in Strasbourg and Luxembourg.Early Ethernet (10BASE-5 and 10BASE-2) used coaxial cable.", "Shielded twisted pair was used in IBM's Token Ring LAN implementation.", "In 1984, StarLAN showed the potential of simple unshielded twisted pair by using category 3 cable—the same cable used for telephone systems.", "This led to the development of 10BASE-T (and its twisted-pair successors) and structured cabling which is still the basis of most commercial LANs today.While optical fiber cable is common for links between network switches, use of fiber to the desktop is rare." ], [ "Wireless media", "In a wireless LAN, users have unrestricted movement within the coverage area.", "Wireless networks have become popular in residences and small businesses, because of their ease of installation.", "Most wireless LANs use Wi-Fi as wireless adapters are typically integrated into smartphones, tablet computers and laptops.", "Guests are often offered Internet access via a hotspot service." ], [ "Technical aspects", "Network topology describes the layout of interconnections between devices and network segments.", "At the data link layer and physical layer, a wide variety of LAN topologies have been used, including ring, bus, mesh and star.Simple LANs generally consist of cabling and one or more switches.", "A switch can be connected to a router, cable modem, or ADSL modem for Internet access.", "A LAN can include a wide variety of other network devices such as firewalls, load balancers, and network intrusion detection.", "Advanced LANs are characterized by their use of redundant links with switches using the spanning tree protocol to prevent loops, their ability to manage differing traffic types via quality of service (QoS), and their ability to segregate traffic with VLANs.At the higher network layers, protocols such as NetBIOS, IPX/SPX, AppleTalk and others were once common, but the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) has prevailed as the standard of choice.LANs can maintain connections with other LANs via leased lines, leased services, or across the Internet using virtual private network technologies.", "Depending on how the connections are established and secured, and the distance involved, such linked LANs may also be classified as a metropolitan area network (MAN) or a wide area network (WAN)." ], [ "See also", "* LAN messenger* LAN party* Network interface controller" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Louis Pasteur" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Louis Pasteur''' (, ; 27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895) was a French chemist, pharmacist, and microbiologist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation, and pasteurization, the last of which was named after him.", "His research in chemistry led to remarkable breakthroughs in the understanding of the causes and preventions of diseases, which laid down the foundations of hygiene, public health and much of modern medicine.", "Pasteur's works are credited with saving millions of lives through the developments of vaccines for rabies and anthrax.", "He is regarded as one of the founders of modern bacteriology and has been honored as the \"father of bacteriology\" and the \"father of microbiology\" (together with Robert Koch; the latter epithet also attributed to Antonie van Leeuwenhoek).Pasteur was responsible for disproving the doctrine of spontaneous generation.", "Under the auspices of the French Academy of Sciences, his experiment demonstrated that in sterilized and sealed flasks, nothing ever developed; conversely, in sterilized but open flasks, microorganisms could grow.", "For this experiment, the academy awarded him the Alhumbert Prize carrying 2,500 francs in 1862.Pasteur is also regarded as one of the fathers of germ theory of diseases, which was a minor medical concept at the time.", "His many experiments showed that diseases could be prevented by killing or stopping germs, thereby directly supporting the germ theory and its application in clinical medicine.", "He is best known to the general public for his invention of the technique of treating milk and wine to stop bacterial contamination, a process now called pasteurization.", "Pasteur also made significant discoveries in chemistry, most notably on the molecular basis for the asymmetry of certain crystals and racemization.", "Early in his career, his investigation of sodium ammonium tartrate initiated the field of optical isomerism.", "This work had a profound effect on structural chemistry, with eventual implications for many areas including medicinal chemistry.He was the director of the Pasteur Institute, established in 1887, until his death, and his body was interred in a vault beneath the institute.", "Although Pasteur made groundbreaking experiments, his reputation became associated with various controversies.", "Historical reassessment of his notebook revealed that he practiced deception to overcome his rivals." ], [ "Education and early life", "DoleLouis Pasteur was born on 27 December 1822, in Dole, Jura, France, to a Catholic family of a poor tanner.", "He was the third child of Jean-Joseph Pasteur and Jeanne-Etiennette Roqui.", "The family moved to Marnoz in 1826 and then to Arbois in 1827.Pasteur entered primary school in 1831.He was dyslexic and dysgraphic.He was an average student in his early years, and not particularly academic, as his interests were fishing and sketching.", "He drew many pastels and portraits of his parents, friends and neighbors.", "Pasteur attended secondary school at the Collège d'Arbois.", "In October 1838, he left for Paris to enroll in a boarding school, but became homesick and returned in November.In 1839, he entered the Collège Royal at Besançon to study philosophy and earned his Bachelor of Letters degree in 1840.He was appointed a tutor at the Besançon college while continuing a degree science course with special mathematics.", "He failed his first examination in 1841.He managed to pass the ''baccalauréat scientifique'' (general science) degree from Dijon, where he earned his Bachelor of Science in Mathematics degree (Bachelier ès Sciences Mathématiques) in 1842, but with a mediocre grade in chemistry.Later in 1842, Pasteur took the entrance test for the École Normale Supérieure.", "During the test, he had to fight fatigue and only felt comfortable with physics and mathematics.", "He passed the first set of tests, but because his ranking was low, Pasteur decided not to continue and try again next year.", "He went back to the Parisian boarding school to prepare for the test.", "He also attended classes at the Lycée Saint-Louis and lectures of Jean-Baptiste Dumas at the Sorbonne.", "In 1843, he passed the test with a high ranking and entered the École Normale Supérieure.", "In 1845 he received the ''licencié ès sciences'' degree.", "In 1846, he was appointed professor of physics at the Collège de Tournon (now called Lycée Gabriel-Faure) in Ardèche.", "But the chemist Antoine Jérôme Balard wanted him back at the ''École Normale Supérieure'' as a graduate laboratory assistant (''agrégé préparateur'').", "He joined Balard and simultaneously started his research in crystallography and in 1847, he submitted his two theses, one in chemistry and the other in physics: (a) Chemistry Thesis: \"Recherches sur la capacité de saturation de l'acide arsénieux.", "Etudes des arsénites de potasse, de soude et d'ammoniaque.", "\"; (b) Physics Thesis: \"1.Études des phénomènes relatifs à la polarisation rotatoire des liquides.", "2.Application de la polarisation rotatoire des liquides à la solution de diverses questions de chimie.", "\"After serving briefly as professor of physics at the Dijon Lycée in 1848, he became professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg, where he met and courted Marie Laurent, daughter of the university's rector in 1849.They were married on 29 May 1849, and together had five children, only two of whom survived to adulthood; the other three died of typhoid." ], [ "Career", "Louis Pasteur, French biologist and chemist, 1878, by A GerschelPasteur was appointed professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg in 1848, and became the chair of chemistry in 1852.In February 1854, so that he would have time to carry out work that could earn him the title of correspondent of the Institute, he got three months' paid leave with the help of a medical certificate of convenience.", "He extended the leave until 1 August, the date of the start of the exams.", "\"I tell the Minister that I will go and do the examinations so as not to increase the embarrassment of the service.", "It is also so as not to leave to another a sum of 6 or 700 francs\".In this same year 1854, he was named dean of the new faculty of sciences at University of Lille, where he began his studies on fermentation.", "It was on this occasion that Pasteur uttered his oft-quoted remark: \"''dans les champs de l'observation, le hasard ne favorise que les esprits préparés''\" (\"In the field of observation, chance favors only the prepared mind\").In 1857, he moved to Paris as the director of scientific studies at the ''École Normale Supérieure'' where he took control from 1858 to 1867 and introduced a series of reforms to improve the standard of scientific work.", "The examinations became more rigid, which led to better results, greater competition, and increased prestige.", "Many of his decrees, however, were rigid and authoritarian, leading to two serious student revolts.", "During \"the bean revolt\" he decreed that a mutton stew, which students had refused to eat, would be served and eaten every Monday.", "On another occasion he threatened to expel any student caught smoking, and 73 of the 80 students in the school resigned.In 1863, he was appointed professor of geology, physics, and chemistry at the ''École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts'', a position he held until his resignation in 1867.In 1867, he became the chair of organic chemistry at the Sorbonne, but he later gave up the position because of poor health.", "In 1867, the École Normale's laboratory of physiological chemistry was created at Pasteur's request, and he was the laboratory's director from 1867 to 1888.In Paris, he established the Pasteur Institute in 1887, in which he was its director for the rest of his life." ], [ "Research", "=== Molecular asymmetry ===Pasteur separated the left and right crystal shapes from each other to form two piles of crystals: in solution one form rotated light to the left, the other to the right, while an equal mixture of the two forms canceled each other's effect, and does not rotate the polarized light.In Pasteur's early work as a chemist, beginning at the ''École Normale Supérieure'', and continuing at Strasbourg and Lille, he examined the chemical, optical and crystallographic properties of a group of compounds known as tartrates.He resolved a problem concerning the nature of tartaric acid in 1848.A solution of this compound derived from living things rotated the plane of polarization of light passing through it.", "The problem was that tartaric acid derived by chemical synthesis had no such effect, even though its chemical reactions were identical and its elemental composition was the same.Pasteur noticed that crystals of tartrates had small faces.", "Then he observed that, in racemic mixtures of tartrates, half of the crystals were right-handed and half were left-handed.", "In solution, the right-handed compound was dextrorotatory, and the left-handed one was levorotatory.", "Pasteur determined that optical activity related to the shape of the crystals, and that an asymmetric internal arrangement of the molecules of the compound was responsible for twisting the light.", "The (2''R'',3''R'')- and (2''S'',3''S'')- tartrates were isometric, non-superposable mirror images of each other.", "This was the first time anyone had demonstrated molecular chirality, and also the first explanation of isomerism.Some historians consider Pasteur's work in this area to be his \"most profound and most original contributions to science\", and his \"greatest scientific discovery.", "\"=== Fermentation and germ theory of diseases ===Pasteur was motivated to investigate fermentation while working at Lille.", "In 1856 a local wine manufacturer, M. Bigot, whose son was one of Pasteur's students, sought for his advice on the problems of making beetroot alcohol and souring.", "Pasteur began his research in the topic by repeating and confirming works of Theodor Schwann, who demonstrated a decade earlier that yeast were alive.According to his son-in-law, René Vallery-Radot, in August 1857 Pasteur sent a paper about lactic acid fermentation to the Société des Sciences de Lille, but the paper was read three months later.", "A memoire was subsequently published on 30 November 1857.In the memoir, he developed his ideas stating that: \"I intend to establish that, just as there is an alcoholic ferment, the yeast of beer, which is found everywhere that sugar is decomposed into alcohol and carbonic acid, so also there is a particular ferment, a lactic yeast, always present when sugar becomes lactic acid.", "\"Pasteur also wrote about alcoholic fermentation.", "It was published in full form in 1858.Jöns Jacob Berzelius and Justus von Liebig had proposed the theory that fermentation was caused by decomposition.", "Pasteur demonstrated that this theory was incorrect, and that yeast was responsible for fermentation to produce alcohol from sugar.", "He also demonstrated that, when a different microorganism contaminated the wine, lactic acid was produced, making the wine sour.", "In 1861, Pasteur observed that less sugar fermented per part of yeast when the yeast was exposed to air.", "The lower rate of fermentation aerobically became known as the Pasteur effect.Pasteur experimenting in his laboratoryInstitut Pasteur de LillePasteur's research also showed that the growth of micro-organisms was responsible for spoiling beverages, such as beer, wine and milk.", "With this established, he invented a process in which liquids such as milk were heated to a temperature between 60 and 100 °C.", "This killed most bacteria and moulds already present within them.", "Pasteur and Claude Bernard completed tests on blood and urine on 20 April 1862.Pasteur patented the process, to fight the \"diseases\" of wine, in 1865.The method became known as pasteurization, and was soon applied to beer and milk.Beverage contamination led Pasteur to the idea that micro-organisms infecting animals and humans cause disease.", "He proposed preventing the entry of micro-organisms into the human body, leading Joseph Lister to develop antiseptic methods in surgery.In 1866, Pasteur published ''Etudes sur le Vin'', about the diseases of wine, and he published ''Etudes sur la Bière'' in 1876, concerning the diseases of beer.In the early 19th century, Agostino Bassi had shown that muscardine was caused by a fungus that infected silkworms.", "Since 1853, two diseases called ''pébrine'' and ''flacherie'' had been infecting great numbers of silkworms in southern France, and by 1865 they were causing huge losses to farmers.", "In 1865, Pasteur went to Alès and worked for five years until 1870.Silkworms with pébrine were covered in corpuscles.", "In the first three years, Pasteur thought that the corpuscles were a symptom of the disease.", "In 1870, he concluded that the corpuscles were the cause of pébrine (it is now known that the cause is a microsporidian).", "Pasteur also showed that the disease was hereditary.", "Pasteur developed a system to prevent pébrine: after the female moths laid their eggs, the moths were turned into a pulp.", "The pulp was examined with a microscope, and if corpuscles were observed, the eggs were destroyed.", "Pasteur concluded that bacteria caused flacherie.", "The primary cause is currently thought to be viruses.", "The spread of flacherie could be accidental or hereditary.", "Hygiene could be used to prevent accidental flacherie.", "Moths whose digestive cavities did not contain the microorganisms causing flacherie were used to lay eggs, preventing hereditary flacherie.=== Spontaneous generation ===swan-neck bottle) used by PasteurLouis Pasteur's pasteurization experiment illustrates the fact that the spoilage of liquid was caused by particles in the air rather than the air itself.", "These experiments were important pieces of evidence supporting the germ theory of disease.Following his fermentation experiments, Pasteur demonstrated that the skin of grapes was the natural source of yeasts, and that sterilized grapes and grape juice never fermented.", "He drew grape juice from under the skin with sterilized needles, and also covered grapes with sterilized cloth.", "Both experiments could not produce wine in sterilized containers.His findings and ideas were against the prevailing notion of spontaneous generation.", "He received a particularly stern criticism from Félix Archimède Pouchet, who was director of the Rouen Museum of Natural History.", "To settle the debate between the eminent scientists, the French Academy of Sciences offered the Alhumbert Prize carrying 2,500 francs to whoever could experimentally demonstrate for or against the doctrine.Pouchet stated that air everywhere could cause spontaneous generation of living organisms in liquids.", "In the late 1850s, he performed experiments and claimed that they were evidence of spontaneous generation.", "Francesco Redi and Lazzaro Spallanzani had provided some evidence against spontaneous generation in the 17th and 18th centuries, respectively.", "Spallanzani's experiments in 1765 suggested that air contaminated broths with bacteria.", "In the 1860s, Pasteur repeated Spallanzani's experiments, but Pouchet reported a different result using a different broth.Pasteur performed several experiments to disprove spontaneous generation.", "He placed boiled liquid in a flask and let hot air enter the flask.", "Then he closed the flask, and no organisms grew in it.", "In another experiment, when he opened flasks containing boiled liquid, dust entered the flasks, causing organisms to grow in some of them.", "The number of flasks in which organisms grew was lower at higher altitudes, showing that air at high altitudes contained less dust and fewer organisms.", "Pasteur also used swan neck flasks containing a fermentable liquid.", "Air was allowed to enter the flask via a long curving tube that made dust particles stick to it.", "Nothing grew in the broths unless the flasks were tilted, making the liquid touch the contaminated walls of the neck.", "This showed that the living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, on dust, rather than spontaneously generating within the liquid or from the action of pure air.These were some of the most important experiments disproving the theory of spontaneous generation.", "Pasteur gave a series of five presentations of his findings before the French Academy of Sciences in 1881, which were published in 1882 as ''Mémoire'' ''Sur les corpuscules organisés qui existent dans l'atmosphère: Examen de la doctrine des générations spontanées'' (''Account of Organized Corpuscles Existing in the Atmosphere: Examining the Doctrine of Spontaneous Generation'').", "Pasteur won the Alhumbert Prize in 1862.He concluded that:=== Silkworm disease ===In 1865, Jean-Baptiste Dumas, chemist, senator and former Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, asked Pasteur to study a new disease that was decimating silkworm farms from the south of France and Europe, the pébrine, characterized on a macroscopic scale by black spots and on a microscopic scale by the \"Cornalia corpuscles\".", "Pasteur accepted and made five long stays in Alès, between 7 June 1865 and 1869.==== Initial errors ====Arriving in Alès, Pasteur familiarized himself with pébrine and also with another disease of the silkworm, known earlier than pebrine: flacherie or dead-flat disease.", "Contrary, for example, to Quatrefages, who coined the new word ''pébrine'', Pasteur made the mistake of believing that the two diseases were the same and even that most of the diseases of silkworms known up to that time were identical with each other and with pébrine.", "It was in letters of 30 April and 21 May 1867 to Dumas that he first made the distinction between pébrine and flacherie.He made another mistake: he began by denying the \"parasitic\" (microbial) nature of pébrine, which several scholars (notably Antoine Béchamp) considered well established.", "Even a note published on 27 August 1866 by Balbiani, which Pasteur at first seemed to welcome favourably had no effect, at least immediately.", "\"Pasteur is mistaken.", "He would only change his mind in the course of 1867\".==== Victory over pébrine ====At a time where Pasteur had not yet understood the cause of the pébrine, he propagated an effective process to stop infections: a sample of chrysalises was chosen, they were crushed and the corpuscles were searched for in the crushed material; if the proportion of corpuscular pupae in the sample was very low, the chamber was considered good for reproduction.", "This method of sorting \"seeds\" (eggs) is close to a method that Osimo had proposed a few years earlier, but whose trials had not been conclusive.", "By this process, Pasteur curbs pébrine and saves many of the silk industry in the Cévennes.==== Flacherie resists ====In 1878, at the ''Congrès international séricicole'', Pasteur admitted that \"if pébrine is overcome, flacherie still exerts its ravages\".", "He attributed the persistence of flacherie to the fact that the farmers had not followed his advice.In 1884, Balbiani, who disregarded the theoretical value of Pasteur's work on silkworm diseases, acknowledged that his practical process had remedied the ravages of pébrine, but added that this result tended to be counterbalanced by the development of flacherie, which was less well known and more difficult to prevent.Despite Pasteur's success against pébrine, French sericulture had not been saved from damage.", "(See :fr:Sériciculture in the French Wikipedia.", ")=== Immunology and vaccination ======= Chicken cholera ====Pasteur's first work on vaccine development was on chicken cholera.", "He received the bacteria samples (later called ''Pasteurella multocida'' after him) from Henry Toussaint.", "He started the study in 1877, and by the next year, was able to maintain a stable culture using broths.", "After another year of continuous culturing, he found that the bacteria were less pathogenic.", "Some of his culture samples could no longer induce the disease in healthy chickens.", "In 1879, Pasteur, planning for holiday, instructed his assistant, Charles Chamberland to inoculate the chickens with fresh bacteria culture.", "Chamberland forgot and went on holiday himself.", "On his return, he injected the month-old cultures to healthy chickens.", "The chickens showed some symptoms of infection, but instead of the infections being fatal, as they usually were, the chickens recovered completely.", "Chamberland assumed an error had been made, and wanted to discard the apparently faulty culture, but Pasteur stopped him.", "Pasteur injected the freshly recovered chickens with fresh bacteria that normally would kill other chickens; the chickens no longer showed any sign of infection.", "It was clear to him that the weakened bacteria had caused the chickens to become immune to the disease.In December 1880, Pasteur presented his results to the French Academy of Sciences as \"''Sur les maladies virulentes et en particulier sur la maladie appelée vulgairement choléra des poules'' (On virulent diseases, and in particular on the disease commonly called chicken cholera)\" and published it in the academy's journal (''Comptes-Rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des Sciences'').", "He attributed that the bacteria were weakened by contact with oxygen.", "He explained that bacteria kept in sealed containers never lost their virulence, and only those exposed to air in culture media could be used as vaccine.", "Pasteur introduced the term \"attenuation\" for this weakening of virulence as he presented before the academy, saying:In fact, Pasteur's vaccine against chicken cholera was not regular in its effects and was a failure.==== Anthrax ====In the 1870s, he applied this immunization method to anthrax, which affected cattle, and aroused interest in combating other diseases.", "Pasteur cultivated bacteria from the blood of animals infected with anthrax.", "When he inoculated animals with the bacteria, anthrax occurred, proving that the bacteria was the cause of the disease.", "Many cattle were dying of anthrax in \"cursed fields\".", "Pasteur was told that sheep that died from anthrax were buried in the field.", "Pasteur thought that earthworms might have brought the bacteria to the surface.", "He found anthrax bacteria in earthworms' excrement, showing that he was correct.", "He told the farmers not to bury dead animals in the fields.", "Pasteur had been trying to develop the anthrax vaccine since 1877, soon after Robert Koch's discovery of the bacterium.A.", "Edelfeldt in 1885On 12 July 1880, Henri Bouley read before the French Academy of Sciences a report from Henry Toussaint, a veterinary surgeon, who was not member of the academy.", "Toussaint had developed anthrax vaccine by killing the bacilli by heating at 55 °C for 10 minutes.", "He tested on eight dogs and 11 sheep, half of which died after inoculation.", "It was not a great success.", "Upon hearing the news, Pasteur immediately wrote to the academy that he could not believe that dead vaccine would work and that Toussaint's claim \"overturns all the ideas I had on viruses, vaccines, etc.\"", "Following Pasteur's criticism, Toussaint switched to carbolic acid to kill anthrax bacilli and tested the vaccine on sheep in August 1880.Pasteur thought that this type of killed vaccine should not work because he believed that attenuated bacteria used up nutrients that the bacteria needed to grow.", "He thought oxidizing bacteria made them less virulent.But Pasteur found that anthrax bacillus was not easily weakened by culturing in air as it formed spores – unlike chicken cholera bacillus.", "In early 1881, he discovered that growing anthrax bacilli at about 42 °C made them unable to produce spores, and he described this method in a speech to the French Academy of Sciences on 28 February.", "On 21 March, he announced successful vaccination of sheep.", "To this news, veterinarian Hippolyte Rossignol proposed that the Société d'agriculture de Melun organize an experiment to test Pasteur's vaccine.", "Pasteur signed agreement of the challenge on 28 April.", "A public experiment was conducted in May at Pouilly-le-Fort.", "58 sheep, 2 goats and 10 cattle were used, half of which were given the vaccine on 5 and 17 May; while the other half was untreated.", "All the animals were injected with the fresh virulent culture of anthrax bacillus on 31 May.", "The official result was observed and analysed on 2 June in the presence of over 200 spectators.", "All cattle survived, vaccinated or not.", "Pasteur had bravely predicted: \"I hypothesized that the six vaccinated cows would not become very ill, while the four unvaccinated cows would perish or at least become very ill.\" However, all vaccinated sheep and goats survived, while unvaccinated ones had died or were dying before the viewers.", "His report to the French Academy of Sciences on 13 June concludes:Pasteur did not directly disclose how he prepared the vaccines used at Pouilly-le-Fort.", "Although his report indicated it as a \"live vaccine\", his laboratory notebooks show that he actually used potassium dichromate-killed vaccine, as developed by Chamberland, quite similar to Toussaint's method.The notion of a weak form of a disease causing immunity to the virulent version was not new; this had been known for a long time for smallpox.", "Inoculation with smallpox (variolation) was known to result in a much less severe disease, and greatly reduced mortality, in comparison with the naturally acquired disease.", "Edward Jenner had also studied vaccination using cowpox (''vaccinia'') to give cross-immunity to smallpox in the late 1790s, and by the early 1800s vaccination had spread to most of Europe.The difference between smallpox vaccination and anthrax or chicken cholera vaccination was that the latter two disease organisms had been artificially weakened, so a naturally weak form of the disease organism did not need to be found.", "This discovery revolutionized work in infectious diseases, and Pasteur gave these artificially weakened diseases the generic name of \"vaccines\", in honour of Jenner's discovery.In 1876, Robert Koch had shown that ''Bacillus anthracis'' caused anthrax.", "In his papers published between 1878 and 1880, Pasteur only mentioned Koch's work in a footnote.", "Koch met Pasteur at the Seventh International Medical Congress in 1881.A few months later, Koch wrote that Pasteur had used impure cultures and made errors.", "In 1882, Pasteur replied to Koch in a speech, to which Koch responded aggressively.", "Koch stated that Pasteur tested his vaccine on unsuitable animals and that Pasteur's research was not properly scientific.", "In 1882, Koch wrote \"On the Anthrax Inoculation\", in which he refuted several of Pasteur's conclusions about anthrax and criticized Pasteur for keeping his methods secret, jumping to conclusions, and being imprecise.", "In 1883, Pasteur wrote that he used cultures prepared in a similar way to his successful fermentation experiments and that Koch misinterpreted statistics and ignored Pasteur's work on silkworms.==== Swine erysipelas ====In 1882, Pasteur sent his assistant Louis Thuillier to southern France because of an epizootic of swine erysipelas.", "Thuillier identified the bacillus that caused the disease in March 1883.Pasteur and Thuillier increased the bacillus's virulence after passing it through pigeons.", "Then they passed the bacillus through rabbits, weakening it and obtaining a vaccine.", "Pasteur and Thuillier incorrectly described the bacterium as a figure-eight shape.", "Roux described the bacterium as stick-shaped in 1884.==== Rabies ====Hydrophobia\", caricature of Pasteur in the London magazine ''Vanity Fair'', January 1887Pasteur produced the first vaccine for rabies by growing the virus in rabbits, and then weakening it by drying the affected nerve tissue.", "The rabies vaccine was initially created by Emile Roux, a French doctor and a colleague of Pasteur, who had produced a killed vaccine using this method.", "The vaccine had been tested in 50 dogs before its first human trial.", "This vaccine was used on 9-year-old Joseph Meister, on 6 July 1885, after the boy was badly mauled by a rabid dog.", "This was done at some personal risk for Pasteur, since he was not a licensed physician and could have faced prosecution for treating the boy.", "After consulting with physicians, he decided to go ahead with the treatment.", "Over 11 days, Meister received 13 inoculations, each inoculation using viruses that had been weakened for a shorter period of time.", "Three months later he examined Meister and found that he was in good health.", "Pasteur was hailed as a hero and the legal matter was not pursued.", "Analysis of his laboratory notebooks shows that Pasteur had treated two people before his vaccination of Meister.", "One survived but may not actually have had rabies, and the other died of rabies.", "Pasteur began treatment of Jean-Baptiste Jupille on 20 October 1885, and the treatment was successful.", "Later in 1885, people, including four children from the United States, went to Pasteur's laboratory to be inoculated.", "In 1886, he treated 350 people, of which only one developed rabies.", "The treatment's success laid the foundations for the manufacture of many other vaccines.", "The first of the Pasteur Institutes was also built on the basis of this achievement.In ''The Story of San Michele'', Axel Munthe writes of some risks Pasteur undertook in the rabies vaccine research:Because of his study in germs, Pasteur encouraged doctors to sanitize their hands and equipment before surgery.", "Prior to this, few doctors or their assistants practiced these procedures.", "Ignaz Semmelweis and Joseph Lister had earlier practiced hand sanitizing in medical contexts in the 1860s." ], [ "Controversies", "A French national hero at age 55, in 1878 Pasteur discreetly told his family to never reveal his laboratory notebooks to anyone.", "His family obeyed, and all his documents were held and inherited in secrecy.", "Finally, in 1964 Pasteur's grandson and last surviving male descendant, Pasteur Vallery-Radot, donated the papers to the French national library.", "Yet the papers were restricted for historical studies until the death of Vallery-Radot in 1971.The documents were given a catalogue number only in 1985.In 1995, the centennial of the death of Louis Pasteur, a historian of science Gerald L. Geison published an analysis of Pasteur's private notebooks in his ''The Private Science of Louis Pasteur'', and declared that Pasteur had given several misleading accounts and played deceptions in his most important discoveries.", "Max Perutz published a defense of Pasteur in ''The New York Review of Books''.", "Based on further examinations of Pasteur's documents, French immunologist Patrice Debré concluded in his book'' Louis Pasteur'' (1998) that, in spite of his genius, Pasteur had some faults.", "A book review states that Debré \"sometimes finds him unfair, combative, arrogant, unattractive in attitude, inflexible and even dogmatic\".=== Fermentation ===Scientists before Pasteur had studied fermentation.", "In the 1830s, Charles Cagniard-Latour, Friedrich Traugott Kützing and Theodor Schwann used microscopes to study yeasts and concluded that yeasts were living organisms.", "In 1839, Justus von Liebig, Friedrich Wöhler and Jöns Jacob Berzelius stated that yeast was not an organism and was produced when air acted on plant juice.In 1855, Antoine Béchamp, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Montpellier, conducted experiments with sucrose solutions and concluded that water was the factor for fermentation.", "He changed his conclusion in 1858, stating that fermentation was directly related to the growth of moulds, which required air for growth.", "He regarded himself as the first to show the role of microorganisms in fermentation.Pasteur started his experiments in 1857 and published his findings in 1858 (April issue of ''Comptes Rendus Chimie'', Béchamp's paper appeared in January issue).", "Béchamp noted that Pasteur did not bring any novel idea or experiments.", "On the other hand, Béchamp was probably aware of Pasteur's 1857 preliminary works.", "With both scientists claiming priority on the discovery, a dispute, extending to several areas, lasted throughout their lives.However, Béchamp was on the losing side, as the ''BMJ'' obituary remarked: His name was \"associated with bygone controversies as to priority which it would be unprofitable to recall\".", "Béchamp proposed the incorrect theory of microzymes.", "According to K. L. Manchester, anti-vivisectionists and proponents of alternative medicine promoted Béchamp and microzymes, unjustifiably claiming that Pasteur plagiarized Béchamp.Pasteur thought that succinic acid inverted sucrose.", "In 1860, Marcellin Berthelot isolated invertase and showed that succinic acid did not invert sucrose.", "Pasteur believed that fermentation was only due to living cells.", "He and Berthelot engaged in a long argument subject of vitalism, in which Berthelot was vehemently opposed to any idea of vitalism.", "Hans Buchner discovered that zymase (not an enzyme, but a mixture of enzymes) catalyzed fermentation, showing that fermentation was catalyzed by enzymes within cells.", "Eduard Buchner also discovered that fermentation could take place outside living cells.=== Anthrax vaccine ===Pasteur publicly claimed his success in developing the anthrax vaccine in 1881.However, his admirer-turned-rival Henry Toussaint was the one who developed the first vaccine.", "Toussaint isolated the bacteria that caused chicken cholera (later named ''Pasteurella'' in honour of Pasteur) in 1879 and gave samples to Pasteur who used them for his own works.", "On 12 July 1880, Toussaint presented his successful result to the French Academy of Sciences, using an attenuated vaccine against anthrax in dogs and sheep.", "Pasteur on grounds of jealousy contested the discovery by publicly displaying his vaccination method at Pouilly-le-Fort on 5 May 1881.Pasteur then gave a misleading account of the preparation of the anthrax vaccine used in the experiment.", "He claimed that he made a \"live vaccine\", but used potassium dichromate to inactivate anthrax spores, a method similar to Toussaint's.", "The promotional experiment was a success and helped Pasteur sell his products, getting the benefits and glory.=== Experimental ethics ===Pasteur's experiments are often cited as against medical ethics, especially on his vaccination of Meister.", "He did not have any experience in medical practice, and more importantly, lacked a medical license.", "This is often cited as a serious threat to his professional and personal reputation.", "His closest partner Émile Roux, who had medical qualifications, refused to participate in the clinical trial, likely because he considered it unjust.", "However, Pasteur executed vaccination of the boy under the close watch of practising physicians Jacques-Joseph Grancher, head of the Paris Children's Hospital's paediatric clinic, and Alfred Vulpian, a member of the Commission on Rabies.", "He was not allowed to hold the syringe, although the inoculations were entirely under his supervision.", "It was Grancher who was responsible for the injections, and he defended Pasteur before the French National Academy of Medicine in the issue.Pasteur has also been criticized for keeping secrecy of his procedure and not giving proper pre-clinical trials on animals.", "Pasteur stated that he kept his procedure secret in order to control its quality.", "He later disclosed his procedures to a small group of scientists.", "Pasteur wrote that he had successfully vaccinated 50 rabid dogs before using it on Meister.", "According to Geison, Pasteur's laboratory notebooks show that he had vaccinated only 11 dogs.Meister never showed any symptoms of rabies, but the vaccination has not been proved to be the reason.", "One source estimates the probability of Meister contracting rabies at 10%." ], [ "Awards and honours", "Pasteur was awarded 1,500 francs in 1853 by the Pharmaceutical Society for the synthesis of racemic acid.", "In 1856 the Royal Society of London presented him the Rumford Medal for his discovery of the nature of racemic acid and its relations to polarized light, and the Copley Medal in 1874 for his work on fermentation.", "He was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1869.The French Academy of Sciences awarded Pasteur the 1859 Montyon Prize for experimental physiology in 1860, and the Jecker Prize in 1861 and the Alhumbert Prize in 1862 for his experimental refutation of spontaneous generation.", "Though he lost elections in 1857 and 1861 for membership to the French Academy of Sciences, he won the 1862 election for membership to the mineralogy section.", "He was elected to permanent secretary of the physical science section of the academy in 1887 and held the position until 1889.In 1873, Pasteur was elected to the Académie Nationale de Médecine and was made the commander in the Brazilian Order of the Rose.", "In 1881 he was elected to a seat at the Académie française left vacant by Émile Littré.", "Pasteur received the Albert Medal from the Royal Society of Arts in 1882.In 1883 he became foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.", "In 1885, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society.", "On 8 June 1886, the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II awarded Pasteur with the Order of the Medjidie (I Class) and 10000 Ottoman liras.", "He was awarded the Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh in 1889.Pasteur won the Leeuwenhoek Medal from the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences for his contributions to microbiology in 1895.Pasteur was made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1853, promoted to Officer in 1863, to Commander in 1868, to Grand Officer in 1878 and made a Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor in 1881.Pasteur Street (''Đường Pasteur'') in Da Nang, Vietnam=== Legacy ===Vulitsya Pastera or Pasteur Street in Odesa, UkraineIn many localities worldwide, streets are named in his honor.", "For example, in the US: Palo Alto and Irvine, California, Boston and Polk, Florida, adjacent to the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio; Jonquière, Québec; San Salvador de Jujuy and Buenos Aires (Argentina), Great Yarmouth in Norfolk, in the United Kingdom, Jericho and Wulguru in Queensland, Australia; Phnom Penh in Cambodia; Ho Chi Minh City and Da Nang, Vietnam; Batna in Algeria; Bandung in Indonesia, Tehran in Iran, near the central campus of the Warsaw University in Warsaw, Poland; adjacent to the Odesa State Medical University in Odesa, Ukraine; Milan in Italy and Bucharest, Cluj-Napoca and Timișoara in Romania.", "The Avenue Pasteur in Saigon, Vietnam, is one of the few streets in that city to retain its French name.", "''Avenue Louis Pasteur'' in the Longwood Medical and Academic Area in Boston was named in his honor in the French manner with \"Avenue\" preceding the name of the dedicatee.Both the Institut Pasteur and Université Louis Pasteur were named after Pasteur.", "The schools Lycée Pasteur in Neuilly-sur-Seine, France, and Lycée Louis Pasteur in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, are named after him.", "In South Africa, the Louis Pasteur Private Hospital in Pretoria, and Life Louis Pasteur Private Hospital, Bloemfontein, are named after him.", "Louis Pasteur University Hospital in Košice, Slovakia is also named after Pasteur.Louis Pasteur University Hospital, Košice, Slovakia A statue of Pasteur is erected at San Rafael High School in San Rafael, California.", "A bronze bust of him resides on the French Campus of Kaiser Permanente's San Francisco Medical Center in San Francisco.", "The sculpture was designed by Harriet G. Moore and cast in 1984 by Artworks Foundry.The UNESCO/Institut Pasteur Medal was created on the centenary of Pasteur's death, and is given every two years in his name, \"in recognition of outstanding research contributing to a beneficial impact on human health\".The French Academician Henri Mondor stated: \"''Louis Pasteur was neither a physician nor a surgeon, but no one has done as much for medicine and surgery as he has''.", "\"=== Pasteur Institute ===After developing the rabies vaccine, Pasteur proposed an institute for the vaccine.", "In 1887, fundraising for the Pasteur Institute began, with donations from many countries.", "The official statute was registered in 1887, stating that the institute's purposes were \"the treatment of rabies according to the method developed by M. Pasteur\" and \"the study of virulent and contagious diseases\".", "The institute was inaugurated on 14 November 1888.He brought together scientists with various specialties.", "The first five departments were directed by two graduates of the ''École Normale Supérieure'': Émile Duclaux (general microbiology research) and Charles Chamberland (microbe research applied to hygiene), as well as a biologist, Élie Metchnikoff (morphological microbe research) and two physicians, Jacques-Joseph Grancher (rabies) and Émile Roux (technical microbe research).", "One year after the inauguration of the institute, Roux set up the first course of microbiology ever taught in the world, then entitled ''Cours de Microbie Technique'' (Course of microbe research techniques).", "Since 1891 the Pasteur Institute had been extended to different countries, and currently there are 32 institutes in 29 countries in various parts of the world." ], [ "Personal life", "Pasteur in 1857Pasteur married Marie Pasteur (née Laurent) in 1849.She was the daughter of the rector of the University of Strasbourg, and was Pasteur's scientific assistant.", "They had five children together, three of whom died as children.", "Their eldest daughter, Jeanne, was born in 1850.She died from typhoid fever, aged 9, whilst at the boarding school Arbois in 1859.In 1865, 2-year-old Camille died of a liver tumour.", "Shortly after they decided to bring Cécile home from boarding school, but she too died of typhoid fever on 23 May 1866 at the age of 12.Only Jean Baptiste (b.", "1851) and Marie Louise (b.", "1858) survived to adulthood.", "Jean Baptiste would be a soldier in the Franco-Prussian War between France and Prussia.=== Faith and spirituality ===His grandson, Louis Pasteur Vallery-Radot, wrote that Pasteur had kept from his Catholic background only a spiritualism without religious practice.", "However, Catholic observers often said that Pasteur remained an ardent Christian throughout his whole life, and his son-in-law wrote, in a biography of him:The ''Literary Digest'' of 18 October 1902 gives this statement from Pasteur that he prayed while he worked:Maurice Vallery-Radot, grandson of the brother of the son-in-law of Pasteur and outspoken Catholic, also holds that Pasteur fundamentally remained Catholic.", "According to both Pasteur Vallery-Radot and Maurice Vallery-Radot, the following well-known quotation attributed to Pasteur is apocryphal: \"The more I know, the more nearly is my faith that of the Breton peasant.", "Could I but know all I would have the faith of a Breton peasant's wife\".", "According to Maurice Vallery-Radot, the false quotation appeared for the first time shortly after the death of Pasteur.", "However, despite his belief in God, it has been said that his views were that of a freethinker rather than a Catholic, a spiritual more than a religious man.", "He was also against mixing science with religion.=== Death ===In 1868, Pasteur suffered a severe brain stroke that paralysed the left side of his body, but he recovered.", "A stroke or uremia in 1894 severely impaired his health.", "Failing to fully recover, he died on 28 September 1895, near Paris.", "He was given a state funeral and was buried in the Cathedral of Notre Dame, but his remains were reinterred in the Pasteur Institute in Paris, in a vault covered in depictions of his accomplishments in Byzantine mosaics." ], [ "Publications", "Pasteur's principal published works are: French Title Year English Title''Etudes sur le Vin'' 1866 ''Studies on Wine'' ''Etudes sur le Vinaigre'' 1868 ''Studies on Vinegar'' ''Etudes sur la Maladie des Vers à Soie'' (2 volumes) 1870 ''Studies on Silk Worm Disease'' ''Quelques Réflexions sur la Science en France'' 1871'' Some Reflections on Science in France'' ''Etudes sur la Bière'' 1876 ''Studies on Beer'' ''Les Microbes organisés, leur rôle dans la Fermentation, la Putréfaction et la Contagion'' 1878'' Microbes organized, their role in fermentation, putrefaction and the Contagion'' ''Discours de Réception de M.L.", "Pasteur à l'Académie française'' 1882 ''Speech by Mr L. Pasteur on reception to the Académie française'' ''Traitement de la Rage'' 1886 ''Treatment of Rabies''" ], [ "See also", "* Infection control* Infectious disease* Pasteur Institute* Pasteurization* ''The Story of Louis Pasteur'' (a 1936 biographical film)* List of things named after Louis Pasteur* Statue of Louis Pasteur, Mexico City" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * Cédric Grimoult, ''Pasteur: Le mythe au coeur de l'action (ou le combattant)'', Paris, Ellipses, coll.", "\"Biographies et mythes historiques\", 2021, 332 p.* , chapters III (PASTEUR: Microbes are a Menace!)", "and V (PASTEUR: And the Mad Dog)* * Reynolds, Moira Davison. ''", "How Pasteur Changed History: The Story of Louis Pasteur and the Pasteur Institute'' (1994)" ], [ "External links", " The Institut Pasteur – Foundation dedicated to the prevention and treatment of diseases through biological research, education and public health activities* The Pasteur Foundation – A US nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting the mission of the Institut Pasteur in Paris.", "Full archive of newsletters available online containing examples of US Tributes to Louis Pasteur.", "* Pasteur's Papers on the Germ Theory* The Life and Work of Louis Pasteur, Pasteur Brewing* The Pasteur Galaxy* Germ Theory and Its Applications to Medicine and Surgery, 1878* Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) profile, AccessExcellence.org* * * * * * ''Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences'' Articles published by Pasteur" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ludwig Wittgenstein" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein''' ( ; ; 26 April 1889 – 29 April 1951) was an Austrian philosopher who worked primarily in logic, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of mind, and the philosophy of language.", "From 1929 to 1947, Wittgenstein taught at the University of Cambridge.", "In spite of his position, during his entire life only one book of his philosophy was published, the 75-page ''Logisch-Philosophische Abhandlung'' (''Logical-Philosophical Treatise'', 1921), which appeared, together with an English translation, in 1922 under the Latin title ''Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus''.", "His only other published works were an article, \"Some Remarks on Logical Form\" (1929); a book review; and a children's dictionary.", "His voluminous manuscripts were edited and published posthumously.", "The first and best-known of this posthumous series is the 1953 book ''Philosophical Investigations''.", "A 1999 survey among American university and college teachers ranked the ''Investigations'' as the most important book of 20th-century philosophy, standing out as \"the one crossover masterpiece in twentieth-century philosophy, appealing across diverse specializations and philosophical orientations\".His philosophy is often divided into an early period, exemplified by the ''Tractatus'', and a later period, articulated primarily in the ''Philosophical Investigations''.", "The \"early Wittgenstein\" was concerned with the logical relationship between propositions and the world, and he believed that by providing an account of the logic underlying this relationship, he had solved all philosophical problems.", "The \"later Wittgenstein\", however, rejected many of the assumptions of the ''Tractatus'', arguing that the meaning of words is best understood as their use within a given language game.Born in Vienna into one of Europe's richest families, he inherited a fortune from his father in 1913.Before World War I, he \"made a very generous financial bequest to a group of poets and artists chosen by Ludwig von Ficker, the editor of ''Der Brenner'', from artists in need.", "These included Trakl as well as Rainer Maria Rilke and the architect Adolf Loos.\"", "Later, in a period of severe personal depression after World War I, he gave away his remaining fortune to his brothers and sisters.", "Three of his four older brothers died by separate acts of suicide.", "Wittgenstein left academia several times: serving as an officer on the front line during World War I, where he was decorated a number of times for his courage; teaching in schools in remote Austrian villages, where he encountered controversy for using sometimes violent corporal punishment on girls and a boy (the Haidbauer incident) especially during mathematics classes; working during World War II as a hospital porter in London; and working as a hospital laboratory technician at the Royal Victoria Infirmary in Newcastle upon Tyne.", "He later expressed remorse for these incidents, and spent the remainder of his life lecturing and attempting to prepare a second manuscript for publication, which was published posthumously as the hugely influential ''Philosophical Investigations''." ], [ "Background", "=== The Wittgensteins ===Karl Wittgenstein was one of the richest men in Europe.According to a family tree prepared in Jerusalem after World War II, Wittgenstein's paternal great-great-grandfather was Moses Meier, an Ashkenazi Jewish land agent who lived with his wife, Brendel Simon, in Bad Laasphe in the Principality of Wittgenstein, Westphalia.", "In July 1808, Napoleon issued a decree that everyone, including Jews, must adopt an inheritable family surname, so Meier's son, also Moses, took the name of his employers, the Sayn-Wittgensteins, and became Moses Meier Wittgenstein.", "His son, Hermann Christian Wittgenstein — who took the middle name \"Christian\" to distance himself from his Jewish background — married Fanny Figdor, also Jewish, who converted to Protestantism just before they married, and the couple founded a successful business trading in wool in Leipzig.", "Ludwig's grandmother Fanny was a first cousin of the violinist Joseph Joachim.They had 11 children – among them Wittgenstein's father.", "Karl Otto Clemens Wittgenstein (1847–1913) became an industrial tycoon, and by the late 1880s was one of the richest men in Europe, with an effective monopoly on Austria's steel cartel.", "Thanks to Karl, the Wittgensteins became the second wealthiest family in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, only the Rothschilds being wealthier.", "Karl Wittgenstein was viewed as the Austrian equivalent of Andrew Carnegie, with whom he was friends, and was one of the wealthiest men in the world by the 1890s.", "As a result of his decision in 1898 to invest substantially in the Netherlands and in Switzerland as well as overseas, particularly in the US, the family was to an extent shielded from the hyperinflation that hit Austria in 1922.However, their wealth diminished due to post-1918 hyperinflation and subsequently during the Great Depression, although even as late as 1938 they owned 13 mansions in Vienna alone.=== Early life ===Palais Wittgenstein, the family home, around 1910Wittgenstein was ethnically Jewish.", "His mother was Leopoldine Maria Josefa Kalmus, known among friends as \"Poldi\".", "Her father was a Bohemian Jew, and her mother was an Austrian-Slovene Catholic – she was Wittgenstein's only non-Jewish grandparent.", "Poldi was an aunt of the Nobel Prize laureate Friedrich Hayek on his maternal side.", "Wittgenstein was born at 8:30 on 26 April 1889 in the \"Villa Wittgenstein\" at what is today Neuwaldegger Straße 38 in the suburban parish next to Vienna.Ludwig, c. 1890sKarl and Poldi had nine children in all – four girls: Hermine, Margaret (Gretl), Helene, and a fourth daughter Dora who died as a baby; and five boys: Johannes (Hans), Kurt, Rudolf (Rudi), Paul – who became a concert pianist despite losing an arm in World War I – and Ludwig, who was the youngest of the family.Ludwig sitting in a field as a childThe children were baptized as Catholics, received formal Catholic instruction, and were raised in an exceptionally intense environment.", "The family was at the centre of Vienna's cultural life; Bruno Walter described the life at the Wittgensteins' palace as an \"all-pervading atmosphere of humanity and culture.\"", "Karl was a leading patron of the arts, commissioning works by Auguste Rodin and financing the city's exhibition hall and art gallery, the Secession Building.", "Gustav Klimt painted a portrait of Wittgenstein's sister Margaret for her marriage, and Johannes Brahms and Gustav Mahler gave regular concerts in the family's numerous music rooms.Wittgenstein, who valued precision and discipline, never considered contemporary classical music acceptable.", "He said to his friend Drury in 1930: Ludwig Wittgenstein himself had absolute pitch, and his devotion to music remained vitally important to him throughout his life; he made frequent use of musical examples and metaphors in his philosophical writings, and he was unusually adept at whistling lengthy and detailed musical passages.", "He also learnt to play the clarinet in his 30s.", "A fragment of music (three bars), composed by Wittgenstein, was discovered in one of his 1931 notebooks, by Michael Nedo, director of the Wittgenstein Institute in Cambridge.=== Family temperament and the brothers' suicides ===Gretl, Paul, Hans, and Kurt, around 1890Ray Monk writes that Karl's aim was to turn his sons into captains of industry; they were not sent to school lest they acquire bad habits, but were educated at home to prepare them for work in Karl's industrial empire.", "Three of the five brothers later committed suicide.", "Psychiatrist Michael Fitzgerald argues that Karl was a harsh perfectionist who lacked empathy, and that Wittgenstein's mother was anxious and insecure, unable to stand up to her husband.", "Johannes Brahms said of the family, whom he visited regularly: The family appeared to have a strong streak of depression running through it.", "Anthony Gottlieb tells a story about Paul practicing on one of the pianos in the Wittgensteins' main family mansion, when he suddenly shouted at Ludwig in the next room:Ludwig (bottom-right), Paul, and their sisters, late 1890sThe family palace housed seven grand pianos and each of the siblings pursued music \"with an enthusiasm that, at times, bordered on the pathological\".", "The eldest brother, Hans, was hailed as a musical prodigy.", "At the age of four, writes Alexander Waugh, Hans could identify the Doppler effect in a passing siren as a quarter-tone drop in pitch, and at five started crying \"Wrong!", "Wrong!\"", "when two brass bands in a carnival played the same tune in different keys.", "But he died in mysterious circumstances in May 1902, when he ran away to America and disappeared from a boat in Chesapeake Bay, most likely having committed suicide.Two years later, aged 22 and studying chemistry at the Berlin Academy, the third eldest brother, Rudi, committed suicide in a Berlin bar.", "He had asked the pianist to play Thomas Koschat's \"''Verlassen, verlassen, verlassen bin ich''\" (\"Forsaken, forsaken, forsaken am I\"), before mixing himself a drink of milk and potassium cyanide.", "He had left several suicide notes, one to his parents that said he was grieving over the death of a friend, and another that referred to his \"perverted disposition\".", "It was reported at the time that he had sought advice from the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee, an organization that was campaigning against Paragraph 175 of the German Criminal Code, which prohibited homosexual sex.", "His father forbade the family from ever mentioning his name again.The second eldest brother, Kurt, an officer and company director, shot himself on 27 October 1918 just before the end of World War I, when the Austrian troops he was commanding refused to obey his orders and deserted ''en masse''.", "According to Gottlieb, Hermine had said Kurt seemed to carry \"the germ of disgust for life within himself\".", "Later, Ludwig wrote:" ], [ "1903–1906: Realschule in Linz", "=== Realschule in Linz ===The ''Realschule'' in LinzWittgenstein was taught by private tutors at home until he was 14 years old.", "Subsequently, for three years, he attended a school.", "After the deaths of Hans and Rudi, Karl relented, and allowed Paul and Ludwig to be sent to school.", "Waugh writes that it was too late for Wittgenstein to pass his exams for the more academic ''Gymnasium'' in Wiener Neustadt; having had no formal schooling, he failed his entrance exam and only barely managed after extra tutoring to pass the exam for the more technically oriented k.u.k.", "''Realschule'' in Linz, a small state school with 300 pupils.", "In 1903, when he was 14, he began his three years of formal schooling there, lodging nearby in term time with the family of Dr. Josef Strigl, a teacher at the local gymnasium, the family giving him the nickname Luki.On starting at the Realschule, Wittgenstein had been moved forward a year.", "Historian Brigitte Hamann writes that he stood out from the other boys: he spoke an unusually pure form of High German with a stutter, dressed elegantly, and was sensitive and unsociable.", "Monk writes that the other boys made fun of him, singing after him: \"Wittgenstein wandelt wehmütig widriger Winde wegen Wienwärts\" (\"Wittgenstein wanders wistfully Vienna-wards (in) worsening winds\").", "In his leaving certificate, he received a top mark (5) in religious studies; a 2 for conduct and English, 3 for French, geography, history, mathematics and physics, and 4 for German, chemistry, geometry and freehand drawing.", "He had particular difficulty with spelling and failed his written German exam because of it.", "He wrote in 1931:=== Faith ===Wittgenstein was baptized as an infant by a Catholic priest and received formal instruction in Catholic doctrine as a child, as was common at the time.", "In an interview, his sister Gretl Stonborough-Wittgenstein says that their grandfather's \"strong, severe, partly ascetic Christianity\" was a strong influence on all the Wittgenstein children.", "While he was at the ''Realschule'', he decided he lacked religious faith and began reading Arthur Schopenhauer per Gretl's recommendation.", "He nevertheless believed in the importance of the idea of confession.", "He wrote in his diaries about having made a major confession to his oldest sister, Hermine, while he was at the ''Realschule''; Monk speculates that it may have been about his loss of faith.", "He also discussed it with Gretl, his other sister, who directed him to Schopenhauer's ''The World as Will and Representation''.", "As a teenager, Wittgenstein adopted Schopenhauer's epistemological idealism.", "However, after his study of the philosophy of mathematics, he abandoned epistemological idealism for Gottlob Frege's conceptual realism.", "In later years, Wittgenstein was highly dismissive of Schopenhauer, describing him as an ultimately \"shallow\" thinker: Wittgenstein's relationship with Christianity and with religion in general, for which he always professed a sincere and devoted sympathy, changed over time, much like his philosophical ideas.", "In 1912, Wittgenstein wrote to Russell saying that Mozart and Beethoven were the actual sons of God.", "However, Wittgenstein resisted formal religion, saying it was hard for him to \"bend the knee\", though his grandfather's beliefs continued to influence Wittgenstein – as he said, \"I cannot help seeing every problem from a religious point of view.\"", "Wittgenstein referred to Augustine of Hippo in his ''Philosophical Investigations''.", "Philosophically, Wittgenstein's thought shows alignment with religious discourse.", "For example, he would become one of the century's fiercest critics of scientism.Wittgenstein's religious belief emerged during his service for the Austrian army in World War I, and he was a devoted reader of Dostoevsky's and Tolstoy's religious writings.", "He viewed his wartime experiences as a trial in which he strove to conform to the will of God, and in a journal entry from 29 April 1915, he writes: Around this time, Wittgenstein wrote that \"Christianity is indeed the only sure way to happiness\", but he rejected the idea that religious belief was merely thinking that a certain doctrine was true.", "From this time on, Wittgenstein viewed religious faith as a way of living and opposed rational argumentation or proofs for God.With age, a deepening personal spirituality led to several elucidations and clarifications, as he untangled language problems in religionattacking, for example, the temptation to think of God's existence as a matter of scientific evidence.", "In 1947, finding it more difficult to work, he wrote:In ''Culture and Value'', Wittgenstein writes:His close friend Norman Malcolm wrote:Toward the end, Wittgenstein wrote:=== Influence of Otto Weininger ===Austrian philosopher Otto Weininger (1880–1903)While a student at the ''Realschule'', Wittgenstein was influenced by Austrian philosopher Otto Weininger's 1903 book ''Geschlecht und Charakter'' (''Sex and Character'').Weininger (1880–1903), who was Jewish, argued that the concepts male and female exist only as Platonic forms, and that Jews tend to embody the Platonic femininity.", "Whereas men are basically rational, women operate only at the level of their emotions and sexual organs.", "Jews, Weininger argued, are similar, saturated with femininity, with no sense of right and wrong, and no soul.", "Weininger argues that man must choose between his masculine and feminine sides, consciousness and unconsciousness, Platonic love and sexuality.", "Love and sexual desire stand in contradiction, and love between a woman and a man is therefore doomed to misery or immorality.", "The only life worth living is the spiritual one – to live as a woman or a Jew means one has no right to live at all; the choice is genius or death.", "Weininger committed suicide, shooting himself in 1903, shortly after publishing the book.", "Wittgenstein, then 14, attended Weininger's funeral.", "Many years later, as a professor at the University of Cambridge, Wittgenstein distributed copies of Weininger's book to his bemused academic colleagues.", "He said that Weininger's arguments were wrong, but that it was the way they were wrong that was interesting.", "In a letter dated 23 August 1931, Wittgenstein wrote the following to G. E. Moore:In an unusual move, Wittgenstein took out a copy of Weininger's work on 1 June 1931 from the Special Order Books in the university library.", "He met Moore on 2 June, when he probably gave this copy to Moore.=== Jewish background and Hitler ===Despite their and their forebears' Christianization, the Wittgensteins considered themselves Jewish.", "This was evident during the Nazi era, when Ludwig's sister was assured by an official that they wouldn't be considered as Jews under the racial laws.", "Indignant at the state's attempt to dictate her identity, she demanded papers certifying their Jewish lineage.In his own writings, Wittgenstein frequently referred to himself as Jewish, often in a self-deprecating manner.", "For instance, while criticizing himself for being a \"reproductive\" rather than \"productive\" thinker, he attributed this to his Jewish sense of identity.", "He wrote: 'The saint is the only Jewish \"genius\".", "Even the greatest Jewish thinker is no more than talented.", "(Myself for instance).", "'There is much discussion around the extent to which Wittgenstein and his siblings, who were of 3/4 Jewish descent, saw themselves as Jews.", "The issue has arisen in particular regarding Wittgenstein's schooldays, because Adolf Hitler was, for a while, at the same school at the same time.", "Laurence Goldstein argues that it is \"overwhelmingly probable\" that the boys met each other and that Hitler would have disliked Wittgenstein, a \"stammering, precocious, precious, aristocratic upstart ...\"; Strathern flatly states they never met.", "Other commentators have dismissed as irresponsible and uninformed any suggestion that Wittgenstein's wealth and unusual personality might have fed Hitler's antisemitism, in part because there is no indication that Hitler would have seen Wittgenstein as Jewish.Wittgenstein and Hitler were born just six days apart, though Hitler had to re-sit his mathematics exam before being allowed into a higher class, while Wittgenstein was moved forward by one, so they ended up two grades apart at the ''Realschule''.", "Monk estimates that they were both at the school during the 1904–1905 school year, but says there is no evidence they had anything to do with each other.", "Several commentators have argued that a school photograph of Hitler may show Wittgenstein in the lower left corner,Class photograph at the ''Realschule'' in 1901, a young Adolf Hitler in the last row on the right.", "In the penultimate row, third from the right, a student who is believed to be Ludwig Wittgenstein.While Wittgenstein would later claim that \"my thoughts are 100% Hebraic\", as Hans Sluga has argued, if so, By Hebraic, he meant to include the Christian tradition, in contradistinction to the Greek tradition, holding that good and evil could not be reconciled." ], [ "1906–1913: University", "=== Engineering at Berlin and Manchester ===Ludwig Wittgenstein, aged about eighteenTechnische Hochschule Berlin in Charlottenburg, BerlinHe began his studies in mechanical engineering at the Technische Hochschule Berlin in Charlottenburg, Berlin, on 23 October 1906, lodging with the family of professor Dr. Jolles.", "He attended for three semesters, and was awarded a diploma (''Abgangzeugnis'') on 5 May 1908.During his time at the Institute, Wittgenstein developed an interest in aeronautics.", "He arrived at the Victoria University of Manchester in the spring of 1908 to study for a doctorate, full of plans for aeronautical projects, including designing and flying his own plane.", "He conducted research into the behavior of kites in the upper atmosphere, experimenting at a meteorological observation site near Glossop in Derbyshire.", "Specifically, the Royal Meteorological Society researched and investigated the ionization of the upper atmosphere, by suspending instruments on balloons or kites.", "At Glossop, Wittgenstein worked under Professor of Physics Sir Arthur Schuster.He also worked on the design of a propeller with small jet (Tip jet) engines on the end of its blades, something he patented in 1911, and that earned him a research studentship from the university in the autumn of 1908.At the time, contemporary propeller designs were not advanced enough to actually put Wittgenstein's ideas into practice, and it would be years before a blade design that could support Wittgenstein's innovative design was created.", "Wittgenstein's design required air and gas to be forced along the propeller arms to combustion chambers on the end of each blade, where they were then compressed by the centrifugal force exerted by the revolving arms and ignited.", "Propellers of the time were typically wood, whereas modern blades are made from pressed steel laminates as separate halves, which are then welded together.", "This gives the blade a hollow interior and thereby creates an ideal pathway for the air and gas.Wittgenstein with his friend William Eccles at the Kite-Flying Station in Glossop, Derbyshire, Summer 1908Work on the jet-powered propeller proved frustrating for Wittgenstein, who had very little experience working with machinery.", "Jim Bamber, a British engineer who was his friend and classmate at the time, reported that According to William Eccles, another friend from that period, Wittgenstein then turned to more theoretical work, focusing on the design of the propeller – a problem that required relatively sophisticated mathematics.It was at this time that he became interested in the foundations of mathematics, particularly after reading Bertrand Russell's ''The Principles of Mathematics'' (1903), and Gottlob Frege's ''The Foundations of Arithmetic'', vol.", "1 (1893) and vol.", "2 (1903).", "Wittgenstein's sister Hermine said he became obsessed with mathematics as a result, and was anyway losing interest in aeronautics.", "He decided instead that he needed to study logic and the foundations of mathematics, describing himself as in a \"constant, indescribable, almost pathological state of agitation.\"", "In the summer of 1911 he visited Frege at the University of Jena to show him some philosophy of mathematics and logic he had written, and to ask whether it was worth pursuing.", "He wrote: === Arrival at Cambridge ===Wittgenstein, 1910sWittgenstein wanted to study with Frege, but Frege suggested he attend the University of Cambridge to study under Russell, so on 18 October 1911 Wittgenstein arrived unannounced at Russell's rooms in Trinity College.", "Russell was having tea with C. K. Ogden, when, according to Russell, He was soon not only attending Russell's lectures, but dominating them.", "The lectures were poorly attended and Russell often found himself lecturing only to C. D. Broad, E. H. Neville, and H. T. J. Norton.", "Wittgenstein started following him after lectures back to his rooms to discuss more philosophy, until it was time for the evening meal in Hall.", "Russell grew irritated; he wrote to his lover Lady Ottoline Morrell: \"My German friend threatens to be an infliction.", "\"Russell soon came to believe that Wittgenstein was a genius, especially after he had examined Wittgenstein's written work.", "He wrote in November 1911 that he had at first thought Wittgenstein might be a crank, but soon decided he was a genius: Three months after Wittgenstein's arrival Russell told Morrell: Wittgenstein later told David Pinsent that Russell's encouragement had proven his salvation, and had ended nine years of loneliness and suffering, during which he had continually thought of suicide.", "In encouraging him to pursue philosophy and in justifying his inclination to abandon engineering, Russell had, quite literally, saved Wittgenstein's life.", "The role-reversal between Bertrand Russell and Wittgenstein was soon such that Russell wrote in 1916, after Wittgenstein had criticized Russell's own work:=== Cambridge Moral Sciences Club and Apostles ===Bertrand Russell, 1907In 1912 Wittgenstein joined the Cambridge University Moral Sciences Club, an influential discussion group for philosophy dons and students, delivering his first paper there on 29 November that year, a four-minute talk defining philosophy as He dominated the society and for a time would stop attending in the early 1930s after complaints that he gave no one else a chance to speak.The club became infamous within popular philosophy because of a meeting on 25 October 1946 at Richard Braithwaite's rooms in King's College, Cambridge, where Karl Popper, another Viennese philosopher, had been invited as the guest speaker.", "Popper's paper was \"Are there philosophical problems?", "\", in which he struck up a position against Wittgenstein's, contending that problems in philosophy are real, not just linguistic puzzles as Wittgenstein argued.", "Accounts vary as to what happened next, but Wittgenstein apparently started waving a hot poker, demanding that Popper give him an example of a moral rule.", "Popper offered one – \"Not to threaten visiting speakers with pokers\" – at which point Russell told Wittgenstein he had misunderstood and Wittgenstein left.", "Popper maintained that Wittgenstein \"stormed out\", but it had become accepted practice for him to leave early (because of his aforementioned ability to dominate discussion).", "It was the only time the philosophers, three of the most eminent in the 20th CE, were ever in the same room together.", "The minutes record that the meeting was === Cambridge Apostles ===The economist John Maynard Keynes also invited him to join the Cambridge Apostles, an elite secret society formed in 1820, which both Bertrand Russell and G. E. Moore had joined as students, but Wittgenstein did not greatly enjoy it and attended only infrequently.", "Russell had been worried that Wittgenstein would not appreciate the group's raucous style of intellectual debate, its precious sense of humour, and the fact that the members were often in love with one another.", "He was admitted in 1912 but resigned almost immediately because he could not tolerate the style of discussion.", "Nevertheless, the Cambridge Apostles allowed Wittgenstein to participate in meetings again in the 1920s when he had returned to Cambridge.", "Reportedly, Wittgenstein also had trouble tolerating the discussions in the Cambridge Moral Sciences Club.=== Frustrations at Cambridge ===Wittgenstein was quite vocal about his depression in his years at Cambridge and before he went to war; on many an occasion, he told Russell of his woes.", "His mental anguish seemed to stem from two sources: his work and his personal life.", "Wittgenstein made numerous remarks to Russell about logic driving him mad.", "Wittgenstein also stated to Russell that he \"felt the curse of those who have half a talent\".", "He later expressed this same worry and told of being in mediocre spirits due to his lack of progress in his logical work.", "Monk writes that Wittgenstein lived and breathed logic, and a temporary lack of inspiration plunged him into despair.", "Wittgenstein told of his work in logic affecting his mental status in an extreme way.", "However, he also told Russell another story.", "Around Christmas, in 1913, he wrote: He also told Russell on an occasion in Russell's rooms that he was worried about logic and his sins; also, once upon arriving in Russell's rooms one night Wittgenstein announced to Russell that he would kill himself once he left.", "Of things Wittgenstein personally told Russell, Ludwig's temperament was also recorded in the diary of David Pinsent.", "Pinsent wrote and when talking about Wittgenstein's emotional fluctuations.=== Sexual orientation and relationship with David Pinsent ===Wittgenstein sitting with his friends and family in Vienna.", "Marguerite Respinger sits at the end on the left and the sculpture he made of her sits behind him on the mantel-place.Wittgenstein had romantic relations with both men and women.", "He is generally believed to have fallen in love with at least three men, and had a relationship with the latter two: David Hume Pinsent in 1912, Francis Skinner in 1930, and Ben Richards in the late 1940s.", "He later claimed that, as a teenager in Vienna, he had had an affair with a woman.", "Additionally, in the 1920s Wittgenstein fell in love with a young Swiss woman, Marguerite Respinger, sculpting a bust modelled on her and seriously considering marriage, albeit on condition that they would not have children; she decided that he was not right for her.David PinsentWittgenstein's relationship with David Pinsent occurred during an intellectually formative period, and is well documented.", "Bertrand Russell introduced Wittgenstein to Pinsent in the summer of 1912.Pinsent was a mathematics undergraduate and a relation of David Hume, and Wittgenstein and he soon became very close.", "The men worked together on experiments in the psychology laboratory about the role of rhythm in the appreciation of music, and Wittgenstein delivered a paper on the subject to the British Psychological Association in Cambridge in 1912.They also travelled together, including to Iceland in September 1912the expenses paid by Wittgenstein, including first class travel, the hiring of a private train, and new clothes and spending money for Pinsent.", "In addition to Iceland, Wittgenstein and Pinsent traveled to Norway in 1913.In determining their destination, Wittgenstein and Pinsent visited a tourist office in search of a location that would fulfill the following criteria: a small village located on a fjord, a location away from tourists, and a peaceful destination to allow them to study logic and law.", "Choosing Øystese, Wittgenstein and Pinsent arrived in the small village on 4 September 1913.During a vacation lasting almost three weeks, Wittgenstein was able to work vigorously on his studies.", "The immense progress on logic during their stay led Wittgenstein to express to Pinsent his notion of leaving Cambridge and returning to Norway to continue his work on logic.", "Pinsent's diaries provide valuable insights into Wittgenstein's personality: sensitive, nervous, and attuned to the tiniest slight or change in mood from Pinsent.", "Pinsent also writes of Wittgenstein being \"absolutely sulky and snappish\" at times, as well.", "In his diaries Pinsent wrote about shopping for furniture with Wittgenstein in Cambridge when the latter was given rooms in Trinity.", "Most of what they found in the stores was not minimalist enough for Wittgenstein's aesthetics: He wrote in May 1912 that Wittgenstein had just begun to study the history of philosophy: The last time they saw each other was on 8 October 1913 at Lordswood House in Birmingham, then residence of the Pinsent family: Wittgenstein left to live in Norway." ], [ "1913–1920: World War I and the ''Tractatus''", "=== Work on ''Logik'' ===Entries from October 1914 in Wittgenstein's diary, on display at the Wren Library, Trinity College, CambridgeKarl Wittgenstein died on 20 January 1913, and after receiving his inheritance Wittgenstein became one of the wealthiest men in Europe.", "He donated some of his money, at first anonymously, to Austrian artists and writers, including Rainer Maria Rilke and Georg Trakl.", "Trakl requested to meet his benefactor but in 1914 when Wittgenstein went to visit, Trakl had killed himself.", "Wittgenstein came to feel that he could not get to the heart of his most fundamental questions while surrounded by other academics, and so in 1913 he retreated to the village of Skjolden in Norway, where he rented the second floor of a house for the winter.", "He later saw this as one of the most productive periods of his life, writing ''Logik'' (''Notes on Logic''), the predecessor of much of the ''Tractatus''.While in Norway, Wittgenstein learned Norwegian to converse with the local villagers, and Danish to read the works of the Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard.", "He adored the \"quiet seriousness\" of the landscape but even Skjolden became too busy for him.", "He soon designed a small wooden house which was erected on a remote rock overlooking the Eidsvatnet Lake just outside the village.", "The place was called \"Østerrike\" (Austria) by locals.", "He lived there during various periods until the 1930s, and substantial parts of his works were written there.", "(The house was broken up in 1958 to be rebuilt in the village.", "A local foundation collected donations and bought it in 2014; it was dismantled again and re-erected at its original location; the inauguration took place on 20 June 2019 with international attendance.", ")It was during this time that Wittgenstein began addressing what he considered to be a central issue in ''Notes on Logic'', a general decision procedure for determining the truth value of logical propositions which would stem from a single primitive proposition.", "He became convinced during this time that Based on this, Wittgenstein argued that propositions of logic express their truth or falsehood in the sign itself, and one need not know anything about the constituent parts of the proposition to determine it true or false.", "Rather, one simply need identify the statement as a tautology (true), a contradiction (false), or neither.The problem lay in forming a primitive proposition which encompassed this and would act as the basis for all of logic.", "As he stated in correspondence with Russell in late 1913, The importance Wittgenstein placed upon this fundamental problem was so great that he believed if he did not solve it, he had no reason or right to live.", "Despite this apparent life-or-death importance, Wittgenstein had given up on this primitive proposition by the time of the writing of the ''Tractatus''.", "The ''Tractatus'' does not offer any general process for identifying propositions as tautologies; in a simpler manner, This shift to understanding tautologies through mere identification or recognition occurred in 1914 when Moore was called on by Wittgenstein to assist him in dictating his notes.At Wittgenstein's insistence, Moore, who was now a Cambridge don, visited him in Norway in 1914, reluctantly because Wittgenstein exhausted him.", "David Edmonds and John Eidinow write that Wittgenstein regarded Moore, an internationally known philosopher, as an example of how far someone could get in life with ''\"absolutely no intelligence whatever.\"''", "In Norway it was clear that Moore was expected to act as Wittgenstein's secretary, taking down his notes, with Wittgenstein falling into a rage when Moore got something wrong.", "When he returned to Cambridge, Moore asked the university to consider accepting ''Logik'' as sufficient for a bachelor's degree, but they refused, saying it wasn't formatted properly: no footnotes, no preface.", "Wittgenstein was furious, writing to Moore in May 1914: Moore was apparently distraught; he wrote in his diary that he felt sick and could not get the letter out of his head.", "The two did not speak again until 1929.=== Military service ===Austro-Hungarian supply line over the Vršič Pass, on the Italian front, October 1917On the outbreak of World War I, Wittgenstein immediately volunteered for the Austro-Hungarian Army, despite being eligible for a medical exemption.", "He served first on a ship and then in an artillery workshop \"several miles from the action\".", "He was wounded in an accidental explosion, and hospitalised to Kraków.", "In March 1916, he was posted to a fighting unit on the front line of the Russian front, as part of the Austrian 7th Army, where his unit was involved in some of the heaviest fighting, defending against the Brusilov Offensive.", "Wittgenstein directed the fire of his own artillery from an observation post in no-man's land against Allied troopsone of the most dangerous jobs, since he was targeted by enemy fire.", "He was decorated with the Military Merit Medal with Swords on the Ribbon, and was commended by the army for \"exceptionally courageous behaviour, calmness, sang-froid, and heroism\" that \"won the total admiration of the troops\".", "In January 1917, he was sent as a member of a howitzer regiment to the Russian front, where he won several more medals for bravery including the Silver Medal for Valour, First Class.", "In 1918, he was promoted to lieutenant and sent to the Italian front as part of an artillery regiment.", "For his part in the final Austrian offensive of June 1918, he was recommended for the Gold Medal for Valour, one of the highest honours in the Austrian army, but was instead awarded the Band of the Military Service Medal with Swordsit being decided that this particular action, although extraordinarily brave, had been insufficiently consequential to merit the highest honour.Wittgenstein's military identity card during the First World WarThroughout the war, he kept notebooks in which he frequently wrote philosophical reflections alongside personal remarks, including his contempt for the character of the other soldiers.", "His notebooks also attest to his philosophical and spiritual reflections, and it was during this time that he experienced a kind of religious awakening.", "In his entry from 11 June 1915, Wittgenstein states that and on 8 July that He discovered Leo Tolstoy's 1896 ''The Gospel in Brief'' at a bookshop in Tarnów, and carried it everywhere, recommending it to anyone in distress, to the point where he became known to his fellow soldiers as \"the man with the gospels\".The extent to which ''The Gospel in Brief'' influenced Wittgenstein can be seen in the ''Tractatus'', in the unique way both books number their sentences.", "In 1916 Wittgenstein read Dostoevsky's ''The Brothers Karamazov'' so often that he knew whole passages of it by heart, particularly the speeches of the elder Zosima, who represented for him a powerful Christian ideal, a holy man \"who could see directly into the souls of other people\".Iain King has suggested that Wittgenstein's writing changed substantially in 1916, when he started confronting much greater dangers during frontline fighting.", "Russell said he returned from the war a changed man, one with a deeply mystical and ascetic attitude.=== Completion of the ''Tractatus'' ===The Wittgenstein family in Vienna, Summer 1917, with Kurt (furthest left) and Ludwig (furthest right) in officers' uniformsIn the summer of 1918, Wittgenstein took military leave and went to stay in one of his family's Vienna summer houses, Neuwaldegg.", "It was there in August 1918 that he completed the ''Tractatus'', which he submitted with the title ''Der Satz'' (German: proposition, sentence, phrase, set, but also \"leap\") to the publishers Jahoda and Siegel.A series of events around this time left him deeply upset.", "On 13 August, his uncle Paul died.", "On 25 October, he learned that Jahoda and Siegel had decided not to publish the ''Tractatus'', and on 27 October, his brother Kurt killed himself, the third of his brothers to commit suicide.", "It was around this time he received a letter from David Pinsent's mother to say that Pinsent had been killed in a plane crash on 8 May.", "Wittgenstein was distraught to the point of being suicidal.", "He was sent back to the Italian front after his leave and, as a result of the defeat of the Austrian army, he was captured by Allied forces on 3 November in Trentino.", "He subsequently spent nine months in an Italian prisoner of war camp.He returned to his family in Vienna on 25 August 1919, by all accounts physically and mentally spent.", "He apparently talked incessantly about suicide, terrifying his sisters and brother Paul.", "He decided to do two things: to enroll in teacher training college as an elementary school teacher, and to get rid of his fortune.", "In 1914, it had been providing him with an income of 300,000 Kronen a year, but by 1919 was worth a great deal more, with a sizable portfolio of investments in the United States and the Netherlands.", "He divided it among his siblings, except for Margarete, insisting that it not be held in trust for him.", "His family saw him as ill and acquiesced." ], [ "1920–1928: Teaching, the ''Tractatus'', Haus Wittgenstein", "=== Teacher training in Vienna ===In September 1919 he enrolled in the ''Lehrerbildungsanstalt'' (teacher training college) in the ''Kundmanngasse'' in Vienna.", "His sister Hermine said that Wittgenstein working as an elementary teacher was like using a precision instrument to open crates, but the family decided not to interfere.", "Thomas Bernhard, more critically, wrote of this period in Wittgenstein's life: \"the multi-millionaire as a village schoolmaster is surely a piece of perversity.", "\"=== Teaching posts in Austria ===In the summer of 1920, Wittgenstein worked as a gardener for a monastery.", "At first he applied, under a false name, for a teaching post at Reichenau, was awarded the job, but he declined it when his identity was discovered.", "As a teacher, he wished to no longer be recognized as a member of the Wittgenstein family.", "In response, his brother Paul wrote: In 1920, Wittgenstein was given his first job as a primary school teacher in Trattenbach, under his real name, in a remote village of a few hundred people.", "His first letters describe it as beautiful, but in October 1921, he wrote to Russell: \"I am still at Trattenbach, surrounded, as ever, by odiousness and baseness.", "I know that human beings on the average are not worth much anywhere, but here they are much more good-for-nothing and irresponsible than elsewhere.\"", "He was soon the object of gossip among the villagers, who found him eccentric at best.", "He did not get on well with the other teachers; when he found his lodgings too noisy, he made a bed for himself in the school kitchen.", "He was an enthusiastic teacher, offering late-night extra tuition to several of the students, something that did not endear him to the parents, though some of them came to adore him; his sister Hermine occasionally watched him teach and said the students \"literally crawled over each other in their desire to be chosen for answers or demonstrations.", "\"To the less able, it seems that he became something of a tyrant.", "The first two hours of each day were devoted to mathematics, hours that Monk writes some of the pupils recalled years later with horror.", "They reported that he caned the boys and boxed their ears, and also that he pulled the girls' hair; this was not unusual at the time for boys, but for the villagers he went too far in doing it to the girls too; girls were not expected to understand algebra, much less have their ears boxed over it.", "The violence apart, Monk writes that he quickly became a village legend, shouting \"Krautsalat!\"", "(\"coleslaw\" – i.e.", "shredded cabbage) when the headmaster played the piano, and \"Nonsense!\"", "when a priest was answering children's questions.=== Publication of the ''Tractatus'' ===Ludwig Wittgenstein, schoolteacher, While Wittgenstein was living in isolation in rural Austria, the ''Tractatus'' was published to considerable interest, first in German in 1921 as ''Logisch-Philosophische Abhandlung'', part of Wilhelm Ostwald's journal ''Annalen der Naturphilosophie'', though Wittgenstein was not happy with the result and called it a pirate edition.", "Russell had agreed to write an introduction to explain why it was important, because it was otherwise unlikely to have been published: it was difficult if not impossible to understand, and Wittgenstein was unknown in philosophy.", "In a letter to Russell, Wittgenstein wrote \"The main point is the theory of what can be expressed (gesagt) by propositions – i.e.", "by language – (and, which comes to the same thing, what can be ''thought'') and what can not be expressed by propositions, but only shown (gezeigt); which, I believe, is the cardinal problem of philosophy.\"", "But Wittgenstein was not happy with Russell's help.", "He had lost faith in Russell, finding him glib and his philosophy mechanistic, and felt he had fundamentally misunderstood the ''Tractatus''.An English translation was prepared in Cambridge by Frank Ramsey, a mathematics undergraduate at King's commissioned by C. K. Ogden.", "It was Moore who suggested ''Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus'' for the title, an allusion to Baruch Spinoza's ''Tractatus Theologico-Politicus.''", "Initially there were difficulties in finding a publisher for the English edition too, because Wittgenstein was insisting it appear without Russell's introduction; Cambridge University Press turned it down for that reason.", "Finally in 1922 an agreement was reached with Wittgenstein that Kegan Paul would print a bilingual edition with Russell's introduction and the Ramsey-Ogden translation.", "This is the translation that was approved by Wittgenstein, but it is problematic in a number of ways.", "Wittgenstein's English was poor at the time, and Ramsey was a teenager who had only recently learned German, so philosophers often prefer to use a 1961 translation by David Pears and Brian McGuinness.An aim of the ''Tractatus'' is to reveal the relationship between language and the world: what can be said about it, and what can only be shown.", "Wittgenstein argues that the logical structure of language provides the limits of meaning.", "The limits of language, for Wittgenstein, are the limits of philosophy.", "Much of philosophy involves attempts to say the unsayable: \"What we can say at all can be said clearly,\" he argues.", "Anything beyond that – religion, ethics, aesthetics, the mystical – cannot be discussed.", "They are not in themselves nonsensical, but any statement about them must be.", "He wrote in the preface: \"The book will, therefore, draw a limit to thinking, or rather – not to thinking, but to the expression of thoughts; for, in order to draw a limit to thinking we should have to be able to think both sides of this limit (we should therefore have to be able to think what cannot be thought).", "\"The book is 75 pages long – \"As to the shortness of the book, I am ''awfully sorry for it'' ...", "If you were to squeeze me like a lemon you would get nothing more out of me,\" he told Ogden – and presents seven numbered propositions (1–7), with various sub-levels (1, 1.1, 1.11):# ''Die Welt ist alles, was der Fall ist''.#: The world is everything that is the case.# ''Was der Fall ist, die Tatsache, ist das Bestehen von Sachverhalten''.#: What is the case, the fact, is the existence of atomic facts.# ''Das logische Bild der Tatsachen ist der Gedanke''.#: The logical picture of the facts is the thought.# ''Der Gedanke ist der sinnvolle Satz''.#: The thought is the significant proposition.# ''Der Satz ist eine Wahrheitsfunktion der Elementarsätze''.#: Propositions are truth-functions of elementary propositions.# ''Die allgemeine Form der Wahrheitsfunktion ist: .", "Dies ist die allgemeine Form des Satzes''.#: The general form of a truth-function is: .", "This is the general form of proposition.# ''Wovon man nicht sprechen kann, darüber muß man schweigen''.#: Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent.=== Visit from Frank Ramsey, Puchberg ===Frank P. Ramsey visited Wittgenstein in Puchberg am Schneeberg in September 1923.In September 1922 he moved to a secondary school in a nearby village, Hassbach, but considered the people there just as bad – \"These people are not human ''at all'' but loathsome worms,\" he wrote to a friend – and he left after a month.", "In November he began work at another primary school, this time in Puchberg in the Schneeberg mountains.", "There, he told Russell, the villagers were \"one-quarter animal and three-quarters human.", "\"Frank P. Ramsey visited him on 17 September 1923 to discuss the ''Tractatus''; he had agreed to write a review of it for ''Mind''.", "He reported in a letter home that Wittgenstein was living frugally in one tiny whitewashed room that only had space for a bed, a washstand, a small table, and one small hard chair.", "Ramsey shared an evening meal with him of coarse bread, butter, and cocoa.", "Wittgenstein's school hours were eight to twelve or one, and he had afternoons free.", "After Ramsey returned to Cambridge a long campaign began among Wittgenstein's friends to persuade him to return to Cambridge and away from what they saw as a hostile environment for him.", "He was accepting no help even from his family.", "Ramsey wrote to John Maynard Keynes: === Teaching continues, Otterthal; Standard Austrian German; Haidbauer incident ===Wittgenstein, 1925He moved schools again in September 1924, this time to Otterthal, near Trattenbach; the socialist headmaster, Josef Putre, was someone Wittgenstein had become friends with while at Trattenbach.", "While he was there, he wrote a 42-page pronunciation and spelling dictionary for the children, ''Wörterbuch für Volksschulen'', published in Vienna in 1926 by Hölder-Pichler-Tempsky, the only book of his apart from the ''Tractatus'' that was published in his lifetime.", "A first edition sold in 2005 for £75,000.In 2020, an English version entitled ''Word Book'' translated by art historian Bettina Funcke and illustrated by artist / publisher Paul Chan was released.", "The ''Wörterbuch für Volksschulen'' is remarkable for its pluricentric conceptualization, decades before such linguistic approach existed.", "In Wittgenstein's preface to the ''Wörterbuch'', which was withheld at the publisher's request but which survives in a 1925 typescript, Wittgenstein takes a clear stance for a Standard Austrian German, which he aimed to document for elementary pupils in the text.", "Wittgenstein states (translated from the German) thatThe dictionary should include only words, but all such words, that are known to Austrian elementary students.", "Therefore it excludes many a good German word unusual in Austria.Wittgenstein is through his school dictionary one of the earliest proponents of a German with more than one standard variety.", "This is especially noteworthy in the German language context, in which expert debates over the status and relevance of standard varieties are so common that some speak of a One Standard German Axiom in that field today.", "Wittgenstein was taking a stance for multiple standards, against such an axiom, long before these debates ensued.An incident occurred in April 1926 and became known as ''Der Vorfall Haidbauer'' (the Haidbauer incident).", "Josef Haidbauer was an 11-year-old pupil whose father had died and whose mother worked as a local maid.", "He was a slow learner, and one day Wittgenstein hit him two or three times on the head, causing him to collapse.", "Wittgenstein carried him to the headmaster's office, then quickly left the school, bumping into a parent, Herr Piribauer, on the way out.", "Piribauer had been sent for by the children when they saw Haidbauer collapse; Wittgenstein had previously pulled Piribauer's daughter, Hermine, so hard by the ears that her ears had bled.", "Piribauer said that when he met Wittgenstein in the hall that day: Piribauer tried to have Wittgenstein arrested, but the village's police station was empty, and when he tried again the next day he was told Wittgenstein had disappeared.", "On 28 April 1926, Wittgenstein handed in his resignation to Wilhelm Kundt, a local school inspector, who tried to persuade him to stay; however, Wittgenstein was adamant that his days as a schoolteacher were over.", "Proceedings were initiated in May, and the judge ordered a psychiatric report; in August 1926 a letter to Wittgenstein from a friend, Ludwig Hänsel, indicates that hearings were ongoing, but nothing is known about the case after that.", "Alexander Waugh writes that Wittgenstein's family and their money may have had a hand in covering things up.", "Waugh writes that Haidbauer died shortly afterwards of haemophilia; Monk says he died when he was 14 of leukaemia.Ten years later, in 1936, as part of a series of \"confessions\" he engaged in that year, Wittgenstein appeared without warning at the village saying he wanted to confess personally and ask for pardon from the children he had hit.", "He visited at least four of the children, including Hermine Piribauer, who apparently replied only with a \"Ja, ja,\" though other former students were more hospitable.", "Monk writes that the purpose of these confessions was notOf the apologies, Wittgenstein wrote, === The Vienna Circle ===The ''Tractatus'' was now the subject of much debate amongst philosophers, and Wittgenstein was a figure of increasing international fame.", "In particular, a discussion group of philosophers, scientists, and mathematicians, known as the Vienna Circle, had developed purportedly as a result of the inspiration they had been given by reading the ''Tractatus''.", "While it is commonly assumed that Wittgenstein was a part of the Vienna Circle, in reality, this was not the case.", "German philosopher Oswald Hanfling writes bluntly: \"Wittgenstein was never a member of the Circle, though he was in Vienna during much of the time.", "Yet his influence on the Circle's thought was at least as important as that of any of its members.\"", "Philosopher A. C. Grayling, however, contends that while certain superficial similarities between Wittgenstein's early philosophy and logical positivism led its members to study the ''Tractatus'' in detail and to arrange discussions with him, Wittgenstein's influence on the Circle was rather limited.", "The fundamental philosophical views of Circle had been established before they met Wittgenstein and had their origins in the British empiricists, Ernst Mach, and the logic of Frege and Russell.", "Whatever influence Wittgenstein did have on the Circle was largely limited to Moritz Schlick and Friedrich Waismann and, even in these cases, had little lasting effect on their positivism.", "Grayling states that \"it is no longer possible to think of the ''Tractatus'' as having inspired a philosophical movement, as most earlier commentators claimed.", "\"From 1926, Wittgenstein took part in many discussions with the members of the Vienna Circle.", "During these discussions it soon became evident that Wittgenstein held a different attitude towards philosophy from the members of the Circle.", "For example, during meetings of the Vienna Circle, he would express his disagreement with the group's misreading of his work by turning his back to them and reading poetry aloud.", "In his autobiography, Rudolf Carnap describes Wittgenstein as the thinker who most inspired him.", "However, he also wrote that \"there was a striking difference between Wittgenstein's attitude toward philosophical problems and that of Schlick and myself.", "Our attitude toward philosophical problems was not very different from that which scientists have toward their problems.\"", "As for Wittgenstein:=== Haus Wittgenstein ===Wittgenstein worked on Haus Wittgenstein between 1926 and 1929.In 1926 Wittgenstein was again working as a gardener for a number of months, this time at the monastery of Hütteldorf, where he had also inquired about becoming a monk.", "His sister, Margaret, invited him to help with the design of her new townhouse in Vienna's ''Kundmanngasse''.", "Wittgenstein, his friend Paul Engelmann, and a team of architects developed a spare modernist house.", "In particular, Wittgenstein focused on the windows, doors, and radiators, demanding that every detail be exactly as he specified.", "When the house was nearly finished Wittgenstein had an entire ceiling raised 30 mm so that the room had the exact proportions he wanted.", "Monk writes that \"This is not so marginal as it may at first appear, for it is precisely these details that lend what is otherwise a rather plain, even ugly house its distinctive beauty.", "\"It took him a year to design the door handles and another to design the radiators.", "Each window was covered by a metal screen that weighed , moved by a pulley Wittgenstein designed.", "Bernhard Leitner, author of ''The Architecture of Ludwig Wittgenstein'', said there is barely anything comparable in the history of interior design: \"It is as ingenious as it is expensive.", "A metal curtain that could be lowered into the floor.", "\"The house was finished by December 1928 and the family gathered there at Christmas to celebrate its completion.", "Wittgenstein's sister Hermine wrote: \"Even though I admired the house very much.", "...", "It seemed indeed to be much more a dwelling for the gods.\"", "Wittgenstein said \"the house I built for Gretl is the product of a decidedly sensitive ear and ''good'' manners, and expression of great ''understanding''...", "But ''primordial'' life, wild life striving to erupt into the open – that is lacking.\"", "Monk comments that the same might be said of the technically excellent, but austere, terracotta sculpture Wittgenstein had modelled of Marguerite Respinger in 1926, and that, as Russell first noticed, this \"wild life striving to be in the open\" was precisely the substance of Wittgenstein's philosophical work." ], [ "1929–1941: Fellowship at Cambridge", "=== PhD and fellowship ===Ludwig Wittgenstein, 1930According to Feigl (as reported by Monk), upon attending a conference in Vienna by mathematician L. E. J. Brouwer, Wittgenstein remained quite impressed, taking into consideration the possibility of a \"return to Philosophy\".", "At the urging of Ramsey and others, Wittgenstein returned to Cambridge in 1929.Keynes wrote in a letter to his wife: \"Well, God has arrived.", "I met him on the 5.15 train.\"", "Despite this fame, he could not initially work at Cambridge as he did not have a degree, so he applied as an advanced undergraduate.", "Russell noted that his previous residency was sufficient to fulfill eligibility requirements for a PhD, and urged him to offer the ''Tractatus'' as his thesis.", "It was examined in 1929 by Russell and Moore; at the end of the thesis defence, Wittgenstein clapped the two examiners on the shoulder and said, '\"Don't worry, I know you'll never understand it.\"", "Moore wrote in the examiner's report: \"I myself consider that this is a work of genius; but, even if I am completely mistaken and it is nothing of the sort, it is well above the standard required for the Ph.D.", "degree.\"", "Wittgenstein was appointed as a lecturer and was made a fellow of Trinity College.=== Anschluss ===Photograph showing Wittgenstein's house in Norway, sent by Wittgenstein to G. E. Moore, October 1936From 1936 to 1937, Wittgenstein lived again in Norway, where he worked on the ''Philosophical Investigations''.", "In the winter of 1936/7, he delivered a series of \"confessions\" to close friends, most of them about minor infractions like white lies, in an effort to cleanse himself.", "In 1938, he travelled to Ireland to visit Maurice O'Connor Drury, a friend who became a psychiatrist, and considered such training himself, with the intention of abandoning philosophy for it.", "The visit to Ireland was at the same time a response to the invitation of the then Irish Taoiseach, Éamon de Valera, himself a former mathematics teacher.", "De Valera hoped Wittgenstein's presence would contribute to the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies which he was soon to set up.While he was in Ireland in March 1938, Germany annexed Austria in the ''Anschluss''; the Viennese Wittgenstein was now a Jew under the 1935 Nuremberg racial laws, because three of his grandparents had been born as Jews.", "He would also, in July, become by law a citizen of the enlarged Germany.The Nuremberg Laws classified people as Jews (''Volljuden'') if they had three or four Jewish grandparents, and as mixed blood (''Mischling'') if they had one or two.", "It meant ''inter alia'' that the Wittgensteins were restricted in whom they could marry or have sex with, and where they could work.After the Anschluss, his brother Paul left almost immediately for England, and later the US.", "The Nazis discovered his relationship with Hilde Schania, a brewer's daughter with whom he had had two children but whom he had never married, though he did later.", "Because she was not Jewish, he was served with a summons for ''Rassenschande'' (racial defilement).", "He told no one he was leaving the country, except for Hilde who agreed to follow him.", "He left so suddenly and quietly that for a time people believed he was the fourth Wittgenstein brother to have committed suicide.Wittgenstein began to investigate acquiring British or Irish citizenship with the help of Keynes, and apparently had to confess to his friends in England that he had earlier misrepresented himself to them as having just one Jewish grandparent, when in fact he had three.A few days before the invasion of Poland, Hitler personally granted ''Mischling'' status to the Wittgenstein siblings.", "In 1939 there were 2,100 applications for this, and Hitler granted only 12.Anthony Gottlieb writes that the pretext was that their paternal grandfather had been the bastard son of a German prince, which allowed the Reichsbank to claim foreign currency, stocks and 1700 kg of gold held in Switzerland by a Wittgenstein family trust.", "Gretl, an American citizen by marriage, started the negotiations over the racial status of their grandfather, and the family's large foreign currency reserves were used as a bargaining tool.", "Paul had escaped to Switzerland and then the US in July 1938, and disagreed with the negotiations, leading to a permanent split between the siblings.", "After the war, when Paul was performing in Vienna, he did not visit Hermine who was dying there, and he had no further contact with Ludwig or Gretl.=== Professor of philosophy ===After G. E. Moore resigned the chair in philosophy in 1939, Wittgenstein was elected.", "He was naturalised as a British subject shortly after on 12 April 1939.In July 1939 he travelled to Vienna to assist Gretl and his other sisters, visiting Berlin for one day to meet an official of the Reichsbank.", "After this, he travelled to New York to persuade Paul, whose agreement was required, to back the scheme.", "The required ''Befreiung'' was granted in August 1939.The unknown amount signed over to the Nazis by the Wittgenstein family, a week or so before the outbreak of war, included amongst many other assets 1,700 kg of gold.", "There is a report Wittgenstein visited Moscow a second time in 1939, travelling from Berlin, and again met the philosopher Sophia Janowskaya.Norman Malcolm, at the time a post-graduate research fellow at Cambridge, describes his first impressions of Wittgenstein in 1938: Describing Wittgenstein's lecture programme, Malcolm continues: After work, the philosopher would often relax by watching Westerns, where he preferred to sit at the very front of the cinema, or reading detective stories especially the ones written by Norbert Davis.", "Norman Malcolm wrote that Wittgenstein would rush to the cinema when class ended.By this time, Wittgenstein's view on the foundations of mathematics had changed considerably.", "In his early 20s, Wittgenstein had thought logic could provide a solid foundation, and he had even considered updating Russell and Whitehead's ''Principia Mathematica''.", "Now he denied there were any mathematical facts to be discovered.", "He gave a series of lectures on mathematics, discussing this and other topics, documented in a book, with lectures by Wittgenstein and discussions between him and several students, including the young Alan Turing who described Wittgenstein as ''\"a ''very'' peculiar man\"''.", "The two had many discussions about the relationship between computational logic and everyday notions of truth.Wittgenstein's lectures from this period have also been discussed by another of his students, the Greek philosopher and educator Helle Lambridis.", "Wittgenstein's teachings in the years 1940–1941 are used in the mid-1950s by Lambridis to write a long text in the form of an imagined dialogue with him, where she begins to develop her own ideas about resemblance in relation to language, elementary concepts and basic-level mental images.", "Initially only a part of it was published in 1963 in the German education theory review ''Club Voltaire'', but the entire imagined dialogue with Wittgenstein was published after Lambridis's death by her archive holder, the Academy of Athens, in 2004." ], [ "1941–1947: Guy's Hospital and Royal Victoria Infirmary", "Monk writes that Wittgenstein found it intolerable that a war (World War II) was going on and he was teaching philosophy.", "He grew angry when any of his students wanted to become professional philosophers.In September 1941, he asked John Ryle, the brother of the philosopher Gilbert Ryle, if he could get a manual job at Guy's Hospital in London.", "John Ryle was professor of medicine at Cambridge and had been involved in helping Guy's prepare for the Blitz.", "Wittgenstein told Ryle he would die slowly if left at Cambridge, and he would rather die quickly.", "He started working at Guy's shortly afterwards as a dispensary porter, delivering drugs from the pharmacy to the wards where he apparently advised the patients not to take them.", "In the new year of 1942, Ryle took Wittgenstein to his home in Sussex to meet his wife who had been determined to meet him.", "His son recorded the weekend in his diary; The hospital staff were not told he was one of the world's most famous philosophers, though some of the medical staff did recognize him – at least one had attended Moral Sciences Club meetings – but they were discreet.", "\"Good God, don't tell anybody who I am!\"", "Wittgenstein begged one of them.", "Some of them nevertheless called him Professor Wittgenstein, and he was allowed to dine with the doctors.", "He wrote on 1 April 1942: \"I no longer feel any hope for the future of my life.", "It is as though I had before me nothing more than a long stretch of living death.", "I cannot imagine any future for me other than a ghastly one.", "Friendless and joyless.\"", "It was at this time that Wittgenstein had an operation at Guy's to remove a gallstone that had troubled him for some years.He had developed a friendship with Keith Kirk, a working-class teenage friend of Francis Skinner, the mathematics undergraduate he had had a relationship with until Skinner's death in 1941 from polio.", "Skinner had given up academia, thanks at least in part to Wittgenstein's influence, and had been working as a mechanic in 1939, with Kirk as his apprentice.", "Kirk and Wittgenstein struck up a friendship, with Wittgenstein giving him lessons in physics to help him pass a City and Guilds exam.", "During his period of loneliness at Guy's he wrote in his diary: \"For ten days I've heard nothing more from K, even though I pressed him a week ago for news.", "I think that he has perhaps broken with me.", "A ''tragic'' thought!\"", "Kirk had in fact got married, and they never saw one another again.While Wittgenstein was at Guy's he met Basil Reeve, a young doctor with an interest in philosophy, who, with R. T. Grant, was studying the effect of wound shock (a state associative to hypovolaemia) on air-raid casualties.", "When the Blitz ended there were fewer casualties to study.", "In November 1942, Grant and Reeve moved to the Royal Victoria Infirmary, Newcastle upon Tyne, to study road traffic and industrial casualties.", "Grant offered Wittgenstein a position as a laboratory assistant at a wage of £4 per week, and he lived in Newcastle (at 28 Brandling Park, Jesmond) from 29 April 1943 until February 1944.While there he worked and associated socially with Dr Erasmus Barlow, a great-grandson of Charles Darwin.In the summer of 1946, Wittgenstein thought often of leaving Cambridge and resigning his position as Chair.", "Wittgenstein grew further dismayed at the state of philosophy, particularly about articles published in the journal ''Mind''.", "It was around this time that Wittgenstein fell in love with Ben Richards (who was a medical student), writing in his diary, \"The only thing that my love for B. has done for me is this: it has driven the other small worries associated with my position and my work into the background.\"", "On 30 September, Wittgenstein wrote about Cambridge after his return from Swansea, \"Everything about the place repels me.", "The stiffness, the artificiality, the self-satisfaction of the people.", "The university atmosphere nauseates me.", "\"Wittgenstein had only maintained contact with Fouracre, from Guy's hospital, who had joined the army in 1943 after his marriage, only returning in 1947.Wittgenstein maintained frequent correspondence with Fouracre during his time away displaying a desire for Fouracre to return home urgently from the war.In May 1947, Wittgenstein addressed a group of Oxford philosophers for the first time at the Jowett Society.", "The discussion was on the validity of Descartes' ''Cogito ergo sum'', where Wittgenstein ignored the question and applied his own philosophical method.", "Harold Arthur Prichard who attended the event was not pleased with Wittgenstein's methods;" ], [ "1947–1951: Final years", "Wittgenstein resigned the professorship at Cambridge in 1947 to concentrate on his writing, and in 1947 and 1948 travelled to Ireland, staying at Ross's Hotel in Dublin and at a farmhouse in Redcross, County Wicklow, where he began the manuscript MS 137, volume R. Seeking solitude he moved to a holiday cottage in Rosroe overlooking Killary Harbour, Connemara owned by Drury's brother.National Botanic Gardens, Dublin, commemorating Wittgenstein's visits in the winter of 1948–1949He also accepted an invitation from Norman Malcolm, then professor at Cornell University, to stay with him and his wife for several months at Ithaca, New York.", "He made the trip in April 1949, although he told Malcolm he was too unwell to do philosophical work: \"I haven't done any work since the beginning of March & I haven't had the strength of even trying to do any.\"", "A doctor in Dublin had diagnosed anaemia and prescribed iron and liver pills.", "The details of Wittgenstein's stay in America are recounted in Norman Malcolm's ''Ludwig Wittgenstein: A Memoir''.", "During his summer in America, Wittgenstein began his epistemological discussions, in particular his engagement with philosophical scepticism, that would eventually become the final fragments ''On Certainty''.The plaque at \"Storey's End\", 76 Storey's Way, Cambridge, where Wittgenstein diedHe returned to London, where he was diagnosed with an inoperable prostate cancer, which had spread to his bone marrow.", "He spent the next two months in Vienna, where his sister Hermine died on 11 February 1950; he went to see her every day, but she was hardly able to speak or recognize him.", "\"Great loss for me and all of us,\" he wrote.", "\"Greater than I would have thought.\"", "He moved around a lot after Hermine's death staying with various friends: to Cambridge in April 1950, where he stayed with G.H.", "von Wright; to London to stay with Rush Rhees; then to Oxford to see Elizabeth Anscombe, writing to Norman Malcolm that he was hardly doing any philosophy.", "He went to Norway in August with Ben Richards, then returned to Cambridge, where on 27 November he moved into ''Storey's End'' at 76 Storey's Way, the home of his doctor, Edward Bevan, and his wife Joan; he had told them he did not want to die in a hospital, so they said he could spend his last days in their home instead.", "Joan at first was afraid of Wittgenstein, but they soon became good friends.By the beginning of 1951, it was clear that he had little time left.", "He wrote a new will in Oxford on 29 January, naming Rhees as his executor, and Anscombe and von Wright his literary administrators, and wrote to Norman Malcolm that month to say, \"My mind's completely dead.", "This isn't a complaint, for I don't really suffer from it.", "I know that life must have an end once and that mental life can cease before the rest does.\"", "In February, he returned to the Bevans' home to work on MS 175 and MS 176.These and other manuscripts were later published as ''Remarks on Colour'' and ''On Certainty''.", "He wrote to Malcolm on 16 April, 13 days before his death:=== Death ===Wittgenstein on his deathbed, 1951Death notice issued by Ludwig's familyWittgenstein began work on his final manuscript, MS 177, on 25 April 1951.It was his 62nd birthday on 26 April.", "He went for a walk the next afternoon, and wrote his last entry that day, 27 April.", "That evening, he became very ill; when his doctor told him he might live only a few days, he reportedly replied, \"Good!\".", "Joan stayed with him throughout that night, and just before losing consciousness for the last time on 28 April, he told her: \"Tell them I've had a wonderful life.\"", "Norman Malcolm describes this as a \"strangely moving utterance\".Four of Wittgenstein's former students arrived at his bedside – Ben Richards, Elizabeth Anscombe, Yorick Smythies, and Maurice O'Connor Drury.", "Anscombe and Smythies were Catholics; and, at the latter's request, a Dominican friar, Father Conrad Pepler, also attended.", "(Wittgenstein had asked for a \"priest who was not a philosopher\" and had met with Pepler several times before his death.)", "They were at first unsure what Wittgenstein would have wanted, but then remembered he had said he hoped his Catholic friends would pray for him, so they did, and he was pronounced dead shortly afterwards.Wittgenstein's grave at the Ascension Parish Burial Ground in CambridgeWittgenstein was given a Catholic burial at Ascension Parish Burial Ground in Cambridge.", "Drury later said he had been troubled ever since about whether that was the right thing to do.", "In 2015 the ledger gravestone was refurbished by the British Wittgenstein Society.On his religious views, Wittgenstein was said to be greatly interested in Catholicism, and was sympathetic to it, but did not consider himself to be a Catholic.", "According to Norman Malcolm, Wittgenstein saw Catholicism more as a way of life than as a set of beliefs he held, considering that he did not accept any religious faith.Wittgenstein was said by some commentators to be agnostic, in a qualified sense." ], [ "1953: Publication of the ''Philosophical Investigations''", "duckrabbit\", discussed in the ''Philosophical Investigations'', section XI, part IIThe ''Blue Book'', a set of notes dictated to his class at Cambridge in 1933–1934, contains the seeds of Wittgenstein's later thoughts on language and is widely read as a turning point in his philosophy of language.", "''Philosophical Investigations'' was published in two parts in 1953.Most of Part I was ready for printing in 1946, but Wittgenstein withdrew the manuscript from his publisher.", "The shorter Part II was added by his editors, Elizabeth Anscombe and Rush Rhees.", "Wittgenstein asks the reader to think of language as a multiplicity of language games within which parts of language develop and function.", "He argues that the bewitchments of philosophical problems arise from philosophers' misguided attempts to consider the meaning of words independently of their context, usage, and grammar — what he called \"language gone on holiday\".According to Wittgenstein, philosophical problems arise when language is forced from its proper home into a metaphysical environment, where all the familiar and necessary landmarks and contextual clues are removed.", "He describes this metaphysical environment as like being on frictionless ice: where the conditions are apparently perfect for a philosophically and logically perfect language, all philosophical problems can be solved without the muddying effects of everyday contexts; but where, precisely because of the lack of friction, language can in fact do no work at all.", "Wittgenstein argues that philosophers must leave the frictionless ice and return to the \"rough ground\" of ordinary language in use.", "Much of the ''Investigations'' consists of examples of how the first false steps can be avoided, so that philosophical problems are dissolved, rather than solved: \"The clarity we are aiming at is indeed ''complete'' clarity.", "But this simply means that the philosophical problems should ''completely'' disappear.\"" ], [ "Other posthumous publications", "Wittgenstein's archive of unpublished papers included 83 manuscripts, 46 typescripts and 11 dictations, amounting to an estimated 20,000 pages.", "Choosing among repeated drafts, revisions, corrections, and loose notes, editorial work has found nearly one third of the total suitable for print.", "An Internet facility hosted by the University of Bergen allows access to images of almost all the material and to search the available transcriptions.", "In 2011, two new boxes of Wittgenstein papers, thought to have been lost during the Second World War, were found.What became the ''Philosophical Investigations'' was already close to completion in 1951.Wittgenstein's three literary executors prioritized it, both because of its intrinsic importance and because he had explicitly intended publication.", "The book was published in 1953.At least three other works were more or less finished.", "Two were already \"bulky typescripts\", the ''Philosophical Remarks'' and ''Philosophical Grammar''.", "Literary (co-)executor G. H. von Wright stated, \"They are virtually completed works.", "But Wittgenstein did not publish them.\"", "The third was ''Remarks on Colour''.", "\"He wrote ''i.a.''", "a fair amount on colour concepts, and this material he did excerpt and polish, reducing it to a small compass.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "=== Assessment ===Bertrand Russell described Wittgenstein as As mentioned above, in 1999 a survey among American university and college teachers ranked the ''Investigations'' as the most important book of 20th-century philosophy, standing out as \"the one crossover masterpiece in twentieth-century philosophy, appealing across diverse specializations and philosophical orientations.\"", "The ''Investigations'' also ranked 54th on a list of most influential twentieth-century works in cognitive science prepared by the University of Minnesota's Center for Cognitive Sciences.Duncan J. Richter of the Virginia Military Institute, writing for the ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', has described Wittgenstein as \"one of the most influential philosophers of the twentieth century, and regarded by some as the most important since Immanuel Kant.\"", "Peter Hacker argues that Wittgenstein's influence on 20th-century analytical philosophy can be attributed to his early influence on the Vienna Circle and later influence on the Oxford \"ordinary language\" school and Cambridge philosophers.He is considered by some to be one of the greatest philosophers of the modern era.But despite its deep influence on analytical philosophy, Wittgenstein's work did not always gain a positive reception.", "Argentine-Canadian philosopher Mario Bunge considers that \"Wittgenstein is popularbecause he is trivial.\"", "InBunge's opinion, Wittgenstein's philosophy is trivial because it deals with unimportantproblems and ignores science.", "According to Bunge, Wittgenstein'sphilosophy of language is shallow because it ignores scientific linguistics.", "Bunge also considers Wittgenstein's philosophy of mind to be speculative because it is not informed by the scientific research performed in psychology.=== Scholarly interpretation ===There are many diverging interpretations of Wittgenstein's thought.", "In the words of his friend and colleague Georg Henrik von Wright: Since Wittgenstein's death, scholarly interpretations of his philosophy have differed.", "Scholars have differed on the continuity between the so-called '''early Wittgenstein''' and the so-called '''late'''('''r''') '''Wittgenstein''' (that is, the difference between his views expressed in the ''Tractatus'' and those in ''Philosophical Investigations''), with some seeing the two as starkly disparate and others stressing the gradual transition between the two works through analysis of Wittgenstein's unpublished papers (the ''Nachlass'').==== The New Wittgenstein ====One significant debate in Wittgenstein scholarship concerns the work of interpreters who are referred to under the banner of The New Wittgenstein school such as Cora Diamond, Alice Crary, and James F. Conant.", "While the ''Tractatus'', particularly in its conclusion, seems paradoxical and self-undermining, New Wittgenstein scholars advance a \"therapeutic\" understanding of Wittgenstein's work – \"an understanding of Wittgenstein as aspiring, not to advance metaphysical theories, but rather to help us work ourselves out of confusions we become entangled in when philosophizing.\"", "To support this goal, the New Wittgenstein scholars propose a reading of the ''Tractatus'' as \"plain nonsense\" – arguing it does not attempt to convey a substantive philosophical project but instead simply tries to push the reader to abandon philosophical speculation.", "The therapeutic approach traces its roots to the philosophical work of John Wisdom and the review of ''The Blue Book'' written by Oets Kolk Bouwsma.The therapeutic approach is not without critics: Hans-Johann Glock argues that the \"plain nonsense\" reading of the ''Tractatus'' \"is at odds with the external evidence, writings and conversations in which Wittgenstein states that the ''Tractatus'' is committed to the idea of ineffable insight.", "\"Hans Sluga and Rupert Read have advocated a \"post-therapeutic\" or \"liberatory\" interpretation of Wittgenstein.==== Bertrand Russell ====In October 1944, Wittgenstein returned to Cambridge around the same time as did Russell, who had been living in the United States for several years.", "Russell returned to Cambridge after a backlash in America to his writings on morals and religion.", "Wittgenstein said of Russell's works to Drury:Russell made similar disparaging comments about Wittgenstein's later work:==== Saul Kripke ====Saul Kripke's 1982 book ''Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language'' contends that the central argument of Wittgenstein's ''Philosophical Investigations'' is a devastating rule-following paradox that undermines the possibility of our ever following rules in our use of language.", "Kripke writes that this paradox is \"the most radical and original sceptical problem that philosophy has seen to date.", "\"Kripke's book generated a large secondary literature, divided between those who find his sceptical problem interesting and perceptive, and others, such as John McDowell, Stanley Cavell, Gordon Baker, Peter Hacker, Colin McGinn, and Peter Winch who argue that his scepticism of meaning is a pseudo-problem that stems from a confused, selective reading of Wittgenstein.", "Kripke's position has, however, recently been defended against these and other attacks by the Cambridge philosopher Martin Kusch (2006)." ], [ "Works", "A collection of Ludwig Wittgenstein's manuscripts is held by Trinity College, Cambridge.", "* ''Logisch-Philosophische Abhandlung'', Annalen der Naturphilosophie, 14 (1921)** ''Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus'' ''TLP'', translated by C. K. Ogden (1922)* \"Some Remarks on Logical Form\" (1929), ''Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume'', Volume 9, Issue 1, 15 July 1929, pp. 162–171.", "* ''Philosophische Untersuchungen'' (1953)** * ''Bemerkungen über die Grundlagen der Mathematik'', ed.", "by G. H. von Wright, R. Rhees, and G. E. M. Anscombe (1956), a selection of his work on the philosophy of logic and mathematics between 1937 and 1944.", "** ''Remarks on the Foundations of Mathematics'', translated by G. E. M. Anscombe, rev.", "ed.", "(1978)* ''Bemerkungen über die Philosophie der Psychologie'', ed.", "G. E. M. Anscombe and G. H. von Wright (1980)** ''Remarks on the Philosophy of Psychology, Vols.", "1 and 2'', translated by G. E. M. Anscombe, ed.", "G. E. M. Anscombe and G. H. von Wright (1980), a selection of which makes up ''Zettel''.", "* ''Blue and Brown Books'' (1958), notes dictated in English to Cambridge students in 1933–1935.", "* ''Philosophische Bemerkungen'', ed.", "by Rush Rhees (1964)* ''Lectures and Conversations on Aesthetics, Psychology, and Religious Belief'', ed.", "by Y. Smythies, R. Rhees, and J. Taylor (1967)* ''Remarks on Frazer's Golden Bough'', ed.", "by R. Rhees (1967) ''Philosophical Remarks'' (1975) ''Philosophical Grammar'' (1978)* ''Bemerkungen über die Farben'', ed.", "by G. E. M. Anscombe (1977)** ''Remarks on Colour'' (1991), remarks on Goethe's ''Theory of Colours''.", "* ''On Certainty'', collection of aphorisms discussing the relation between knowledge and certainty, extremely influential in the philosophy of action (1969)* ''Culture and Value: A Selection from the Posthumous Remains'', collection of personal remarks about various cultural issues, such as religion and music, as well as critique of Søren Kierkegaard's philosophy (1984, revised edition 1998).", "* ''Zettel'', collection of Wittgenstein's thoughts in fragmentary \"diary entry\" format as with ''On Certainty'' and ''Culture and Value'' (1967).", "* ''Notebooks, 1914–1916'', translated by G. E. M. Anscombe.", "Oxford: Basil Blackwell; New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1961.", "* ''Private Notebooks, 1914–1916'', translated by Marjorie Perloff.", "New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2022.", "* ''The Big Typescript: TS 213 German-English Scholars' Edition''.", "Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.Unpublished typescript from 1933, written between the ''Tractatus'' and ''Philosophical Investigations''* ''Movements of Thought: Ludwig Wittgenstein's Diary, 1930-1932 and 1936-1937''.", "New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2023.", "* ''Public and Private Occasions''.", "New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2003.;Works online* ''Wittgenstein: Gesamtbriefwechsel/Complete Correspondence''.", "Innsbrucker Electronic Edition: ''Ludwig Wittgenstein: Gesamtbriefwechsel/Complete Correspondence'' contains Wittgenstein's collected correspondence, edited under the auspices of the Brenner-Archiv's Research Institute (University of Innsbruck).", "Editors (first edition): Monika Seekircher, Brian McGuinness and Anton Unterkircher.", "Editors (second edition): Anna Coda, Gabriel Citron, Barbara Halder, Allan Janik, Ulrich Lobis, Kerstin Mayr, Brian McGuinness, Michael Schorner, Monika Seekircher and Joseph Wang.", "* ''Wittgensteins Nachlass''.", "The Bergen Electronic Edition: The collection includes all of Wittgenstein's unpublished manuscripts, typescripts, dictations, and most of his notebooks.", "The Nachlass was catalogued by G. H. von Wright in his \"The Wittgenstein Papers\", first published in 1969, and later updated and included as a chapter with the same title in his book ''Wittgenstein'', published by Blackwell (and by the University of Minnesota Press in the U.S.) in 1982.", "* Review of P. Coffey's ''Science of Logic'' (1913): a polemical book review, written in 1912 for the March 1913 issue of ''The Cambridge Review'' when Wittgenstein was an undergraduate studying with Russell.", "The review is the earliest public record of Wittgenstein's philosophical views.", "* ''Nachlass'' online* * ''Bemerkungen über die Farben (Remarks on Colour)''* \" Some Remarks on Logical Form\"* Cambridge (1932–3) lecture notes" ], [ "See also", " Definitions of philosophy* International Wittgenstein Symposium* Paul Horwich's views on the Antiphilosophy of Wittgenstein" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * pp.", "51ff* * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "=== Bergen and Cambridge archives === Wittgenstein Archives at the University of Bergen .", "Retrieved 16 September 2010.:* Wittgenstein News, University of Bergen.", "Retrieved 16 September 2010.:* Wittgenstein Source, University of Bergen.", "Retrieved 16 September 2010.", "* The Cambridge Wittgenstein Archive.", "Retrieved 16 September 2010.=== Papers about his ''Nachlass'' ===* Via HAL archives-ouvertes.fr Via zenodo* Von Wright, G.H.", "\"The Wittgenstein Papers\", ''The Philosophical Review''.", "78, 1969.=== Other ===* Agassi, J.", "''Ludwig Wittgenstein's Philosophical Investigations: An Attempt at a Critical Rationalist Appraisal''.", "Cham: Springer, 2018, Synthese Library, vol.", "401.", "* Baker, G.P.", "and Hacker, P. M. S. ''Wittgenstein: Understanding and Meaning''.", "Blackwell, 1980.", "* Baker, G.P.", "and Hacker, P. M. S. ''Wittgenstein: Rules, Grammar, and Necessity''.", "Blackwell, 1985.", "* Baker, G.P.", "and Hacker, P. M. S. ''Wittgenstein: Meaning and Mind''.", "Blackwell, 1990.", "* Baker, Gordon P., and Katherine J. Morris.", "''Wittgenstein's Method: Neglected Aspects: Essays on Wittgenstein.''", "Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004.", "* * Brockhaus, Richard R. ''Pulling Up the Ladder: The Metaphysical Roots of Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus''.", "Open Court, 1990.", "* Conant, James F. \"Putting Two and Two Together: Kierkegaard, Wittgenstein, and the Point of View for Their Work as Authors\" in ''The Grammar of Religious Belief'', edited by D.Z.", "Phillips.", "St. Martins Press, NY: 1996* * * * * * Engelmann, Paul.", "''Letters from Ludwig Wittgenstein With a Memoir''.", "Blackwell, 1967; New York: Horizon Press, 1968.The memoir is reprinted in F. A.", "Flowers III and Ian Ground, eds., ''Portraits of Wittgenstein'', ch.", "20 (2015) 1999, and ''Portraits of Wittgenstein: Abridged Edition'', ch.", "13 (2018).", "Bloomsbury Academic.", "* * * * Hacker, P. M. S. ''Insight and Illusion: Themes in the Philosophy of Wittgenstein''.", "Clarendon Press, 1986.", "* Hacker, P. M. S. \"Wittgenstein, Ludwig Josef Johann\", in Ted Honderich (ed.).", "''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy''.", "Oxford University Press, 1995.", "* Hacker, P. M. S. ''Wittgenstein's Place in Twentieth Century Analytic Philosophy''.", "Blackwell, 1996.", "* Hacker, P. M. S. ''Wittgenstein: Mind and Will''.", "Blackwell, 1996.", "Holt, Jim, \"Positive Thinking\" (review of Karl Sigmund, ''Exact Thinking in Demented Times: The Vienna Circle and the Epic Quest for the Foundations of Science'', Basic Books, 449 pp.", "), ''The New York Review of Books'', vol.", "LXIV, no.", "20 (21 December 2017), pp. 74–76.", " Jormakka, Kari.", "\"The Fifth Wittgenstein\", ''Datutop'' 24, 2004, a discussion of the connection between Wittgenstein's architecture and his philosophy.", "* * Klagge, James C. ''Wittgenstein's Artillery: Philosophy as Poetry''.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 2021.", "* * Levy, Paul.", "''Moore: G.E.", "Moore and the Cambridge Apostles''.", "Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1979.", "* Luchte, James.", "\"Under the Aspect of Time (\"sub specie temporis\"): Heidegger, Wittgenstein, and the Place of the Nothing\", ''Philosophy Today'', Volume 53, Number 2 (Spring, 2009)* Lurie, Yuval.", "''Wittgenstein on the Human Spirit.''.", "Rodopi, 2012.", "* Macarthur, David.", "\"Working on Oneself in Philosophy and Architecture: A Perfectionist Reading of the Wittgenstein House.\"", "''Architectural Theory Review'', vol.", "19, no.", "2 (2014): 124–140.", "* Padilla Gálvez, J., ''Wittgenstein, from a New Point of View''.", "Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 2003..* Padilla Gálvez, J., ''Philosophical Anthropology.", "Wittgenstein's Perspectives''.", "Frankfurt a. M.: Ontos Verlag, 2010..* Pears, David F. \"A Special Supplement: The Development of Wittgenstein's Philosophy\", ''The New York Review of Books'', 10 July 1969.", "* Pears, David F. ''The False Prison: A Study of the Development of Wittgenstein's Philosophy'', Volumes 1 and 2.Oxford University Press, 1987 and 1988.", "* * Perloff, Marjorie (2016).", "\"Becoming a 'Different' Person: Wittgenstein's 'Gospels'\", in Perloff, Marjorie, ''Edge of Irony: Modernism in the Shadow of the Habsburg Empire''.", "Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.", "* * Pitcher, George.", "''The Philosophy of Wittgenstein''.", "Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964.", "* Richter, Duncan J.", "\"Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951)\", ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 30 August 2004.Retrieved 16 September 2010.", "* Rizzo, Francesco, \"Kauffman lettore di Wittgenstein\", Università degli studi di Palermo, Palermo, 2017.", "* Scheman, Naomi and O'Connor, Peg (eds.).", "''Feminist Interpretations of Ludwig Wittgenstein''.", "Penn State Press, 2002.", "* Schönbaumsfeld, Genia.", "''A Confusion of the Spheres: Kierkegaard and Wittgenstein on Philosophy and Religion''.", "Oxford University Press, 2007.", "* * Shyam Wuppuluri, N. C. A. da Costa (eds.", "), \"''Wittgensteinian'' (adj.", "): Looking at the World from the Viewpoint of Wittgenstein's Philosophy\" Springer – The Frontiers Collection, 2019.Foreword by A. C.", "Grayling.", "* Temelini, Michael.", "''Wittgenstein and the Study of Politics''.", "Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2015.", "* * Xanthos, Nicolas, \"Wittgenstein's Language Games\", in Louis Hebert (dir.", "), ''Signo'' (online), Rimouski (Quebec, Canada), 2006.=== Works referencing Wittgenstein ===* Doctorow, E. L. ''City of God''.", "Plume, 2001, depicts an imaginary rivalry between Wittgenstein and Einstein.", "* Doxiadis, Apostolos and Papadimitriou, Christos.", "''Logicomix''.", "Bloomsbury, 2009.", "* Duffy, Bruce.", "''The World as I Found It''.", "Ticknor & Fields, 1987, a fictionalized account of Wittgenstein's life.", "* Jarman, Derek.", "''Wittgenstein'', a biopic of Wittgenstein with a script by Terry Eagleton, British Film Institute, 1993.", "* Kerr, Philip.", "''A Philosophical Investigation'', Chatto & Windus, 1992, a dystopian thriller set in 2012.", "* Markson, David.", "''Wittgenstein's Mistress''.", "Dalkey Archive Press, 1988, an experimental novel, a first-person account of what it would be like to live in the world of the ''Tractatus''.", "* Tully, James.", "''Strange Multiplicity: Constitutionalism in an Age of Diversity''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995* Wallace, David Foster.", "''The Broom of the System''.", "Penguin Books, 1987, a novel." ], [ "External links", "* * * C.K.", "Ogden's English translation of ''Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus'' (Gutenberg)* * * Works by Ludwig Wittgenstein at The Ludwig Wittgenstein Project* * * * Trinity College Chapel* * BBC Radio 4 programme on Wittgenstein, broadcast 13 December 2011* \"A. J. Ayer's Critique of Wittgenstein's Private Language Argument\"* Wittgenstein, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Ray Monk, Barry Smith & Marie McGinn (''In Our Time'', 4 December 2003)*In Our Time, Ludwig Wittgenstein, broadcast 4 December 2003 on BBC Radio 4 ''The Significance of Ontology in Epistemological Research'' – Hannah Arendt Memorial Lecture, 1980* ''Wittgenstein's Jet'' BBC Radio 4 programme Broadcast Friday 2 January 2015 * GB Patent GB191027087A: ''Improvements in Propellers applicable for Aerial Machines'', 1910 Espacenet" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Low Saxon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Low Saxon''' (), also known as '''West Low German''' () are a group of Low German dialects spoken in parts of the Netherlands, northwestern Germany and southern Denmark (in North Schleswig by parts of the German-speaking minority).", "It is one of two dialect groups, the other being East Low German." ], [ "Extent", "The language area comprises the North German states of Lower Saxony, North Rhine-Westphalia (the Westphalian part), Bremen, Hamburg, Schleswig-Holstein and Saxony-Anhalt (the northwestern areas around Magdeburg) as well as the northeast of the Netherlands (i.e.", "Dutch Low Saxon, spoken in Groningen, Drenthe, Overijssel and northern Gelderland) and the Schleswigsch dialect spoken by the North Schleswig Germans in the southernmost part of Denmark.In the south the Benrath line and Uerdingen line isoglosses form the border with the area, where West Central German variants of High German are spoken." ], [ "List of dialects", "===Germany===West Low GermanWestphalian, including the region around Münster and the Osnabrück region of Lower SaxonyEastphalian, spoken in southeastern Lower Saxony (Hanover, Braunschweig, Göttingen) and in the Magdeburg Börde regionNorthern Low SaxonEast Frisian Low Saxon in East FrisiaDithmarsischSchleswigischHolsteinisch*HamburgischNordhannoverschEmsländischOldenburgisch in the Oldenburg regionLow Saxon language area in the Netherlands===Netherlands===While Dutch is a Low Franconian language, the Dutch Low Saxon varieties form a dialect continuum with Westphalian.", "They consist of: West Low German, divided into: Gronings Drents Stellingwerfs Sallands West-Overijssels Twents Achterhoeks Veluws===Denmark===* West Low German Northern Low Saxon* Schleswigsch dialect spoken in former South Jutland County (the northern part of the former Duchy of Schleswig) around Aabenraa (''Apenrade'')" ], [ "Situation in the Netherlands", "A 2005 study found that there were approximately 1.8 million \"daily speakers\" of Low Saxon in the Netherlands.", "53% spoke Low Saxon or Low Saxon and Dutch at home and 71% could speak it.", "According to another study the percentage of speakers among parents dropped from 34% in 1995 to 15% in 2011.The percentage of speakers among their children dropped from 8% to 2% in the same period." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lanthanum" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lanthanum''' is a chemical element; it has symbol '''La''' and atomic number 57.It is a soft, ductile, silvery-white metal that tarnishes slowly when exposed to air.", "It is the eponym of the lanthanide series, a group of 15 similar elements between lanthanum and lutetium in the periodic table, of which lanthanum is the first and the prototype.", "Lanthanum is traditionally counted among the rare earth elements.", "Like most other rare earth elements, the usual oxidation state is +3, although some compounds are known with an oxidation state of +2.Lanthanum has no biological role in humans but is essential to some bacteria.", "It is not particularly toxic to humans but does show some antimicrobial activity.Lanthanum usually occurs together with cerium and the other rare earth elements.", "Lanthanum was first found by the Swedish chemist Carl Gustaf Mosander in 1839 as an impurity in cerium nitrate – hence the name ''lanthanum'', from the Ancient Greek (), meaning 'to lie hidden'.", "Although it is classified as a rare earth element, lanthanum is the 28th most abundant element in the Earth's crust, almost three times as abundant as lead.", "In minerals such as monazite and bastnäsite, lanthanum composes about a quarter of the lanthanide content.", "It is extracted from those minerals by a process of such complexity that pure lanthanum metal was not isolated until 1923.Lanthanum compounds have numerous applications as catalysts, additives in glass, carbon arc lamps for studio lights and projectors, ignition elements in lighters and torches, electron cathodes, scintillators, gas tungsten arc welding electrodes, and other things.", "Lanthanum carbonate is used as a phosphate binder in cases of high levels of phosphate in the blood seen with kidney failure." ], [ "Characteristics", "===Physical===Lanthanum is the first element and prototype of the lanthanide series.", "In the periodic table, it appears to the right of the alkaline earth metal barium and to the left of the lanthanide cerium.", "Lanthanum is generally considered the first of the f-block elements by authors writing on the subject.", "The 57 electrons of a lanthanum atom are arranged in the configuration Xe5d16s2, with three valence electrons outside the noble gas core.", "In chemical reactions, lanthanum almost always gives up these three valence electrons from the 5d and 6s subshells to form the +3 oxidation state, achieving the stable configuration of the preceding noble gas xenon.", "Some lanthanum(II) compounds are also known, but they are usually much less stable.", "Lanthanum monoxide (LaO) produces strong absorption bands in some stellar spectra.Among the lanthanides, lanthanum is exceptional as it has no 4f electrons as a single gas-phase atom.", "Thus it is only very weakly paramagnetic, unlike the strongly paramagnetic later lanthanides (with the exceptions of the last two, ytterbium and lutetium, where the 4f shell is completely full).", "However, the 4f shell of lanthanum can become partially occupied in chemical environments and participate in chemical bonding.", "For example, the melting points of the trivalent lanthanides (all but europium and ytterbium) are related to the extent of hybridisation of the 6s, 5d, and 4f electrons (lowering with increasing 4f involvement), and lanthanum has the second-lowest melting point among them: 920 °C.", "(Europium and ytterbium have lower melting points because they delocalise about two electrons per atom rather than three.)", "This chemical availability of f orbitals justifies lanthanum's placement in the f-block despite its anomalous ground-state configuration (which is merely the result of strong interelectronic repulsion making it less profitable to occupy the 4f shell, as it is small and close to the core electrons).The lanthanides become harder as the series is traversed: as expected, lanthanum is a soft metal.", "Lanthanum has a relatively high resistivity of 615 nΩm at room temperature; in comparison, the value for the good conductor aluminium is only 26.50 nΩm.", "Lanthanum is the least volatile of the lanthanides.", "Like most of the lanthanides, lanthanum has a hexagonal crystal structure at room temperature.", "At 310 °C, lanthanum changes to a face-centered cubic structure, and at 865 °C, it changes to a body-centered cubic structure.===Chemical===As expected from periodic trends, lanthanum has the largest atomic radius of the lanthanides.", "Hence, it is the most reactive among them, tarnishing quite rapidly in air, turning completely dark after several hours and can readily burn to form lanthanum(III) oxide, La2O3, which is almost as basic as calcium oxide.", "A centimeter-sized sample of lanthanum will corrode completely in a year as its oxide spalls off like iron rust, instead of forming a protective oxide coating like aluminium, scandium, yttrium, and lutetium.", "Lanthanum reacts with the halogens at room temperature to form the trihalides, and upon warming will form binary compounds with the nonmetals nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, phosphorus, boron, selenium, silicon and arsenic.", "Lanthanum reacts slowly with water to form lanthanum(III) hydroxide, La(OH)3.In dilute sulfuric acid, lanthanum readily forms the aquated tripositive ion : this is colorless in aqueous solution since La3+ has no d or f electrons.", "Lanthanum is the strongest and hardest base among the rare earth elements, which is again expected from its being the largest of them.Some lanthanum(II) compounds are also known, but they are much less stable.", "Therefore, in officially naming compounds of lanthanum its oxidation number always is to be mentioned.===Isotopes===Excerpt from the chart of nuclides showing stable isotopes (black) from barium () to neodymium ()Naturally occurring lanthanum is made up of two isotopes, the stable 139La and the primordial long-lived radioisotope 138La.", "139La is by far the most abundant, making up 99.910% of natural lanthanum: it is produced in the s-process (slow neutron capture, which occurs in low- to medium-mass stars) and the r-process (rapid neutron capture, which occurs in core-collapse supernovae).", "It is the only stable isotope of lanthanum.", "The very rare isotope 138La is one of the few primordial odd–odd nuclei, with a long half-life of 1.05×1011 years.", "It is one of the proton-rich p-nuclei which cannot be produced in the s- or r-processes.", "138La, along with the even rarer 180mTa, is produced in the ν-process, where neutrinos interact with stable nuclei.", "All other lanthanum isotopes are synthetic: with the exception of 137La with a half-life of about 60,000 years, all of them have half-lives less than two days, and most have half-lives less than a minute.", "The isotopes 139La and 140La occur as fission products of uranium." ], [ "Compounds", "Lanthanum oxide is a white solid that can be prepared by direct reaction of its constituent elements.", "Due to the large size of the La3+ ion, La2O3 adopts a hexagonal 7-coordinate structure that changes to the 6-coordinate structure of scandium oxide (Sc2O3) and yttrium oxide (Y2O3) at high temperature.", "When it reacts with water, lanthanum hydroxide is formed: a lot of heat is evolved in the reaction and a hissing sound is heard.", "Lanthanum hydroxide will react with atmospheric carbon dioxide to form the basic carbonate.Lanthanum fluoride is insoluble in water and can be used as a qualitative test for the presence of La3+.", "The heavier halides are all very soluble deliquescent compounds.", "The anhydrous halides are produced by direct reaction of their elements, as heating the hydrates causes hydrolysis: for example, heating hydrated LaCl3 produces LaOCl.Lanthanum reacts exothermically with hydrogen to produce the dihydride LaH2, a black, pyrophoric, brittle, conducting compound with the calcium fluoride structure.", "This is a non-stoichiometric compound, and further absorption of hydrogen is possible, with a concomitant loss of electrical conductivity, until the more salt-like LaH3 is reached.", "Like LaI2 and LaI, LaH2 is probably an electride compound.Due to the large ionic radius and great electropositivity of La3+, there is not much covalent contribution to its bonding and hence it has a limited coordination chemistry, like yttrium and the other lanthanides.", "Lanthanum oxalate does not dissolve very much in alkali-metal oxalate solutions, and La(acac)3(H2O)2 decomposes around 500 °C.", "Oxygen is the most common donor atom in lanthanum complexes, which are mostly ionic and often have high coordination numbers over 6: 8 is the most characteristic, forming square antiprismatic and dodecadeltahedral structures.", "These high-coordinate species, reaching up to coordination number 12 with the use of chelating ligands such as in La2(SO4)3·9H2O, often have a low degree of symmetry because of stereo-chemical factors.Lanthanum chemistry tends not to involve π bonding due to the electron configuration of the element: thus its organometallic chemistry is quite limited.", "The best characterized organolanthanum compounds are the cyclopentadienyl complex La(C5H5)3, which is produced by reacting anhydrous LaCl3 with NaC5H5 in tetrahydrofuran, and its methyl-substituted derivatives." ], [ "History", "Carl Gustaf Mosander, the scientist who discovered lanthanum as well as terbium and erbiumIn 1751, the Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt discovered a heavy mineral from the mine at Bastnäs, later named cerite.", "Thirty years later, the fifteen-year-old Wilhelm Hisinger, from the family owning the mine, sent a sample of it to Carl Scheele, who did not find any new elements within.", "In 1803, after Hisinger had become an ironmaster, he returned to the mineral with Jöns Jacob Berzelius and isolated a new oxide which they named ''ceria'' after the dwarf planet Ceres, which had been discovered two years earlier.", "Ceria was simultaneously independently isolated in Germany by Martin Heinrich Klaproth.", "Between 1839 and 1843, ceria was shown to be a mixture of oxides by the Swedish surgeon and chemist Carl Gustaf Mosander, who lived in the same house as Berzelius and studied under him: he separated out two other oxides which he named ''lanthana'' and ''didymia''.", "He partially decomposed a sample of cerium nitrate by roasting it in air and then treating the resulting oxide with dilute nitric acid.", "That same year, Axel Erdmann, a student also at the Karolinska Institute, discovered lanthanum in a new mineral from Låven island located in a Norwegian fjord.Finally, Mosander explained his delay, saying that he had extracted a second element from cerium, and this he called didymium.", "Although he did not realise it, didymium too was a mixture, and in 1885 it was separated into praseodymium and neodymium.Since lanthanum's properties differed only slightly from those of cerium, and occurred along with it in its salts, he named it from the Ancient Greek (lit.", "''to lie hidden'').", "Relatively pure lanthanum metal was first isolated in 1923." ], [ "Occurrence and production", "Lanthanum is the third-most abundant of all the lanthanides, making up 39 mg/kg of the Earth's crust, behind neodymium at 41.5 mg/kg and cerium at 66.5 mg/kg.", "It is almost three times as abundant as lead in the Earth's crust.", "Despite being among the so-called \"rare earth metals\", lanthanum is thus not rare at all, but it is historically so named because it is rarer than \"common earths\" such as lime and magnesia, and historically only a few deposits were known.", "Lanthanum is considered a rare earth metal because the process to mine it is difficult, time-consuming, and expensive.", "Lanthanum is rarely the dominant lanthanide found in the rare earth minerals, and in their chemical formulae it is usually preceded by cerium.", "Rare examples of La-dominant minerals are monazite-(La) and lanthanite-(La).Production of Lanthanum from Monazite sandThe La3+ ion is similarly sized to the early lanthanides of the cerium group (those up to samarium and europium) that immediately follow in the periodic table, and hence it tends to occur along with them in phosphate, silicate and carbonate minerals, such as monazite (MIIIPO4) and bastnäsite (MIIICO3F), where M refers to all the rare earth metals except scandium and the radioactive promethium (mostly Ce, La, and Y).", "Bastnäsite is usually lacking in thorium and the heavy lanthanides, and the purification of the light lanthanides from it is less involved.", "The ore, after being crushed and ground, is first treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid, evolving carbon dioxide, hydrogen fluoride, and silicon tetrafluoride: the product is then dried and leached with water, leaving the early lanthanide ions, including lanthanum, in solution.The procedure for monazite, which usually contains all the rare earths as well as thorium, is more involved.", "Monazite, because of its magnetic properties, can be separated by repeated electromagnetic separation.", "After separation, it is treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid to produce water-soluble sulfates of rare earths.", "The acidic filtrates are partially neutralized with sodium hydroxide to pH 3–4.Thorium precipitates out of solution as hydroxide and is removed.", "After that, the solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to convert rare earths to their insoluble oxalates.", "The oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing.", "The oxides are dissolved in nitric acid that excludes one of the main components, cerium, whose oxide is insoluble in HNO3.Lanthanum is separated as a double salt with ammonium nitrate by crystallization.", "This salt is relatively less soluble than other rare earth double salts and therefore stays in the residue.", "Care must be taken when handling some of the residues as they contain 228Ra, the daughter of 232Th, which is a strong gamma emitter.", "Lanthanum is relatively easy to extract as it has only one neighbouring lanthanide, cerium, which can be removed by making use of its ability to be oxidised to the +4 state; thereafter, lanthanum may be separated out by the historical method of fractional crystallization of La(NO3)3·2NH4NO3·4H2O, or by ion-exchange techniques when higher purity is desired.Lanthanum metal is obtained from its oxide by heating it with ammonium chloride or fluoride and hydrofluoric acid at 300–400 °C to produce the chloride or fluoride::La2O3 + 6 NH4Cl → 2 LaCl3 + 6 NH3 + 3 H2OThis is followed by reduction with alkali or alkaline earth metals in vacuum or argon atmosphere::LaCl3 + 3 Li → La + 3 LiClAlso, pure lanthanum can be produced by electrolysis of molten mixture of anhydrous LaCl3 and NaCl or KCl at elevated temperatures." ], [ "Applications", "Coleman white gas lantern mantle burning at full brightnessThe first historical application of lanthanum was in gas lantern mantles.", "Carl Auer von Welsbach used a mixture of lanthanum oxide and zirconium oxide, which he called ''Actinophor'' and patented in 1886.The original mantles gave a green-tinted light and were not very successful, and his first company, which established a factory in Atzgersdorf in 1887, failed in 1889.Modern uses of lanthanum include: hot cathodeComparison of infrared transmittance of ZBLAN glass and silica* One material used for anodic material of nickel–metal hydride batteries is .", "Due to high cost to extract the other lanthanides, a mischmetal with more than 50% of lanthanum is used instead of pure lanthanum.", "The compound is an intermetallic component of the type.", "NiMH batteries can be found in many models of the Toyota Prius sold in the US.", "These larger nickel-metal hydride batteries require massive quantities of lanthanum for the production.", "The 2008 Toyota Prius NiMH battery requires of lanthanum.", "As engineers push the technology to increase fuel efficiency, twice that amount of lanthanum could be required per vehicle.", "* Hydrogen sponge alloys can contain lanthanum.", "These alloys are capable of storing up to 400 times their own volume of hydrogen gas in a reversible adsorption process.", "Heat energy is released every time they do so; therefore these alloys have possibilities in energy conservation systems.", "* Mischmetal, a pyrophoric alloy used in lighter flints, contains 25% to 45% lanthanum.", "* Lanthanum oxide and the boride are used in electronic vacuum tubes as hot cathode materials with strong emissivity of electrons.", "Crystals of are used in high-brightness, extended-life, thermionic electron emission sources for electron microscopes and Hall-effect thrusters.", "* Lanthanum trifluoride () is an essential component of a heavy fluoride glass named ZBLAN.", "This glass has superior transmittance in the infrared range and is therefore used for fiber-optical communication systems.", "* Cerium-doped lanthanum bromide and lanthanum chloride are the recent inorganic scintillators, which have a combination of high light yield, best energy resolution, and fast response.", "Their high yield converts into superior energy resolution; moreover, the light output is very stable and quite high over a very wide range of temperatures, making it particularly attractive for high-temperature applications.", "These scintillators are already widely used commercially in detectors of neutrons or gamma rays.", "* Carbon arc lamps use a mixture of rare earth elements to improve the light quality.", "This application, especially by the motion picture industry for studio lighting and projection, consumed about 25% of the rare-earth compounds produced until the phase out of carbon arc lamps.", "* Lanthanum(III) oxide () improves the alkali resistance of glass and is used in making special optical glasses, such as infrared-absorbing glass, as well as camera and telescope lenses, because of the high refractive index and low dispersion of rare-earth glasses.", "Lanthanum oxide is also used as a grain-growth additive during the liquid-phase sintering of silicon nitride and zirconium diboride.", "* Small amounts of lanthanum added to steel improves its malleability, resistance to impact, and ductility, whereas addition of lanthanum to molybdenum decreases its hardness and sensitivity to temperature variations.", "* Small amounts of lanthanum are present in many pool products to remove the phosphates that feed algae.", "* Lanthanum oxide additive to tungsten is used in gas tungsten arc welding electrodes, as a substitute for radioactive thorium.", "* Various compounds of lanthanum and other rare-earth elements (oxides, chlorides, triflates, etc.)", "are components of various catalysis, such as petroleum cracking catalysts.", "* Lanthanum-barium radiometric dating is used to estimate age of rocks and ores, though the technique has limited popularity.", "* Lanthanum carbonate was approved as a medication (Fosrenol, Shire Pharmaceuticals) to absorb excess phosphate in cases of hyperphosphatemia seen in end-stage kidney disease.", "* Lanthanum fluoride is used in phosphor lamp coatings.", "Mixed with europium fluoride, it is also applied in the crystal membrane of fluoride ion-selective electrodes.", "* Like horseradish peroxidase, lanthanum is used as an electron-dense tracer in molecular biology.", "* Lanthanum-modified bentonite (or phoslock) is used to remove phosphates from water in lake treatments.", "* Lanthanum telluride (La3Te4) is considered to be applied in the field of radioisotope power system (nuclear power plant) due to its significant conversion capabilities.", "The transmuted elements and isotopes in the segment will not react with the material itself, thus presenting no harm to the safety of the power plant.", "Though iodine, which can be generated during transmutation, is suspected to react with La3Te4 segment, the quantity of iodine is small enough to pose no threat to the power system." ], [ "Biological role", "Lanthanum has no known biological role in humans.", "The element is very poorly absorbed after oral administration and when injected its elimination is very slow.", "Lanthanum carbonate (Fosrenol) was approved as a phosphate binder to absorb excess phosphate in cases of end stage renal disease.While lanthanum has pharmacological effects on several receptors and ion channels, its specificity for the GABA receptor is unique among trivalent cations.", "Lanthanum acts at the same modulatory site on the GABA receptor as zinc, a known negative allosteric modulator.", "The lanthanum cation La3+ is a positive allosteric modulator at native and recombinant GABA receptors, increasing open channel time and decreasing desensitization in a subunit configuration dependent manner.Lanthanum is an essential cofactor for the methanol dehydrogenase of the methanotrophic bacterium ''Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum'' SolV, although the great chemical similarity of the lanthanides means that it may be substituted with cerium, praseodymium, or neodymium without ill effects, and with the smaller samarium, europium, or gadolinium giving no side effects other than slower growth." ], [ "Precautions", "Lanthanum has a low to moderate level of toxicity and should be handled with care.", "The injection of lanthanum solutions produces hyperglycemia, low blood pressure, degeneration of the spleen and hepatic alterations.", "The application in carbon arc light led to the exposure of people to rare earth element oxides and fluorides, which sometimes led to pneumoconiosis.", "As the La3+ ion is similar in size to the Ca2+ ion, it is sometimes used as an easily traced substitute for the latter in medical studies.", "Lanthanum, like the other lanthanides, is known to affect human metabolism, lowering cholesterol levels, blood pressure, appetite, and risk of blood coagulation.", "When injected into the brain, it acts as a painkiller, similarly to morphine and other opiates, though the mechanism behind this is still unknown.", "Lanthanum meant for ingestion, typically as a chewable tablet or oral powder, can interfere with gastrointestinal imaging by creating opacities throughout the GI tract; if chewable tablets are swallowed whole, they will dissolve but present initially as coin-shaped opacities in the stomach, potentially confused with ingested metal objects such as coins or batteries." ], [ "Prices", "The price for a (metric) ton 1000 kg of ''Lanthanum oxide 99% (FOB China in USD/Mt)'' is given by the Institute of Rare Earths Elements and Strategic Metals as below $2,000 for most of the period from early 2001 to September 2010 (at $10,000 in the short term in 2008); it rose steeply to $140,000 in mid-2011 and fell back just as rapidly to $38,000 by early 2012.The average price for the last six months (April to September 2022) is given by the Institute as follows: ''Lanthanum Oxide - 99.9%min FOB China - 1308 EUR/mt'' and for ''Lanthanum Metal - 99%min FOB China - 3706 EUR/mt''." ], [ "See also", " CASNo_Ref = CASNo = 7439–91–0 UNII_Ref = UNII = 6I3K30563S" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "" ], [ "Further reading", " ''The Industrial Chemistry of the Lanthanons, Yttrium, Thorium and Uranium'', by R. J. Callow, Pergamon Press, 1967* ''Extractive Metallurgy of Rare Earths'', by C. K. Gupta and N. Krishnamurthy, CRC Press, 2005* ''Nouveau Traite de Chimie Minerale, Vol.", "VII.", "Scandium, Yttrium, Elements des Terres Rares, Actinium'', P. Pascal, Editor, Masson & Cie, 1959* ''Chemistry of the Lanthanons'', by R. C. Vickery, Butterworths 1953" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lutetium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lutetium''' is a chemical element; it has symbol '''Lu''' and atomic number 71.It is a silvery white metal, which resists corrosion in dry air, but not in moist air.", "Lutetium is the last element in the lanthanide series, and it is traditionally counted among the rare earth elements; it can also be classified as the first element of the 6th-period transition metals.Lutetium was independently discovered in 1907 by French scientist Georges Urbain, Austrian mineralogist Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach, and American chemist Charles James.", "All of these researchers found lutetium as an impurity in the mineral ytterbia, which was previously thought to consist entirely of ytterbium.", "The dispute on the priority of the discovery occurred shortly after, with Urbain and Welsbach accusing each other of publishing results influenced by the published research of the other; the naming honor went to Urbain, as he had published his results earlier.", "He chose the name ''lutecium'' for the new element, but in 1949 the spelling was changed to ''lutetium''.", "In 1909, the priority was finally granted to Urbain and his names were adopted as official ones; however, the name ''cassiopeium'' (or later ''cassiopium'') for element 71 proposed by Welsbach was used by many German scientists until the 1950s.Lutetium is not a particularly abundant element, although it is significantly more common than silver in the Earth's crust.", "It has few specific uses.", "Lutetium-176 is a relatively abundant (2.5%) radioactive isotope with a half-life of about 38 billion years, used to determine the age of minerals and meteorites.", "Lutetium usually occurs in association with the element yttrium and is sometimes used in metal alloys and as a catalyst in various chemical reactions.", "177Lu-DOTA-TATE is used for radionuclide therapy (see Nuclear medicine) on neuroendocrine tumours.", "Lutetium has the highest Brinell hardness of any lanthanide, at 890–1300 MPa." ], [ "Characteristics", "===Physical properties===A lutetium atom has 71 electrons, arranged in the configuration Xe 4f145d16s2.Lutetium is generally encountered in the 3+ oxidation state, having lost its two outermost 6s and the single 5d-electron.", "The lutetium atom is the smallest among the lanthanide atoms, due to the lanthanide contraction, and as a result lutetium has the highest density, melting point, and hardness of the lanthanides.", "As lutetium's 4f orbitals are highly stabilized only the 5d and 6s orbitals are involved in chemical reactions and bonding; thus it is characterized as a d-block rather than an f-block element, and on this basis some consider it not to be a lanthanide at all, but a transition metal like its lighter congeners scandium and yttrium.===Chemical properties and compounds===Lutetium's compounds almost always contain the element in the 3+ oxidation state.", "Aqueous solutions of most lutetium salts are colorless and form white crystalline solids upon drying, with the common exception of the iodide, which is brown.", "The soluble salts, such as nitrate, sulfate and acetate form hydrates upon crystallization.", "The oxide, hydroxide, fluoride, carbonate, phosphate and oxalate are insoluble in water.Lutetium metal is slightly unstable in air at standard conditions, but it burns readily at 150 °C to form lutetium oxide.", "The resulting compound is known to absorb water and carbon dioxide, and it may be used to remove vapors of these compounds from closed atmospheres.", "Similar observations are made during reaction between lutetium and water (slow when cold and fast when hot); lutetium hydroxide is formed in the reaction.", "Lutetium metal is known to react with the four lightest halogens to form trihalides; except the fluoride they are soluble in water.Lutetium dissolves readily in weak acids and dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the colorless lutetium ions, which are coordinated by between seven and nine water molecules, the average being .", ":===Oxidation states===Lutetium is usually found in the +3 oxidation state, like most other lanthanides.", "However, it can also be in the 0, +1 and +2 states as well.===Isotopes===Lutetium occurs on the Earth in form of two isotopes: lutetium-175 and lutetium-176.Out of these two, only the former is stable, making the element monoisotopic.", "The latter one, lutetium-176, decays via beta decay with a half-life of ; it makes up about 2.5% of natural lutetium.To date, 40 synthetic radioisotopes of the element have been characterized, ranging in mass number from 149 to 190; the most stable such isotopes are lutetium-174 with a half-life of 3.31 years, and lutetium-173 with a half-life of 1.37 years.", "All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 9 days, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than half an hour.", "Isotopes lighter than the stable lutetium-175 decay via electron capture (to produce isotopes of ytterbium), with some alpha and positron emission; the heavier isotopes decay primarily via beta decay, producing hafnium isotopes.The element also has 43 known nuclear isomers, with masses of 150, 151, 153–162, and 166–180 (not every mass number corresponds to only one isomer).", "The most stable of them are lutetium-177m, with a half-life of 160.4 days, and lutetium-174m, with a half-life of 142 days; these are longer than the half-lives of the ground states of all radioactive lutetium isotopes except lutetium-173, 174, and 176." ], [ "History", "Lutetium, derived from the Latin ''Lutetia'' (Paris), was independently discovered in 1907 by French scientist Georges Urbain, Austrian mineralogist Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach, and American chemist Charles James.", "They found it as an impurity in ytterbia, which was thought by Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac to consist entirely of ytterbium.", "The scientists proposed different names for the elements: Urbain chose ''neoytterbium'' and ''lutecium'', whereas Welsbach chose ''aldebaranium'' and ''cassiopeium'' (after Aldebaran and Cassiopeia).", "Both of these articles accused the other man of publishing results based on those of the author.The International Commission on Atomic Weights, which was then responsible for the attribution of new element names, settled the dispute in 1909 by granting priority to Urbain and adopting his names as official ones, based on the fact that the separation of lutetium from Marignac's ytterbium was first described by Urbain; after Urbain's names were recognized, neoytterbium was reverted to ytterbium.", "An obvious issue with this decision is that Urbain was on the International Commission of Atomic Weights.", "Until the 1950s, some German-speaking chemists called lutetium by Welsbach's name, ''cassiopeium''; in 1949, the spelling of element 71 was changed to lutetium.", "The reason for this was that Welsbach's 1907 samples of lutetium had been pure, while Urbain's 1907 samples only contained traces of lutetium.", "This later misled Urbain into thinking that he had discovered element 72, which he named celtium, which was actually very pure lutetium.", "The later discrediting of Urbain's work on element 72 led to a reappraisal of Welsbach's work on element 71, so that the element was renamed to ''cassiopeium'' in German-speaking countries for some time.", "Charles James, who stayed out of the priority argument, worked on a much larger scale and possessed the largest supply of lutetium at the time.", "Pure lutetium metal was first produced in 1953." ], [ "Occurrence and production", "MonaziteFound with almost all other rare-earth metals but never by itself, lutetium is very difficult to separate from other elements.", "Its principal commercial source is as a by-product from the processing of the rare earth phosphate mineral monazite (, which has concentrations of only 0.0001% of the element, not much higher than the abundance of lutetium in the Earth crust of about 0.5 mg/kg.", "No lutetium-dominant minerals are currently known.", "The main mining areas are China, United States, Brazil, India, Sri Lanka and Australia.", "The world production of lutetium (in the form of oxide) is about 10 tonnes per year.", "Pure lutetium metal is very difficult to prepare.", "It is one of the rarest and most expensive of the rare earth metals with the price about US$10,000 per kilogram, or about one-fourth that of gold.Crushed minerals are treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid to produce water-soluble sulfates of rare earths.", "Thorium precipitates out of solution as hydroxide and is removed.", "After that the solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to convert rare earths into their insoluble oxalates.", "The oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing.", "The oxides are dissolved in nitric acid that excludes one of the main components, cerium, whose oxide is insoluble in HNO3.Several rare earth metals, including lutetium, are separated as a double salt with ammonium nitrate by crystallization.", "Lutetium is separated by ion exchange.", "In this process, rare-earth ions are sorbed onto suitable ion-exchange resin by exchange with hydrogen, ammonium or cupric ions present in the resin.", "Lutetium salts are then selectively washed out by suitable complexing agent.", "Lutetium metal is then obtained by reduction of anhydrous LuCl3 or LuF3 by either an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal.", ":" ], [ "Applications", "Because of production difficulty and high price, lutetium has very few commercial uses, especially since it is rarer than most of the other lanthanides but is chemically not very different.", "However, stable lutetium can be used as catalysts in petroleum cracking in refineries and can also be used in alkylation, hydrogenation, and polymerization applications.", "A nitrogen-doped lutetium hydride may have a role in creating room temperature superconductors at 10 kbar.Lutetium aluminium garnet () has been proposed for use as a lens material in high refractive index immersion lithography.", "Additionally, a tiny amount of lutetium is added as a dopant to gadolinium gallium garnet, which is used in magnetic bubble memory devices.", "Cerium-doped lutetium oxyorthosilicate is currently the preferred compound for detectors in positron emission tomography (PET).", "Lutetium aluminium garnet (LuAG) is used as a phosphor in light-emitting diode light bulbs.Aside from stable lutetium, its radioactive isotopes have several specific uses.", "The suitable half-life and decay mode made lutetium-176 used as a pure beta emitter, using lutetium which has been exposed to neutron activation, and in lutetium–hafnium dating to date meteorites.", "The synthetic isotope lutetium-177 bound to octreotate (a somatostatin analogue), is used experimentally in targeted radionuclide therapy for neuroendocrine tumors.", "Indeed, lutetium-177 is seeing increased usage as a radionuclide in neuroendocrine tumor therapy and bone pain palliation.", "Research indicates that lutetium-ion atomic clocks could provide greater accuracy than any existing atomic clock.Lutetium tantalate (LuTaO4) is the densest known stable white material (density 9.81 g/cm3) and therefore is an ideal host for X-ray phosphors.", "The only denser white material is thorium dioxide, with density of 10 g/cm3, but the thorium it contains is radioactive.Lutetium is also a compound of several scintillating materials, which convert X-rays to visible light.", "It is part of LYSO, LuAg and lutetium iodide scintillators.Lutetium (177Lu) vipivotide tetraxetan is a therapy for prostate cancer, FDA approved in 2022." ], [ "Precautions", "Like other rare-earth metals, lutetium is regarded as having a low degree of toxicity, but its compounds should be handled with care nonetheless: for example, lutetium fluoride inhalation is dangerous and the compound irritates skin.", "Lutetium nitrate may be dangerous as it may explode and burn once heated.", "Lutetium oxide powder is toxic as well if inhaled or ingested.Similarly to the other rare-earth metals, lutetium has no known biological role, but it is found even in humans, concentrating in bones, and to a lesser extent in the liver and kidneys.", "Lutetium salts are known to occur together with other lanthanide salts in nature; the element is the least abundant in the human body of all lanthanides.", "Human diets have not been monitored for lutetium content, so it is not known how much the average human takes in, but estimations show the amount is only about several micrograms per year, all coming from tiny amounts absorbed by plants.", "Soluble lutetium salts are mildly toxic, but insoluble ones are not." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lawrencium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lawrencium''' is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol '''Lr''' (formerly '''Lw''') and atomic number 103.It is named in honor of Ernest Lawrence, inventor of the cyclotron, a device that was used to discover many artificial radioactive elements.", "A radioactive metal, lawrencium is the eleventh transuranic element and the last member of the actinide series.", "Like all elements with atomic number over 100, lawrencium can only be produced in particle accelerators by bombarding lighter elements with charged particles.", "Fourteen isotopes of lawrencium are currently known; the most stable is 266Lr with half-life 11 hours, but the shorter-lived 260Lr (half-life 2.7 minutes) is most commonly used in chemistry because it can be produced on a larger scale.Chemistry experiments confirm that lawrencium behaves as a heavier homolog to lutetium in the periodic table, and is a trivalent element.", "It thus could also be classified as the first of the 7th-period transition metals.", "Its electron configuration is anomalous for its position in the periodic table, having an s2p configuration instead of the s2d configuration of its homolog lutetium.", "However, this does not appear to affect lawrencium's chemistry.In the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, many claims of the synthesis of lawrencium of varying quality were made from laboratories in the Soviet Union and the United States.", "The priority of the discovery and therefore the name of the element was disputed between Soviet and American scientists.", "The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) initially established ''lawrencium'' as the official name for the element and gave the American team credit for the discovery; this was reevaluated in 1997, giving both teams shared credit for the discovery but not changing the element's name." ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "History", "Albert Ghiorso updating the periodic table in April 1961, writing the symbol \"Lw\" in as element 103.Codiscoverers Latimer, Sikkeland, and Larsh (left to right) look on.In 1958, scientists at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory claimed the discovery of element 102, now called nobelium.", "At the same time, they also tried to synthesize element 103 by bombarding the same curium target used with nitrogen-14 ions.", "Eighteen tracks were noted, with decay energy around and half-life around 0.25 s; the Berkeley team noted that while the cause could be the production of an isotope of element 103, other possibilities could not be ruled out.", "While the data agrees reasonably with that later discovered for 257Lr (alpha decay energy 8.87 MeV, half-life 0.6 s), the evidence obtained in this experiment fell far short of the strength required to conclusively demonstrate synthesis of element 103.A follow-up on this experiment was not done, as the target was destroyed.", "Later, in 1960, the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory attempted to synthesize the element by bombarding 252Cf with 10B and 11B.", "The results of this experiment were not conclusive.The first important work on element 103 was done at Berkeley by the nuclear-physics team of Albert Ghiorso, Torbjørn Sikkeland, Almon Larsh, Robert M. Latimer, and their co-workers on February 14, 1961.The first atoms of lawrencium were reportedly made by bombarding a three-milligram target consisting of three isotopes of californium with boron-10 and boron-11 nuclei from the Heavy Ion Linear Accelerator (HILAC).", "The Berkeley team reported that the isotope 257103 was detected in this manner, and that it decayed by emitting an 8.6 MeV alpha particle with a half-life of .", "This identification was later corrected to 258103, as later work proved that 257Lr did not have the properties detected, but 258Lr did.", "This was considered at the time to be convincing proof of synthesis of element 103: while the mass assignment was less certain and proved to be mistaken, it did not affect the arguments in favor of element 103 having been synthesized.", "Scientists at Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna (then in the Soviet Union) raised several criticisms: all but one were answered adequately.", "The exception was that 252Cf was the most common isotope in the target, and in the reactions with 10B, 258Lr could only have been produced by emitting four neutrons, and emitting three neutrons was expected to be much less likely than emitting four or five.", "This would lead to a narrow yield curve, not the broad one reported by the Berkeley team.", "A possible explanation was that there was a low number of events attributed to element 103.This was an important intermediate step to the unquestioned discovery of element 103, although the evidence was not completely convincing.", "The Berkeley team proposed the name \"lawrencium\" with symbol \"Lw\", after Ernest Lawrence, inventor of the cyclotron.", "The IUPAC Commission on Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry accepted the name, but changed the symbol to \"Lr\".", "This acceptance of the discovery was later characterized as being hasty by the Dubna team.", ": + → * → + 5 The first work at Dubna on element 103 came in 1965, when they reported to have made 256103 in 1965 by bombarding 243Am with 18O, identifying it indirectly from its granddaughter fermium-252.The half-life they reported was somewhat too high, possibly due to background events.", "Later 1967 work on the same reaction identified two decay energies in the ranges 8.35–8.50 MeV and 8.50–8.60 MeV: these were assigned to 256103 and 257103.Despite repeat attempts, they were unable to confirm assignment of an alpha emitter with a half-life of 8 seconds to 257103.The Russians proposed the name \"rutherfordium\" for the new element in 1967: this name was later proposed by Berkeley for element 104.: + → * → + 5 Further experiments in 1969 at Dubna and in 1970 at Berkeley demonstrated an actinide chemistry for the new element; so by 1970 it was known that element 103 is the last actinide.", "In 1970, the Dubna group reported the synthesis of 255103 with half-life 20 s and alpha decay energy 8.38 MeV.", "However, it was not until 1971, when the nuclear physics team at University of California at Berkeley successfully did a whole series of experiments aimed at measuring the nuclear decay properties of the lawrencium isotopes with mass numbers 255 to 260, that all previous results from Berkeley and Dubna were confirmed, apart from the Berkeley's group initial erroneous assignment of their first produced isotope to 257103 instead of the probably correct 258103.All final doubts were dispelled in 1976 and 1977 when the energies of X-rays emitted from 258103 were measured.The element was named after Ernest Lawrence.In 1971, the IUPAC granted the discovery of lawrencium to the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, even though they did not have ideal data for the element's existence.", "But in 1992, the IUPAC Transfermium Working Group (TWG) officially recognized the nuclear physics teams at Dubna and Berkeley as co-discoverers of lawrencium, concluding that while the 1961 Berkeley experiments were an important step to lawrencium's discovery, they were not yet fully convincing; and while the 1965, 1968, and 1970 Dubna experiments came very close to the needed level of confidence taken together, only the 1971 Berkeley experiments, which clarified and confirmed previous observations, finally resulted in complete confidence in the discovery of element 103.Because the name \"lawrencium\" had been in use for a long time by this point, it was retained by IUPAC, and in August 1997, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) ratified the name lawrencium and the symbol \"Lr\" during a meeting in Geneva." ], [ "Characteristics", "===Physical===Lawrencium is the last actinide.", "Authors considering the subject generally consider it a group 3 element, along with scandium, yttrium, and lutetium, as its filled f-shell is expected to make it resemble the other 7th-period transition metals.", "In the periodic table, it is to the right of the actinide nobelium, to the left of the 6d transition metal rutherfordium, and under the lanthanide lutetium with which it shares many physical and chemical properties.", "Lawrencium is expected to be a solid under normal conditions and have a hexagonal close-packed crystal structure (''c''/''a'' = 1.58), similar to its lighter congener lutetium, though this is not yet known experimentally.", "The enthalpy of sublimation of lawrencium is estimated at 352 kJ/mol, close to the value of lutetium and strongly suggesting that metallic lawrencium is trivalent with three electrons delocalized, a prediction also supported by a systematic extrapolation of the values of heat of vaporization, bulk modulus, and atomic volume of neighboring elements to lawrencium: this makes it unlike the immediately preceding late actinides which are known to be (fermium and mendelevium) or expected to be (nobelium) divalent.", "The estimated enthalpies of vaporization show that lawrencium deviates from the trend of the late actinides and instead matches the trend of the succeeding 6d elements rutherfordium and dubnium, consistent with lawrencium's interpretation as a group 3 element.", "Some scientists prefer to end the actinides with nobelium and consider lawrencium to be the first transition metal of the seventh period.Specifically, lawrencium is expected to be a trivalent, silvery metal, easily oxidized by air, steam, and acids, and having an atomic volume similar to that of lutetium and a trivalent metallic radius of 171 pm.", "It is expected to be a rather heavy metal with a density of around 14.4 g/cm3.It is also predicted to have a melting point of around 1900 K (1600 °C), not far from the value for lutetium (1925 K).===Chemical===Elution sequence of the late trivalent lanthanides and actinides, with ammonium α-HIB as eluant: the broken curve for lawrencium is a prediction.In 1949, Glenn T. Seaborg, who devised the actinide concept, predicted that element 103 (lawrencium) should be the last actinide and that the ion should be about as stable as in aqueous solution.", "It was not until decades later that element 103 was finally conclusively synthesized and this prediction was experimentally confirmed.1969 studies on the element showed that lawrencium reacts with chlorine to form a product that was most likely the trichloride, .", "Its volatility was found to be similar to the chlorides of curium, fermium, and nobelium and much less than that of rutherfordium chloride.", "In 1970, chemical studies were performed on 1500 atoms of 256Lr, comparing it with divalent (No, Ba, Ra), trivalent (Fm, Cf, Cm, Am, Ac), and tetravalent (Th, Pu) elements.", "It was found that lawrencium coextracted with the trivalent ions, but the short half-life of 256Lr precluded a confirmation that it eluted ahead of in the elution sequence.", "Lawrencium occurs as the trivalent ion in aqueous solution and hence its compounds should be similar to those of the other trivalent actinides: for example, lawrencium(III) fluoride () and hydroxide () should both be insoluble in water.", "Due to the actinide contraction, the ionic radius of should be smaller than that of , and it should elute ahead of when ammonium α-hydroxyisobutyrate (ammonium α-HIB) is used as an eluant.", "Later 1987 experiments on the longer-lived isotope 260Lr confirmed lawrencium's trivalency and that it eluted in roughly the same place as erbium, and found that lawrencium's ionic radius was , larger than would be expected from simple extrapolation from periodic trends.", "Later 1988 experiments with more lawrencium atoms refined this to and calculated an enthalpy of hydration value of .", "It was also found that the actinide contraction at the end of the actinides was larger than the analogous lanthanide contraction, with the exception of the last actinide, lawrencium: the cause was speculated to be relativistic effects.It has been speculated that the 7s electrons are relativistically stabilized, so that in reducing conditions, only the 7p1/2 electron would be ionized, leading to the monovalent ion.", "However, all experiments to reduce to or in aqueous solution were unsuccessful, similarly to lutetium.", "On the basis of this, the standard electrode potential of the ''E''°() couple was calculated to be less than −1.56 V, indicating that the existence of ions in aqueous solution was unlikely.", "The upper limit for the ''E''°() couple was predicted to be −0.44 V: the values for ''E''°() and ''E''°() are predicted to be −2.06 V and +7.9 V. The stability of the group oxidation state in the 6d transition series decreases as RfIV > DbV > SgVI, and lawrencium continues the trend with LrIII being more stable than RfIV.In the molecule lawrencium dihydride (), which is predicted to be bent, the 6d orbital of lawrencium is not expected to play a role in the bonding, unlike that of lanthanum dihydride ().", "has La–H bond distances of 2.158 Å, while should have shorter Lr–H bond distances of 2.042 Å due to the relativistic contraction and stabilization of the 7s and 7p orbitals involved in the bonding, in contrast to the core-like 5f subshell and the mostly uninvolved 6d subshell.", "In general, molecular and LrH are expected to resemble the corresponding thallium species (thallium having a 6s26p1 valence configuration in the gas phase, like lawrencium's 7s27p1) more than the corresponding lanthanide species.", "The electron configurations of and are expected to be 7s2 and 7s1 respectively.", "However, in species where all three valence electrons of lawrencium are ionized to give at least formally the cation, lawrencium is expected to behave like a typical actinide and the heavier congener of lutetium, especially because the first three ionization potentials of lawrencium are predicted to be similar to those of lutetium.", "Hence, unlike thallium but like lutetium, lawrencium would prefer to form than LrH, and LrCO is expected to be similar to the also unknown LuCO, both metals having valence configuration σ2π1 in their monocarbonyls.", "The pπ–dπ bond is expected to be seen in just as it is for and more generally all the .", "The complex anion is expected to be stable with a configuration of 6d1 for lawrencium; this 6d orbital would be its highest occupied molecular orbital.", "This is analogous to the electronic structure of the analogous lutetium compound.===Atomic===Lawrencium has three valence electrons: the 5f electrons are in the atomic core.", "In 1970, it was predicted that the ground-state electron configuration of lawrencium was Rn5f146d17s2 (ground state term symbol 2D3/2), per the Aufbau principle and conforming to the Xe4f145d16s2 configuration of lawrencium's lighter homolog lutetium.", "But the next year, calculations were published that questioned this prediction, instead expecting an anomalous Rn5f147s27p1 configuration.", "Though early calculations gave conflicting results, more recent studies and calculations confirm the s2p suggestion.", "1974 relativistic calculations concluded that the energy difference between the two configurations was small and that it was uncertain which was the ground state.", "Later 1995 calculations concluded that the s2p configuration should be energetically favored, because the spherical s and p1/2 orbitals are nearest to the atomic nucleus and thus move quickly enough that their relativistic mass increases significantly.In 1988, a team of scientists led by Eichler calculated that lawrencium's enthalpy of adsorption on metal sources would differ enough depending on its electron configuration that it would be feasible to carry out experiments to exploit this fact to measure lawrencium's electron configuration.", "The s2p configuration was expected to be more volatile than the s2d configuration, and be more similar to that of the p-block element lead.", "No evidence for lawrencium being volatile was obtained and the lower limit for the enthalpy of adsorption of lawrencium on quartz or platinum was significantly higher than the estimated value for the s2p configuration.eV) plotted against atomic number, in units eV.", "Predicted values are used beyond rutherfordium (element 104).", "Lawrencium (element 103) has a very low first ionization energy, fitting the start of the d-block trend better than the end of the f-block trend before it.In 2015, the first ionization energy of lawrencium was measured, using the isotope 256Lr.", "The measured value, , agreed very well with the relativistic theoretical prediction of 4.963(15) eV, and also provided a first step into measuring the first ionization energies of the transactinides.", "This value is the lowest among all the lanthanides and actinides, and supports the s2p configuration as the 7p1/2 electron is expected to be only weakly bound.", "As ionisation energies generally increase left to right in the f-block, this low value suggests that lutetium and lawrencium belong in the d-block (whose trend they follow) and not the f-block.", "That would make them the heavier congeners of scandium and yttrium, rather than lanthanum and actinium.", "Although some alkali metal-like behaviour has been predicted, adsorption experiments suggest that lawrencium is trivalent like scandium and yttrium, not monovalent like the alkali metals.", "A lower limit on lawrencium's second ionization energy (>13.3 eV) was experimentally found in 2021.Even though s2p is now known to be the ground-state configuration of the lawrencium atom, ds2 should be a low-lying excited-state configuration, with an excitation energy variously calculated as 0.156 eV, 0.165 eV, or 0.626 eV.", "As such lawrencium may still be considered to be a d-block element, albeit with an anomalous electron configuration (like chromium or copper), as its chemical behaviour matches expectations for a heavier analogue of lutetium.===Isotopes===Fourteen isotopes of lawrencium are known, with mass number 251–262, 264, and 266; all are radioactive.", "Seven nuclear isomers are known.", "The longest-lived isotope, 266Lr, has a half-life of about ten hours and is one of the longest-lived superheavy isotopes known to date.", "However, shorter-lived isotopes are usually used in chemical experiments because 266Lr currently can only be produced as a final decay product of even heavier and harder-to-make elements: it was discovered in 2014 in the decay chain of 294Ts.", "256Lr (half-life 27 seconds) was used in the first chemical studies on lawrencium: currently, the longer-lived 260Lr (half-life 2.7 minutes) is usually used for this purpose.", "After 266Lr, the longest-lived isotopes are 264Lr (), 262Lr (3.6 h), and 261Lr (44 min).", "All other known lawrencium isotopes have half-lives under 5 minutes, and the shortest-lived of them (251Lr) has a half-life of 24.4 milliseconds.", "The half-lives of lawrencium isotopes mostly increase smoothly from 251Lr to 266Lr, with a dip from 257Lr to 259Lr." ], [ "Preparation and purification", "Most isotopes of lawrencium can be produced by bombarding actinide (americium to einsteinium) targets with light ions (from boron to neon).", "The two most important isotopes, 256Lr and 260Lr, can be respectively produced by bombarding californium-249 with 70 MeV boron-11 ions (producing lawrencium-256 and four neutrons) and by bombarding berkelium-249 with oxygen-18 (producing lawrencium-260, an alpha particle, and three neutrons).", "The two heaviest and longest-lived known isotopes, 264Lr and 266Lr, can only be produced at much lower yields as decay products of dubnium, whose progenitors are isotopes of moscovium and tennessine.Both 256Lr and 260Lr have half-lives too short to allow a complete chemical purification process.", "Early experiments with 256Lr therefore used rapid solvent extraction, with the chelating agent thenoyltrifluoroacetone (TTA) dissolved in methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK) as the organic phase, and with the aqueous phase being buffered acetate solutions.", "Ions of different charge (+2, +3, or +4) will then extract into the organic phase under different pH ranges, but this method will not separate the trivalent actinides and thus 256Lr must be identified by its emitted 8.24 MeV alpha particles.", "More recent methods have allowed rapid selective elution with α-HIB to take place in enough time to separate out the longer-lived isotope 260Lr, which can be removed from the catcher foil with 0.05 M hydrochloric acid." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * Los Alamos National Laboratory's Chemistry Division: Periodic Table – Lawrencium* Lawrencium at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lead" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lead''' is a chemical element; it has symbol '''Pb''' (from Latin ) and atomic number 82.It is a heavy metal that is denser than most common materials.", "Lead is soft and malleable, and also has a relatively low melting point.", "When freshly cut, lead is a shiny gray with a hint of blue.", "It tarnishes to a dull gray color when exposed to air.", "Lead has the highest atomic number of any stable element and three of its isotopes are endpoints of major nuclear decay chains of heavier elements.", "Lead is toxic, even in small amounts, especially to children.Lead is a relatively unreactive post-transition metal.", "Its weak metallic character is illustrated by its amphoteric nature; lead and lead oxides react with acids and bases, and it tends to form covalent bonds.", "Compounds of lead are usually found in the +2 oxidation state rather than the +4 state common with lighter members of the carbon group.", "Exceptions are mostly limited to organolead compounds.", "Like the lighter members of the group, lead tends to bond with itself; it can form chains and polyhedral structures.Since lead is easily extracted from its ores, prehistoric people in the Near East were aware of it.", "Galena is a principal ore of lead which often bears silver.", "Interest in silver helped initiate widespread extraction and use of lead in ancient Rome.", "Lead production declined after the fall of Rome and did not reach comparable levels until the Industrial Revolution.", "Lead played a crucial role in the development of the printing press, as movable type could be relatively easily cast from lead alloys.", "In 2014, the annual global production of lead was about ten million tonnes, over half of which was from recycling.", "Lead's high density, low melting point, ductility and relative inertness to oxidation make it useful.", "These properties, combined with its relative abundance and low cost, resulted in its extensive use in construction, plumbing, batteries, bullets and shot, weights, solders, pewters, fusible alloys, white paints, leaded gasoline, and radiation shielding.Lead is a devastating and persistent neurotoxin that accumulates in soft tissues and bones.", "It damages the nervous system and interferes with the function of biological enzymes, causing neurological disorders ranging from behavioral problems to brain damage, and also affects general health, cardiovascular, and renal systems.", "Lead's toxicity was first documented by ancient Greek and Roman writers, who noted some of the symptoms of lead poisoning, but became widely recognized in Europe in the late 19th century." ], [ "Physical properties", "=== Atomic ===A lead atom has 82 electrons, arranged in an electron configuration of Xe4f145d106s26p2.The sum of lead's first and second ionization energies—the total energy required to remove the two 6p electrons—is close to that of tin, lead's upper neighbor in the carbon group.", "This is unusual; ionization energies generally fall going down a group, as an element's outer electrons become more distant from the nucleus, and more shielded by smaller orbitals.The sum of the first four ionization energies of lead exceeds that of tin, contrary to what periodic trends would predict.", "This is explained by relativistic effects, which become significant in heavier atoms, which contract s and p orbitals such that lead's 6s electrons have larger binding energies than its 5s electrons.", "A consequence is the so-called inert pair effect: the 6s electrons of lead become reluctant to participate in bonding, stabilising the +2 oxidation state and making the distance between nearest atoms in crystalline lead unusually long.Lead's lighter carbon group congeners form stable or metastable allotropes with the tetrahedrally coordinated and covalently bonded diamond cubic structure.", "The energy levels of their outer s- and p-orbitals are close enough to allow mixing into four hybrid sp3 orbitals.", "In lead, the inert pair effect increases the separation between its s- and p-orbitals, and the gap cannot be overcome by the energy that would be released by extra bonds following hybridization.", "Rather than having a diamond cubic structure, lead forms metallic bonds in which only the p-electrons are delocalized and shared between the Pb2+ ions.", "Lead consequently has a face-centered cubic structure like the similarly sized divalent metals calcium and strontium.=== Bulk ===Pure lead has a bright, shiny gray appearance with a hint of blue.", "It tarnishes on contact with moist air and takes on a dull appearance, the hue of which depends on the prevailing conditions.", "Characteristic properties of lead include high density, malleability, ductility, and high resistance to corrosion due to passivation.alt=A disk of metalLead's close-packed face-centered cubic structure and high atomic weight result in a density of 11.34 g/cm3, which is greater than that of common metals such as iron (7.87 g/cm3), copper (8.93 g/cm3), and zinc (7.14 g/cm3).", "This density is the origin of the idiom ''to go over like a lead balloon''.", "Some rarer metals are denser: tungsten and gold are both at 19.3 g/cm3, and osmium—the densest metal known—has a density of 22.59 g/cm3, almost twice that of lead.Lead is a very soft metal with a Mohs hardness of 1.5; it can be scratched with a fingernail.", "It is quite malleable and somewhat ductile.", "The bulk modulus of lead—a measure of its ease of compressibility—is 45.8 GPa.", "In comparison, that of aluminium is 75.2 GPa; copper 137.8 GPa; and mild steel 160–169 GPa.", "Lead's tensile strength, at 12–17 MPa, is low (that of aluminium is 6 times higher, copper 10 times, and mild steel 15 times higher); it can be strengthened by adding small amounts of copper or antimony.The melting point of lead—at 327.5 °C (621.5 °F)—is very low compared to most metals.", "Its boiling point of 1749 °C (3180 °F) is the lowest among the carbon-group elements.", "The electrical resistivity of lead at 20 °C is 192 nanoohm-meters, almost an order of magnitude higher than those of other industrial metals (copper at ; gold ; and aluminium at ).", "Lead is a superconductor at temperatures lower than 7.19 K; this is the highest critical temperature of all type-I superconductors and the third highest of the elemental superconductors.=== Isotopes ===Natural lead consists of four stable isotopes with mass numbers of 204, 206, 207, and 208, and traces of six short-lived radioisotopes with mass numbers 209–214 inclusive.", "The high number of isotopes is consistent with lead's atomic number being even.", "Lead has a magic number of protons (82), for which the nuclear shell model accurately predicts an especially stable nucleus.", "Lead-208 has 126 neutrons, another magic number, which may explain why lead-208 is extraordinarily stable.With its high atomic number, lead is the heaviest element whose natural isotopes are regarded as stable; lead-208 is the heaviest stable nucleus.", "(This distinction formerly fell to bismuth, with an atomic number of 83, until its only primordial isotope, bismuth-209, was found in 2003 to decay very slowly.)", "The four stable isotopes of lead could theoretically undergo alpha decay to isotopes of mercury with a release of energy, but this has not been observed for any of them; their predicted half-lives range from 1035 to 10189 years (at least 1025 times the current age of the universe).Three of the stable isotopes are found in three of the four major decay chains: lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208 are the final decay products of uranium-238, uranium-235, and thorium-232, respectively.", "These decay chains are called the uranium chain, the actinium chain, and the thorium chain.", "Their isotopic concentrations in a natural rock sample depends greatly on the presence of these three parent uranium and thorium isotopes.", "For example, the relative abundance of lead-208 can range from 52% in normal samples to 90% in thorium ores; for this reason, the standard atomic weight of lead is given to only one decimal place.", "As time passes, the ratio of lead-206 and lead-207 to lead-204 increases, since the former two are supplemented by radioactive decay of heavier elements while the latter is not; this allows for lead–lead dating.", "As uranium decays into lead, their relative amounts change; this is the basis for uranium–lead dating.", "Lead-207 exhibits nuclear magnetic resonance, a property that has been used to study its compounds in solution and solid state, including in the human body.Canyon Diablo meteorite.", "Uranium–lead dating and lead–lead dating on this meteorite allowed refinement of the age of the Earth to 4.55 billion ± 70 million years.\|alt=A piece of a gray meteorite on a pedestalApart from the stable isotopes, which make up almost all lead that exists naturally, there are trace quantities of a few radioactive isotopes.", "One of them is lead-210; although it has a half-life of only 22.2 years, small quantities occur in nature because lead-210 is produced by a long decay series that starts with uranium-238 (that has been present for billions of years on Earth).", "Lead-211, −212, and −214 are present in the decay chains of uranium-235, thorium-232, and uranium-238, respectively, so traces of all three of these lead isotopes are found naturally.", "Minute traces of lead-209 arise from the very rare cluster decay of radium-223, one of the daughter products of natural uranium-235, and the decay chain of neptunium-237, traces of which are produced by neutron capture in uranium ores.", "Lead-213 also occurs in the decay chain of neptunium-237.Lead-210 is particularly useful for helping to identify the ages of samples by measuring its ratio to lead-206 (both isotopes are present in a single decay chain).In total, 43 lead isotopes have been synthesized, with mass numbers 178–220.Lead-205 is the most stable radioisotope, with a half-life of around 1.73 years.", "The second-most stable is lead-202, which has a half-life of about 52,500 years, longer than any of the natural trace radioisotopes." ], [ "Chemistry", "alt=A flame with a small metal rod penetrating it; the flame near the rod is pale blue.Bulk lead exposed to moist air forms a protective layer of varying composition.", "Lead(II) carbonate is a common constituent; the sulfate or chloride may also be present in urban or maritime settings.", "This layer makes bulk lead effectively chemically inert in the air.", "Finely powdered lead, as with many metals, is pyrophoric, and burns with a bluish-white flame.Fluorine reacts with lead at room temperature, forming lead(II) fluoride.", "The reaction with chlorine is similar but requires heating, as the resulting chloride layer diminishes the reactivity of the elements.", "Molten lead reacts with the chalcogens to give lead(II) chalcogenides.Lead metal resists sulfuric and phosphoric acid but not hydrochloric or nitric acid; the outcome depends on insolubility and subsequent passivation of the product salt.", "Organic acids, such as acetic acid, dissolve lead in the presence of oxygen.", "Concentrated alkalis will dissolve lead and form plumbites.=== Inorganic compounds ===Lead shows two main oxidation states: +4 and +2.The tetravalent state is common for the carbon group.", "The divalent state is rare for carbon and silicon, minor for germanium, important (but not prevailing) for tin, and is the more important of the two oxidation states for lead.", "This is attributable to relativistic effects, specifically the inert pair effect, which manifests itself when there is a large difference in electronegativity between lead and oxide, halide, or nitride anions, leading to a significant partial positive charge on lead.", "The result is a stronger contraction of the lead 6s orbital than is the case for the 6p orbital, making it rather inert in ionic compounds.", "The inert pair effect is less applicable to compounds in which lead forms covalent bonds with elements of similar electronegativity, such as carbon in organolead compounds.", "In these, the 6s and 6p orbitals remain similarly sized and sp3 hybridization is still energetically favorable.", "Lead, like carbon, is predominantly tetravalent in such compounds.There is a relatively large difference in the electronegativity of lead(II) at 1.87 and lead(IV) at 2.33.This difference marks the reversal in the trend of increasing stability of the +4 oxidation state going down the carbon group; tin, by comparison, has values of 1.80 in the +2 oxidation state and 1.96 in the +4 state.==== Lead(II) ====alt=Cream powderLead(II) compounds are characteristic of the inorganic chemistry of lead.", "Even strong oxidizing agents like fluorine and chlorine react with lead to give only PbF2 and PbCl2.Lead(II) ions are usually colorless in solution, and partially hydrolyze to form Pb(OH)+ and finally Pb4(OH)44+ (in which the hydroxyl ions act as bridging ligands), but are not reducing agents as tin(II) ions are.", "Techniques for identifying the presence of the Pb2+ ion in water generally rely on the precipitation of lead(II) chloride using dilute hydrochloric acid.", "As the chloride salt is sparingly soluble in water, in very dilute solutions the precipitation of lead(II) sulfide is instead achieved by bubbling hydrogen sulfide through the solution.Lead monoxide exists in two polymorphs, litharge α-PbO (red) and massicot β-PbO (yellow), the latter being stable only above around 488 °C.", "Litharge is the most commonly used inorganic compound of lead.", "There is no lead(II) hydroxide; increasing the pH of solutions of lead(II) salts leads to hydrolysis and condensation.Lead commonly reacts with heavier chalcogens.", "Lead sulfide is a semiconductor, a photoconductor, and an extremely sensitive infrared radiation detector.", "The other two chalcogenides, lead selenide and lead telluride, are likewise photoconducting.", "They are unusual in that their color becomes lighter going down the group.", "Lead and oxygen in a tetragonal unit cell of lead(II,IV) oxide\|alt=Alternating dark gray and red balls connected by dark gray-red cylindersLead dihalides are well-characterized; this includes the diastatide and mixed halides, such as PbFCl.", "The relative insolubility of the latter forms a useful basis for the gravimetric determination of fluorine.", "The difluoride was the first solid ionically conducting compound to be discovered (in 1834, by Michael Faraday).", "The other dihalides decompose on exposure to ultraviolet or visible light, especially the diiodide.", "Many lead(II) pseudohalides are known, such as the cyanide, cyanate, and thiocyanate.", "Lead(II) forms an extensive variety of halide coordination complexes, such as PbCl42−, PbCl64−, and the Pb2Cl9''n''5''n''− chain anion.Lead(II) sulfate is insoluble in water, like the sulfates of other heavy divalent cations.", "Lead(II) nitrate and lead(II) acetate are very soluble, and this is exploited in the synthesis of other lead compounds.==== Lead(IV) ====Few inorganic lead(IV) compounds are known.", "They are only formed in highly oxidizing solutions and do not normally exist under standard conditions.", "Lead(II) oxide gives a mixed oxide on further oxidation, Pb3O4.It is described as lead(II,IV) oxide, or structurally 2PbO·PbO2, and is the best-known mixed valence lead compound.", "Lead dioxide is a strong oxidizing agent, capable of oxidizing hydrochloric acid to chlorine gas.", "This is because the expected PbCl4 that would be produced is unstable and spontaneously decomposes to PbCl2 and Cl2.Analogously to lead monoxide, lead dioxide is capable of forming plumbate anions.", "Lead disulfide and lead diselenide are only stable at high pressures.", "Lead tetrafluoride, a yellow crystalline powder, is stable, but less so than the difluoride.", "Lead tetrachloride (a yellow oil) decomposes at room temperature, lead tetrabromide is less stable still, and the existence of lead tetraiodide is questionable.==== Other oxidation states ====capped square antiprismatic anion Pb94− from K(18-crown-6)2K2Pb9·(en)1.5\|alt=Nine dark gray spheres connected by cylinders of the same color forming a convex shapeSome lead compounds exist in formal oxidation states other than +4 or +2.Lead(III) may be obtained, as an intermediate between lead(II) and lead(IV), in larger organolead complexes; this oxidation state is not stable, as both the lead(III) ion and the larger complexes containing it are radicals.", "The same applies for lead(I), which can be found in such radical species.Numerous mixed lead(II,IV) oxides are known.", "When PbO2 is heated in air, it becomes Pb12O19 at 293 °C, Pb12O17 at 351 °C, Pb3O4 at 374 °C, and finally PbO at 605 °C.", "A further sesquioxide, Pb2O3, can be obtained at high pressure, along with several non-stoichiometric phases.", "Many of them show defective fluorite structures in which some oxygen atoms are replaced by vacancies: PbO can be considered as having such a structure, with every alternate layer of oxygen atoms absent.Negative oxidation states can occur as Zintl phases, as either free lead anions, as in Ba2Pb, with lead formally being lead(−IV), or in oxygen-sensitive ring-shaped or polyhedral cluster ions such as the trigonal bipyramidal Pb52− ion, where two lead atoms are lead(−I) and three are lead(0).", "In such anions, each atom is at a polyhedral vertex and contributes two electrons to each covalent bond along an edge from their sp3 hybrid orbitals, the other two being an external lone pair.", "They may be made in liquid ammonia via the reduction of lead by sodium.=== Organolead ===Structure of a tetraethyllead molecule: Carbon Hydrogen Lead\|alt=A gray-green sphere linked to four black spheres, each, in turn, linked also to three white onesLead can form multiply-bonded chains, a property it shares with its lighter homologs in the carbon group.", "Its capacity to do so is much less because the Pb–Pb bond energy is over three and a half times lower than that of the C–C bond.", "With itself, lead can build metal–metal bonds of an order up to three.", "With carbon, lead forms organolead compounds similar to, but generally less stable than, typical organic compounds (due to the Pb–C bond being rather weak).", "This makes the organometallic chemistry of lead far less wide-ranging than that of tin.", "Lead predominantly forms organolead(IV) compounds, even when starting with inorganic lead(II) reactants; very few organolead(II) compounds are known.", "The most well-characterized exceptions are PbCH(SiMe3)22 and Pb(''η''5-C5H5)2.The lead analog of the simplest organic compound, methane, is plumbane.", "Plumbane may be obtained in a reaction between metallic lead and atomic hydrogen.", "Two simple derivatives, tetramethyllead and tetraethyllead, are the best-known organolead compounds.", "These compounds are relatively stable: tetraethyllead only starts to decompose if heated or if exposed to sunlight or ultraviolet light.", "With sodium metal, lead readily forms an equimolar alloy that reacts with alkyl halides to form organometallic compounds such as tetraethyllead.", "The oxidizing nature of many organolead compounds is usefully exploited: lead tetraacetate is an important laboratory reagent for oxidation in organic synthesis.", "Tetraethyllead, once added to gasoline, was produced in larger quantities than any other organometallic compound.", "Other organolead compounds are less chemically stable.", "For many organic compounds, a lead analog does not exist." ], [ "Origin and occurrence", " Solar System abundances Atomicnumber Element Relativeamount 42 Molybdenum0.798 46 Palladium0.440 50 Tin1.146 78 Platinum0.417 80 Mercury0.127 ''82'' ''Lead''''1'' 90 Thorium 0.011 92 Uranium 0.003=== In space ===Lead's per-particle abundance in the Solar System is 0.121 ppb (parts per billion).", "This figure is two and a half times higher than that of platinum, eight times more than mercury, and seventeen times more than gold.", "The amount of lead in the universe is slowly increasing as most heavier atoms (all of which are unstable) gradually decay to lead.", "The abundance of lead in the Solar System since its formation 4.5 billion years ago has increased by about 0.75%.", "The solar system abundances table shows that lead, despite its relatively high atomic number, is more prevalent than most other elements with atomic numbers greater than 40.Primordial lead—which comprises the isotopes lead-204, lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208—was mostly created as a result of repetitive neutron capture processes occurring in stars.", "The two main modes of capture are the s- and r-processes.In the s-process (s is for \"slow\"), captures are separated by years or decades, allowing less stable nuclei to undergo beta decay.", "A stable thallium-203 nucleus can capture a neutron and become thallium-204; this undergoes beta decay to give stable lead-204; on capturing another neutron, it becomes lead-205, which has a half-life of around 15 million years.", "Further captures result in lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208.On capturing another neutron, lead-208 becomes lead-209, which quickly decays into bismuth-209.Bismuth-209 is also radioactive and eventually decays into thallium-205 if left unperturbed.", "On capturing another neutron, bismuth-209 becomes bismuth-210, and this beta decays to polonium-210, which alpha decays to lead-206.The cycle hence ends at lead-206, lead-207, lead-208, and thallium-205.Chart of the final part of the s-process, from mercury to polonium.", "Red lines and circles represent neutron captures; blue arrows represent beta decays; the green arrow represents an alpha decay; cyan arrows represent electron captures.\|alt=Uppermost part of the nuclide chart, with only practically stable isotopes and lead-205 shown, and the path of the s-process overlaid on it as well that of the cycle on lead, bismuth, and poloniumIn the r-process (r is for \"rapid\"), captures happen faster than nuclei can decay.", "This occurs in environments with a high neutron density, such as a supernova or the merger of two neutron stars.", "The neutron flux involved may be on the order of 1022 neutrons per square centimeter per second.", "The r-process does not form as much lead as the s-process.", "It tends to stop once neutron-rich nuclei reach 126 neutrons.", "At this point, the neutrons are arranged in complete shells in the atomic nucleus, and it becomes harder to energetically accommodate more of them.", "When the neutron flux subsides, these nuclei beta decay into stable isotopes of osmium, iridium, and platinum.=== On Earth ===Lead is classified as a chalcophile under the Goldschmidt classification, meaning it is generally found combined with sulfur.", "It rarely occurs in its native, metallic form.", "Many lead minerals are relatively light and, over the course of the Earth's history, have remained in the crust instead of sinking deeper into the Earth's interior.", "This accounts for lead's relatively high crustal abundance of 14 ppm; it is the 38th most abundant element in the crust.The main lead-bearing mineral is galena (PbS), which is mostly found with zinc ores.", "Most other lead minerals are related to galena in some way; boulangerite, Pb5Sb4S11, is a mixed sulfide derived from galena; anglesite, PbSO4, is a product of galena oxidation; and cerussite or white lead ore, PbCO3, is a decomposition product of galena.", "Arsenic, tin, antimony, silver, gold, copper, and bismuth are common impurities in lead minerals.Lead is a fairly common element in the alt=A line chart generally declining towards its rightWorld lead resources exceed two billion tons.", "Significant deposits are located in Australia, China, Ireland, Mexico, Peru, Portugal, Russia, and the United States.", "Global reserves—resources that are economically feasible to extract—totaled 88 million tons in 2016, of which Australia had 35 million, China 17 million, and Russia 6.4 million.Typical background concentrations of lead do not exceed 0.1 μg/m3 in the atmosphere; 100 mg/kg in soil; 4 mg/kg in vegetation and 5 μg/L in freshwater and seawater." ], [ "Etymology", "The modern English word ''lead'' is of Germanic origin; it comes from the Middle English and Old English (with the macron above the \"e\" signifying that the vowel sound of that letter is long).", "The Old English word is derived from the hypothetical reconstructed Proto-Germanic ('lead').", "According to linguistic theory, this word bore descendants in multiple Germanic languages of exactly the same meaning.There is no consensus on the origin of the Proto-Germanic .", "One hypothesis suggests it is derived from Proto-Indo-European ('lead'; capitalization of the vowel is equivalent to the macron).", "Another hypothesis suggests it is borrowed from Proto-Celtic ('lead').", "This word is related to the Latin , which gave the element its chemical symbol ''Pb''.", "The word is thought to be the origin of Proto-Germanic (which also means 'lead'), from which stemmed the German .The name of the chemical element is not related to the verb of the same spelling, which is derived from Proto-Germanic ('to lead')." ], [ "History", "=== Prehistory and early history ===Roman period and the Industrial Revolution\|alt=A line chart generally growing to its rightMetallic lead beads dating back to 7000–6500 BC have been found in Asia Minor and may represent the first example of metal smelting.", "At that time lead had few (if any) applications due to its softness and dull appearance.", "The major reason for the spread of lead production was its association with silver, which may be obtained by burning galena (a common lead mineral).", "The Ancient Egyptians were the first to use lead minerals in cosmetics, an application that spread to Ancient Greece and beyond; the Egyptians may have used lead for sinkers in fishing nets, glazes, glasses, enamels, and for ornaments.", "Various civilizations of the Fertile Crescent used lead as a writing material, as coins, and as a construction material.", "Lead was used in the Ancient Chinese royal court as a stimulant, as currency, and as a contraceptive; the Indus Valley civilization and the Mesoamericans used it for making amulets; and the eastern and southern African peoples used lead in wire drawing.=== Classical era ===Because silver was extensively used as a decorative material and an exchange medium, lead deposits came to be worked in Asia Minor from 3000 BC; later, lead deposits were developed in the Aegean and Laurion.", "These three regions collectively dominated production of mined lead until .", "Beginning c. 2000 BC, the Phoenicians worked deposits in the Iberian peninsula; by 1600 BC, lead mining existed in Cyprus, Greece, and Sardinia.Ancient Greek lead sling bullets with a winged thunderbolt molded on one side and the inscription (\"take that\" or \"catch\") on the other sideRome's territorial expansion in Europe and across the Mediterranean, and its development of mining, led to it becoming the greatest producer of lead during the classical era, with an estimated annual output peaking at 80,000 tonnes.", "Like their predecessors, the Romans obtained lead mostly as a by-product of silver smelting.", "Lead mining occurred in Central Europe, Britain, the Balkans, Greece, Anatolia, and Hispania, the latter accounting for 40% of world production.The alt=A vaguely round plate illuminated from a side to increase the contrast.", "The characters curl around the contour.Lead tablets were commonly used as a material for letters.", "Lead coffins, cast in flat sand forms, with interchangeable motifs to suit the faith of the deceased were used in ancient Judea.", "Lead was used to make sling bullets from the 5th century BC.", "In Roman times, lead sling bullets were amply used, and were effective at a distance of between 100 and 150 meters.", "The Balearic slingers, used as mercenaries in Carthaginian and Roman armies, were famous for their shooting distance and accuracy.alt=Ancient pipes in a museum caseLead was used for making water pipes in the Roman Empire; the Latin word for the metal, , is the origin of the English word \"plumbing\".", "Its ease of working, its low melting point enabling the easy fabrication of completely waterproof welded joints, and its resistance to corrosion ensured its widespread use in other applications, including pharmaceuticals, roofing, currency, and warfare.", "Writers of the time, such as Cato the Elder, Columella, and Pliny the Elder, recommended lead (or lead-coated) vessels for the preparation of sweeteners and preservatives added to wine and food.", "The lead conferred an agreeable taste due to the formation of \"sugar of lead\" (lead(II) acetate), whereas copper or bronze vessels could impart a bitter flavor through verdigris formation.The Roman author Vitruvius reported the health dangers of lead and modern writers have suggested that lead poisoning played a major role in the decline of the Roman Empire.", "Other researchers have criticized such claims, pointing out, for instance, that not all abdominal pain is caused by lead poisoning.", "According to archaeological research, Roman lead pipes increased lead levels in tap water but such an effect was \"unlikely to have been truly harmful\".", "When lead poisoning did occur, victims were called \"saturnine\", dark and cynical, after the ghoulish father of the gods, Saturn.", "By association, lead was considered the father of all metals.", "Its status in Roman society was low as it was readily available and cheap.==== Confusion with tin and antimony ====Since the Bronze Age metallurgists and engineers have understood the difference between rare and valuable tin, essential for alloying with copper to produce tough and corrosion resistant bronze, and 'cheap and cheerful' lead.", "However, the nomenclature in some languages is similar.", "Romans called lead (\"black lead\"), and tin (\"bright lead\").", "The association of lead and tin can be seen in other languages: the word in Czech translates to \"lead\", but in Russian, its cognate () means \"tin\".", "To add to the confusion, lead bore a close relation to antimony: both elements commonly occur as sulfides (galena and stibnite), often together.", "Pliny incorrectly wrote that stibnite would give lead on heating, instead of antimony.", "In countries such as Turkey and India, the originally Persian name came to refer to either antimony sulfide or lead sulfide, and in some languages, such as Russian, gave its name to antimony ().=== Middle Ages and the Renaissance ===alt=A white-faced woman in red clothesLead mining in Western Europe declined after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, with Arabian Iberia being the only region having a significant output.", "The largest production of lead occurred in South and East Asia, especially China and India, where lead mining grew rapidly.In Europe, lead production began to increase in the 11th and 12th centuries, when it was again used for roofing and piping.", "Starting in the 13th century, lead was used to create stained glass.", "In the European and Arabian traditions of alchemy, lead (symbol ♄ in the European tradition) was considered an impure base metal which, by the separation, purification and balancing of its constituent essences, could be transformed to pure and incorruptible gold.", "During the period, lead was used increasingly for adulterating wine.", "The use of such wine was forbidden for use in Christian rites by a papal bull in 1498, but it continued to be imbibed and resulted in mass poisonings up to the late 18th century.", "Lead was a key material in parts of the printing press, and lead dust was commonly inhaled by print workers, causing lead poisoning.", "Lead also became the chief material for making bullets for firearms: it was cheap, less damaging to iron gun barrels, had a higher density (which allowed for better retention of velocity), and its lower melting point made the production of bullets easier as they could be made using a wood fire.", "Lead, in the form of Venetian ceruse, was extensively used in cosmetics by Western European aristocracy as whitened faces were regarded as a sign of modesty.", "This practice later expanded to white wigs and eyeliners, and only faded out with the French Revolution in the late 18th century.", "A similar fashion appeared in Japan in the 18th century with the emergence of the geishas, a practice that continued long into the 20th century.", "The white faces of women \"came to represent their feminine virtue as Japanese women\", with lead commonly used in the whitener.=== Outside Europe and Asia ===In the New World, lead production was recorded soon after the arrival of European settlers.", "The earliest record dates to 1621 in the English Colony of Virginia, fourteen years after its foundation.", "In Australia, the first mine opened by colonists on the continent was a lead mine, in 1841.In Africa, lead mining and smelting were known in the Benue Trough and the lower Congo Basin, where lead was used for trade with Europeans, and as a currency by the 17th century, well before the scramble for Africa.=== Industrial Revolution ===Lead mining in the upper alt=A black-and-white drawing of men working in a mineIn the second half of the 18th century, Britain, and later continental Europe and the United States, experienced the Industrial Revolution.", "This was the first time during which lead production rates exceeded those of Rome.", "Britain was the leading producer, losing this status by the mid-19th century with the depletion of its mines and the development of lead mining in Germany, Spain, and the United States.", "By 1900, the United States was the leader in global lead production, and other non-European nations—Canada, Mexico, and Australia—had begun significant production; production outside Europe exceeded that within.", "A great share of the demand for lead came from plumbing and painting—lead paints were in regular use.", "At this time, more (working class) people were exposed to the metal and lead poisoning cases escalated.", "This led to research into the effects of lead intake.", "Lead was proven to be more dangerous in its fume form than as a solid metal.", "Lead poisoning and gout were linked; British physician Alfred Baring Garrod noted a third of his gout patients were plumbers and painters.", "The effects of chronic ingestion of lead, including mental disorders, were also studied in the 19th century.", "The first laws aimed at decreasing lead poisoning in factories were enacted during the 1870s and 1880s in the United Kingdom.=== Modern era ===Dutch Boy lead paint, United States, 1912\|alt=A promotional poster for \"COLLIER White Lead\" (these words are highlighted) featuring a large image of a boyFurther evidence of the threat that lead posed to humans was discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.", "Mechanisms of harm were better understood, lead blindness was documented, and the element was phased out of public use in the United States and Europe.", "The United Kingdom introduced mandatory factory inspections in 1878 and appointed the first Medical Inspector of Factories in 1898; as a result, a 25-fold decrease in lead poisoning incidents from 1900 to 1944 was reported.", "Most European countries banned lead paint—commonly used because of its opacity and water resistance—for interiors by 1930.The last major human exposure to lead was the addition of tetraethyllead to gasoline as an antiknock agent, a practice that originated in the United States in 1921.It was phased out in the United States and the European Union by 2000.In the 1970s, the United States and Western European countries introduced legislation to reduce lead air pollution.", "The impact was significant: while a study conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the United States in 1976–1980 showed that 77.8% of the population had elevated blood lead levels, in 1991–1994, a study by the same institute showed the share of people with such high levels dropped to 2.2%.", "The main product made of lead by the end of the 20th century was the lead–acid battery.From 1960 to 1990, lead output in the Western Bloc grew by about 31%.", "The share of the world's lead production by the Eastern Bloc increased from 10% to 30%, from 1950 to 1990, with the Soviet Union being the world's largest producer during the mid-1970s and the 1980s, and China starting major lead production in the late 20th century.", "Unlike the European communist countries, China was largely unindustrialized by the mid-20th century; in 2004, China surpassed Australia as the largest producer of lead.", "As was the case during European industrialization, lead has had a negative effect on health in China." ], [ "Production", "alt=A line chart of many lines, some longer than other, most generally growing towards its rightAs of 2014, production of lead is increasing worldwide due to its use in lead–acid batteries.", "There are two major categories of production: primary from mined ores, and secondary from scrap.", "In 2014, 4.58 million metric tons came from primary production and 5.64 million from secondary production.", "The top three producers of mined lead concentrate in that year were China, Australia, and the United States.", "The top three producers of refined lead were China, the United States, and India.", "According to the International Resource Panel's Metal Stocks in Society report of 2010, the total amount of lead in use, stockpiled, discarded, or dissipated into the environment, on a global basis, is 8 kg per capita.", "Much of this is in more developed countries (20–150 kg per capita) rather than less developed ones (1–4 kg per capita).The primary and secondary lead production processes are similar.", "Some primary production plants now supplement their operations with scrap lead, and this trend is likely to increase in the future.", "Given adequate techniques, lead obtained via secondary processes is indistinguishable from lead obtained via primary processes.", "Scrap lead from the building trade is usually fairly clean and is re-melted without the need for smelting, though refining is sometimes needed.", "Secondary lead production is therefore cheaper, in terms of energy requirements, than is primary production, often by 50% or more.=== Primary ===Most lead ores contain a low percentage of lead (rich ores have a typical content of 3–8%) which must be concentrated for extraction.", "During initial processing, ores typically undergo crushing, dense-medium separation, grinding, froth flotation, and drying.", "The resulting concentrate, which has a lead content of 30–80% by mass (regularly 50–60%), is then turned into (impure) lead metal.There are two main ways of doing this: a two-stage process involving roasting followed by blast furnace extraction, carried out in separate vessels; or a direct process in which the extraction of the concentrate occurs in a single vessel.", "The latter has become the most common route, though the former is still significant.+'''World's largest mining countries of lead, 2016''' Country Output(thousand tons) 2,400 500 335 310 250 225 135 80 76 75 41 41 40 40 35 33 33 Other countries 170==== Two-stage process ====First, the sulfide concentrate is roasted in air to oxidize the lead sulfide:: 2 PbS(s) + 3 O2(g) → 2 PbO(s) + 2 SO2(g)↑As the original concentrate was not pure lead sulfide, roasting yields not only the desired lead(II) oxide, but a mixture of oxides, sulfates, and silicates of lead and of the other metals contained in the ore.", "This impure lead oxide is reduced in a coke-fired blast furnace to the (again, impure) metal:: 2 PbO(s) + C(s) → 2 Pb(s) + CO2(g)↑Impurities are mostly arsenic, antimony, bismuth, zinc, copper, silver, and gold.", "Typically they are removed in a series of pyrometallurgical processes.", "The melt is treated in a reverberatory furnace with air, steam, and sulfur, which oxidizes the impurities except for silver, gold, and bismuth.", "Oxidized contaminants float to the top of the melt and are skimmed off.", "Metallic silver and gold are removed and recovered economically by means of the Parkes process, in which zinc is added to lead.", "Zinc, which is immiscible in lead, dissolves the silver and gold.", "The zinc solution can be separated from the lead, and the silver and gold retrieved.", "De-silvered lead is freed of bismuth by the Betterton–Kroll process, treating it with metallic calcium and magnesium.", "The resulting bismuth dross can be skimmed off.Alternatively to the pyrometallurgical processes, very pure lead can be obtained by processing smelted lead electrolytically using the Betts process.", "Anodes of impure lead and cathodes of pure lead are placed in an electrolyte of lead fluorosilicate (PbSiF6).", "Once electrical potential is applied, impure lead at the anode dissolves and plates onto the cathode, leaving the majority of the impurities in solution.", "This is a high-cost process and thus mostly reserved for refining bullion containing high percentages of impurities.==== Direct process ====In this process, lead bullion and slag is obtained directly from lead concentrates.", "The lead sulfide concentrate is melted in a furnace and oxidized, forming lead monoxide.", "Carbon (as coke or coal gas) is added to the molten charge along with fluxing agents.", "The lead monoxide is thereby reduced to metallic lead, in the midst of a slag rich in lead monoxide.If the input is rich in lead, as much as 80% of the original lead can be obtained as bullion; the remaining 20% forms a slag rich in lead monoxide.", "For a low-grade feed, all of the lead can be oxidized to a high-lead slag.", "Metallic lead is further obtained from the high-lead (25–40%) slags via submerged fuel combustion or injection, reduction assisted by an electric furnace, or a combination of both.==== Alternatives ====Research on a cleaner, less energy-intensive lead extraction process continues; a major drawback is that either too much lead is lost as waste, or the alternatives result in a high sulfur content in the resulting lead metal.", "Hydrometallurgical extraction, in which anodes of impure lead are immersed into an electrolyte and pure lead is deposited (electrowound) onto a cathode, is a technique that may have potential, but is not currently economical except in cases where electricity is very cheap.=== Secondary ===Smelting, which is an essential part of the primary production, is often skipped during secondary production.", "It is only performed when metallic lead has undergone significant oxidation.", "The process is similar to that of primary production in either a blast furnace or a rotary furnace, with the essential difference being the greater variability of yields: blast furnaces produce hard lead (10% antimony) while reverberatory and rotary kiln furnaces produce semisoft lead (3–4% antimony).The ISASMELT process is a more recent smelting method that may act as an extension to primary production; battery paste from spent lead–acid batteries (containing lead sulfate and lead oxides) has its sulfate removed by treating it with alkali, and is then treated in a coal-fueled furnace in the presence of oxygen, which yields impure lead, with antimony the most common impurity.", "Refining of secondary lead is similar to that of primary lead; some refining processes may be skipped depending on the material recycled and its potential contamination.Of the sources of lead for recycling, lead–acid batteries are the most important; lead pipe, sheet, and cable sheathing are also significant." ], [ "Applications", "alt=A closed structure of black bricksContrary to popular belief, pencil leads in wooden pencils have never been made from lead.", "When the pencil originated as a wrapped graphite writing tool, the particular type of graphite used was named ''plumbago'' (literally, ''act for lead'' or ''lead mockup'').=== Elemental form ===Lead metal has several useful mechanical properties, including high density, low melting point, ductility, and relative inertness.", "Many metals are superior to lead in some of these aspects but are generally less common and more difficult to extract from parent ores.", "Lead's toxicity has led to its phasing out for some uses.Lead has been used for bullets since their invention in the Middle Ages.", "It is inexpensive; its low melting point means small arms ammunition and shotgun pellets can be cast with minimal technical equipment; and it is denser than other common metals, which allows for better retention of velocity.", "It remains the main material for bullets, alloyed with other metals as hardeners.", "Concerns have been raised that lead bullets used for hunting can damage the environment.Lead's high density and resistance to corrosion have been exploited in a number of related applications.", "It is used as ballast in sailboat keels; its density allows it to take up a small volume and minimize water resistance, thus counterbalancing the heeling effect of wind on the sails.", "It is used in scuba diving weight belts to counteract the diver's buoyancy.", "In 1993, the base of the Leaning Tower of Pisa was stabilized with 600 tonnes of lead.", "Because of its corrosion resistance, lead is used as a protective sheath for underwater cables.A 17th-century gold-coated lead sculptureLead has many uses in the construction industry; lead sheets are used as architectural metals in roofing material, cladding, flashing, gutters and gutter joints, and on roof parapets.", "Lead is still used in statues and sculptures, including for armatures.", "In the past it was often used to balance the wheels of cars; for environmental reasons this use is being phased out in favor of other materials.Lead is added to copper alloys, such as brass and bronze, to improve machinability and for its lubricating qualities.", "Being practically insoluble in copper the lead forms solid globules in imperfections throughout the alloy, such as grain boundaries.", "In low concentrations, as well as acting as a lubricant, the globules hinder the formation of swarf as the alloy is worked, thereby improving machinability.", "Copper alloys with larger concentrations of lead are used in bearings.", "The lead provides lubrication, and the copper provides the load-bearing support.Lead's high density, atomic number, and formability form the basis for use of lead as a barrier that absorbs sound, vibration, and radiation.", "Lead has no natural resonance frequencies; as a result, sheet-lead is used as a sound deadening layer in the walls, floors, and ceilings of sound studios.", "Organ pipes are often made from a lead alloy, mixed with various amounts of tin to control the tone of each pipe.", "Lead is an established shielding material from radiation in nuclear science and in X-ray rooms due to its denseness and high attenuation coefficient.", "Molten lead has been used as a coolant for lead-cooled fast reactors.=== Batteries ===The largest use of lead in the early 21st century is in lead–acid batteries.", "The lead in batteries undergoes no direct contact with humans, so there are fewer toxicity concerns.", "People who work in lead battery production plants may be exposed to lead dust and inhale it.", "The reactions in the battery between lead, lead dioxide, and sulfuric acid provide a reliable source of voltage.", "Supercapacitors incorporating lead–acid batteries have been installed in kilowatt and megawatt scale applications in Australia, Japan, and the United States in frequency regulation, solar smoothing and shifting, wind smoothing, and other applications.", "These batteries have lower energy density and charge-discharge efficiency than lithium-ion batteries, but are significantly cheaper.=== Coating for cables ===Lead is used in high voltage power cables as shell material to prevent water diffusion into insulation; this use is decreasing as lead is being phased out.", "Its use in solder for electronics is also being phased out by some countries to reduce the amount of environmentally hazardous waste.", "Lead is one of three metals used in the Oddy test for museum materials, helping detect organic acids, aldehydes, and acidic gases.=== Compounds ===leftLead yellow and red lead\|rightIn addition to being the main application for lead metal, lead–acid batteries are also the main consumer of lead compounds.", "The energy storage/release reaction used in these devices involves lead sulfate and lead dioxide::(s) + (s) + 2(aq) → 2(s) + 2(l)Other applications of lead compounds are very specialized and often fading.", "Lead-based coloring agents are used in ceramic glazes and glass, especially for red and yellow shades.", "While lead paints are phased out in Europe and North America, they remain in use in less developed countries such as China, India, or Indonesia.", "Lead tetraacetate and lead dioxide are used as oxidizing agents in organic chemistry.", "Lead is frequently used in the polyvinyl chloride coating of electrical cords.", "It can be used to treat candle wicks to ensure a longer, more even burn.", "Because of its toxicity, European and North American manufacturers use alternatives such as zinc.", "Lead glass is composed of 12–28% lead oxide, changing its optical characteristics and reducing the transmission of ionizing radiation, a property used in old TVs and computer monitors with cathode-ray tubes.", "Lead-based semiconductors such as lead telluride and lead selenide are used in photovoltaic cells and infrared detectors." ], [ "Biological effects", "Lead has no confirmed biological role, and there is no confirmed safe level of lead exposure.", "A 2009 Canadian–American study concluded that even at levels that are considered to pose little to no risk, lead may cause \"adverse mental health outcomes\".", "Its prevalence in the human body—at an adult average of 120 mg—is nevertheless exceeded only by zinc (2500 mg) and iron (4000 mg) among the heavy metals.", "Lead salts are very efficiently absorbed by the body.", "A small amount of lead (1%) is stored in bones; the rest is excreted in urine and feces within a few weeks of exposure.", "Only about a third of lead is excreted by a child.", "Continual exposure may result in the bioaccumulation of lead.=== Toxicity ===Lead is a highly poisonous metal (whether inhaled or swallowed), affecting almost every organ and system in the human body.", "At airborne levels of 100 mg/m3, it is immediately dangerous to life and health.", "Most ingested lead is absorbed into the bloodstream.", "The primary cause of its toxicity is its predilection for interfering with the proper functioning of enzymes.", "It does so by binding to the sulfhydryl groups found on many enzymes, or mimicking and displacing other metals which act as cofactors in many enzymatic reactions.", "The essential metals that lead interacts with include calcium, iron, and zinc.", "High levels of calcium and iron tend to provide some protection from lead poisoning; low levels cause increased susceptibility.=== Effects ===Lead can cause severe damage to the brain and kidneys and, ultimately, death.", "By mimicking calcium, lead can cross the blood–brain barrier.", "It degrades the myelin sheaths of neurons, reduces their numbers, interferes with neurotransmission routes, and decreases neuronal growth.", "In the human body, lead inhibits porphobilinogen synthase and ferrochelatase, preventing both porphobilinogen formation and the incorporation of iron into protoporphyrin IX, the final step in heme synthesis.", "This causes ineffective heme synthesis and microcytic anemia.alt=A chart of a human body with arrows pointing pieces of text to different parts of the bodySymptoms of lead poisoning include nephropathy, colic-like abdominal pains, and possibly weakness in the fingers, wrists, or ankles.", "Small blood pressure increases, particularly in middle-aged and older people, may be apparent and can cause anemia.", "Several studies, mostly cross-sectional, found an association between increased lead exposure and decreased heart rate variability.", "In pregnant women, high levels of exposure to lead may cause miscarriage.", "Chronic, high-level exposure has been shown to reduce fertility in males.In a child's developing brain, lead interferes with synapse formation in the cerebral cortex, neurochemical development (including that of neurotransmitters), and the organization of ion channels.", "Early childhood exposure has been linked with an increased risk of sleep disturbances and excessive daytime drowsiness in later childhood.", "High blood levels are associated with delayed puberty in girls.", "The rise and fall in exposure to airborne lead from the combustion of tetraethyl lead in gasoline during the 20th century has been linked with historical increases and decreases in crime levels.=== Exposure sources ===Lead exposure is a global issue since lead mining and smelting, and battery manufacturing, disposal, and recycling, are common in many countries.", "Lead enters the body via inhalation, ingestion, or skin absorption.", "Almost all inhaled lead is absorbed into the body; for ingestion, the rate is 20–70%, with children absorbing a higher percentage than adults.Poisoning typically results from ingestion of food or water contaminated with lead, and less commonly after accidental ingestion of contaminated soil, dust, or lead-based paint.", "Seawater products can contain lead if affected by nearby industrial waters.", "Fruit and vegetables can be contaminated by high levels of lead in the soils they were grown in.", "Soil can be contaminated through particulate accumulation from lead in pipes, lead paint, and residual emissions from leaded gasoline.The use of lead for water pipes is a problem in areas with soft or acidic water.", "Hard water forms insoluble protective layers on the inner surface of the pipes, whereas soft and acidic water dissolves the lead pipes.", "Dissolved carbon dioxide in the carried water may result in the formation of soluble lead bicarbonate; oxygenated water may similarly dissolve lead as lead(II) hydroxide.", "Drinking such water, over time, can cause health problems due to the toxicity of the dissolved lead.", "The harder the water the more calcium bicarbonate and sulfate it will contain, and the more the inside of the pipes will be coated with a protective layer of lead carbonate or lead sulfate.Kymographic recording of the effect of lead acetate on frog heart experimental set upIngestion of applied lead-based paint is the major source of exposure for children:a direct source is chewing on old painted window sills.", "Additionally, as lead paint on a surface deteriorates, it peels and is pulverized into dust.", "The dust then enters the body through hand-to-mouth contact or contaminated food or drink.", "Ingesting certain home remedies may result in exposure to lead or its compounds.Inhalation is the second major exposure pathway, affecting smokers and especially workers in lead-related occupations.", "Cigarette smoke contains, among other toxic substances, radioactive lead-210.", "\"As a result of EPA's regulatory efforts, levels of lead in the air in the United States decreased by 86 percent between 2010 and 2020.\"", "The concentration of lead in the air in the United States fell below the national standard of 0.15 μg/m3 in 2014.Skin exposure may be significant for people working with organic lead compounds.", "The rate of skin absorption is lower for inorganic lead.==== Lead in foods ====Lead may be found in food when food is grown in soil that is high in lead, airborne lead contaminates the crops, animals eat lead in their diet, or lead enters the food either from what it was stored or cooked in.", "Ingestion of lead paint and batteries is also a route of exposure for livestock, which can subsequently affect humans.", "Milk produced by contaminated cattle can be diluted to a lower lead concentration and sold for consumption.In Bangladesh, lead compounds have been added to turmeric to make it more yellow.", "This is believed to have started in the 1980s and continues .", "It is believed to be one of the main sources of high lead levels in the country.", "In Hong Kong the maximum allowed lead level in food is 6 parts per million in solids and 1 part per million in liquids.Lead-containing dust can settle on drying cocoa beans when they are set outside near polluting industrial plants.", "In December 2022, Consumer Reports tested 28 dark chocolate brands and found that 23 of them contained potentially harmful levels of lead, cadmium or both.", "They have urged the chocolate makers to reduce the level of lead which could be harmful, especially to a developing fetus.==== Lead in plastic toys ====According to the United States Center for Disease Control, the use of lead in plastics has not been banned.", "Lead softens the plastic and makes it more flexible so that it can go back to its original shape.", "It may also be used in plastic toys to stabilize molecules from heat.", "Lead dust can be formed when plastic is exposed to sunlight, air, and detergents that break down the chemical bond between the lead and plastics.=== Treatment ===Treatment for lead poisoning normally involves the administration of dimercaprol and succimer.", "Acute cases may require the use of disodium calcium edetate, the calcium chelate, and the disodium salt of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA).", "It has a greater affinity for lead than calcium, with the result that lead chelate is formed by exchange and excreted in the urine, leaving behind harmless calcium." ], [ "Environmental effects", "Battery collection site in alt=A dusty dumpThe extraction, production, use, and disposal of lead and its products have caused significant contamination of the Earth's soils and waters.", "Atmospheric emissions of lead were at their peak during the Industrial Revolution, and the leaded gasoline period in the second half of the twentieth century.", "Lead releases originate from natural sources (i.e., concentration of the naturally occurring lead), industrial production, incineration and recycling, and mobilization of previously buried lead.", "In particular, as lead has been phased out from other uses, in the Global South, lead recycling operations designed to extract cheap lead used for global manufacturing have become a well documented source of exposure.", "Elevated concentrations of lead persist in soils and sediments in post-industrial and urban areas; industrial emissions, including those arising from coal burning, continue in many parts of the world, particularly in the developing countries.Lead can accumulate in soils, especially those with a high organic content, where it remains for hundreds to thousands of years.", "Environmental lead can compete with other metals found in and on plant surfaces potentially inhibiting photosynthesis and at high enough concentrations, negatively affecting plant growth and survival.", "Contamination of soils and plants can allow lead to ascend the food chain affecting microorganisms and animals.", "In animals, lead exhibits toxicity in many organs, damaging the nervous, renal, reproductive, hematopoietic, and cardiovascular systems after ingestion, inhalation, or skin absorption.", "Fish uptake lead from both water and sediment; bioaccumulation in the food chain poses a hazard to fish, birds, and sea mammals.Anthropogenic lead includes lead from shot and sinkers.", "These are among the most potent sources of lead contamination along with lead production sites.", "Lead was banned for shot and sinkers in the United States in 2017, although that ban was only effective for a month, and a similar ban is being considered in the European Union.Analytical methods for the determination of lead in the environment include spectrophotometry, X-ray fluorescence, atomic spectroscopy and electrochemical methods.", "A specific ion-selective electrode has been developed based on the ionophore S,S'-methylenebis (N,N-diisobutyldithiocarbamate).", "An important biomarker assay for lead poisoning is δ-aminolevulinic acid levels in plasma, serum, and urine." ], [ "Restriction and remediation", "Radiography of a swan found dead in alt=An X-ray picture with numerous small pellets highlighted in whiteBy the mid-1980s, there was significant decline in the use of lead in industry.", "In the United States, environmental regulations reduced or eliminated the use of lead in non-battery products, including gasoline, paints, solders, and water systems.", "Particulate control devices were installed in coal-fired power plants to capture lead emissions.", "In 1992, U.S. Congress required the Environmental Protection Agency to reduce the blood lead levels of the country's children.", "Lead use was further curtailed by the European Union's 2003 Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive.", "A large drop in lead deposition occurred in the Netherlands after the 1993 national ban on use of lead shot for hunting and sport shooting: from 230 tonnes in 1990 to 47.5 tonnes in 1995.In the United States, the permissible exposure limit for lead in the workplace, comprising metallic lead, inorganic lead compounds, and lead soaps, was set at 50 μg/m3 over an 8-hour workday, and the blood lead level limit at 5 μg per 100 g of blood in 2012.Lead may still be found in harmful quantities in stoneware, vinyl (such as that used for tubing and the insulation of electrical cords), and Chinese brass.", "Old houses may still contain lead paint.", "White lead paint has been withdrawn from sale in industrialized countries, but specialized uses of other pigments such as yellow lead chromate remain.", "Stripping old paint by sanding produces dust which can be inhaled.", "Lead abatement programs have been mandated by some authorities in properties where young children live.Lead waste, depending on the jurisdiction and the nature of the waste, may be treated as household waste (to facilitate lead abatement activities), or potentially hazardous waste requiring specialized treatment or storage.", "Lead is released into the environment in shooting places and a number of lead management practices have been developed to counter the lead contamination.", "Lead migration can be enhanced in acidic soils; to counter that, it is advised soils be treated with lime to neutralize the soils and prevent leaching of lead.Research has been conducted on how to remove lead from biosystems by biological means: Fish bones are being researched for their ability to bioremediate lead in contaminated soil.", "The fungus ''Aspergillus versicolor'' is effective at absorbing lead ions from industrial waste before being released to water bodies.", "Several bacteria have been researched for their ability to remove lead from the environment, including the sulfate-reducing bacteria ''Desulfovibrio'' and ''Desulfotomaculum'', both of which are highly effective in aqueous solutions.", "Millet grass ''Urochloa ramosa'' has the ability to accumulate significant amounts of metals such as lead and zinc in its shoot and root tissues making it an important plant for remediation of contaminated soils (Lakshmi et al., 2013)." ], [ "See also", "* Derek Bryce-Smith – one of the earliest campaigners against lead in petrol in the UK* Thomas Midgley Jr. – discovered that the addition of tetraethyllead to gasoline prevented \"knocking\" in internal combustion engines* Clair Patterson – instrumental in the banning of tetraethyllead in gasoline in the US and lead solder in food cans.", "* Robert A. Kehoe – foremost medical advocate for the use of tetraethyllead as an additive in gasoline." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", " * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Table of contents* * " ], [ "External links", " The Toxicology of Heavy Metals: Getting the Lead Out, American Society for Clinical Pathology* COVID-19 to reduce global lead production by 5,2% in 2020 (with a figure showing global lead production, 2010-2024)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Limestone" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Limestone''' (calcium carbonate ) is a type of carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material lime.", "It is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of .", "Limestone forms when these minerals precipitate out of water containing dissolved calcium.", "This can take place through both biological and nonbiological processes, though biological processes, such as the accumulation of corals and shells in the sea, have likely been more important for the last 540 million years.", "Limestone often contains fossils which provide scientists with information on ancient environments and on the evolution of life.About 20% to 25% of sedimentary rock is carbonate rock, and most of this is limestone.", "The remaining carbonate rock is mostly dolomite, a closely related rock, which contains a high percentage of the mineral dolomite, .", "''Magnesian limestone'' is an obsolete and poorly-defined term used variously for dolomite, for limestone containing significant dolomite (''dolomitic limestone''), or for any other limestone containing a significant percentage of magnesium.", "Most limestone was formed in shallow marine environments, such as continental shelves or platforms, though smaller amounts were formed in many other environments.", "Much dolomite is secondary dolomite, formed by chemical alteration of limestone.", "Limestone is exposed over large regions of the Earth's surface, and because limestone is slightly soluble in rainwater, these exposures often are eroded to become karst landscapes.", "Most cave systems are found in limestone bedrock.Limestone has numerous uses: as a chemical feedstock for the production of lime used for cement (an essential component of concrete), as aggregate for the base of roads, as white pigment or filler in products such as toothpaste or paints, as a soil conditioner, and as a popular decorative addition to rock gardens.", "Limestone formations contain about 30% of the world's petroleum reservoirs." ], [ "Description", "This limestone deposit in the karst of Dinaric Alps near Sinj, Croatia, was formed in the Eocene.", "Limestone is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate ().", "Dolomite, , is an uncommon mineral in limestone, and siderite or other carbonate minerals are rare.", "However, the calcite in limestone often contains a few percent of magnesium.", "Calcite in limestone is divided into low-magnesium and high-magnesium calcite, with the dividing line placed at a composition of 4% magnesium.", "High-magnesium calcite retains the calcite mineral structure, which is distinct from dolomite.", "Aragonite does not usually contain significant magnesium.", "Most limestone is otherwise chemically fairly pure, with clastic sediments (mainly fine-grained quartz and clay minerals) making up less than 5% to 10% of the composition.", "Organic matter typically makes up around 0.2% of a limestone and rarely exceeds 1%.Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or siliceous skeletal fragments (such as sponge spicules, diatoms, or radiolarians).", "Fossils are also common in limestone.Limestone is commonly white to gray in color.", "Limestone that is unusually rich in organic matter can be almost black in color, while traces of iron or manganese can give limestone an off-white to yellow to red color.", "The density of limestone depends on its porosity, which varies from 0.1% for the densest limestone to 40% for chalk.", "The density correspondingly ranges from 1.5 to 2.7 g/cm3.Although relatively soft, with a Mohs hardness of 2 to 4, dense limestone can have a crushing strength of up to 180 MPa.", "For comparison, concrete typically has a crushing strength of about 40 MPa.Although limestones show little variability in mineral composition, they show great diversity in texture.", "However, most limestone consists of sand-sized grains in a carbonate mud matrix.", "Because limestones are often of biological origin and are usually composed of sediment that is deposited close to where it formed, classification of limestone is usually based on its grain type and mud content.===Grains===Ooids from a beach on Joulter's Cay, The Bahamas Ooids in limestone of the Carmel Formation (Middle Jurassic) of southwestern Utah.Thin-section view of a Middle Jurassic limestone in southern Utah, U.S.", "The round grains are ooids; the largest is in diameter.", "This limestone is an oosparite.Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera.", "These organisms secrete structures made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these structures behind when they die.", "Other carbonate grains composing limestones are ooids, peloids, and limeclasts (intraclasts and ).Skeletal grains have a composition reflecting the organisms that produced them and the environment in which they were produced.", "Low-magnesium calcite skeletal grains are typical of articulate brachiopods, planktonic (free-floating) foraminifera, and coccoliths.", "High-magnesium calcite skeletal grains are typical of benthic (bottom-dwelling) foraminifera, echinoderms, and coralline algae.", "Aragonite skeletal grains are typical of molluscs, calcareous green algae, stromatoporoids, corals, and tube worms.", "The skeletal grains also reflect specific geological periods and environments.", "For example, coral grains are more common in high-energy environments (characterized by strong currents and turbulence) while bryozoan grains are more common in low-energy environments (characterized by quiet water).Ooids (sometimes called ooliths) are sand-sized grains (less than 2mm in diameter) consisting of one or more layers of calcite or aragonite around a central quartz grain or carbonate mineral fragment.", "These likely form by direct precipitation of calcium carbonate onto the ooid.", "Pisoliths are similar to ooids, but they are larger than 2 mm in diameter and tend to be more irregular in shape.", "Limestone composed mostly of ooids is called an ''oolite'' or sometimes an ''oolitic limestone''.", "Ooids form in high-energy environments, such as the Bahama platform, and oolites typically show crossbedding and other features associated with deposition in strong currents.", "''Oncoliths'' resemble ooids but show a radial rather than layered internal structure, indicating that they were formed by algae in a normal marine environment.Peloids are structureless grains of microcrystalline carbonate likely produced by a variety of processes.", "Many are thought to be fecal pellets produced by marine organisms.", "Others may be produced by endolithic (boring) algae or other microorganisms or through breakdown of mollusc shells.", "They are difficult to see in a limestone sample except in thin section and are less common in ancient limestones, possibly because compaction of carbonate sediments disrupts them.Limeclasts are fragments of existing limestone or partially lithified carbonate sediments.", "Intraclasts are limeclasts that originate close to where they are deposited in limestone, while extraclasts come from outside the depositional area.", "Intraclasts include ''grapestone'', which is clusters of peloids cemented together by organic material or mineral cement.", "Extraclasts are uncommon, are usually accompanied by other clastic sediments, and indicate deposition in a tectonically active area or as part of a turbidity current.===Mud===The grains of most limestones are embedded in a matrix of carbonate mud.", "This is typically the largest fraction of an ancient carbonate rock.", "Mud consisting of individual crystals less than in length is described as ''micrite''.", "In fresh carbonate mud, micrite is mostly small aragonite needles, which may precipitate directly from seawater, be secreted by algae, or be produced by abrasion of carbonate grains in a high-energy environment.", "This is converted to calcite within a few million years of deposition.", "Further recrystallization of micrite produces ''microspar'', with grains from in diameter.Limestone often contains larger crystals of calcite, ranging in size from , that are described as ''sparry calcite'' or ''sparite''.", "Sparite is distinguished from micrite by a grain size of over and because sparite stands out under a hand lens or in thin section as white or transparent crystals.", "Sparite is distinguished from carbonate grains by its lack of internal structure and its characteristic crystal shapes.", "Geologists are careful to distinguish between sparite deposited as cement and sparite formed by recrystallization of micrite or carbonate grains.", "Sparite cement was likely deposited in pore space between grains, suggesting a high-energy depositional environment that removed carbonate mud.", "Recrystallized sparite is not diagnostic of depositional environment.===Other characteristics===The White Cliffs of Dover are composed of chalk.Limestone outcrops are recognized in the field by their softness (calcite and aragonite both have a Mohs hardness of less than 4, well below common silicate minerals) and because limestone bubbles vigorously when a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid is dropped on it.", "Dolomite is also soft but reacts only feebly with dilute hydrochloric acid, and it usually weathers to a characteristic dull yellow-brown color due to the presence of ferrous iron.", "This is released and oxidized as the dolomite weathers.", "Impurities (such as clay, sand, organic remains, iron oxide, and other materials) will cause limestones to exhibit different colors, especially with weathered surfaces.The makeup of a carbonate rock outcrop can be estimated in the field by etching the surface with dilute hydrochloric acid.", "This etches away the calcite and aragonite, leaving behind any silica or dolomite grains.", "The latter can be identified by their rhombohedral shape.Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities (''vugs'') in the rock.", "Vugs are a form of secondary porosity, formed in existing limestone by a change in environment that increases the solubility of calcite.Dense, massive limestone is sometimes described as \"marble\".", "For example, the famous Portoro \"marble\" of Italy is actually a dense black limestone.", "True marble is produced by recrystallization of limestone during regional metamorphism that accompanies the mountain building process (orogeny).", "It is distinguished from dense limestone by its coarse crystalline texture and the formation of distinctive minerals from the silica and clay present in the original limestone.===Classification===Travertine limestone terraces of Pamukkale, Turkey.Cave limestone formations in the Luray Caverns of the northern Shenandoah ValleyTwo major classification schemes, the Folk and Dunham, are used for identifying the types of carbonate rocks collectively known as limestone.====Folk classification====Robert L. Folk developed a classification system that places primary emphasis on the detailed composition of grains and interstitial material in carbonate rocks.", "Based on composition, there are three main components: allochems (grains), matrix (mostly micrite), and cement (sparite).", "The Folk system uses two-part names; the first refers to the grains and the second to the cement.", "For example, a limestone consisting mainly of ooids, with a crystalline matrix, would be termed an oosparite.", "It is helpful to have a petrographic microscope when using the Folk scheme, because it is easier to determine the components present in each sample.====Dunham classification====Robert J. Dunham published his system for limestone in 1962.It focuses on the depositional fabric of carbonate rocks.", "Dunham divides the rocks into four main groups based on relative proportions of coarser clastic particles, based on criteria such as whether the grains were originally in mutual contact, and therefore self-supporting, or whether the rock is characterized by the presence of frame builders and algal mats.", "Unlike the Folk scheme, Dunham deals with the original porosity of the rock.", "The Dunham scheme is more useful for hand samples because it is based on texture, not the grains in the sample.A revised classification was proposed by Wright (1992).", "It adds some diagenetic patterns to the classification scheme.====Other descriptive terms====''Travertine'' is a term applied to calcium carbonate deposits formed in freshwater environments, particularly waterfalls, cascades and hot springs.", "Such deposits are typically massive, dense, and banded.", "When the deposits are highly porous, so that they have a spongelike texture, they are typically described as ''tufa''.", "Secondary calcite deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters (groundwater) in caves is also sometimes described as travertine.", "This produces speleothems, such as stalagmites and stalactites.", "''Coquina'' is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of abraded pieces of coral, shells, or other fossil debris.", "When better consolidated, it is described as ''coquinite''.", "''Chalk'' is a soft, earthy, fine-textured limestone composed of the tests of planktonic microorganisms such as foraminifera, while''marl'' is an earthy mixture of carbonates and silicate sediments." ], [ "Formation", "Limestone forms when calcite or aragonite precipitate out of water containing dissolved calcium, which can take place through both biological and nonbiological processes.", "The solubility of calcium carbonate () is controlled largely by the amount of dissolved carbon dioxide () in the water.", "This is summarized in the reaction:::Increases in temperature or decreases in pressure tend to reduce the amount of dissolved and precipitate .", "Reduction in salinity also reduces the solubility of , by several orders of magnitude for fresh water versus seawater.Near-surface water of the earth's oceans are oversaturated with by a factor of more than six.", "The failure of to rapidly precipitate out of these waters is likely due to interference by dissolved magnesium ions with nucleation of calcite crystals, the necessary first step in precipitation.", "Precipitation of aragonite may be suppressed by the presence of naturally occurring organic phosphates in the water.", "Although ooids likely form through purely inorganic processes, the bulk of precipitation in the oceans is the result of biological activity.", "Much of this takes place on carbonate platforms.An aerial view of a whiting event precipitation cloud in Lake Ontario.The origin of carbonate mud, and the processes by which it is converted to micrite, continue to be a subject of research.", "Modern carbonate mud is composed mostly of aragonite needles around in length.", "Needles of this shape and composition are produced by calcareous algae such as ''Penicillus'', making this a plausible source of mud.", "Another possibility is direct precipitation from the water.", "A phenomenon known as ''whitings'' occurs in shallow waters, in which white streaks containing dispersed micrite appear on the surface of the water.", "It is uncertain whether this is freshly precipitated aragonite or simply material stirred up from the bottom, but there is some evidence that whitings are caused by biological precipitation of aragonite as part of a bloom of cyanobacteria or microalgae.", "However, stable isotope ratios in modern carbonate mud appear to be inconsistent with either of these mechanisms, and abrasion of carbonate grains in high-energy environments has been put forward as a third possibility.Formation of limestone has likely been dominated by biological processes throughout the Phanerozoic, the last 540 million years of the Earth's history.", "Limestone may have been deposited by microorganisms in the Precambrian, prior to 540 million years ago, but inorganic processes were probably more important and likely took place in an ocean more highly oversaturated in calcium carbonate than the modern ocean.===Diagenesis===Diagenesis is the process in which sediments are compacted and turned into solid rock.", "During diagenesis of carbonate sediments, significant chemical and textural changes take place.", "For example, aragonite is converted to low-magnesium calcite.", "Diagenesis is the likely origin of ''pisoliths'', concentrically layered particles ranging from in diameter found in some limestones.", "Pisoliths superficially resemble ooids but have no nucleus of foreign matter, fit together tightly, and show other signs that they formed after the original deposition of the sediments.Chert nodule within soft limestone at Akçakoca, TurkeyStylolites in limestoneSilicification occurs early in diagenesis, at low pH and temperature, and contributes to fossil preservation.", "Silicification takes place through the reaction::CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 + H4SiO4 -> SiO2 + Ca^2+ + 2HCO3- + 2 H2OFossils are often preserved in exquisite detail as chert.Cementing takes place rapidly in carbonate sediments, typically within less than a million years of deposition.", "Some cementing occurs while the sediments are still under water, forming hardgrounds.", "Cementing accelerates after the retreat of the sea from the depositional environment, as rainwater infiltrates the sediment beds, often within just a few thousand years.", "As rainwater mixes with groundwater, aragonite and high-magnesium calcite are converted to low-calcium calcite.", "Cementing of thick carbonate deposits by rainwater may commence even before the retreat of the sea, as rainwater can infiltrate over into sediments beneath the continental shelf.As carbonate sediments are increasingly deeply buried under younger sediments, chemical and mechanical compaction of the sediments increases.", "Chemical compaction takes place by ''pressure solution'' of the sediments.", "This process dissolves minerals from points of contact between grains and redeposits it in pore space, reducing the porosity of the limestone from an initial high value of 40% to 80% to less than 10%.", "Pressure solution produces distinctive stylolites, irregular surfaces within the limestone at which silica-rich sediments accumulate.", "These may reflect dissolution and loss of a considerable fraction of the limestone bed.", "At depths greater than , burial cementation completes the lithification process.", "Burial cementation does not produce stylolites.When overlying beds are eroded, bringing limestone closer to the surface, the final stage of diagenesis takes place.", "This produces ''secondary porosity'' as some of the cement is dissolved by rainwater infiltrating the beds.", "This may include the formation of vugs, which are crystal-lined cavities within the limestone.Diagenesis may include conversion of limestone to dolomite by magnesium-rich fluids.", "There is considerable evidence of replacement of limestone by dolomite, including sharp replacement boundaries that cut across bedding.", "The process of dolomitization remains an area of active research, but possible mechanisms include exposure to concentrated brines in hot environments (''evaporative reflux'') or exposure to diluted seawater in delta or estuary environments (''Dorag dolomitization'').", "However, Dorag dolomitization has fallen into disfavor as a mechanism for dolomitization, with one 2004 review paper describing it bluntly as \"a myth\".", "Ordinary seawater is capable of converting calcite to dolomite, if the seawater is regularly flushed through the rock, as by the ebb and flow of tides (tidal pumping).", "Once dolomitization begins, it proceeds rapidly, so that there is very little carbonate rock containing mixed calcite and dolomite.", "Carbonate rock tends to be either almost all calcite/aragonite or almost all dolomite." ], [ "Occurrence", "About 20% to 25% of sedimentary rock is carbonate rock, and most of this is limestone.", "Limestone is found in sedimentary sequences as old as 2.7 billion years.", "However, the compositions of carbonate rocks show an uneven distribution in time in the geologic record.", "About 95% of modern carbonates are composed of high-magnesium calcite and aragonite.", "The aragonite needles in carbonate mud are converted to low-magnesium calcite within a few million years, as this is the most stable form of calcium carbonate.", "Ancient carbonate formations of the Precambrian and Paleozoic contain abundant dolomite, but limestone dominates the carbonate beds of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic.", "Modern dolomite is quite rare.", "There is evidence that, while the modern ocean favors precipitation of aragonite, the oceans of the Paleozoic and middle to late Cenozoic favored precipitation of calcite.", "This may indicate a lower Mg/Ca ratio in the ocean water of those times.", "This magnesium depletion may be a consequence of more rapid sea floor spreading, which removes magnesium from ocean water.", "The modern ocean and the ocean of the Mesozoic have been described as \"aragonite seas\".Most limestone was formed in shallow marine environments, such as continental shelves or platforms.", "Such environments form only about 5% of the ocean basins, but limestone is rarely preserved in continental slope and deep sea environments.", "The best environments for deposition are warm waters, which have both a high organic productivity and increased saturation of calcium carbonate due to lower concentrations of dissolved carbon dioxide.", "Modern limestone deposits are almost always in areas with very little silica-rich sedimentation, reflected in the relative purity of most limestones.", "Reef organisms are destroyed by muddy, brackish river water, and carbonate grains are ground down by much harder silicate grains.", "Unlike clastic sedimentary rock, limestone is produced almost entirely from sediments originating at or near the place of deposition.El Capitan, an ancient limestone reef in TexasLimestone formations tend to show abrupt changes in thickness.", "Large moundlike features in a limestone formation are interpreted as ancient reefs, which when they appear in the geologic record are called ''bioherms''.", "Many are rich in fossils, but most lack any connected organic framework like that seen in modern reefs.", "The fossil remains are present as separate fragments embedded in ample mud matrix.", "Much of the sedimentation shows indications of occurring in the intertidal or supratidal zones, suggesting sediments rapidly fill available accommodation space in the shelf or platform.", "Deposition is also favored on the seaward margin of shelves and platforms, where there is upwelling deep ocean water rich in nutrients that increase organic productivity.", "Reefs are common here, but when lacking, ooid shoals are found instead.", "Finer sediments are deposited close to shore.The lack of deep sea limestones is due in part to rapid subduction of oceanic crust, but is more a result of dissolution of calcium carbonate at depth.", "The solubility of calcium carbonate increases with pressure and even more with higher concentrations of carbon dioxide, which is produced by decaying organic matter settling into the deep ocean that is not removed by photosynthesis in the dark depths.", "As a result, there is a fairly sharp transition from water saturated with calcium carbonate to water unsaturated with calcium carbonate, the ''lysocline'', which occurs at the ''calcite compensation depth'' of .", "Below this depth, foraminifera tests and other skeletal particles rapidly dissolve, and the sediments of the ocean floor abruptly transition from carbonate ooze rich in foraminifera and coccolith remains (''Globigerina'' ooze) to silicic mud lacking carbonates.Mønsted is the largest limestone mine in the world.In rare cases, turbidites or other silica-rich sediments bury and preserve benthic (deep ocean) carbonate deposits.", "Ancient benthic limestones are microcrystalline and are identified by their tectonic setting.", "Fossils typically are foraminifera and coccoliths.", "No pre-Jurassic benthic limestones are known, probably because carbonate-shelled plankton had not yet evolved.Limestones also form in freshwater environments.", "These limestones are not unlike marine limestone, but have a lower diversity of organisms and a greater fraction of silica and clay minerals characteristic of marls.", "The Green River Formation is an example of a prominent freshwater sedimentary formation containing numerous limestone beds.", "Freshwater limestone is typically micritic.", "Fossils of charophyte (stonewort), a form of freshwater green algae, are characteristic of these environments, where the charophytes produce and trap carbonates.Limestones may also form in evaporite depositional environments.", "Calcite is one of the first minerals to precipitate in marine evaporites.===Limestone and living organisms===Coral reef at Nusa Lembongan, Bali, IndonesiaMost limestone is formed by the activities of living organisms near reefs, but the organisms responsible for reef formation have changed over geologic time.", "For example, ''stromatolites'' are mound-shaped structures in ancient limestones, interpreted as colonies of cyanobacteria that accumulated carbonate sediments, but stromatolites are rare in younger limestones.", "Organisms precipitate limestone both directly as part of their skeletons, and indirectly by removing carbon dioxide from the water by photosynthesis and thereby decreasing the solubility of calcium carbonate.Limestone shows the same range of sedimentary structures found in other sedimentary rocks.", "However, finer structures, such as lamination, are often destroyed by the burrowing activities of organisms (bioturbation).", "Fine lamination is characteristic of limestone formed in playa lakes, which lack the burrowing organisms.", "Limestones also show distinctive features such as ''geopetal structures'', which form when curved shells settle to the bottom with the concave face downwards.", "This traps a void space that can later be filled by sparite.", "Geologists use geopetal structures to determine which direction was up at the time of deposition, which is not always obvious with highly deformed limestone formations.The cyanobacterium ''Hyella balani'' can bore through limestone; as can the green alga ''Eugamantia sacculata'' and the fungus ''Ostracolaba implexa''.====Micritic mud mounds====Micricitic mud mounds are subcircular domes of micritic calcite that lacks internal structure.", "Modern examples are up to several hundred meters thick and a kilometer across, and have steep slopes (with slope angles of around 50 degrees).", "They may be composed of peloids swept together by currents and stabilized by ''Thalassia'' grass or mangroves.", "Bryozoa may also contribute to mound formation by helping to trap sediments.Mud mounds are found throughout the geologic record, and prior to the early Ordovician, they were the dominant reef type in both deep and shallow water.", "These mud mounds likely are microbial in origin.", "Following the appearance of frame-building reef organisms, mud mounds were restricted mainly to deeper water.====Organic reefs====Organic reefs form at low latitudes in shallow water, not more than a few meters deep.", "They are complex, diverse structures found throughout the fossil record.", "The frame-building organisms responsible for organic reef formation are characteristic of different geologic time periods: Archaeocyathids appeared in the early Cambrian; these gave way to sponges by the late Cambrian; later successions included stromatoporoids, corals, algae, bryozoa, and rudists (a form of bivalve mollusc).", "The extent of organic reefs has varied over geologic time, and they were likely most extensive in the middle Devonian, when they covered an area estimated at .", "This is roughly ten times the extent of modern reefs.", "The Devonian reefs were constructed largely by stromatoporoids and tabulate corals, which were devastated by the late Devonian extinction.Organic reefs typically have a complex internal structure.", "Whole body fossils are usually abundant, but ooids and interclasts are rare within the reef.", "The core of a reef is typically massive and unbedded, and is surrounded by a talus that is greater in volume than the core.", "The talus contains abundant intraclasts and is usually either ''floatstone'', with 10% or more of grains over 2mm in size embedded in abundant matrix, or ''rudstone'', which is mostly large grains with sparse matrix.", "The talus grades to planktonic fine-grained carbonate mud, then noncarbonate mud away from the reef." ], [ "Limestone landscape", "The Cudgel of Hercules, a tall limestone rock in Poland (Pieskowa Skała Castle in the background)The Samulá cenote in Valladolid, Yucatán, MexicoLa Zaplaz formations in the Piatra Craiului Mountains, Romania.Limestone is partially soluble, especially in acid, and therefore forms many erosional landforms.", "These include limestone pavements, pot holes, cenotes, caves and gorges.", "Such erosion landscapes are known as karsts.", "Limestone is less resistant to erosion than most igneous rocks, but more resistant than most other sedimentary rocks.", "It is therefore usually associated with hills and downland, and occurs in regions with other sedimentary rocks, typically clays.Karst regions overlying limestone bedrock tend to have fewer visible above-ground sources (ponds and streams), as surface water easily drains downward through joints in the limestone.", "While draining, water and organic acid from the soil slowly (over thousands or millions of years) enlarges these cracks, dissolving the calcium carbonate and carrying it away in solution.", "Most cave systems are through limestone bedrock.", "Cooling groundwater or mixing of different groundwaters will also create conditions suitable for cave formation.Coastal limestones are often eroded by organisms which bore into the rock by various means.", "This process is known as bioerosion.", "It is most common in the tropics, and it is known throughout the fossil record.Bands of limestone emerge from the Earth's surface in often spectacular rocky outcrops and islands.", "Examples include the Rock of Gibraltar, the Burren in County Clare, Ireland; Malham Cove in North Yorkshire and the Isle of Wight, England; the Great Orme in Wales; on Fårö near the Swedish island of Gotland, the Niagara Escarpment in Canada/United States; Notch Peak in Utah; the Ha Long Bay National Park in Vietnam; and the hills around the Lijiang River and Guilin city in China.The Florida Keys, islands off the south coast of Florida, are composed mainly of oolitic limestone (the Lower Keys) and the carbonate skeletons of coral reefs (the Upper Keys), which thrived in the area during interglacial periods when sea level was higher than at present.Unique habitats are found on alvars, extremely level expanses of limestone with thin soil mantles.", "The largest such expanse in Europe is the Stora Alvaret on the island of Öland, Sweden.", "Another area with large quantities of limestone is the island of Gotland, Sweden.", "Huge quarries in northwestern Europe, such as those of Mount Saint Peter (Belgium/Netherlands), extend for more than a hundred kilometers." ], [ "Uses", "The Megalithic Temples of Malta such as Ħaġar Qim are built entirely of limestone.", "They are among the oldest freestanding structures in existence.The Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World had an outside cover made entirely from limestone.Limestone is a raw material that is used globally in a variety of different ways including construction, agriculture and as industrial materials.", "Limestone is very common in architecture, especially in Europe and North America.", "Many landmarks across the world, including the Great Pyramid and its associated complex in Giza, Egypt, were made of limestone.", "So many buildings in Kingston, Ontario, Canada were, and continue to be, constructed from it that it is nicknamed the 'Limestone City'.", "Limestone, metamorphosed by heat and pressure produces marble, which has been used for many statues, buildings and stone tabletops.", "On the island of Malta, a variety of limestone called Globigerina limestone was, for a long time, the only building material available, and is still very frequently used on all types of buildings and sculptures.Limestone can be processed into many various forms such as brick, cement, powdered/crushed, or as a filler.", "Limestone is readily available and relatively easy to cut into blocks or more elaborate carving.", "Ancient American sculptors valued limestone because it was easy to work and good for fine detail.", "Going back to the Late Preclassic period (by 200–100 BCE), the Maya civilization (Ancient Mexico) created refined sculpture using limestone because of these excellent carving properties.", "The Maya would decorate the ceilings of their sacred buildings (known as lintels) and cover the walls with carved limestone panels.", "Carved on these sculptures were political and social stories, and this helped communicate messages of the king to his people.", "Limestone is long-lasting and stands up well to exposure, which explains why many limestone ruins survive.", "However, it is very heavy (density 2.6), making it impractical for tall buildings, and relatively expensive as a building material.Limestone was most popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.", "Railway stations, banks and other structures from that era were made of limestone in some areas.", "It is used as a façade on some skyscrapers, but only in thin plates for covering, rather than solid blocks.", "In the United States, Indiana, most notably the Bloomington area, has long been a source of high-quality quarried limestone, called Indiana limestone.", "Many famous buildings in London are built from Portland limestone.", "Houses built in Odesa in Ukraine in the 19th century were mostly constructed from limestone and the extensive remains of the mines now form the Odesa Catacombs.Limestone was also a very popular building block in the Middle Ages in the areas where it occurred, since it is hard, durable, and commonly occurs in easily accessible surface exposures.", "Many medieval churches and castles in Europe are made of limestone.", "Beer stone was a popular kind of limestone for medieval buildings in southern England.File:Limestone Mines at Cedar Creek.jpg\|Limestone quarry at Cedar Creek, Virginia, USFile:Pargas Quarry-24.jpg\|Nordkalk's limestone quarry in Pargas, FinlandFile:Gozo, limestone quarry - cutting the stone.JPG\|Cutting limestone blocks at a quarry in Gozo, MaltaFile:Kalkstein (nahe).JPG\|Limestone as building materialFile:Bermuda Number 178 limestone used as building material for walls.jpg\|Limestone is used worldwide as building material.Limestone is the raw material for production of lime, primarily known for treating soils, purifying water and smelting copper.", "Lime is an important ingredient used in chemical industries.", "Limestone and (to a lesser extent) marble are reactive to acid solutions, making acid rain a significant problem to the preservation of artifacts made from this stone.", "Many limestone statues and building surfaces have suffered severe damage due to acid rain.", "Likewise limestone gravel has been used to protect lakes vulnerable to acid rain, acting as a pH buffering agent.", "Acid-based cleaning chemicals can also etch limestone, which should only be cleaned with a neutral or mild alkali-based cleaner.A limestone plate with a negative map of Moosburg in Bavaria is prepared for a lithography print.Plastic bag \"made mainly from limestone\"Other uses include:* It is the raw material for the manufacture of quicklime (calcium oxide), slaked lime (calcium hydroxide), cement and mortar.", "* Pulverized limestone is used as a soil conditioner to neutralize acidic soils (agricultural lime).", "* Is crushed for use as aggregate—the solid base for many roads as well as in asphalt concrete.", "* As a reagent in flue-gas desulfurization, where it reacts with sulfur dioxide for air pollution control.", "* In glass making, particularly in the manufacture of soda–lime glass.", "* As an additive toothpaste, paper, plastics, paint, tiles, and other materials as both white pigment and a cheap filler.", "* As rock dust, to suppress methane explosions in underground coal mines.", "* Purified, it is added to bread and cereals as a source of calcium.", "* As a calcium supplement in livestock feed, such as for poultry (when ground up).", "* For remineralizing and increasing the alkalinity of purified water to prevent pipe corrosion and to restore essential nutrient levels.", "* In blast furnaces, limestone binds with silica and other impurities to remove them from the iron.", "It can aid in the removal of toxic components created from coal burning plants and layers of polluted molten metals.Many limestone formations are porous and permeable, which makes them important petroleum reservoirs.", "About 20% of North American hydrocarbon reserves are found in carbonate rock.", "Carbonate reservoirs are very common in the petroleum-rich Middle East, and carbonate reservoirs hold about a third of all petroleum reserves worldwide.", "Limestone formations are also common sources of metal ores, because their porosity and permeability, together with their chemical activity, promotes ore deposition in the limestone.", "The lead-zinc deposits of Missouri and the Northwest Territories are examples of ore deposits hosted in limestone.=== Scarcity ===Limestone is a major industrial raw material that is in constant demand.", "This raw material has been essential in the iron and steel industry since the nineteenth century.", "Companies have never had a shortage of limestone; however, it has become a concern as the demand continues to increase and it remains in high demand today.", "The major potential threats to supply in the nineteenth century were regional availability and accessibility.", "The two main accessibility issues were transportation and property rights.", "Other problems were high capital costs on plants and facilities due to environmental regulations and the requirement of zoning and mining permits.", "These two dominant factors led to the adaptation and selection of other materials that were created and formed to design alternatives for limestone that suited economic demands.Limestone was classified as a critical raw material, and with the potential risk of shortages, it drove industries to find new alternative materials and technological systems.", "This allowed limestone to no longer be classified as critical as replacement substances increased in production; minette ore is a common substitute, for example.=== Occupational safety and health ===Powdered limestone as a food additive is generally recognized as safe and limestone is not regarded as a hazardous material.", "However, limestone dust can be a mild respiratory and skin irritant, and dust that gets into the eyes can cause corneal abrasions.", "Because limestone contains small amounts of silica, inhalation of limestone dust could potentially lead to silicosis or cancer.====United States====The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for limestone exposure in the workplace as total exposure and respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday.", "The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of total exposure and respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday.=== Graffiti ===Removing graffiti from weathered limestone is difficult because it is a porous and permeable material.", "The surface is fragile so usual abrasion methods run the risk of severe surface loss.", "Because it is an acid-sensitive stone some cleaning agents cannot be used due to adverse effects." ], [ "Gallery", "File:OrdOutcropTN.JPG\|A stratigraphic section of Ordovician limestone exposed in central Tennessee, U.S.", "The less-resistant and thinner beds are composed of shale.", "The vertical lines are drill holes for explosives used during road construction.File:Limestone etched section KopeFm new.jpg\|Photo and etched section of a sample of fossiliferous limestone from the Kope Formation (Upper Ordovician) near Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.File:BrassfieldEncrinite042112.jpg\|biosparite limestone of the Brassfield Formation (Lower Silurian) near Fairborn, Ohio, U.S., showing grains mainly composed of crinoid fragmentsFile:大连国家地质公园12-龟背石.jpg\|A concretionary nodular (septarian) limestone at Jinshitan Coastal National Geopark, Dalian, ChinaFile:太湖賞石-Rock in the form of a fantastic mountain MET DT208239.jpg\|Limestone from Lake Tai, used in gongshi, a Chinese stone artFile:Folded Rock Provo Canyon.JPG\|Folded limestone layers on Cascade Mountain in Provo Canyon, UtahFile:Calcined fossils.jpg\|Fossils in limestone from the northern Black Sea regionFile:Geography of Ohio - DPLA - aaba7b3295ff6973b6fd1e23e33cde14 (page 96) (cropped).jpg\|Limestone distribution in Ohio, from ''Geography of Ohio'', 1923File:Chalk (\"Upper Chalk\" Formation, Upper Cretaceous; White Cliffs of Dover, England, southern Britain).jpg\|Chalk is a variety of limestone.", "It is a softer, and more powdery material." ], [ "See also", " * Charmant Som* * * * * " ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lübeck" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lübeck''' (; Low German: or International Phonetic Alphabet\|ˈlyːbeːk; Latin: ), officially the '''Hanseatic City of Lübeck''' (), is a city in Northern Germany.", "With around 220,000 inhabitants, it is the second-largest city on the German Baltic coast and the second-largest city in the state of Schleswig-Holstein, after its capital of Kiel, and is the 36th-largest city in Germany.The city lies in the Holsatian part of Schleswig-Holstein, on the mouth of the Trave, which flows into the Bay of Lübeck in the borough of Travemünde, and on the Trave's tributary Wakenitz.", "The island with the historic old town and the districts north of the Trave are also located in the historical region of Wagria.", "Lübeck is the southwesternmost city on the Baltic Sea, and the closest point of access to the Baltic from Hamburg.", "The city lies in the Holsatian dialect area of Low German.The name \"Lübeck\" ultimately stems from the Slavic root ''lub-'' (\"love-\").", "Before 819, Polabian Slavs founded a settlement which they called Liubice on the mouth of the Schwartau into the Trave.", "Since the 10th century, Liubice was the second-most important settlement of the Obotrites after Starigard.", "Lübeck was granted Soest city rights in 1160, and, in 1260, it became an immediate city within the Holy Roman Empire.", "In the middle of the 12th century, Lübeck developed into the cradle of the Hanseatic League, of which it was considered the de facto capital and most important city from then on.", "The Lübeck law was eventually adopted by around 100 cities in the Baltic region.", "Lübeck could preserve its status as an independent city, which it held since 1226, until 1937.Lübeck's historic old town, located on a densely built-up island, is Germany's most extensive UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "Nicknamed the \"City of the Seven Towers\" (''Stadt der Sieben Türme''), Lübeck's skyline is dominated by the seven towers of its five Protestant main churches: St Mary's, Lübeck Cathedral, St James', St Peter's, and St Giles's.", "The cathedral from 1173-1341 was the first large brickwork church in the Baltic region.", "St Mary's Church from 1265-1351 is considered the model on which most of the other Brick Gothic churches in the sphere of influence of the Hanseatic League are based.", "It is the second-tallest church with two main towers after Cologne Cathedral (which only surpassed it in 1880), has the tallest brick vault, and is the second-tallest brickwork structure after St. Martin's Church in Landshut.Lübeck is home to the University of Lübeck with its University Medical Center Schleswig Holstein, the Technical University of Applied Sciences Lübeck, and the Lübeck Academy of Music.", "There are 18 museums in Lübeck, among which the European Hansemuseum, Lübeck Museum Port, and the Niederegger Marzipan Museum, dedicated to the culinary specialty the city is best known for: Lübeck Marzipan.", "Due to their southwestern location, Travemünde and the nearby seaside resorts of Niendorf, Timmendorfer Strand, Scharbeutz, Haffkrug, Sierksdorf, and Grömitz are among Germany's most visited.Lübeck Main Station is located on the ''Vogelfluglinie'' railway line connecting continental Europe (Hamburg) to Scandinavia (Copenhagen) via the future Fehmarn Belt fixed link.", "The port of Lübeck is the second-largest German port on the Baltic Sea after the port of Rostock, and the ''Skandinavienkai'' in Travemünde is Germany's most important ferry port, with connections to Scandinavia and the Baltic countries.", "The city has its own regional airport at Lübeck-Blankensee, while nearby Hamburg Airport serves as Lübeck's main air hub." ], [ "History", "Humans settled in the area around what today is Lübeck after the last Ice Age ended about 9700 BCE.", "Several Neolithic dolmens can be found in the area.Around 700 AD, Slavic peoples started moving into the eastern parts of Holstein, an area previously settled by Germanic inhabitants who had moved on in the Migration Period.", "Charlemagne, whose efforts to Christianise the area were opposed by the Germanic Saxons, expelled many of the Saxons and brought in Polabian Slavs allies.", "Liubice (the place-name means \"lovely\") was founded on the banks of the River Trave about north of the present-day city-center of Lübeck.In the 10th century, it became the most important settlement of the Obotrite confederacy and a castle was built.", "In 1128, the pagan Rani from Rügen razed Liubice.In 1143, Adolf II, Count of Schauenburg and Holstein, founded the modern town as a German settlement on the river island of Bucu.", "He built a new castle, first mentioned by the chronicler Helmold as existing in 1147.Adolf had to cede the castle to the Duke of Saxony, Henry the Lion, in 1158.After Henry's fall from power in 1181, the town became an Imperial city for eight years.Emperor Barbarossa (reigned 1152–1190) ordained that the city should have a ruling council of 20 members.", "With the council dominated by merchants, pragmatic trade interests shaped Lübeck's politics for centuries.", "The council survived into the 19th century.", "The town and castle changed ownership for a period afterwards and formed part of the Duchy of Saxony until 1192, of the County of Holstein until 1217, and of the kingdom of Denmark until the Battle of Bornhöved in 1227.===Hanseatic city===Lübeck as illustrated in the ''Nuremberg Chronicle'', 1493Around 1200, the port became the main point of departure for colonists leaving for the Baltic territories conquered by the Livonian Order, and later, by the Teutonic Order.", "In 1226, Emperor Frederick II elevated the town to the status of an Imperial free city, by which it became the Free City of Lübeck.In the 14th century, Lübeck became the \"Queen of the Hanseatic League\", being by far the largest and most powerful member of that medieval trade organization.", "In 1375, Emperor Charles IV named Lübeck one of the five \"Glories of the Empire\", a title shared with Venice, Rome, Pisa, and Florence.Several conflicts about trading privileges resulted in fighting between Lübeck (with the Hanseatic League) and Denmark and Norway – with varying outcome.", "While Lübeck and the Hanseatic League prevailed in conflicts in 1435 and 1512, Lübeck lost when it became involved in the Count's Feud, a civil war that raged in Denmark from 1534 to 1536.Lübeck also joined the pro-Lutheran Schmalkaldic League of the mid-16th century.===Decline===After its defeat in the Count's Feud, Lübeck's power slowly declined.", "The city remained neutral in the Thirty Years' War of 1618–1648, but the combination of the devastation from the decades-long war and the new transatlantic orientation of European trade caused the Hanseatic League – and thus Lübeck with it – to decline in importance.", "However, even after the ''de facto'' disbanding of the Hanseatic League in 1669, Lübeck still remained an important trading town on the Baltic Sea.===From the Napoleonic wars to the Franco-Prussian war===In the course of the war of the Fourth Coalition against Napoleon, troops under Marshal Jean Baptiste Bernadotte (who would later become King of Sweden) occupied Lübeck after a battle against Prussian General Gebhard Blücher on 6 November 1806 due to the latter's illegal use of the city as a fortress, in violation of Lübeck's neutrality, following the French pursuit of his corps after the Battle of Jena-Auerstadt.", "Under the Continental System, the State bank went into bankruptcy.", "In 1811, the French Empire formally annexed Lübeck as part of France but the anti-Napoleonic allies liberated the area in 1813.After Napoleon's defeat, the Congress of Vienna of 1815 recognised Lübeck as an independent free city.", "The city became a member of the German Confederation (1815–1866), the North German Confederation (1866–1871) and the German Empire (1871–1918).Entry of the Fusilier battalion on June 18, 1871, in LübeckDuring the Franco-Prussian War, the battalion de Fusilier of Lübeck was part of the \"2nd Hanseatic Infantry Regiment No.", "76\".On the day of the Battle of Loigny the commander of the 17th Division, Hugo von Kottwitz, of the morning advanced in front of the Fusilier battalion of the regiment, urging them to \"commemorate the bravery of the Hanseatic League\".", "his attack in the north while the other battalions turned towards Loigny.This shock surprised the French so much that they were invaded by their flank.", "They fled to the Fougeu place and were kicked out of this.", "The battle was to become the founding myth of the last Lübeck regiment, 3rd Hanseatic Infantry Regiment No.", "162, which was founded in 1897.When the battalion commander returned to Lübeck with his battalion, he was appointed regimental commander.===20th century===At the end of the First World War and the fall of the German Empire, Lübeck became a member state of the Weimar Republic (1919–1933).", "After the Nazi seizure of power, Lübeck, like all other German states, was subjected to the process of ''Gleichschaltung'' (coordination).", "Subsequent to the enactment of the \"Second Law on the Coordination of the States with the Reich\" on 7 April 1933, Friedrich Hildebrandt was appointed to the new position of ''Reichsstatthalter'' (Reich Governor) of Lübeck on 26 May 1933.Hildebrandt installed Otto-Heinrich Drechsler as the ''Bürgermeister'', displacing the duly-elected Social Democrat, .", "Additionally, on 30 January 1934, the Reich government enacted the \"Law on the Reconstruction of the Reich,\" formally abolishing all the state parliaments and transferring the sovereignty of the states to the central government.", "With this action, the Lübeck popular assembly, the ''Bürgerschaft'', was dissolved and Lübeck effectively lost its rights as a federal state.", "Under the provisions of the Greater Hamburg Act, Lübeck was absorbed into the Prussian Province of Schleswig-Holstein, effective 1 April 1937, thereby losing its 711-year status as an independent free city.During World War II (1939–1945), Lübeck became the first German city to suffer substantial Royal Air Force (RAF) bombing.", "The attack of 28 March 1942 created a firestorm that caused severe damage to the historic centre.", "This raid destroyed three of the main churches and large parts of the built-up area; the bells of St Marienkircke plunged to the stone floor.", "Nearly 1,500 houses were completely destroyed, 2,200 heavily damaged and 9,000 slightly damaged.", "More than 320 people lost their lives.", "The industrial area of Lübeck was bombed on 25 August 1944 and 110 people were killed.", "In total, nearly 20% of the city centre was entirely destroyed, with particular damage in the Gründungsviertel neighborhood, where the rich merchants from the Hanseatic League had once lived.", "Germany operated a prisoner-of-war camp for officers, Oflag X-C, near the city from 1940 until April 1945.The British Second Army entered Lübeck on 2 May 1945 and occupied it without resistance.On 3 May 1945, one of the biggest disasters in naval history occurred in the Bay of Lübeck when RAF bombers sank three ships: the SS ''Cap Arcona'', the SS ''Deutschland'', and the SS ''Thielbek'' – which, unknown to them, were packed with concentration-camp inmates.", "About 7,000 people died.Lübeck's population grew considerably, from about 150,000 in 1939 to more than 220,000 after the war, owing to an influx of ethnic German refugees expelled from the former eastern provinces of Germany in the Communist Bloc.", "Lübeck remained part of Schleswig-Holstein after World War II (and consequently lay within West Germany).", "It stood directly on what became the inner German border during the division of Germany into two states in the Cold War period.", "South of the city, the border followed the path of the river Wakenitz, which separated Germany by less than in many parts.", "The northernmost border crossing was in Lübeck's district of Schlutup.", "Lübeck spent decades restoring its historic city centre.", "In 1987, UNESCO designated this area a World Heritage Site.On the night of 18 January 1996, a fire broke out in a home for foreign refugees, killing 10 people and severely injuring more than 30 others, mostly children.", "Most of the shelter's inhabitants thought it was a racist attack, as they stated that they had encountered other overt hostility in the city.", "The police and the local court were criticized at the time for ruling out racism as a possible motive before even beginning preliminary investigations.", "But by 2002, the courts found all the Germans involved not guilty; the perpetrators have not been caught.In April 2015, Lübeck hosted the G7 conference." ], [ "Climate", "Lübeck has a oceanic climate (Cfb in the Köppen climate classification).===Notes===" ], [ "Population", "Lübeck has a population of about 217,000 people and is the 2nd largest city in Schleswig-Holstein.", "Lübeck became a major city after becoming a part of the Hanseatic League in the 15th century.", "Lübeck later became one of the important and leading Hanseatic cities in Europe.", "Following World War II, the population of Lübeck grew rapidly due to the refugee crisis, as many people from East Prussia and other former parts of Germany and had to flee there after the war.", "The population began to decline in the 1970s but grew again in 1990s after the German Reunification, as many people from the former East Germany came to Lübeck due to the fact that it lies directly on the former East German border.", "Today Lübeck attracts many tourists due to its rich history and Hanseatic architecture, and it is known as one of the most beautiful cities in Germany.The largest ethnic minority groups are Turks, Central Europeans (Poles), Southern Europeans (mostly Greeks and Italians), Eastern Europeans (e.g.", "Russians and Ukrainians), Arabs, and several smaller groups.RankNationalityPopulation (31 Dec. 2022) 4500 2,867 2,496 2,363 1,425 1,237 1,024 971 956 724" ], [ "Politics", "The current mayor of Lübeck is Jan Lindenau of the Social Democratic Party (SPD).", "The most recent mayoral election was held in 2017.The Lübeck city council governs the city alongside the mayor." ], [ "Culture", "Hospital of the Holy Spirit, one of the oldest social institutions of Lübeck (1260)City hallSt.", "Mary's ChurchLübeck Cathedral and historic buildings at the ObertraveSalzspeicherLübeck, Trave=== Tourism ===In 2019, Lübeck reached 2 million overnight stays.", "Lübeck is famous for its medieval city centre with its churches, Holstentor, and small alleys.", "Lübeck has been called \"Die Stadt der 7 Türme\" (the city of seven towers) because of its seven prominent church towers.", "Like many other places in Germany, Lübeck has a long tradition of a Christmas market in December, which includes the famous handicrafts market inside the Heiligen-Geist-Hospital (Hospital of the Holy Spirit), located at the northern end of Königstrasse.===Buildings===Over 80% of the old town has preserved its medieval appearance, with historic buildings and narrow streets.", "The rest has been and is currently in a process of restoration and reconstruction.", "At one time, the town could only be entered by any of four town gates, two of which remain today, the well-known Holstentor (1478) and the Burgtor (1444).The old town centre is dominated by seven church steeples.", "The oldest are Lübeck Cathedral and the Marienkirche (Saint Mary's), both dating from the 13th and 14th centuries.Built in 1286, the Hospital of the Holy Spirit at Koberg is one of the oldest existing social institutions in the world and one of the most important buildings in the city.", "The Hospital functions both as a retirement and a nursing home.", "Some historical parts have been made available for public viewing.Other sights include:The City HallSt. Catherine's Church, a church that belonged to a former monastery, now the Katharineum, a Latin schoolThomas Mann's houseGünter Grass's houseChurch of St PeterChurch of St Lawrence, located on the site of a cemetery for people who died during the 16th-century plagueChurch of St James, 1334Church of the Sacred HeartChurch of St Aegidienthe Salzspeicher, historic warehouses where salt delivered from Lüneburg awaited shipment to Baltic portsThe City of Travemünde on the Coast of the Baltic Sea.=== Music, literature and the arts ===The composer Franz Tunder was principal organist in the Marienkirche, Lübeck, when he initiated the tradition of weekly ''Abendmusiken''.", "In 1668, his daughter Anna Margarethe married the Danish-German composer Dieterich Buxtehude, who became the new organist at the Marienkirche.", "Some of the rising composers of the day travelled to Lübeck to witness his performances, notably Handel and Mattheson in 1703, and Bach in 1705.Writer and Nobel laureate Thomas Mann was a member of the Mann family of Lübeck merchants.", "His well-known 1901 novel ''Buddenbrooks'' made readers in Germany (and later worldwide, through numerous translations) familiar with the manner of life and mores of the 19th-century Lübeck ''bourgeoisie''.Lübeck became the scene of a notable art scandal in the 1950s.", "Lothar Malskat was hired to restore medieval frescoes of the Marienkirche, which were unearthed as a result of severe bomb damage during World War II.", "Instead, he painted new works, which he passed off as restorations, fooling many experts.", "Malskat later revealed the deception himself.", "Writer and Nobel laureate Günter Grass featured this incident in his 1986 novel ''The Rat''; from 1995 he lived close to Lübeck in Behlendorf, where he was buried in 2015.===Museums===Lübeck has many small museums, such as the St. Anne's Museum Quarter, Lübeck, the Behnhaus, the European Hansemuseum, and the Holstentor.", "Lübeck Museum of Theatre Puppets is a privately run museum.", "Waterside attractions are a lightvessel that served Fehmarnbelt and the Lisa von Lübeck, a reconstruction of a Hanseatic 15th century caravel.The marzipan museum in the second floor of Café Niederegger in Breite Strasse explains the history of marzipan, and shows historical wood molds for the production of marzipan blocks and a group of historical figures made of marzipan.=== Food and drink ===Niederegger marzipan Lübeck is famous for its marzipan industry.", "According to local legend, marzipan was first made in Lübeck, possibly in response either to a military siege of the city or a famine year.", "The story, perhaps apocryphal, is that the city ran out of all food except stored almonds and sugar, which were used to make loaves of marzipan \"bread\".", "Others believe that marzipan was actually invented in Persia a few hundred years before Lübeck claims to have invented it.", "The best known producer is Niederegger, which tourists often visit while in Lübeck, especially at Christmas time.The Lübeck wine trade dates back to Hanseatic times.", "One Lübeck specialty is Rotspon (), wine made from grapes processed and fermented in France and transported in wooden barrels to Lübeck, where it is stored, aged and bottled.Like other coastal North German communities, Fischbrötchen and Brathering are popular takeaway foods, given the abundance of fish varieties." ], [ "Sports", "Lübeck is home to 3.Liga side VfB Lübeck who play at the 17,849 capacity Stadion an der Lohmühle.", "In addition to the football department the sports club has departments for badminton, women's gymnastics, handball, and table tennis." ], [ "Education", "The Lübeck Academy of MusicLübeck has three universities, the University of Lübeck, the Technical University of Applied Sciences Lübeck, and the Lübeck Academy of Music.", "The Graduate School for Computing in Medicine and Life Sciences is a central faculty of the university and was founded by the German Excellence Initiative.The International School of New Media is an affiliated institute of the university." ], [ "Districts", "The skyline of the old town as seen from NorthLübeck main station (''Lübeck Hbf'')Lübeck civil registration office, in the St. Jürgen zoneThe beach of TravemündeThe city of Lübeck is divided into 10 zones.", "These again are arranged into altogether 35 urban districts.", "The 10 zones with their official numbers, their associated urban districts and the numbers of inhabitants of the quarters:'''01 City centre''' (~ 12,000 inhabitants)The ''Innenstadt'' is the main tourist attraction and consists of the old town as well as the former ramparts.", "It is the oldest and smallest part of Lübeck.", "'''02 St. Jürgen''' (~ 40,000 inhabitants)* Hüxtertor / Mühlentor / Gärtnergasse, Strecknitz / Rothebek, Blankensee, Wulfsdorf, Beidendorf, Krummesse, Kronsforde, Niederbüssau, Vorrade, Schiereichenkoppel, Oberbüssau''Sankt Jürgen'' is one of three historic suburbs of Lübeck (alongside ''St.", "Lorenz'' and ''St.", "Gertrud'').", "It is located south of the city centre and the biggest of all city parts.", "'''03 Moisling''' (~ 10,000 inhabitants)* Niendorf / Moorgarten, Reecke, Old-Moisling / Genin''Moisling'' is situated in the far south-west.", "Its history dates back to the 17th century.", "'''04 Buntekuh''' (~ 10,000 inhabitants)''Buntekuh'' lies in the west of Lübeck.", "A big part consists of commercial zones such as the ''Citti-Park'', Lübeck's biggest mall.", "'''05 St. Lorenz-South''' (~ 12,000 inhabitants)''Sankt Lorenz-Süd'' is located right in the south-west of the city centre and has the highest population density.", "The main train and bus station lie in its northern part.", "'''06 St. Lorenz-North''' (~ 40,000 inhabitants)* Holstentor-North, Falkenfeld / Vorwerk / Teerhof, Großsteinrade / Schönböcken, Dornbreite / Krempelsdorf''Sankt Lorenz-Nord'' is situated in the north-west of Lübeck.", "It is split from its southern part by the railways.", "'''07 St. Gertrud''' (~ 40,000 inhabitants)* Burgtor / Stadtpark, Marli / Brandenbaum, Eichholz, Karlshof / Israelsdorf / Gothmund''Sankt Gertrud'' is located in the east of the city centre.", "This part is mainly characterized by its nature.", "Many parks, the rivers ''Wakenitz'' and ''Trave'' and the forest ''Lauerholz'' make up a big part of its area.", "'''08 Schlutup''' (~ 6,000 inhabitants)''Schlutup'' lies in the far east of Lübeck.", "Due to forest ''Lauerholz'' in its west and river ''Trave'' in the north, Schlutup is relatively isolated from the other city parts.", "'''09 Kücknitz''' (~ 20,000 inhabitants)** Dänischburg / Siems / Rangenberg / Wallberg, Herrenwyk, Alt-Kücknitz / Dummersdorf / Roter Hahn, PoeppendorfNorth of river Trave lies ''Kücknitz''.", "It is the old main industrial area of Lübeck.", "'''10 Travemünde''' (~ 15,000 inhabitants)* Ivendorf, Alt-Travemünde / Rönnau, Priwall, Teutendorf, Brodten''Travemünde'' is located in far northeastern Lübeck at the Baltic Sea.", "With its long beach and coast line, Travemünde is the second biggest tourist destination." ], [ "International relations", "===Twin towns – sister cities===Lübeck is twinned with:* Kotka, Finland (1969)* La Rochelle, France (1988)* Wismar, Germany (1987)* Klaipėda, Lithuania (1990)* Gotland, Sweden (1999)===Friendly cities===Lübeck also has friendly relations with:* Venice, Italy (1979)* Kawasaki, Japan (1992)* Shaoxing, China (2003)" ], [ "Transport", "Lübeck AirportLübeck is connected to three main motorways (Autobahnen).", "The A1 Motorway is heading north to the Island of Fehmarn and Copenhagen (Denmark) and south to Hamburg, Bremen and Cologne.", "The A20 Motorway heads east towards Wismar, Rostock and Szczecin (Poland) and west to Bad Segeberg and to the North Sea.", "The A226 Motorway starts in central Lübeck and is heading to the north-east and the Seaport-City of Travemünde.Lübeck is served by multiple railway stations.", "The principal one is Lübeck Hauptbahnhof, with about 31,000 passengers per day, is the busiest station in Schleswig-Holstein.", "The station is mostly served by regional rail services to Hamburg, Lüneburg, Kiel, the Island of Fehmarn and Szczecin (Poland).", "There are some long-distance trains to Munich, Frankfurt-am-Main and Cologne.", "During the summer holidays, there are many extra rail services.", "Until the end of 2019, Lübeck was a stop on the \"Vogelfluglinie\" train line from Hamburg to Copenhagen (Denmark).Public transport by bus is organised by the Lübeck City-Traffic-Company (Lübecker Stadtverkehr).", "There are 40 bus lines serving the city and the area around Lübeck, in addition to regional bus services.The district of Travemünde is on the Baltic Sea and has the city's main port.", "The Scandinavienkai (the quay of Scandinavia) is the departure point for ferry routes to Malmö and Trelleborg (Sweden); Liepāja (Latvia); Helsinki (Finland) and Saint Petersburg (Russia).", "It is the second-biggest German port on the Baltic Sea.Lübeck Airport is located in the south of Lübeck in the town of Blankensee.", "It provides regional flights to Munich and Stuttgart and some charter flights to Italy and Croatia." ], [ "Notable people", "=== Religion ===Ephraim Carlebach, 1936* Laurentius Surius (1522–1578), Carthusian monk and hagiographer* August Hermann Francke (1663–1727), pedagogue, theologian, founded the Francke Foundations* Johann Lorenz von Mosheim (1693–1755), Lutheran church historian* Lübeck Martyrs Three Roman Catholic priests and one Evangelical Lutheran clergyman were executed by beheading on 10 November 1943 less than 3 minutes apart from each other at Hamburg's Holstenglacis Prison (1943)* Ephraim Carlebach (1879–1936), rabbi and founder of the Higher Israelite School in Leipzig* Joseph Carlebach (1883–1942), rabbi, victim of the Holocaust* Felix Carlebach (1911–2008), rabbi===Politics===Willy Brandt, 1980* Johann Wittenborg (1321–1363), Mayor of Lübeck, lost the Battle of Helsingborg* Jürgen Wullenwever (c.1492–1537), burgomaster of Lübeck from 1533 to 1535* George Wulweber, 16th-century Protestant who was tortured on the rack* Friedrich Krüger (1819–1896), diplomat for the Hanseatic cities of Lübeck, Hamburg and Bremen* John Rugee (1827–1894), politician in Wisconsin, USA* Gustav Radbruch (1878–1949), legal scholar and politician* Hermann Lüdemann (1880–1959), CDU politician* Otto-Heinrich Drechsler (1895–1945), Mayor of Lübeck 1933 to 1937, set up the Riga ghetto* Haim Cohn (1911–2002), Israeli jurist and politician* Willy Brandt (1913–1992), SPD politician, German chancellor* Björn Engholm (born 1939), SPD politician* Robert Habeck (born 1969), writer and politician of the Alliance 90/The Greens * Birgitt Ory (born 1964), diplomat* Beatrix von Storch (born 1971), AfD politician, former MEP===Art===J.", "F. Overbeck, self portrait with family, 1820* Benjamin Block (1631–1690), German-Hungarian Baroque painter* Sir Godfrey Kneller (1646–1723), court painter of several British monarchs* Catharina Elisabeth Heinecken (1683–1757), artist and alchemist* Carl Heinrich von Heineken (1707–1791), art historian* Friedrich Overbeck (1789–1869), painter and head of the Nazarenes* Johann Wilhelm Cordes (1824–1869), landscape painter* Gotthardt Kuehl (1850–1915), painter* Maria Slavona (1865–1931), impressionist painter, sister of Cornelia Schorer* Erich Ponto (1884–1957), actor* Walter D. Asmus (born 1941), theatre director* Justus von Dohnányi (born 1960), actor* Jonas Nay (born 1990), actor===Music===Dieterich Buxtehude* Franz Tunder (1614–1667), organist and composer* Thomas Baltzar (c. 1631–1663), violinist and composer.", "* Rüdiger Bohn (born 1960), conductor and professor* Dieterich Buxtehude (c.1637–1707), composer and organist* Andreas Kneller (1649–1724), composer and organist* Friedrich Ludwig Æmilius Kunzen (1761–1817), composer* Anja Thauer (1945–1973), cellist===Science===Robert Christian Ave-Lallemant, 1851* Joachim Jungius (1587–1657), mathematician, physicist, and philosopher* Heinrich Meibom (1638–1700), medical expert, discovered the Meibomian gland* Hermann von Fehling (1811–1885), chemist* Robert Christian Avé-Lallemant (1812–1884), physician and research traveler* Ernst Curtius (1814–1896), classical archaeologist and historian* Georg Curtius (1820–1885), philologist* Friedrich Matthias Claudius (1822–1869), anatomist* James Behrens (1824–1898), entomologist* Friedrich Matz (1843–1874), archaeologist* Friedrich Wilhelm Gustav Bruhn (1853–1927), invented the taximeter* Cornelia Schorer (1863–1939), one of Germany's first female physicians* Heinrich Lüders (1869–1943), orientalist and indologist* Justus Mühlenpfordt (1911–2000), nuclear physicist* Wolfgang Luthe (1922–1985), physician, psychotherapist and autogenic training pioneer===Writing===Heinrich (left) and Thomas Mann, 1902* Erasmus Finx (1627–1694), polyhistorian, author and church writer* Christian Adolph Overbeck (1755–1821), mayor and poet* Johann Bernhard Vermehren (1777–1803), romanticist and lecturer* Emanuel Geibel (1815–1884), poet* Gustav Falke (1853–1916), author* Heinrich Mann (1871–1950), novelist* Thomas Mann (1875–1955), novelist, Nobel Prize for Literature in 1929* Friedrich Ranke (1882–1950), a German medievalist, philologist, folklorist and writer* Jörg Wontorra (born 1948), sport journalist* Nicolai Riedel (born 1952), philologist, author and an editor=== Sport ===* Sandra Völker (born 1974), swimmer, won three medals at the 1996 Summer Olympics* Marie-Louise Dräger (born 1981), five-time world champion lightweight sculler* Tobias Kamke (born 1986), professional tennis player* Maximilian Munski (born 1988), rower, silver medallist at the 2016 Summer Olympics=== Other ===C.", "F. Heineken, 1726* Adam Brand (c. 1692–1746), merchant and researcher* Christian Friedrich Heinecken (1721–1725), \"the infant scholar of Lübeck\", a child prodigy* Kurd von Schlözer (1822–1894), diplomat and historian* Hermann von der Hude (1830–1908), architect* Hermann Blohm (1848–1930), shipbuilder and company founder* Hermann Pister (1885–1948), Nazi SS commandant of Buchenwald Concentration Camp* Walter Ewers (1892–1918), flying ace of WWI* Hans Blumenberg (1920–1996), philosopher* Jörg Ziercke (born 1947), chief commissioner of the Federal Criminal Police Office 2004–2014" ], [ "See also", "* Bombing of Lübeck in World War II* Cap Arcona* Lübeck Airport* Lübeck Hauptbahnhof* Lübeck law* Lübeck Nordic Film Days* ''Lübecker Nachrichten''—Lübeck's only newspaper* Oberschule zum Dom* Ports of the Baltic Sea* Schleswig-Holstein Musik Festival* VfB Lübeck, football and sports club" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General and cited references ===* * " ], [ "External links", " * Official tourism site* ''The Jewish Encyclopedia'': \"Lübeck\" by Gotthard Deutsch (1906).", "* Hanseatic City of Lübeck: UNESCO Official Website* Panoramas of Lübeck* Lovebridge Lübeck* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Laos" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Laos''' (), officially the '''Lao People's Democratic Republic''' ('''Lao PDR''' or '''LPDR'''), is the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia.", "At the heart of the Indochinese Peninsula, Laos is bordered by Myanmar and China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the southeast, and Thailand to the west and southwest.", "Its capital and largest city is Vientiane.Present-day Laos traces its historic and cultural identity to Lan Xang, which existed from the 13th century to the 18th century as one of the largest kingdoms in Southeast Asia.", "Because of its central geographical location in Southeast Asia, the kingdom became a hub for overland trade and became wealthy economically and culturally.", "After a period of internal conflict, Lan Xang broke into three separate kingdoms: Luang Phrabang, Vientiane and Champasak.", "In 1893, the three kingdoms came under a French protectorate and were united to form what is now known as Laos.", "It was occupied by Japan during World War II and briefly gained independence in 1945 as a Japanese puppet state but was re-colonised by France until it won autonomy in 1949.Laos became independent in 1953 as the Kingdom of Laos, with a constitutional monarchy under Sisavang Vong.", "A civil war began in 1959, which saw the communist Pathet Lao, supported by North Vietnam and the Soviet Union, fight against the Royal Lao Armed Forces, supported by the United States.", "After the Vietnam War ended in 1975, the Lao People's Revolutionary Party came to power, ending the civil war and the monarchy.", "Laos was then dependent on military and economic aid from the Soviet Union until its dissolution in 1991.Laos is a member of the Asia-Pacific Trade Agreement, the ASEAN, East Asia Summit, and La Francophonie.", "Laos applied for membership of the World Trade Organization in 1997; on 2 February 2013, it was granted full membership.", "It is a one-party socialist republic, espousing Marxism–Leninism and governed by the Lao People's Revolutionary Party, under which non-governmental organisations have routinely characterised the country's human rights record as poor, citing repeated abuses such as torture, restrictions on civil liberties and persecution of minorities.The politically and culturally dominant Lao people make up 53.2% of the population, mostly in the lowlands.", "Mon-Khmer groups, the Hmong, and other indigenous hill tribes live in the foothills and mountains.", "Laos's strategies for development are based on generating electricity from rivers and selling the power to its neighbours, namely Thailand, China and Vietnam, as well as its initiative to become a \"land-linked\" nation, as evidenced by the construction of four new railways connecting Laos and neighbours.", "Laos has been referred to as one of Southeast Asia and Pacific's fastest growing economies by the World Bank with annual GDP growth averaging 7.4% since 2009." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''Laos'' was coined by the French, who united the three Lao kingdoms in French Indochina in 1893.The name of the country is spelled the same as the plural of the dominant and most common ethnic group, the Lao people.", "In English, the \"s\" in the name of the country is pronounced, and not silent.", "In the Lao language, the country's name is ''Muang Lao'' () or ''Pathet Lao'' (), both of which literally mean 'Lao Country'." ], [ "History", "=== Prehistory and early history ===Pha That Luang in Vientiane is the national symbol of Laos.An ancient human skull was recovered in 2009 from the Tam Pa Ling Cave in the Annamite Mountains in northern Laos; the skull is at least 46,000 years old, making it the oldest modern human fossil found to date in Southeast Asia.", "Stone artifacts including Hoabinhian types have been found at sites dating to the Late Pleistocene in northern Laos.", "Archaeological evidence suggests an agriculturist society developed during the 4th millennium BC.", "Burial jars and other kinds of sepulchers suggest a complex society in which bronze objects appeared around 1500 BC, and iron tools were known from 700 BC.", "The proto-historic period is characterised by contact with Chinese and Indian civilisations.", "According to linguistic and other historical evidence, Tai-speaking tribes migrated southwestward to the modern territories of Laos and Thailand from Guangxi sometime between the 8th and 10th centuries.=== Lan Xang ===Fa Ngum, founder of the Lan Xang KingdomLaos traces its history to the kingdom of Lan Xang ('million elephants'), which was founded in the 13th century by a Lao prince, Fa Ngum, whose father had his family exiled from the Khmer Empire.", "Fa Ngum, with 10,000 Khmer troops, conquered many Lao principalities in the Mekong river basin, culminating in the capture of Vientiane.", "Ngum was descended from a long line of Lao kings that traced back to Khoun Boulom.", "He made Theravada Buddhism the state religion, and Lan Xang prospered.", "His ministers, unable to tolerate his ruthlessness, forced him into exile to the present-day Thai province of Nan in 1373, where he died.", "Fa Ngum's eldest son, Oun Heuan, ascended to the throne under the name Samsenethai and reigned for 43 years.", "Lan Xang became an important trade centre during Samsenthai's reign, but after his death in 1421 it collapsed into warring factions for nearly a century.In 1520, Photisarath came to the throne and moved the capital from Luang Prabang to Vientiane to avoid a Burmese invasion.", "Setthathirath became king in 1548, after his father was killed, and ordered the construction of what became the symbol of Laos, That Luang.", "Settathirath disappeared in the mountains on his way back from a military expedition into Cambodia, and Lan Xang fell into more than seventy years of instability, involving both Burmese invasion and civil war.In 1637, when Sourigna Vongsa ascended the throne, Lan Xang further expanded its frontiers.", "His reign is often regarded as Laos's golden age.", "When he died without an heir, the kingdom split into three principalities.", "Between 1763 and 1769, Burmese armies overran northern Laos and annexed Luang Prabang, while Champasak eventually came under Siamese suzerainty.Chao Anouvong was installed as a vassal king of Vientiane by the Siamese.", "He encouraged a renaissance of Lao fine arts and literature and improved relations with Luang Phrabang.", "Under Vietnamese pressure, he rebelled against the Siamese in 1826.The rebellion failed, and Vientiane was ransacked.", "Anouvong was taken to Bangkok as a prisoner, where he died.In a time period where the acquisition of humans was a priority over the ownership of land, the warfare of pre-modern Southeast Asia revolved around the seizing of people and resources from its enemies.", "A Siamese military campaign in Laos in 1876 was described by a British observer as having been \"transformed into slave-hunting raids on a large scale\".=== French Laos (1893–1953) ===Local Lao soldiers in the French Colonial guard, In the late 19th century, Luang Prabang was ransacked by the Chinese Black Flag Army.", "France rescued King Oun Kham and added Luang Phrabang to the protectorate of French Indochina.", "Shortly after, the Kingdom of Champasak and the territory of Vientiane were added to the protectorate.", "King Sisavang Vong of Luang Phrabang became ruler of a unified Laos, and Vientiane once again became the capital.", "Laos never held any importance for France other than as a buffer state between Thailand and the more economically important Annam and Tonkin.Laos produced tin, rubber, and coffee, but never accounted for more than one per cent of French Indochina's exports.", "By 1940, around 600 French citizens lived in Laos.", "Under French rule, the Vietnamese were encouraged to migrate to Laos, which was seen by the French colonists as a rational solution to a labour shortage within the confines of an Indochina-wide colonial space.", "By 1943, the Vietnamese population stood at nearly 40,000, forming the majority in the largest cities of Laos and enjoying the right to elect its own leaders.", "As a result, 53% of the population of Vientiane, 85% of Thakhek, and 62% of Pakse were Vietnamese, with only the exception of Luang Prabang where the population was predominantly Lao.", "As late as 1945, the French drew up an ambitious plan to move a massive number of Vietnamese to three key areas, i.e., the Vientiane Plain, Savannakhet region, and the Bolaven Plateau, which was only derailed by the Japanese invasion of Indochina.", "Otherwise, according to Martin Stuart-Fox, the Lao might well have lost control over their own country.During World War II in Laos, Vichy France, Thailand, Imperial Japan and Free France occupied Laos.", "On 9 March 1945, a nationalist group declared Laos once more independent, with Luang Prabang as its capital, but on 7 April 1945 two battalions of Japanese troops occupied the city.", "The Japanese attempted to force Sisavang Vong (the king of Luang Phrabang) to declare Laotian independence, but on 8 April he instead simply declared an end to Laos's status as a French protectorate.", "The king then secretly sent Prince Kindavong to represent Laos to the Allied forces and Prince Sisavang as representative to the Japanese.", "When Japan surrendered, some Lao nationalists (including Prince Phetsarath) declared Laotian independence, but by early 1946, French troops had reoccupied the country and conferred limited autonomy on Laos.During the First Indochina War, the Indochinese Communist Party formed the Pathet Lao independence organisation.", "The Pathet Lao began a war against the French colonial forces with the aid of the Vietnamese independence organisation, the Viet Minh.", "In 1950, the French were forced to give Laos semi-autonomy as an \"associated state\" within the French Union.", "France remained in de facto control until 22 October 1953, when Laos gained full independence as a constitutional monarchy.=== Independence and communist rule (1953–present) ===General Salan and Prince Sisavang Vatthana in Luang Prabang, 4 May 1953The First Indochina War took place across French Indochina and eventually led to French defeat and the signing of a peace accord for Laos at the Geneva Conference of 1954.In 1960, amidst a series of rebellions in the Kingdom of Laos, fighting broke out between the Royal Lao Army (RLA) and the communist North Vietnamese and Soviet Union-backed Pathet Lao guerillas.", "A second Provisional Government of National Unity formed by Prince Souvanna Phouma in 1962 was unsuccessful, and the situation steadily deteriorated into large scale civil war between the Royal Laotian government and the Pathet Lao.", "The Pathet Lao were backed militarily by the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and the Viet Cong.Ruins of Muang Khoun, former capital of Xiangkhouang province, destroyed by the American bombing of Laos in the late 1960sLaos was a key part of the Vietnam War since parts of Laos were invaded and occupied by North Vietnam since 1958 for use as a supply route for its war against South Vietnam.", "In response, the United States initiated a bombing campaign against the PAVN positions, supported regular and irregular anti-communist forces in Laos, and supported incursions into Laos by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam.In 1968, the PAVN launched a multi-division attack to help the Pathet Lao fight the RLA.", "The attack resulted in the RLA largely demobilising, leaving the conflict to irregular ethnic Hmong forces of the \"Secret Army\" backed by the United States and Thailand, and led by General Vang Pao.Massive aerial bombardments against the PAVN/Pathet Lao forces were carried out by the United States to prevent the collapse of the Kingdom of Laos central government, and to deny the use of the Ho Chi Minh Trail to attack US forces in South Vietnam.", "Between 1964 and 1973, the US dropped two million tons of bombs on Laos, nearly equal to the 2.1 million tons of bombs the US dropped on Europe and Asia during all of World War II, making Laos the most heavily bombed country in history relative to the size of its population; ''The New York Times'' notes this was \"nearly a ton for every person in Laos\".Some 80 million bombs failed to explode and remain scattered throughout the country, rendering vast swaths of land impossible to cultivate.", "Currently unexploded ordnance (UXO), including cluster munitions and mines, kill or maim approximately 50 Laotians every year.", "Due to the particularly heavy impact of cluster bombs during this war, Laos was a strong advocate of the Convention on Cluster Munitions to ban the weapons and was host to the First Meeting of States Parties to the convention in November 2010.Pathet Lao soldiers in Vientiane, 1972In 1975 the Pathet Lao overthrew the royalist government, forcing King Savang Vatthana to abdicate on 2 December 1975.He later died under suspicious circumstances in a re-education camp.", "Between 20,000 and 62,000 Laotians died during the civil war.", "The royalists set up a government in exile in the United States.On 2 December 1975, after taking control of the country, the Pathet Lao government under Kaysone Phomvihane renamed the country as the ''Lao People's Democratic Republic'' and signed agreements giving Vietnam the right to station armed forces and to appoint advisers to assist in overseeing the country.", "The close ties between Laos and Vietnam were formalised via a treaty signed in 1977, which has since provided direction for Lao foreign policy, and provides the basis for Vietnamese involvement at all levels of Lao political and economic life.", "Laos was requested in 1979 by Vietnam to end relations with the People's Republic of China, leading to isolation in trade by China, the United States, and other countries.", "In 1979, there were 50,000 PAVN troops stationed in Laos and as many as 6,000 civilian Vietnamese officials including 1,000 directly attached to the ministries in Vientiane.The conflict between Hmong rebels and Laos continued in key areas of Laos, including in Saysaboune Closed Military Zone, Xaisamboune Closed Military Zone near Vientiane Province and Xiangkhouang Province.", "From 1975 to 1996, the United States resettled some 250,000 Lao refugees from Thailand, including 130,000 Hmong.On 15 January 2021, the ruling Lao People’s Revolutionary Party (Communist Party of Laos) elected Thongloun Sisoulith as its new secretary general, the most powerful post in Laos, succeeding retiring party chief Bounnhang Vorachi.On 3 December 2021, the 422-kilometre Boten-Vientiane railway, a flagship of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) was opened." ], [ "Geography", "Mekong River flowing through Luang Prabang Paddy fields in LaosLaos is the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia, and it lies mostly between latitudes 14° and 23°N (a small area is south of 14°), and longitudes 100° and 108°E.", "Its thickly forested landscape consists mostly of rugged mountains, the highest of which is Phou Bia at , with some plains and plateaus.", "The Mekong River forms a large part of the western boundary with Thailand, where the mountains of the Annamite Range form most of the eastern border with Vietnam and the Luang Prabang Range the northwestern border with the Thai highlands.", "There are two plateaux, the Xiangkhoang in the north and the Bolaven Plateau at the southern end.", "Laos can be considered to consist of three geographical areas: north, central, and south.", "Laos had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.59/10, ranking it 98th globally out of 172 countries.In 1993 the Laos government set aside 21% of the nation's land area for habitat conservation preservation.", "The country is one of four in the opium poppy growing region known as the \"Golden Triangle\".", "According to the October 2007 UNODC fact book ''Opium Poppy Cultivation in South East Asia'', the poppy cultivation area was , down from in 2006.=== Climate ===Köppen climate classification map of LaosThe climate is mostly tropical savanna and influenced by the monsoon pattern.", "There is a distinct rainy season from May to October, followed by a dry season from November to April.", "Local tradition holds that there are three seasons (rainy, cool and hot) as the latter two months of the climatologically defined dry season are noticeably hotter than the earlier four months.===Wildlife===" ], [ "Administrative divisions", "Laos is divided into 17 provinces (''khoueng'') and one prefecture (''kampheng nakhon''), which includes the capital city Vientiane (''Nakhon Louang Viangchan'').", "A new province, Xaisomboun province, was established on 13 December 2013.Provinces are further divided into districts (''muang'') and then villages (''ban'').", "An \"urban\" village is essentially a town.", "No.", "Subdivisions Capital Area (km2) Population 1 Attapeu Attapeu (Samakkhixay district) 10,320114,300 2 Bokeo Houayxay (Houayxay district) 6,196149,700 3 Bolikhamsai Paksan (Paksane District) 14,863214,900 4 Champasak Pakse (Pakse District) 15,415575,600 5 Houaphanh Xam Neua (Xamneua District) 16,500322,200 6 Khammouane Thakhek (Thakhek District) 16,315358,800 7 Luang Namtha Luang Namtha (Namtha District) 9,325150,100 8 Luang Prabang Luang Prabang (Luang Prabang district) 16,875408,800 9 Oudomxay Muang Xay (Xay District) 15,370275,300 10 Phongsaly Phongsali (Phongsaly District) 16,270199,900 11 Sainyabuli Sayabouly (Xayabury District) 16,389382,200 12 Salavan Salavan (Salavan District) 10,691336,600 13 Savannakhet Savannakhet (Khanthabouly District) 21,774721,500 14 Sekong Sekong (Lamarm District) 7,66583,600 15 Vientiane Prefecture Vientiane (Chanthabouly district) 3,9201,001,477 16 Vientiane Province Phonhong (Phonhong District) 15,927373,700 17 Xiengkhouang Phonsavan (Pek District) 15,880229,521 18 Xaisomboun Anouvong (Anouvong district) 8,30082,000An updated map of Lao provinces (from 2014)upright=1.75" ], [ "Government and politics", "The Lao PDR is one of the world's few socialist states openly endorsing communism.", "The only legal political party is the Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP).", "With one-party state status of Laos, the General Secretary (party leader) holds ultimate power and authority over state and government and serves as the supreme leader.", "the head of state is President Thongloun Sisoulith.", "He has been General Secretary of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party, a position making him the ''de facto'' leader of Laos, since January 2021.The incumbent head of government is Prime Minister Sonexay Siphandone.", "Government policies are determined by the party through its 11-member Politburo and 61-member Central Committee.Laos's first French-written and monarchical constitution was promulgated on 11 May 1947, and declared Laos an independent state within the French Union.", "The revised constitution of 11 May 1957 omitted reference to the French Union, though close educational, health and technical ties with the former colonial power persisted.", "The 1957 document was abrogated in December 1975, when a communist people's republic was proclaimed.", "A new constitution was adopted in 1991 and enshrined a \"leading role\" for the LPRP.Flag of the ruling Lao People's Revolutionary Party===Foreign relations===Prime Minister Thongloun Sisoulith with Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and ASEAN heads of state in New Delhi on 25 January 2018The foreign relations of Laos after the takeover by the Pathet Lao in December 1975 were characterised by a hostile posture toward the West, with the government of the Lao PDR aligning itself with the Soviet Bloc, maintaining close ties with the Soviet Union and depending heavily on the Soviets for most of its foreign assistance.", "Laos also maintained a \"special relationship\" with Vietnam and formalised a 1977 treaty of friendship and cooperation that created tensions with China.Laos's emergence from international isolation has been marked through improved and expanded relations with other countries including Russia, China, Thailand, Australia, Germany, Italy, Japan and Switzerland.", "Trade relations with the United States were normalised in November 2004 through Congress approved legislation.", "Laos was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in July 1997 and acceded to the World Trade Organization in 2016.In 2005 it attended the inaugural East Asia Summit.===Military===The '''Lao People's Armed Forces''' ('''LPAF'''), is the armed forces of the Lao People's Democratic Republic and the institution of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party, who are charged with protecting the country.===Hmong conflict===Some Hmong groups fought as CIA-backed units on the royalist side in the Laotian Civil War.", "After the Pathet Lao took over the country in 1975, the conflict continued in isolated pockets.", "In 1977, a communist newspaper promised the party would hunt down the \"American collaborators\" and their families \"to the last root\".", "As many as 200,000 Hmong went into exile in Thailand, with many ending up in the US.", "Other Hmong fighters hid out in mountains in Xiangkhouang Province for many years, with a remnant emerging from the jungle in 2003.In 1989, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), with the support of the US government, instituted the Comprehensive Plan of Action, a programme to stem the tide of Indochinese refugees from Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia.", "Under the plan, refugee status was evaluated through a screening process.", "Recognised asylum seekers were given resettlement opportunities, while the remaining refugees were to be repatriated under guarantee of safety.", "After talks with the UNHCR and the Thai government, Laos agreed to repatriate the 60,000 Lao refugees living in Thailand, including several thousand Hmong people.", "Very few of the Lao refugees, however, were willing to return voluntarily.", "Pressure to resettle the refugees grew as the Thai government worked to close its remaining refugee camps.", "While some Hmong people returned to Laos voluntarily, with development assistance from UNHCR, allegations of forced repatriation surfaced.", "Of those Hmong who did return to Laos, some quickly escaped back to Thailand, describing discrimination and brutal treatment at the hands of Lao authorities.Hmong girls in Laos, 1973In 1993, Vue Mai, a former Hmong soldier and leader of the largest Hmong refugee camp in Thailand, who had been recruited by the US Embassy in Bangkok to return to Laos as proof of the repatriation programme's success, disappeared in Vientiane.", "According to the US Committee for Refugees, he was arrested by Lao security forces and was never seen again.", "Following the Vue Mai incident, debate over the Hmong's planned repatriation to Laos intensified greatly, especially in the United States, where it drew strong opposition from many American conservatives and some human rights advocates.", "In a 23 October 1995 ''National Review'' article, Michael Johns labelled the Hmong's repatriation a Clinton administration \"betrayal\", describing the Hmong as a people \"who have spilled their blood in defense of American geopolitical interests\".", "Debate on the issue escalated quickly.", "In an effort to halt the planned repatriation, the Republican-led US Senate and House of Representatives both appropriated funds for the remaining Thailand-based Hmong to be immediately resettled in the United States; Clinton, however, responded by promising a veto of the legislation.In their opposition of the repatriation plans, Democratic and Republican Members of Congress challenged the Clinton administration's position that the government of Laos was not systematically violating Hmong human rights.", "US Representative Steve Gunderson, for instance, told a Hmong gathering: \"I do not enjoy standing up and saying to my government that you are not telling the truth, but if that is necessary to defend truth and justice, I will do that.\"", "Republicans called several Congressional hearings on alleged persecution of the Hmong in Laos in an apparent attempt to generate further support for their opposition to the Hmong's repatriation to Laos.Although some accusations of forced repatriation were denied, thousands of Hmong people refused to return to Laos.", "In 1996 as the deadline for the closure of Thai refugee camps approached, and under mounting political pressure, the United States agreed to resettle Hmong refugees who passed a new screening process.", "Around 5,000 Hmong people who were not resettled at the time of the camp closures sought asylum at Wat Tham Krabok, a Buddhist monastery in central Thailand where more than 10,000 Hmong refugees had already been living.", "The Thai government attempted to repatriate these refugees, but the Wat Tham Krabok Hmong refused to leave and the Lao government refused to accept them, claiming they were involved in the illegal drug trade and were of non-Lao origin.", "Following threats of forcible removal by the Thai government, the United States, in a significant victory for the Hmong, agreed to accept 15,000 of the refugees in 2003.Several thousand Hmong people, fearing forced repatriation to Laos if they were not accepted for resettlement in the United States, fled the camp to live elsewhere within Thailand where a sizeable Hmong population has been present since the 19th century.", "In 2004 and 2005, thousands of Hmong fled from the jungles of Laos to a temporary refugee camp in the Thai province of Phetchabun.Lending further support to earlier claims that the government of Laos was persecuting the Hmong, filmmaker Rebecca Sommer documented first-hand accounts in her documentary, ''Hunted Like Animals'', and in a comprehensive report that includes summaries of refugee claims and was submitted to the UN in May 2006.The European Union, UNHCHR, and international groups have since spoken out about the forced repatriation.", "The Thai foreign ministry has said that it will halt deportation of Hmong refugees held in Detention Centres in Nong Khai, while talks are underway to resettle them in Australia, Canada, the Netherlands and the United States.", "Plans to resettle additional Hmong refugees in the United States were stalled by provisions of President George W. Bush's Patriot Act and Real ID Act, under which Hmong veterans of the Secret War, who fought on the side of the United States, are classified as terrorists because of their historical involvement in armed conflict.===Human rights===Human rights violations remain a significant concern in Laos.", "In The Economist's ''Democracy Index 2016'' Laos was classified as an \"authoritarian regime\", ranking lowest of the nine ASEAN nations included in the study.", "Prominent civil society advocates, human rights defenders, political and religious dissidents, and Hmong refugees have disappeared at the hands of Lao military and security forces.Ostensibly, the Constitution of Laos that was promulgated in 1991 and amended in 2003 contains most key safeguards for human rights.", "For example, Article 8 makes it clear that Laos is a multinational state and is committed to equality between ethnic groups.", "The constitution also contains provisions for gender equality, freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and freedom of press and assembly.", "On 25 September 2009, Laos ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, nine years after signing the treaty.", "The stated policy objectives of both the Lao government and international donors remain focused upon achieving sustainable economic growth and poverty reduction.However, the government of Laos frequently breaches its own constitution and the rule of law, since the judiciary and judges are appointed by the ruling communist party.", "According to independent non-profit/non-governmental organisations (NGOs) such as Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and Civil Rights Defenders, along with the US State Department, serious human rights violations such as arbitrary detentions, disappearances, free speech restrictions, prison abuses and other violations are an ongoing problem.", "Amnesty International raised concerns about the ratification record of the Lao government on human rights standards and its lack of co-operation with the UN human rights mechanisms and legislative measures—both impact negatively upon human rights.", "The organisation also raised concerns in relation to freedom of expression, poor prison conditions, restrictions on freedom of religions, protection of refugees and asylum-seekers, and the death penalty.In October 1999, 30 young people were arrested for attempting to display posters calling for peaceful economic, political and social change in Laos.", "Five of them were arrested and subsequently sentenced to up to 10 years imprisonment on charges of treason.", "They were to have been released by October 2009, but their whereabouts remain unknown.", "Later reports have contradicted this, claiming they were sentenced to 20 years in prison.", "In late February 2017, two of those imprisoned were finally released after 17 years.Laos and Vietnamese (SRV) troops were reported to have raped and killed four Christian Hmong women in Xiangkhouang Province in 2011, according to the US-based non-governmental public policy research organisation The Centre for Public Policy Analysis, which also said other Christian and independent Buddhist and animist believers were being persecuted.Human rights advocates including Vang Pobzeb, Kerry and Kay Danes, and others have also raised concerns about human rights violations, torture, the arrest and detention of political prisoners as well as the detention of foreign prisoners in Laos including at the infamous Phonthong Prison in Vientiane.According to estimates, around 300,000 people fled to Thailand as a consequence of governmental repressions.", "Amongst them, 100,000 Hmongs—30% of the entire Hmong population—and 90% of all of Lao intellectuals, specialists, and officials.", "Moreover, 130,000 deaths can be attributed to the civil war.", "Laos is an origin country for sexually trafficked persons.", "A number of citizens, primarily women and girls from all ethnic groups and foreigners, have been victims of sex trafficking in Laos." ], [ "Economy", "GDP per capita development in LaosThe Lao economy depends on investment and trade with its neighbours, Thailand, Vietnam, and, especially in the north, China.", "Pakxe has also experienced growth based on cross-border trade with Thailand and Vietnam.", "In 2009, despite the fact that the government is still officially communist, the Obama administration in the US declared Laos was no longer a Marxist–Leninist state and lifted bans on Laotian companies receiving financing from the US Export-Import Bank.In 2016, China was the biggest foreign investor in the Laotian economy, having invested US$5.395 billion since 1989, according to the Laos Ministry of Planning and Investment's 1989–2014 report.", "Thailand (invested US$4.489 billion) and Vietnam (invested US$3.108 billion) are the second and third largest investors respectively.", "The economy receives development aid from the International Monetary Fund, Asian Development Bank, and other international sources; and also foreign direct investment for development of the society, industry, hydropower and mining (most notably of copper and gold).Subsistence agriculture still accounts for half of the GDP and provides 80% of employment.", "Only 4% of the country is arable land and a mere 0.3% used as permanent crop land, the lowest percentage in the Greater Mekong Subregion.", "The irrigated areas under cultivation account for only 28% of the total area under cultivation which, in turn, represents only 12% of all of the agricultural land in 2012.Rice dominates agriculture, with about 80% of the arable land area used for growing rice.", "Approximately 77% of Lao farm households are self-sufficient in rice.", "Laos may have the greatest number of rice varieties in the Greater Mekong Subregion.", "The Lao government has been working with the International Rice Research Institute of the Philippines to collect seed samples of each of the thousands of rice varieties found in Laos.Laos is rich in mineral resources and imports petroleum and gas.", "Metallurgy is an important industry, and the government hopes to attract foreign investment to develop the substantial deposits of coal, gold, bauxite, tin, copper, and other valuable metals.", "The mining industry of Laos has received prominent attention with foreign direct investments.", "This sector has made significant contributions to the economic condition of Laos.", "More than 540 mineral deposits of gold, copper, zinc, lead and other minerals have been identified, explored and mined.", "In addition, the country's plentiful water resources and mountainous terrain enable it to produce and export large quantities of hydroelectric energy.", "Of the potential capacity of approximately 18,000 megawatts, around 8,000 megawatts have been committed for export to Thailand and Vietnam.", "As of 2021, despite cheap hydro power available in the country, Laos continues to also rely on fossil fuels, coal in particular, in the domestic electricity production.In 2018, the country ranked 139th on the Human Development Index (HDI), indicating medium development.", "According to the Global Hunger Index (2018), Laos ranks as the 36th hungriest nation in the world out of the list of the 52 nations with the worst hunger situation(s).", "In 2019, the UN Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights conducted an official visit to Laos and found that the country's top-down approach to economic growth and poverty alleviation \"is all too often counterproductive, leading to impoverishment and jeopardising the rights of the poor and marginalised.", "\"The country's most widely recognised product may be Beerlao, which in 2017 was exported to more than 20 countries worldwide.", "It is produced by the Lao Brewery Company.=== Tourism ===Near the sanctuary on the main upper level of Vat Phou, looking back towards the Mekong River The tourism sector has grown rapidly, from 80,000 international visitors in 1990, to 1.876 million in 2010, when tourism had been expected to rise to US$1.5857 billion by 2020.In 2010, one in every 11 jobs was in the tourism sector.", "Export earnings from international visitors and tourism goods are expected to generate 16% of total exports or US$270.3 million in 2010, growing in nominal terms to US$484.2 million (12.5% of the total) in 2020.The European Council on Trade and Tourism awarded the country the \"World Best Tourist Destination\" designation for 2013 for architecture and history.Luang Prabang and Vat Phou are both UNESCO World Heritage sites.", "Major festivals include Lao New Year celebrated around 13–15 April and involves a water festival similar but more subdued than that of Thailand and other Southeast Asian countries.The Lao National Tourism Administration, related government agencies and the private sector are working together to realise the vision put forth in the country's National Ecotourism Strategy and Action Plan.", "This includes decreasing the environmental and cultural impact of tourism; increasing awareness in the importance of ethnic groups and biological diversity; providing a source of income to conserve, sustain and manage the Lao protected area network and cultural heritage sites; and emphasizing the need for tourism zoning and management plans for sites that will be developed as ecotourism destinations.=== Transportation ===Rivers are an important means of transport in Laos.The main international airports are Vientiane's Wattay International Airport and Luang Prabang International Airport with Pakse International Airport also having a few international flights.", "The national carrier is Lao Airlines.", "Other carriers serving the country include Bangkok Airways, Vietnam Airlines, AirAsia, Thai Airways and China Eastern Airlines.The mountainous geography of Laos had impeded Laos's ground transportation development throughout the 20th century.", "Its first railway line, a short 3-km long metre-gauge railway that connects southern Vientiane to Thailand, only opened in 2009.A major breakthrough occurred in December 2021, when the 414-km long Boten–Vientiane railway that runs from the capital Vientiane to Boten at the northern border with China, built as part of China's Belt and Road Initiative, was opened.", "Two new lines connecting with Vietnam, namely the Vientiane–Vũng Áng and Savannakhet–Lao Bao railways, are also under planning, in line to meet the Laotian government's vision of becoming a land-linked nation.The major roads connecting to urban centres, in particular Route 13, have been significantly upgraded in recent years.", "Laos's first expressway, the Vientiane–Boten Expressway, parallels both Route 13 and the Boten–Vientiane railway; the first section from Vientiane to Vang Vieng was opened in 2020, with other sections under construction.", "However, villages far from major roads can be reached only through unpaved roads that may not be accessible year-round.There is limited external and internal telecommunication, but mobile phones have become widespread.", "Ninety-three per cent of households have a telephone, either fixed line or mobile.", "Electricity is available to 93% of the population.", "''Songthaews'' are used in the country for long-distance and local public transport.=== Water supply ===According to the World Bank data conducted in 2014, Laos has met the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) targets on water and sanitation regarding the UNICEF/WHO Joint Monitoring Programme.", "However, as of 2018, there are approximately 1.9 million of Lao's population who could not access an improved water supply and 2.4 million people without access to improved sanitation.Laos has made particularly noteworthy progress increasing access to sanitation.", "Laos's predominantly rural population makes investing in sanitation difficult.", "In 1990 only 8% of the rural population had access to improved sanitation.", "Access rose rapidly from 10 per cent in 1995 to 38 per cent in 2008.Between 1995 and 2008 approximately 1,232,900 more people had access to improved sanitation in rural areas.", "Laos's progress is notable in comparison to similar developing countries.", "The authorities in Laos have recently developed an innovative regulatory framework for public–private partnership contracts signed with small enterprises, in parallel with more conventional regulation of state-owned water enterprises." ], [ "Demographics", "The term \"Laotian\" does not necessarily refer to the Lao language, ethnic Lao people, language or customs.", "It is a political term that includes the non-ethnic Lao groups within Laos and identifies them as \"Laotian\" because of their political citizenship.", "Laos has the youngest population of any country in Asia with a median age of 21.6 years.Laos's population was estimated at 7.45 million in 2020, dispersed unevenly across the country.", "Most people live in valleys of the Mekong River and its tributaries.", "Vientiane prefecture, the capital and largest city, had about 683,000 residents in 2020.=== Ethnicity ===The people of Laos are often categorised by their distribution by elevation: (lowlands, midlands and upper high lands) as this somewhat correlates with ethnic groupings.", "More than half of the nation's population is ethnic Lao—the principal lowland inhabitants, and the politically and culturally dominant people of Laos.", "The Lao belong to the Tai linguistic group who began migrating south from China in the first millennium CE.", "Ten per cent belong to other \"lowland\" groups, which together with the Lao people make up the Lao Loum (lowland people).In the central and southern mountains, Mon-Khmer-speaking groups, known as Lao Theung or mid-slope Laotians, predominate.", "Other terms are Khmu, Khamu (Kammu) or Kha as the Lao Loum refer to them to indicate their Austroasiatic language affiliation.", "However, the latter is considered pejorative, meaning 'slave'.", "They were the indigenous inhabitants of northern Laos.", "Some Vietnamese, Laotian Chinese and Thai minorities remain, particularly in the towns, but many left after independence in the late 1940s, many of whom relocated either to Vietnam, Hong Kong, or to France.", "Lao Theung constitute about 30% of the population.Hill people and minority cultures of Laos such as the Hmong, Yao (Mien) (Hmong-Mien), Dao, Shan, and several Tibeto-Burman speaking peoples have lived in isolated regions of Laos for many years.", "Mountain/hill tribes of mixed ethno/cultural-linguistic heritage are found in northern Laos, which include the Lua and Khmu people who are indigenous to Laos.", "Collectively, they are known as Lao Soung or highland Laotians.", "Lao Soung account for about 10% of the population.=== Languages ===The official and majority language is Lao, a language of the Tai-Kadai language family.", "However, only slightly more than half of the population speaks Lao natively.", "The remainder, particularly in rural areas, speak ethnic minority languages.", "The Lao alphabet, which evolved sometime between the 13th and 14th centuries, was derived from the ancient Khmer script and is very similar to Thai script.", "Languages like Khmu (Austroasiatic) and Hmong (Hmong-Mien) are spoken by minorities, particularly in the midland and highland areas.", "A number of Laotian sign languages are used in areas with high rates of congenital deafness.French is used in government and commerce, and Laos is a member of the French-speaking organisation of La Francophonie.", "The organisation estimated in 2010 that there were 173,800 French speakers in Laos.The French language's decline was slower and occurred later in Laos than in Vietnam and Cambodia, as the monarchy of Laos had close political relations with France.", "At the eve of the Vietnam War, the Secret War was beginning in Laos as political factions between communist Pathet Lao and the government occurred.", "Pathet Lao held areas used Lao as their sole language and following the end of the Vietnam War, French began its sharp decline in Laos.", "Additionally, many elite and French-educated Lao immigrated to nations such as the United States and France to escape government persecution.", "With the end of isolationism in the early 1990s however, the French language rebounded, thanks to the establishment of French, Swiss and Canadian relations and opening of French-language centers in central Laos.", "Today, French has a healthier status in Laos than the other Francophone nations of Asia and about 35% of all students in Laos receive their education in French, with the language being a required course in many schools.", "French is also used in public works in central and southern Laos and Luang Prabang and is a language of diplomacy and of the elite classes, higher professions and elders.English, the language of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), has become increasingly studied in recent years.=== Religion ===Wat Nong Sikhounmuang pagoda in Luang Prabang66 percent of Laotians were Theravada Buddhist, 1.5 percent Christian, 0.1 percent Muslim, 0.1 percent Jewish, and 32.3 percent were other or traditional (mostly practitioners of Satsana Phi) in 2010.Buddhism has long been one of the most important social forces in Laos.", "Theravada Buddhism has coexisted peacefully since its introduction to the country with the local polytheism.=== Health ===Mahosot Hospital in VientianeMale life expectancy at birth was at 62.6 years and female life expectancy was at 66.7 years in 2017.Healthy life expectancy was 54 years in 2007.Government expenditure on health is about four per cent of GDP, about US$18 (PPP) in 2006.=== Education ===National University of Laos in Vientiane.The adult literacy rate for women in 2017 was 62.9%; for adult men, 78.1%.In 2004 the net primary enrollment rate was 84%.", "The National University of Laos is the Lao state's public university.", "As a low-income country, Laos faces a brain-drain problem as many educated people migrate to developed countries.", "It is estimated that about 37% of educated Laotians live outside Laos.", "Laos was ranked 110th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023." ], [ "Culture", "An example of Lao cuisine sinhs'' Lao dancers during the New Year celebration Theravada Buddhism is a dominant influence in Lao culture.", "It is evident throughout the country, expressed in language, temples and the arts and literature.", "Many elements of Lao culture predate Buddhism.", "For example, Laotian music is dominated by its national musical instrument, the ''khaen'', a type of bamboo mouth organ that has prehistoric origins.", "The ''khaen'' traditionally accompanied the singer in ''mor lam'', the dominant style of folk music.Sticky rice is a staple food and has cultural and religious significance to the Lao people.", "Sticky rice is generally preferred over jasmine rice, and sticky rice cultivation and production is thought to have originated in Laos.", "There are many traditions and rituals associated with rice production in different environments and among many ethnic groups.", "For example, Khammu farmers in Luang Prabang plant the rice variety ''khao kam'' in small quantities near the farm house in memory of dead parents, or at the edge of the rice field to indicate that parents are still alive.The ''sinh'' is a traditional garment worn by Lao women in daily life.", "It is a hand-woven silk skirt that can identify the woman who wears it in a variety of ways.=== Cinema ===Since the founding of the Lao PDR in 1975, very few films have been made in Laos.", "The first feature-length film made after the monarchy was abolished is ''Gun Voice from the Plain of Jars'', directed by Somchith Pholsena in 1983, although its release was prevented by a censorship board.", "One of the first commercial feature-length films was ''Sabaidee Luang Prabang'', made in 2008.The 2017 documentary feature film Blood Road was predominantly shot and produced in Laos with assistance from the Lao government, it was recognised with a News and Documentary Emmy Award in 2018.Australian filmmaker Kim Mordount's first feature film was made in Laos and features a Laotian cast speaking their native language.", "Entitled ''The Rocket'', the film appeared at the 2013 Melbourne International Film Festival and won three awards at the Berlin International Film Festival.", "One production company's film that has succeeded to produce Lao feature films and gain international recognition is Lao New Wave Cinema's ''At the Horizon'', directed by Anysay Keola, that was screened at the OzAsia Film Festival and Lao Art Media's ''Chanthaly'' (Lao: ຈັນທະລີ) directed by Mattie Do, which was screened at the 2013 Fantastic Fest.", "In September 2017, Laos submitted ''Dearest Sister'' (Lao: ນ້ອງຮັກ), Mattie Do's second feature film, to the 90th Academy Awards (or the Oscars) for consideration for Best Foreign Language Film, marking the country's first submission for the Oscars.As of 2018, Laos has three theatres dedicated to showing films.=== Festivals ===There are some public holidays, festivities and ceremonies in Laos.", "Hmong New Year (Nopejao)Bun Pha WetMagha PujaChinese New YearBoun Khoun KhaoBoun PimaiBoun Bang Fai (Rocket festival)Visakha PujaPi Mai/Songkran(Lao New Year)Khao PhansaaHaw Khao Padap DinAwk PhansaaBun NamLao National Day (2 December)=== Media ===All newspapers are published by the government, including two foreign language papers: the English-language daily ''Vientiane Times'' and the French-language weekly ''Le Rénovateur''.", "Additionally, the Khao San Pathet Lao, the country's official news agency, publishes English and French versions of its eponymous paper.", "Laos has nine daily newspapers, 90 magazines, 43 radio stations, and 32 TV stations operating throughout the country.", ", ''Nhân Dân'' ('The People') and the Xinhua News Agency are the only foreign media organisations permitted to open offices in Laos—both opened bureaus in Vientiane in 2011.Lao National Television is the state owned service.The Lao government controls all media channels to prevent critique of its actions.", "Lao citizens who have criticised the government have been subjected to enforced disappearances, arbitrary arrests and torture.", "=== Polygamy ===Polygamy is officially a crime in Laos, though the penalty is minor.", "The constitution and Family Code bar the legal recognition of polygamous marriages, stipulating that monogamy is the principal form of marriage in the country.", "Polygamy, however, is still customary among some Hmong people.", "3.5% of women and 2.1% of men between the ages of 15–49 were in a polygamous union as of 2017.=== Sport ===New Laos National Stadium in Vientiane.The martial art of muay Lao, the national sport, is a form of kickboxing similar to Thailand's muay Thai, Burmese Lethwei and Cambodian Pradal Serey.Association football is the most popular sport in Laos.", "Its national football team is a member of the Asian Football Confederation and of the ASEAN Football Federation.", "It has failed to qualify for the FIFA World Cup or the AFC Asian Cup, but has participated in minor competitions like the AFC Solidarity Cup and the AFF Championship.", "The Lao League is the top professional league for association football clubs in the country.", "Since the start of the league, Lao Army F.C.", "has been the most successful club with 8 titles, the highest number of championship wins.Laos has no tradition in other team sports.", "In 2017, the country sent a team for the first time to the team events at the Southeast Asian Games.", "The national basketball team competed at the 2017 Southeast Asian Games where it beat Myanmar in the eighth place game." ], [ "See also", "Drug policy in LaosLaos MemorialOutline of LaosEnergy in Laos" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " ** * Chief of State and Cabinet Members.", ".", "* Country Profile at the BBC News" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Laos" ], [ "Introduction", "Evidence of modern human presence in the northern and central highlands of Indochina, which constitute the territories of the modern Laotian nation-state, dates back to the Lower Paleolithic.", "These earliest human migrants are Australo-Melanesians—associated with the Hoabinhian culture—and have populated the highlands and the interior, less accessible regions of Laos and all of Southeast Asia to this day.", "The subsequent Austroasiatic and Austronesian marine migration waves affected landlocked Laos only marginally, and direct Chinese and Indian cultural contact had a greater impact on the country.Laos exists in truncated form from the thirteenth-century Lao kingdom of Lan Xang, which existed as a unified kingdom from 1357 to 1707, divided into the three rival kingdoms of Luang Prabang, Vientiane, and Champasak, from 1707 to 1779.It fell to Siamese suzerainty from 1779 to 1893 and was reunified under the French Protectorate of Laos in 1893.The borders of the modern state of Laos were established by the French colonial government in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.", "The modern nation-state of Laos emerged from the French Colonial Empire as an independent country in 1953." ], [ "Limitations and current state of research", "Archaeological exploration in Laos has been limited due to rugged and remote topography, a history of twentieth century conflicts which have left over two million tons of unexploded ordnance throughout the country, and local sensitivities to history which involve the Communist government of Laos, village authorities and rural poverty.", "The first archaeological explorations of Laos began with French explorers acting under the auspices of the École française d'Extrême-Orient.", "However, due to the Lao Civil War it is only since the 1990s that serious archaeological efforts have begun in Laos.", "Since 2005, one such effort, The Middle Mekong Archaeological Project (MMAP) has excavated and surveyed numerous sites along the Mekong and its tributaries around Luang Prabang in northern Laos, with the goal of investigating early human settlement of the valleys of the Mekong River and its tributaries." ], [ "Prehistory", "Ancient human fossil remains from Tam Pa Ling caveAnatomically modern human hunter-gatherer migration into Southeast Asia before 50,000 years ago has been confirmed by the fossil record of the region.", "These immigrants might have, to a certain extent, merged and reproduced with members of the archaic population of ''Homo erectus'', as the 2009 fossil discoveries in the Tam Pa Ling Cave suggest.", "Dated to between 46,000 and 63,000 years old, it is the oldest fossil found in the region that bears modern human morphological features.Recent research also supports more accurate understanding of migration patterns of early humans, who migrated in successive waves moving west to east following the coastlines, but also used river valleys further inland and further north than previously theorized.An early tradition is discernible in the Hoabinhian, the name given to an industry and cultural continuity of stone tools and flaked cobble artifacts that appears around 10,000 BP in caves and rock shelters first described in ''Hòa Bình'', Vietnam and later also in Laos.===Neolithic migrations===The earliest inhabitants of Laos—Australo-Melanesians—were followed by members of the Austro-Asiatic language family.", "These earliest societies contributed to the ancestral gene pool of the upland Lao ethnicities known collectively as \"Lao Theung,\" with the largest ethnic groups being the Khamu of northern Laos, and the Brao and Katang in the south.Subsequent Neolithic immigration waves are considered dynamic, very complex and are intensely debated.", "Researchers resort to linguistic terms and argumentation for group identification and classification.===Agriculture and bronze production===Wet-rice and millet farming techniques were introduced from the Yangtze River valley in southern China since around 2,000 years BC.", "Hunting and gathering remained an important aspect of food provision; particularly in forested and mountainous inland areas.", "Earliest known copper and bronze production in Southeast Asia has been confirmed at the site of Ban Chiang in modern north-east Thailand and among the Phung Nguyen culture of northern Vietnam since around 2000 BCE.Plain of Jars, Xiangkhouang===Plain of Jars===From the 8th century BCE to as late as the 2nd century CE, an inland trading society emerged on the Xieng Khouang Plateau, around the megalithic site called the Plain of Jars.", "The plain, nominated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1992, is still being cleared from unexploded ordnance, since 1998.The jars, stone sarcophagi dating from the early Iron Age (500 BCE to 800 CE), contained evidence of human remains, burial goods, and ceramics.", "Some sites contain more than 250 individual jars.", "The tallest jars are more than in height.", "Little is known about the culture that produced and used them.", "The jars and the existence of iron ore in the region suggest that the creators of the site engaged in profitable overland trade." ], [ "Early Indianised kingdoms", "Historic Indosphere cultural influence zone of Greater India for transmission of elements of Indian elements such as the honorific titles, naming of people, naming of places, mottos of organisations and educational institutes as well as adoption of Hinduism, Buddhism, Indian architecture, martial arts, Indian music and dance, traditional Indian clothing, and Indian cuisine, a process which has been also aided by the ongoing historic expansion of Indian diaspora.===Funan kingdom===The first indigenous kingdom to emerge in Indochina was referred to in Chinese histories as the Kingdom of Funan and encompassed an area of modern Cambodia, and the coasts of southern Vietnam and southern Thailand since the 1st century CE.", "Funan was an Indianised kingdom,that had incorporated central aspects of Indian institutions, religion, statecraft, administration, culture, epigraphy, writing and architecture and engaged in profitable Indian Ocean trade.===Champa kingdom===Lower terrace of the Wat Phu mountain complex, Champasak\|alt=By the 2nd century CE, Austronesian settlers had established an Indianised kingdom known as Champa along modern central Vietnam.", "The Cham people established the first settlements near modern Champasak in Laos.", "Funan expanded and incorporated the Champasak region by the sixth century CE, when it was replaced by its successor polity Chenla.", "Chenla occupied large areas of modern-day Laos as it accounts for the earliest kingdom on Laotian soil.===Chenla kingdom===The capital of early Chenla was Shrestapura which was located in the vicinity of Champasak and the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Wat Phu.", "Wat Phu is a vast temple complex in southern Laos which combined natural surroundings with ornate sandstone structures, which were maintained and embellished by the Chenla peoples until 900 CE, and were subsequently rediscovered and embellished by the Khmer in the 10th century.By the 8th century CE, Chenla had divided into \"\" located in Laos, and \"\" founded by Mahendravarman near Sambor Prei Kuk in Cambodia.", "Land Chenla was known to the Chinese as \"Po Lou\" or \"Wen Dan\" and dispatched a trade mission to the Tang dynasty court in 717 CE.", "Water Chenla, would come under repeated attack from Champa, the Mataram sea kingdoms in Indonesia based in Java, and finally pirates.", "From the instability the Khmer emerged.===Dvaravati city-state kingdoms===In the area that is modern northern and central Laos and northeast Thailand, the Mon people established their own kingdoms during the 8th century CE, outside the reach of the contracting Chenla kingdoms.", "By the 6th century in the Chao Phraya River Valley, Mon peoples had coalesced to create the Dvaravati kingdoms.", "In the north, Haripunjaya (Lamphun) emerged as a rival power to the Dvaravati.", "By the 8th century the Mon had pushed north to create city states, known as \"muang,\" in Fa Daet (northeast Thailand), Sri Gotapura (Sikhottabong) near modern Tha Khek, Laos, Muang Sua (Luang Prabang), and Chantaburi (Vientiane).", "In the 8th century CE, Sri Gotapura (Sikhottabong) was the strongest of these early city states, and controlled trade throughout the middle Mekong region.", "The city states were loosely bound politically, but were culturally similar and introduced Therevada Buddhism from Sri Lankan missionaries throughout the region." ], [ "Tai migrations", "Kra-Dai (Tai-Kadai) migration route according to James R. Chamberlain (2016).Map showing linguistic family tree overlaid on a geographic distribution map of Tai-Kadai family.", "This map only shows general pattern of the migration of Tai-speaking tribes, not specific routes, which would have snaked along the rivers and over the lower passes.The mainland of Southeast Asia at the end of the 13th centuryThere have been many theories proposing the origin of the Tai peoples—of which the Lao are a subgroup—including an association of the Tai people with the Kingdom of Nanzhao that has been proven to be invalid.", "The Chinese Han dynasty chronicles of the southern military campaigns provide the first written accounts of Tai–Kadai speaking peoples who inhabited the areas of modern Yunnan China and Guangxi.James R. Chamberlain (2016) proposes that Tai-Kadai (Kra-Dai) language family was formed as early as the 12th century BCE in the middle Yangtze basin, coinciding roughly with the establishment of the Chu and the beginning of the Zhou dynasty.", "Following the southward migrations of Kra and Hlai (Rei/Li) peoples around the 8th century BCE, the Be-Tai people started to break away to the east coast in the present-day Zhejiang, in the 6th century BCE, forming the state of Yue.", "After the destruction of the state of Yue by Chu army around 333 BCE, Yue people (Be-Tai) began to migrate southwards along the east coast of China to what are now Guangxi, Guizhou and northern Vietnam, forming Luo Yue (Central-Southwestern Tai) and Xi Ou (Northern Tai).", "The Tai peoples, from Guangxi and northern Vietnam began moving south—and westwards in the first millennium CE, eventually spreading across the whole of mainland Southeast Asia.", "Based on layers of Chinese loanwords in proto-Southwestern Tai and other historical evidence, Pittayawat Pittayaporn (2014) proposes that the southwestward migration of Tai-speaking tribes from the modern Guangxi and northern Vietnam to the mainland of Southeast Asia must have taken place sometime between the 8th and 10th centuries.", "Tai speaking tribes migrated southwestward along the rivers and over the lower passes into Southeast Asia, perhaps prompted by the Chinese expansion and suppression.", "Chinese historical texts record that, in 722, 400,000 'Lao' rose in revolt behind Mai Thúc Loan, who declared himself the king of Nanyue in Guangdong.", "After the 722 revolt, some 60,000 were beheaded.", "In 726, after the suppression of a rebellion by a 'Lao' leader in the present-day Guangxi, over 30,000 rebels were captured and beheaded.", "In 756, another revolt attracted 200,000 followers and lasted four years.", "In the 860s, many local people in what is now north Vietnam sided with attackers from Nanchao, and in the aftermath some 30,000 of them were beheaded.", "In the 1040s, a powerful matriarch-shamaness by the name of A Nong, her chiefly husband, and their son, Nong Zhigao, raised a revolt, took Nanning, besieged Guangzhou for fifty seven days, and slew the commanders of five Chinese armies sent against them before they were defeated, and many of their leaders were killed.", "As a result of these three bloody centuries, the Tai began to migrate southwestward.", "A 2016 mitochondrial genome mapping of Thai and Lao populations supports the idea that both ethnicities originate from the Tai–Kadai (TK) language family.The Tai, from their new home in Southeast Asia, were influenced by the Khmer and the Mon and most importantly Buddhist India.", "The Tai kingdom of Lanna was founded in 1259 (in the north of modern Thailand).", "The Sukhothai Kingdom was founded in 1279 (in modern Thailand) and expanded eastward to take the city of ''Chantaburi'' and renamed it to ''Vieng Chan Vieng Kham'' (modern Vientiane) and northward to the city of ''Muang Sua'' which was taken in 1271 and renamed the city to ''Xieng Dong Xieng Thong'' or \"City of Flame Trees beside the River Dong\", (modern Luang Prabang, Laos).", "The Tai peoples had firmly established control in areas to the northeast of the declining Khmer Empire.", "Following the death of the Sukhothai king Ram Khamhaeng, and internal disputes within the kingdom of Lanna, both ''Vieng Chan Vieng Kham'' (Vientiane) and ''Xieng Dong Xieng Thong'' (Luang Prabang) were independent city-states until the founding of the kingdom of Lan Xang in 1354.The Sukhothai Kingdom and later the Ayutthaya kingdom were established and \"...conquered the Khmers of the upper and central Menam valley and greatly extended their territory.", "\"===The Legend of Khun Borom===The history of the Tai migrations into Laos were preserved in myth and legends.", "The ''Nithan Khun Borom'' or \"Story of Khun Borom\" recalls the origin myths of the Lao, and follows the exploits of his seven sons to found the Tai kingdoms of Southeast Asia.", "The myths also recorded the laws of Khun Borom, which set the basis of common law and identity among the Lao.", "Among the Khamu the exploits of their folk hero Thao Hung are recounted in the ''Thao Hung Thao Cheuang'' epic, which dramatizes the struggles of the indigenous peoples with the influx of Tai during the migration period.", "In later centuries the Lao themselves would preserve the legend in written form, becoming one of the great literary treasures of Laos and one of the few depictions of life in Southeast Asia prior to Therevada Buddhism and Tai cultural influence." ], [ "Lan Xang (1353–1707)", "Lan Xang's zone of influence and neighbours, c. 1540Lan Xang (1353–1707) was one of the largest kingdoms in Southeast Asia.", "Also known as the \"Land of a million elephants under the white parasol\" the kingdom's name alludes to the power of the kingship and formidable war machine of the early kingdom.", "The founding of Lan Xang was recorded in 1353, after a series of conquests by Fa Ngum.", "From 1353 to 1560 the capital of Lan Xang was Luang Prabang (known alternately as ''Muang Sua'' and ''Xieng Dong Xieng Thong'').", "Under successive kings the kingdom expanded its sphere of influence over an area that now incorporates all of modern Laos, the Sipsong Chu Tai of Vietnam, Sipsong Panna of Southern China, Khorat Plateau region of Thailand, and the Stung Treng region of Northern Cambodia.Lan Xang existed as a sovereign kingdom for over 350 years.", "The first serious foreign invasion came from the Dai Viet in 1479, which was defeated, though leaving the capital of Luang Prabang largely destroyed.", "The first half of the sixteenth century allowed for the power, prestige and cultural influence of the kingdom to be restored under a series of strong kings (see Souvanna Balang, Vixun, Photisarath).", "In the 1540s a series of succession disputes in the neighboring Kingdom of Lanna, created a regional rivalry between Burma, Ayutthaya and Lan Xang.", "In 1540, Lan Xang defeated an incursion from Ayutthaya.", "By 1545 the Kingdom of Lanna was attacked by the Burmese and then Ayutthaya.", "Lan Xang entered into an alliance with Lanna, and aided in the defense of the kingdom.", "In 1547, the kingdoms of Lan Xang and Lanna were briefly unified under Photisarath of Lan Xang and his son Setthathirath in Lanna.", "Setthathirath would go on to become the king of Lan Xang on the death of his father, and become one of the greatest kings of Lan Xang.The Burmese Toungoo dynasty began a series of expansions during the late 1550s which culminated under King Bayinnaung.", "Setthathirath moved the capital of Lan Xang from Luang Prabang to Vientiane in 1560, to better defend against the threat of Burma and to more ably administer the central and southern provinces.", "Bayinnaung subjugated the Kingdom of Lanna and went on to destroy the kingdom and city of Ayutthaya in 1564.King Setthathirath fought two successful guerilla campaigns against the Burmese invasions, leaving Lan Xang the only independent Tai kingdom until his death in 1572, while on campaign against the Khmer.", "The Burmese succeeded with the third invasion of Lan Xang around 1573, and Lan Xang became a vassal state until 1591 when the son of Setthathirath, Nokeo Koumane, was able to successfully reassert independence.Lan Xang recovered and reached the apex of its political and economic power during the seventeenth century under King Sourigna Vongsa, who became the longest reigning of Lan Xang's monarchs (1637–1694) after defeating four rival claimants to the throne.", "Foreign relations was managed successfully during his reign and the king was known as a firm and just ruler.", "In the 1640s the first European explorers to leave a detailed account of the kingdom arrived looking to establish trade and secure Christian converts, both were ultimately largely unsuccessful.", "However, these European visitors reported on the capital's (Vientiane) prosperity and imposing religious buildings.", "King Sourigna Vongsa was known to uphold the law stricty, an episode exemplified this when he did not intervene when his son (and successor) was sentenced to death when it was found that he seduced the wife of a senior court official.", "Upon the death of Sourigna Vongsa a succession dispute as well as exploitation by both Ayutthaya and Dai Viet, led to the kingdom of Lan Xang being ultimately divided into constituent kingdoms in 1707." ], [ "Regional kingdoms (1707–1779)", "Southeast Asia in the 18th century showing the kingdoms of Vientiane, Luang Prabang, Champasak and the principality of Phuan (Xieng Khuang)Beginning in 1707 the Lao kingdom of Lan Xang was partitioned into regional kingdoms of Vientiane, Luang Prabang and later Champasak (1713).", "The Kingdom of Vientiane was the strongest of the three, with Vientiane extending influence across the Khorat Plateau (now part of modern Thailand) and conflicting with the Kingdom of Luang Prabang for control of the Xieng Khouang Plateau (on the border of modern Vietnam).The Kingdom of Luang Prabang was the first of the regional kingdoms to emerge in 1707, when King Xai Ong Hue of Lan Xang was challenged by Kingkitsarat, the grandson of Sourigna Vongsa.", "Xai Ong Hue and his family had sought asylum in Vietnam when they were exiled during the reign of Sourigna Vongsa.", "Xai Ong Hue gained the support of the Vietnamese Emperor Le Duy Hiep in exchange for recognition of Vietnamese suzerainty over Lan Xang.", "At the head of a Vietnamese army Xai Ong Hue attacked Vientiane and executed King Nantharat another claimant to the throne.", "In response Sourigna Vongsa's grandson Kingkitsarat rebelled and moved with his own army from the Sipsong Panna toward Luang Prabang.", "Kingkitsarat then moved south to challenge Xai Ong Hue in Vientiane.", "Xai Ong Hue then turned toward the Kingdom of Ayutthaya for support, and an army was dispatched which rather than supporting Xai Ong Hue arbitrated the division between Luang Prabang and Vientiane.In 1713, the southern Lao nobility continued the rebellion against Xai Ong Hue under Nokasad, a nephew of Sourigna Vongsa, and the Kingdom of Champasak emerged.", "The Kingdom of Champasak comprised the area south of the Xe Bang River as far as Stung Treng together with the areas of the lower Mun and Chi rivers on the Khorat Plateau.", "Although less populous than either Luang Prabang or Vientiane, Champasak occupied an important position for regional power and international trade via the Mekong River.Throughout the 1760s and 1770s the kingdoms of Siam and Burma competed against each other in a bitter armed rivalry, and sought out alliances with the Lao kingdoms to strengthen their relative positions by adding to their own forces and denying them to their enemy.", "As a result, the use of competing alliances would further militarize the conflict between the northerly Lao kingdoms of Luang Prabang and Vientiane.", "Between the two major Lao kingdoms if an alliance with one was sought by either Burma or Siam, the other would tend to support the remaining side.", "The network of alliances shifted with the political and military landscape throughout the latter half of the eighteenth century." ], [ "Siam and suzerainty (1779–1893)", "By 1779, General Taksin had driven the Burmese from Siam, had overrun the Lao Kingdoms of Champasak and Vientiane, and forced Luang Prabang to accept vassalage (Luang Prabang had aided Siam during the siege of Vientiane).", "Traditional power relationships in Southeast Asia followed the Mandala model, warfare was waged to secure population centers for corvee labor, control regional trade, and confirm religious and secular authority by controlling potent Buddhist symbols (white elephants, important stupas, temples, and Buddha images).", "To legitimize the Thonburi dynasty, General Taksin seized the Emerald Buddha and Phra Bang images from Vientiane.", "Taksin also demanded that the ruling elites of the Lao kingdoms and their royal families pledge vassalage to Siam in order to retain their regional autonomy in accordance with the Mandala model.", "In the traditional Mandala model, vassal kings retained their power to raise tax, discipline their own vassals, inflict capital punishment, and appoint their own officials.", "Only matters of war, and succession required approval from the suzerain.", "Vassals were also expected to provide annual tribute of gold and silver (traditionally modeled into trees), provide tax and tax in-kind, raise support armies in time of war, and provide corvee labor for state projects.Emerald BuddhaHowever, by 1782 Taksin had been deposed and Rama I was king of Siam, and began a series of reforms which fundamentally altered the traditional Mandala.", "Many of the reforms took place to more closely administer and assimilate the Khorat Plateau (or Isan) which was traditionally and culturally part of the Lao kingdoms’ tributary networks.", "In 1778, only Nakhon Ratchasima was a tributary of Siam, yet by the end of the reign of Rama I Sisaket, Ubon, Roi Et, Yasothon, Khon Khaen, and Kalasin paid tribute directly to Bangkok.", "According to Thai records, by 1826 (less than fifty years) the number of towns and cities in Isan had grown from 13 to 35.Forced population transfers from Lao areas were further reinforced by corvee labor projects and increased taxes.", "Siam required labor to help rebuild from repeated Burmese invasions, and growing sea trade.", "Increasing the productivity and population living on the Khorat Plateau provided the labor and material access to strengthen Siam.Siribunnyasan the last independent king of Vientiane had died by 1780, and his sons Nanthasen, Inthavong, and Anouvong had been taken to Bangkok as prisoners during the sack of Vientiane in 1779.The sons would become successive kings of Vientiane (under Siamese suzerainty), beginning with Nanthasen in 1781.Nanthasen was allowed to return to Vientiane with the Phra Bang, the palladium of Lan Xang, the Emerald Buddha remained in Bangkok and became an important symbol to the Lao of their captivity.", "One of Nanthasen's first acts was to seize Chao Somphu a Phuan prince from Xieng Khouang who had entered into a tributary relationship with Vietnam, and released him only when it was agreed that Xieng Khouang would also acknowledge Vientiane as suzerain.", "In 1791, Anuruttha was confirmed by Rama I as king of Luang Prabang.", "By 1792 Nanthasen had convinced Rama I that Anuruttha was secretly dealing with the Burmese, and Siam allowed Nanthasen to lead an army and besiege and capture Luang Prabang.", "Anuruttha was sent to Bangkok as a prisoner, and only through diplomatic exchanges facilitated by China, was Anuruttha released in 1795.Soon after Anuruttha's release it was alleged that Nanthasen had been plotting with the governor of Nakhon Phanom to rebel against Siam.", "Rama I ordered the immediate arrest of Nanthasen, and soon after he died in captivity.", "Inthavong (1795–1804) became the next king of Vientiane, and dispatched armies to aide Siam against Burmese invasions in 1797 and 1802, and to capture the Sipsong Chau Tai (with his brother Anouvong as general).===Anouvong's and Lao nationalism===Anouvong is a symbolic and controversial figure even today, his short lived rebellion against Siam from 1826 to 1829 ultimately proved futile and led to the total annihilation of Vientiane as a kingdom and a city, yet among the Lao he remains a potent symbol of unyielding defiance and national identity.", "Thai and Vietnamese histories record that Anouvong rebelled as the result of personal insult suffered at the funeral of Rama II in Bangkok.", "Yet, the Anouvong's rebellion lasted three years and engulfed the whole of the Khorat Plateau for more complex reasons.The history of forced population transfers, corvee labor projects, loss of national symbols and prestige (most notably the Emerald Buddha) formed the backdrop to specific actions taken by Rama III to directly annex the Isan region.", "In 1812, Siam and Vietnam were at odds over the succession of the Cambodian king, the Vietnamese gained the upper hand with their chosen successor and Siam compensated itself by annexing territory on the Dangrek Mountains and along the Mekong River in Stung Treng.", "As a result, Lao international trade along the Mekong was effectively blockaded, and heavy duties were imposed on Lao merchants who were viewed suspiciously by Siam for their trade with both the Cambodians and Vietnamese.In 1819, a rebellion in Champasak provided Anouvong with opportunity, and he dispatched an army under his son Nyo who managed to suppress the conflict.", "In exchange Anouvong successfully made the case that his son be crowned as king in Champasak, which was confirmed by Bangkok.", "Anouvong had successfully expanded his influence throughout Vientiane, Isan, Xieng Khouang and now Champasak.", "Anouvong dispatched a number of diplomatic missions to Luang Prabang, which were viewed suspiciously in light of his growing regional influence.By 1825 Rama II had died, and Rama III was consolidating his position against prince Mongkut (Rama IV).", "In the ensuing power struggle before the accession of Rama III one of Anouvong's grandsons was killed.", "When Anouvong arrived for the funerary services, he made several requests of the king Rama III which were dismissed including the return of his sister who had been captured in 1779, and Lao families which had been relocated to Saraburi near Bangkok.", "Before returning to Vientiane, Anouvong's son Ngau, the crown prince, was forced to perform manual labor during which he was beaten.Early in his reign, Rama III ordered a census of all peoples on the Khorat Plateau, the census involved the forced tattooing of each villager's census number and name of their village.", "The aim of the policy was to more tightly administer Lao territories from Bangkok and was facilitated by the nobility Siam had installed in the newly created cities throughout the region.", "Popular resentment against the forced tattooing and increased taxes became ''casus belli'' for rebellion.Toward the end of 1826 Anouvong was making military preparations for armed rebellion.", "Anouvong's strategy involved three objectives, first was to repatriate all ethnic Lao living in Siam to the right bank of the Mekong and execute any Siamese engaged in the tattooing of Lao, the second objective was to consolidate Lao power by forging an alliance with Chiang Mai and Luang Prabang, the third and final goal was to gain international support from either the Vietnamese, Chinese, Burmese or British.", "In January hostilities commenced, and the Lao armies were sent from Vientiane to capture Nakhon Ratchasima, Kalasin, and Lomsak.", "From Champasak forces rushed to take Ubon and Suvannaphum, while pursuing a scorched-earth policy ensuring the Lao time to retreat.Anouvong's forces pushed south eventually to Saraburi to free the Lao there, but the flood of refugees pushing north slowed the armies’ retreat.", "Anouvong also severely underestimated the Siamese arms stockpile, which under the terms of Burney Treaty had provided Siam with weaponry from the Napoleonic Wars in Europe.", "A Lao defense was staged at Nong Bua Lamphu the traditional Lao stronghold in the Isan, but the Siamese emerged victorious and leveled the city.", "The Siamese pushed north to take Vientiane and Anouvong fled southeast to the border with Vietnam.", "By 1828 Anouvong had been captured, tortured and sent to Bangkok with his family to die in a cage.", "Rama III ordered Chao Bodin to return and level the city of Vientiane, and forcibly move the entire population of the former Lao capital to the Isan region.===Aftermath and Vietnamese intervention===Following the Anouvong's rebellion Siam and Vietnam were increasingly at odds over control of the Indochinese Peninsula.", "In 1831, Emperor Minh Mang sent Vietnamese troops to seize Xieng Khouang and annexed the area as the province of Tran Ninh.", "Also in 1831 and again in 1833 King Mantha Tourath sent a tributary mission to the Vietnamese, which were quietly ignored so as not to antagonize the Siamese further.", "In 1893, these tributary missions from Luang Prabang were used by the French as part of a legal argument for all the territories on the east bank of the Mekong.", "In late 1831 Siam and Vietnam had a series of wars (Siamese-Vietnamese War 1831–1834, and Siamese-Vietnamese War 1841–1845) over control of Xieng Khouang and Cambodia.In the aftermath of Vientiane's destruction the Siamese divided the Lao lands into three administrative regions.", "In the north, the king of Luang Prabang and a small Siamese garrison controlled Luang Prabang, the Sipsong Panna, and Sipsong Chao Tai.", "The central region was administered from Nong Khai and extended to the borders of Tran Ninh (Xieng Khouang) and south to Champasak.", "The southern regions were controlled from Champasak and extended to areas bordering Cochin China and Cambodia.", "From the 1830s through the 1860s small rebellions took place across Lao lands and the Khorat Plateau, but they lacked both the scale and coordination of the Anouvong Rebellion.", "Importantly, at the end of each rebellion Siamese troops would return to their administrative centers, and no Lao region was allowed to have a buildup of force which could have been used in rebellion.===Population transfers and slavery===Ruins in Vientiane, depicted by Louis Delaporte during the Mekong Expedition led by Francis Garnier (c. 1867)Population transfers of ethnic Lao to Siam began in 1779 with Siamese suzerainty.", "Artisans and members of the court were forcibly moved to Saraburi near Bangkok, and several thousand farmers and peasant who were transported throughout Siam to Phetchaburi, Ratchaburi, and Nakhon Chaisi in the southwest and to Prachinburi and Chanthaburi in the southeast.", "However, massive deportations estimated between 100,000 and 300,000 people began following the defeat of King Anouvong in 1828, and would continue until the 1870s.", "From 1828 to 1830, over 66,000 people were forcibly relocated from Vientiane.", "In 1834, the first of several relocations of the Phuan areas of Xieng Khouang began, transferring more than 6,000 people.", "Most of those relocated were settled in the Isan region and were considered that ''cha loei'' or \"war slaves\" who were to serve as serfs in underpopulated areas for the Thai elite.", "The result changed the demographics and cultural traditions of Thailand and Laos and continues today with a five-fold disparity between the ethnic Lao living on the West Bank of the Mekong and those left in the East in what is today Laos.Although slavery existed in Lao areas before the rebellion in 1828, the defeat and subsequent removal of most ethnic Lao left a depopulated and vulnerable position for the remaining people of the East Bank of the Mekong.", "Lao Theung hill tribes which had little involvement in the 1828 rebellion bore the brunt of organized slave raids into Laos and became known collectively and pejoratively in Thai and Lao as ''kha'' or \"slaves.\"", "Lao Theung were hunted or sold into slavery frequent organized raiding parties from Vietnam, Cambodia, Siam, Laos and China.", "Larger tribes of Lao Theung, such as the Brao, would conduct slave raids against weaker tribes.", "The raids continued throughout the remainder of the nineteenth century, a Siamese military campaign in Laos in 1876 was described by a British observer as having been \"transformed into slave-hunting raids on a large scale\".The population transfers and slave raids ameliorated toward the end of the nineteenth century when European observers and anti-slavery groups made their presence increasingly difficult for the Bangkok elite.", "In 1880, both slave raiding and trading became illegal, although debt slavery would persist until 1905 by decree of King Chulalongkorn.", "The French would use the existence of slavery in Siam as one of the major professed motivations for establishing a Protectorate of Laos during the 1880s and 1890s.===Haw Wars===A soldier of the Black Flag Army, 1885In the 1840s, sporadic rebellions, slave raids, and movement of refugees throughout the areas that would become modern Laos left whole regions politically and militarily weak.", "In China the Qing dynasty was pushing south to incorporate hill peoples into the central administration, at first floods of refugees and later bands of rebels from the Taiping Rebellion pushed into Lao lands.", "The rebel groups became known by their banners and included the Yellow (or Striped) Flags, Red Flags and the Black Flags.", "The bandit groups rampaged throughout the countryside, with little response from Siam.During the early and mid-nineteenth century the first Lao Sung including the Hmong, Mien, Yao and other Sino-Tibetan groups began settling in the higher elevations of Phongsali province and northeast Laos.", "The influx of immigration was facilitated by the same political weakness which had given shelter to the Haw bandits and left large depopulated areas throughout Laos.By the 1860s, the first French explorers were pushing north charting the path of the Mekong River, with hope of a navigable waterway to southern China.", "Among the early French explorers was an expedition led by Francis Garnier, who was killed during an expedition by Haw rebels in Tonkin.", "The French would increasingly conduct military campaigns against the Haw in both Laos and Vietnam (Tonkin) until the 1880s." ], [ "Colonial period", "Auguste Pavie, First Governor-General of the French Protectorate of Laos\|alt====Origins of French colonialism in Laos===French colonial interests in Laos began with the exploratory missions of Doudart de Lagree and Francis Garnier during the 1860s.", "France hoped to utilize the Mekong River as a route to southern China.", "Although the Mekong is unnavigable due to a number of rapids, the hope was that the river might be tamed with the help of French engineering and a combination of railways.", "In 1886, Britain secured the right to appoint a representative in Chiang Mai, in northern Siam.", "To counter British control in Burma and growing influence in Siam, that same year France sought to establish representation in Luang Prabang, and dispatched Auguste Pavie to secure French interests.Pavie and French auxiliaries arrived in Luang Prabang in 1887 in time to witness an attack on Luang Prabang by Chinese and Tai bandits who hoped to liberate the brothers of their leader Đèo Văn Trị, who were being held prisoner by the Siamese.", "Pavie prevented the capture of the ailing King Oun Kham by ferrying him away from the burning city to safety.", "The incident won the gratitude of the king, provided an opportunity for France to gain control of the Sipsong Chu Thai as part of Tonkin in French Indochina, and demonstrated the weakness of the Siamese in Laos.", "In 1892, Pavie became Resident Minister in Bangkok, where he encouraged a French policy which first sought to deny or ignore Siamese sovereignty over Lao territories on the east bank of the Mekong, and secondly to suppress the slavery of upland Lao Theung and population transfers of Lao Loum by the Siamese as a prelude to establishing a protectorate in Laos.", "Siam reacted by denying French trading interests, which by 1893 had increasingly involved military posturing and gunboat diplomacy.", "France and Siam would position troops to deny each other's interests, resulting in a Siamese siege of Khong Island in the south and a series of attacks on French garrisons in the north.", "The result was the Paknam Incident of 13 July 1893, the Franco-Siamese crisis and the ultimate recognition of French territorial claims in Laos.French warships bombarding the Siamese fort at PaknamTerritories abandoned by Siam in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, depicted as a map of Thailand's territorial losses.", "The Franco-Siamese crisis resulted in the cession of Laos to France in 1893.The French were aware that the east-bank territories of the Mekong were \"a depopulated, devastated country\"—the Siamese forced population transfers following the Anouvong Rebellion had left only a fifth of the original population on the east bank, the majority of Lao Loum and Phuan peoples had been resettled to the areas around the Khorat Plateau.", "Territorial gains in 1893 were only a springboard to secure French control of the Mekong, to deny Siam as much territorial control as possible by acquiring the Mekong's west-bank territories including the Khorat Plateau, and by negotiating stable borders with British Burma along the former territories which paid tribute to the Kingdom of Luang Prabang.", "France settled a treaty with China in 1895, gaining control of Luang Namtha and Phongsali.", "British control of the Shan States and French control of the upper Mekong increased tensions between the colonial rivals.", "A joint commission completed its work in 1896 and the city of Muang Sing was gained by France; in exchange France recognized Siamese sovereignty over the areas of the Chaophraya River basin.", "However, the issue of Siamese control over the Khorat Plateau, which was ethnically and historically Lao, was left open for the French, as was Siamese control over the Malay Peninsula which favored British interests.", "Political events in Europe would shape French Indochinese policy however, and between 1896 and 1904 a new political party took power in Paris which viewed Britain much more as an ally than as a colonial rival.", "In 1904, Britain and France signed the Entente Cordiale, which developed ultimately into part of the alliance against Germany and Austria-Hungary that fought the First World War in 1914–1918.The Entente Cordiale agreement established respective spheres of influence in Southeast Asia, although French territorial demands would continue until 1907 in Cambodia.===1893–1939===The French Protectorate of Laos established two (and at times three) administrative regions governed from Vietnam in 1893.It was not until 1899 that Laos became centrally administered by a single Resident Superieur based in Savannakhet, and later in Vientiane.", "The French chose to establish Vientiane as the colonial capital for two reasons, firstly it was more centrally located between the central provinces and Luang Prabang, and secondly the French were aware of the symbolic importance of rebuilding the former capital of the Lan Xang Kingdom which the Siamese had destroyed.As part of French Indochina both Laos and Cambodia were seen as a source of raw materials and labor for the more important holdings in Vietnam.", "French colonial presence in Laos was light; the Resident Superieur was responsible for all colonial administration from taxation to justice and public works.", "The French maintained a military presence in the colonial capital under the ''Garde Indigene'' made up of Vietnamese soldiers under a French commander.", "In important provincial cities like Luang Prabang, Savannakhet, and Pakse there would be an assistant resident, police, paymaster, postmaster, schoolteacher and a doctor.", "Vietnamese filled most upper level and mid-level positions within the bureaucracy, with Lao being employed as junior clerks, translators, kitchen staff and general laborers.", "Villages remained under the traditional authority of the local headmen or ''chao muang''.", "Throughout the colonial administration in Laos the French presence never amounted to more than a few thousand Europeans.", "The French concentrated on the development of infrastructure, the abolition of slavery and indentured servitude (although corvee labor was still in effect), trade including opium production, and most importantly the collection of taxes.Under French rule, the Vietnamese were encouraged to migrate to Laos, which was seen by the French colonists as a rational solution to a practical problem within the confines of an Indochina-wide colonial space.", "By 1943, the Vietnamese population stood at nearly 40,000, forming the majority in the largest cities of Laos and enjoying the right to elect their own leaders.As a result, 53% of the population of Vientiane, 85% of Thakhek and 62% of Pakse were Vietnamese, with only an exception of Luang Phrabang where the population was predominantly Lao.", "As late as 1945, the French even drew up an ambitious plan to move massive Vietnamese population to three key areas, i.e.", "the Vientiane Plain, Savannakhet region, Bolaven Plateau, which was only discarded by Japanese invasion of Indochina.", "Otherwise, according to Martin Stuart-Fox, the Lao might well have lost control over their own country.The Lao response to French colonialism was mixed, although the French were viewed as preferable to the Siamese by the nobility, the majority of Lao Loum, Lao Theung, and Lao Sung were burdened by regressive taxes and demands for corvee labor to establish colonial outposts.", "The first serious resistance to the French colonial presence began in southern Laos, as the ''Holy Man's Rebellion'' led by Ong Keo, and would last until 1910.The rebellion began in 1901 when a French commissioner in Salavan was attempting to pacify Lao Theung tribes for taxation and corvee labor, Ong Keo provoked anti-French sentiment and in response the French burned a local temple.", "The commissioner and his troops were massacred and a general uprising began throughout the Bolaven Plateau.", "Ong Keo would be killed by French forces, but for several years his harassment and protests gained popularity in the southern Laos.", "It was not until the movement spread to the Khorat Plateau and threatened to become an international incident involving Siam that several French columns of the ''Garde Indigene'' converged to put down the rebellion.", "In the north Tai Lu groups from the areas around Phongsali and Muang Sing also began to rebel against French attempts at taxation and corvee labor.alt=In 1914, the Tai Lu king had fled to the Chinese portions of the Sipsong Panna, where he began a two-year guerilla campaign against the French in northern Laos, which required three military expeditions to suppress and resulted in direct French control of Muang Sing.", "In northeast Laos, Chinese and Lao Theung rebelled against French attempts to tax the opium trade which resulted in another rebellion from 1914 to 1917.By 1915 most of northeast Laos was controlled by Chinese and Lao Theung rebels.", "The French dispatched the largest military presence yet to Laos which included 160 French officers and 2500 Vietnamese troops divided in two columns.", "The French drove the Chinese led rebels across the Chinese border and placed Phongsali under direct colonial control.", "Yet northeastern Laos was still not entirely pacified and a Hmong shaman named Pa Chay Vue attempted to establish a Hmong homeland through a rebellion (pejoratively termed the Madman's War) which lasted from 1919 to 1921.By 1920, the majority of French Laos was at peace and colonial order had been established.", "In 1928, the first school for the training of Lao civil servants was established, and allowed for the upward mobility of Lao to fill positions occupied by the Vietnamese.", "Throughout the 1920s and 1930s France attempted to implement Western, particularly French, education, modern healthcare and medicine, and public works with mixed success.", "The budget for colonial Laos was secondary to Hanoi, and the worldwide Great Depression further restricted funds.", "It was also in the 1920s and 1930s that the first strings of Lao nationalist identity emerged due to the work of Prince Phetsarath Rattanavongsa and the French Ecole Francaise d’Extreme Orient to restore ancient monuments, temples, and conduct general research into Lao history, literature, art and architecture.", "French interest in indigenous history served a dual purpose in Laos it reinforced the image of the colonial mission as protection against Siamese domination, and was also a legitimate route for scholarship.===World War II===Developing Lao national identity gained importance in 1938 with the rise of the ultranationalist prime minister Phibunsongkhram in Bangkok.", "Phibunsongkhram renamed Siam to Thailand, a name change which was part of a larger political movement to unify all Tai peoples under the central Thai of Bangkok.", "The French viewed these developments with alarm, but the Vichy government was diverted by events in Europe and World War II.", "Despite a non-aggression treaty signed in June 1940, Thailand took advantage of the French position and initiated the Franco-Thai War.", "The war concluded unfavorably for Lao interests with the ''Treaty of Tokyo'', and the loss of trans-Mekong territories of Xainyaburi and part of Champasak.", "The result was Lao distrust of the French and the first overtly national cultural movement in Laos, which was in the odd position of having limited French support.", "Charles Rochet the French Director of Public Education in Vientiane, and Lao intellectuals led by Nyuy Aphai and Katay Don Sasorith began the Movement for National Renovation.Yet the wider impact of World War II had little effect on Laos until February 1945, when a detachment from the Japanese Imperial Army moved into Xieng Khouang.", "The Japanese preempted that the Vichy administration of French Indochina under Admiral Decoux would be replaced by a representative of the Free French loyal to Charles DeGaulle and initiated Operation Meigo (\"bright moon\").", "The Japanese succeeded in the internment of the French living in Vietnam and Cambodia, but in the remote areas of Laos the French were able with the help of the Lao and ''Garde Indigene'' to establish jungle bases which were supplied by British airdrops from Burma.", "However, French control in Laos had been sidelined.===Lao Issara and independence===1945 was a watershed year in the history of Laos.", "Under Japanese pressure, King Sisavangvong declared independence in April.", "The move allowed the various independence movements in Laos including the Lao Seri and Lao Pen Lao to coalesce into the Lao Issara or \"Free Lao\" movement which was led by Prince Phetsarath and opposed the return of Laos to the French.", "The Japanese surrender on 15 August 1945 emboldened pro-French factions and Prince Phetsarath was dismissed by King Sisavangvong.", "Undeterred Prince Phetsarath staged a coup in September and placed the royal family in Luang Prabang under house arrest.", "On 12 October 1945 the Lao Issara government was declared under the civil administration of Prince Phetsarath.", "In the next six months the French rallied against the Lao Issara and were able to reassert control over Indochina in April 1946.The Lao Issara government fled to Thailand, where they maintained opposition to the French until 1949, when the group split over questions regarding relations with the Vietminh and the communist Pathet Lao was formed.", "With the Lao Issara in exile, in August 1946 France instituted a constitutional monarchy in Laos headed by King Sisavangvong, and Thailand agreed to return territories seized during the Franco-Thai War in exchange for a representation at the United Nations.", "The Franco-Lao General Convention of 1949 provided most members of the Lao Issara with a negotiated amnesty and sought appeasement by establishing the Kingdom of Laos a quasi-independent constitutional monarchy within the French Union.", "In 1950, additional powers were granted to the Royal Lao Government including training and assistance for a national army.", "On 22 October 1953, the Franco–Lao Treaty of Amity and Association transferred remaining French powers to the independent Royal Lao Government.", "By 1954 the defeat at Dien Bien Phu brought eight years of fighting with the Vietminh, during the First Indochinese War, to an end and France abandoned all claims to the colonies of Indochina." ], [ "Kingdom of Laos and the Lao Civil War (1953–1975)", "Elections were held in 1955, and the first coalition government, led by Prince Souvanna Phouma, was formed in 1957.The coalition government collapsed in 1958.In 1960, Captain Kong Le staged a coup when the cabinet was away at the royal capital of Luang Prabang and demanded reformation of a neutralist government.", "The second coalition government, once again led by Souvanna Phouma, was not successful in holding power.", "Rightist forces under General Phoumi Nosavan drove out the neutralist government from power later that same year.", "The North Vietnamese invaded Laos between 1958 and 1959 to create the Ho Chi Minh Trail.A second Geneva conference, held in 1961–62, provided for the independence and neutrality of Laos, but the agreement meant little in reality and the war soon resumed.", "Growing North Vietnamese military presence in the country increasingly drew Laos into the Second Indochina War (1954–1975).", "As a result, for nearly a decade, eastern Laos was subjected to some of the heaviest bombing in the history of warfare, as the U.S. sought to destroy the Ho Chi Minh Trail that passed through Laos and defeat the Communist forces.", "The North Vietnamese also heavily backed the Pathet Lao and repeatedly invaded Laos.", "The government and army of Laos were backed by the USA during the conflict.", "The United States trained both regular Royal Lao forces and irregular forces among whom many were the Hmong and other ethnic minorities.Shortly after the Paris Peace Accords led to the withdrawal of U.S. forces from Vietnam, a ceasefire between the Pathet Lao and the government led to a new coalition government.", "However, North Vietnam never withdrew from Laos and the Pathet Lao remained little more than a proxy army for Vietnamese interests.", "After the fall of South Vietnam to communist forces in April 1975, the Pathet Lao with the backing of North Vietnam were able to take total power with little resistance.", "On 2 December 1975, the king was forced to abdicate his throne and the Lao People's Democratic Republic was established.", "Around 300,000 people out of a total population of three million left Laos by crossing the border into Thailand following the end of the civil war." ], [ "Lao People's Democratic Republic (1975–present)", "The new communist government led by Kaysone Phomvihane imposed centralized economic decision-making and incarcerated many members of the previous government and military in \"re-education camps\" which also included the Hmong.", "While nominally independent, the communist government was for many years effectively little more than a puppet regime run from Vietnam.The government's policies prompted about 10 percent of the Lao population to leave the country.", "Laos depended heavily on Soviet aid channeled through Vietnam up until the Soviet collapse in 1991.In the 1990s the communist party gave up centralised management of the economy but still has a monopoly of political power." ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Works cited===* * " ], [ "Further reading", " Conboy, K. ''The War in Laos 1960–75'' (Osprey, 1989) * Dommen, A. J.", "''Conflict in Laos'' (Praeger, 1964) * Gunn, G. ''Rebellion in Laos: Peasant and Politics in a Colonial Backwater'' (Westview, 1990) * Kremmer, C. ''Bamboo Palace: Discovering the Lost Dynasty of Laos'' (HarperCollins, 2003) * Pholsena, Vatthana.", "''Post-war Laos: The politics of culture, history and identity'' (Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2006).", "* Stuart-Fox, Martin.", "\"The French in Laos, 1887–1945.\"", "''Modern Asian Studies'' (1995) 29#1 pp: 111–139.", "* Stuart-Fox, Martin.", "''A history of Laos'' (Cambridge University Press, 1997)* Stuart-Fox, M.", "(ed.).", "''Contemporary Laos'' (U of Queensland Press, 1982)" ], [ "External links", "* Digital Library of Lao Manuscripts – an online library of historical Lao manuscripts and related background information* Laos Travel Guide History of Laos*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Laos" ], [ "Introduction", "thumbrightLaos is a country in and the only landlocked nation in mainland Southeast Asia, northeast of Thailand and west of Vietnam.", "It covers approximately 236,800 square kilometers in the center of the Southeast Asian peninsula and it is surrounded by Myanmar (Burma), Cambodia, the People's Republic of China, Thailand, and Vietnam.", "About seventy percent of its geographic area is made up of mountain ranges, highlands, plateaux, and rivers cut through.", "Historically, its location has often made it a buffer state between more powerful neighboring states, particularly for the ancestral rulers of the modern-day Burmese, Vietnamese and Thais, as well as a crossroads for trade and communication." ], [ "Topography", "Most of the western border of Laos is demarcated by the Mekong river, which is an important artery for transportation.", "The Dong Falls at the southern end of the country prevent access to the sea, but cargo boats travel along the entire length of the Mekong in Laos during most of the year.", "Smaller power boats and pirogues provide an important means of transportation on many of the tributaries of the Mekong.The Mekong has thus not been an obstacle but a facilitator for communication, and the similarities between Laos and northeast Thai society—same people, almost same language—reflect the close contact that has existed across the river for centuries.", "Also, many Laotians living in the Mekong Valley have relatives and friends in Thailand.Prior to the twentieth century, Laotian kingdoms and principalities encompassed areas on both sides of the Mekong, and Thai control in the late nineteenth century extended to the left bank.", "Although the Mekong was established as a border by French colonial forces, travel from one side to the other has been significantly limited only since the establishment of the Lao People's Democratic Republic (LPDR, or Laos) in 1975.The eastern border with Vietnam extends for 2,130 kilometres, mostly along the crest of the Annamite Chain, and serves as a physical barrier between the Chinese-influenced culture of Vietnam and the Indianized states of Laos and Thailand.", "These mountains are sparsely populated by tribal minorities who traditionally have not acknowledged the border with Vietnam any more than lowland Lao have been constrained by the 1,754-kilometre Mekong River border with Thailand.", "Thus, ethnic minority populations are found on both the Laotian and Vietnamese sides of the frontier.", "Because of their relative isolation, contact between these groups and lowland Lao has been mostly confined to trading.Laos shares its short—only 541 kilometres—southern border with Cambodia, and ancient Khmer ruins at Wat Pho and other southern locations attest to the long history of contact between the Lao and the Khmer.", "In the north, the country is bounded by a mountainous 423-kilometre border with China and shares the 235-kilometre-long Mekong River border with Myanmar.The topography of Laos is largely mountainous, with the Annamite Range in the northeast and east and the Luang Prabang Range in the northwest, among other ranges typically characterized by steep terrain.", "Elevations are typically above 500 metres with narrow river valleys and low agricultural potential.", "This mountainous landscape extends across most of the north of the country, except for the plain of Vientiane and the Plain of Jars in the Xiangkhoang Plateau.The southern \"panhandle\" of the country contains large level areas in Savannakhét and Champasak provinces that are well suited for extensive paddy rice cultivation and livestock raising.", "Much of Khammouan Province and the eastern part of all the southern provinces are mountainous.", "Together, the alluvial plains and terraces of the Mekong and its tributaries cover only about 20% of the land area.Only about 4% of the total land area is classified as arable.", "The forested land area has declined significantly since the 1970s as a result of commercial logging and expanded swidden, or slash-and-burn, farming." ], [ "Climate", "Laos Köppen climate classificationClimate data for VientianeLaos has a tropical climate, with a pronounced rainy season from May through October, a cool dry season from November through February, and a hot dry season in March and April.", "Generally, monsoons occur at the same time across the country, although that time may vary significantly from one year to the next.Rainfall varies regionally, with the highest amounts— annually—recorded on the Bolovens Plateau in Champasak Province.", "City rainfall stations have recorded that Savannakhét averages of rain annually; Vientiane receives about , and Louangphrabang (Luang Prabang) receives about .Rainfall is not always adequate for rice cultivation and the relatively high average precipitation conceals years where rainfall may be only half or less of the norm, causing significant declines in rice yields.", "Such droughts often are regional, leaving production in other parts of the country unaffected.The average temperatures in January, coolest month, are, Luang Prabang 20.5 °C (minimum 0.8 °C), Vientiane 20.3 °C (minimum 3.3 °C), and Pakse 23.9 °C (minimum 7.8 °C); the average temperatures for April, usually the hottest month, are, Luang Prabang 28.1 °C (maximum 44.8 °C), Vientiane 42.5 °C.", "Temperature does vary according to the altitude, there is an average drop of 1.7 °C for every 1000 feet (or 300 meters).", "Temperatures in the upland plateux and in the mountains are considered lower than on the plains around Vientiane.Laos is highly vulnerable to the effects of global climate change; nearly all provinces in Laos are at high risks from climate change." ], [ "Agriculture", "Agriculture in Laos is the most important sector of the economy.", "Five million out of 23,680,000 hectares of Laos's total land area is suitable for cultivation, and seventeen percent of the land area, between 850,000 and 900,000 hectares, was cultivated as of the early 1990s.", "Rice is the main crop grown during the rainy season.Agricultural cultivation is possible during with varying weather on a small portion of land area apart from the Vientiane plain and the lowlands along the Mekong Valley.", "These cultivated areas are situated in the valley cuts by the rivers or the plateau regions of Xieng Khouang in the North and in the Bolovens in the south.", "Typically there are only two ways to cultivate: either the wet-field paddy system practiced among the Lao Loum or lowland in Lao, or the swidden cultivation system practiced in the hills." ], [ "Human geography", "The overall population density was only eighteen persons per square kilometer, and in many districts the density was fewer than ten persons per square kilometer.", "Population density per cultivated hectare was considerably high ranging from 3.3 to 7.8 persons per hectare." ], [ "Natural resources and environmental issues", "Hundreds of active fires burning across the hills and valleys of Myanmar Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam (labelled with red dots)The natural resources of Laos include timber, hydropower, gypsum, tin, gold, and gemstones.Laos is increasingly suffering from environmental problems, with deforestation a particularly significant issue, as expanding commercial exploitation of the forests, plans for additional hydroelectric facilities, foreign demand for wild animals and nonwood forest products for food and traditional medicines, and a growing population all create increasing pressure.The United Nations Development Programme warns: \"Protecting the environment and sustainable use of natural resources in Lao PDR is vital for poverty reduction and economic growth.\"" ], [ "Area and boundaries", "The Mekong river at Luang Prabang, Laos* '''Area''': '''Total''': '''Land''': ** '''Water''': * '''Area comparison''': Slightly larger than Guyana Slightly smaller than the United Kingdom* '''Land boundaries''': '''Total''': '''Border countries''':* Cambodia: * China: * Myanmar: * Thailand: *** Vietnam: * '''Elevation extremes''': '''Lowest point''': Mekong River '''Highest point''': Phou Bia" ], [ "See also", "National Biodiversity Conservation AreasZomiaTransport in Laos" ], [ "References", " '''Attribution:'''*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Laos" ], [ "Introduction", "Lao-Tai, Mon-Khmer, Hmung-lu Mien, Sino-Tibetan)A street market in Luang Prabang.Laos is a country in Southeast Asia.", "The country's population was estimated at about million in , dispersed unevenly across the country.", "Most people live in valleys of the Mekong River and its tributaries.", "Vientiane Prefecture, which includes Vientiane, the capital and largest city of the country, had 820,924 residents as of the 2015 census.", "The country's population density is 26.7/km2.As per the 2015 census, the total population was 6.49 million (3.24 million females, 3.25 million males), an increase of 870 thousand since the previous 2005 census." ], [ "Overview", "Population graph of Laos, number of inhabitants in millions between 1800 and 2021 (Our World in Data data, 2022)The demographic makeup of the population is uncertain as the government divides the people into three groups according to the altitude at which they live, rather than according to ethnic origin.", "The lowland Lao (Lao Loum) account for 68%, upland Lao (Lao Theung) for 22%, and the highland Lao (Lao Soung, including the Hmong and the Yao) for 9%.Ethnic Lao, the principal lowland inhabitants and politically and culturally dominant group, make up the bulk of the Lao Loum and around 60% of the total population.", "The Lao are a branch of the Tai people who began migrating southward from China in the first millennium A.D.", "In the north, there are mountain tribes of Miao–Yao, Austro-Asiatic, Tibeto-Burman Hmong, Yao, Akha, and Lahu who migrated into the region in the 19th century.", "Collectively, they are known as Lao Sung or highland Lao.In the central and southern mountains, Mon–Khmer tribes known as Lao Theung or upland Lao, predominate.", "Some Chinese minorities remain, particularly in the towns, but many Laotian Chinese were forced to leave during 1975–80 when Laos followed the anti-Chinese policy of Vietnam.The predominant religion is Theravada Buddhism.", "Animism is common among the mountain tribes.", "Buddhism and spirit worship coexist easily.", "There is a small number of Christians and Muslims.The official and dominant language is Lao, a tonal language of the Tai linguistic group.", "Midslope and highland Lao speak tribal languages.", "French, once common in government and commerce, has declined in use, while knowledge of Englishthe language of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)has increased in recent years.With a median age of 19.3, Laos has the youngest population of Asia.Lao men drinking lauhai (in Lao) or bujkdong (in Khmuic), a type of Lao rice whiskey which is ancient khmuic rice beer.A primary school in a village in northern rural Laos" ], [ "Population", "According to , the population of Laos increased from 1.7 million in 1950 to million in .", "Until the year 2005, the proportion of children 0–14 years of age was over 40% of the total population.", "Due to decreasing fertility rates this proportion decreased to 31.4% by 2020.The proportion of elderly people is still very low (4.3%), although the proportion doubled between 1950 and 2020.Total population (thousands)Population aged 0–14(%)Population aged 15–64(%)Population aged 65+(%) 1950 1,685 40.4 57.4 2.1 1955 1,893 41.3 56.3 2.4 1960 2,123 42.0 55.4 2.7 1965 2,379 42.5 54.7 2.9 1970 2,675 42.5 54.4 3.1 1975 3,013 42.9 53.9 3.2 1980 3,298 44.1 52.6 3.3 1985 3,742 44.1 52.5 3.4 1990 4,314 43.9 52.7 3.4 1995 4,927 43.9 52.7 3.4 2000 5,431 42.6 53.8 3.5 2005 5,853 39.7 56.5 3.8 2010 6,323 35.9 60.2 3.9 2015 6,787 33.1 62.7 4.2 2020 7,319 31.4 64.3 4.3=== Structure of the population ===Age groupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 2,800,551 2,821,431 5,621,982 100 0–4 351 559 349 356 700 915 12.47 5–9 379 137 370 071 749 208 13.33 10–14 391 785 375 371 767 156 13.65 15–19 323 729 323 540 647 269 11.51 20–24 253 926 261 371 515 297 9.17 25–29 211 279 218 330 429 609 7.64 30–34 176 515 183 480 359 995 6.40 35–39 164 415 165 362 329 777 5.87 40–44 132 335 133 532 265 867 4.73 45–49 113 869 113 298 227 167 4.04 50–54 86 770 91 210 177 980 3.17 55–59 62 691 65 640 128 331 2.28 60–64 50 006 55 008 105 014 1.87 65–69 38 289 41 251 79 540 1.41 70–74 27 652 31 927 59 579 1.06 75–79 17 964 19 208 37 172 0.66 80–84 10 402 12 180 22 582 0.40 85–89 4 631 5 697 10 328 0.18 90–94 1 964 2 781 4 745 0.08 95–99 982 1 393 2 375 0.04 100+ 480 936 1 416 0.03 unknown 171 489 660 0.01Age groupMaleFemaleTotalPer cent 0–14 1,122,481 1,094,798 2,217,279 39.44 15–64 1,575,535 1,610,771 3,186,306 56.68 65+ 102 364 115 373 217 737 3.87Age groupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 3,254,770 3,237,458 6,492,228 100 0–4 346 462 335 521 681 983 10.50 5–9 345 380 333 829 679 209 10.46 10–14 363 026 355 580 718 606 11.07 15–19 354 360 344 650 699 010 10.77 20–24 325 601 328 436 654 037 10.07 25–29 308 988 307 000 615 988 9.49 30–34 250 383 245 851 496 234 7.64 35–39 212 523 207 560 420 083 6.47 40–44 170 808 173 062 343 870 5.30 45–49 149 656 146 251 295 907 4.56 50–54 127 272 140 146 267 418 4.12 55–59 98 615 98 992 197 607 3.04 60–64 74 106 73 073 147 179 2.27 65–69 47 563 51 338 98 901 1.52 70–74 32 930 38 497 71 427 1.10 75–79 21 871 25 207 47 078 0.73 80–84 13 519 16 671 30 190 0.47 85–89 6 744 8 523 15 267 0.24 90–94 3 041 3 995 7 036 0.11 95+ 1 922 3 276 5 198 0.08Age groupMaleFemaleTotalPer cent 0–14 1,054,868 1,024,930 2,079,798 32.04 15–64 2,072,312 2,065,021 4,137,333 63.73 65+ 127 590 147 507 275 097 4.24Age groupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 3,622,996 3,608,214 7,231,210 100 0–4 392 890 376 310 769 200 10.64 5–9 397 353 389 566 786 919 10.88 10–14 371 259 362 687 733 945 10.15 15–19 355 474 346 423 701 896 9.71 20–24 346 620 342 462 689 083 9.53 25–29 327 955 325 732 653 687 9.04 30–34 293 003 292 362 585 365 8.09 35–39 254 782 251 614 506 396 7.00 40–44 208 008 206 509 414 517 5.73 45–49 173 373 172 659 346 031 4.79 50–54 143 504 149 136 292 640 4.05 55–59 117 622 123 171 240 793 3.33 60–64 90 651 97 330 187 982 2.60 65–69 62 968 66 823 129 791 1.79 70–74 40 691 45 525 86 216 1.19 75–79 23 916 28 997 52 912 0.73 80+ 22 928 30 908 53 836 0.74Age groupMaleFemaleTotalPer cent 0–14 1,161,502 1,128,563 2,290,065 31.67 15–64 2,310,991 2,307,398 4,618,389 63.87 65+ 150 503 172 253 322 756 4.46" ], [ "Vital statistics", "=== UN estimates ===PeriodLive births per yearDeaths per yearNatural change per yearCBR1CDR1NC1TFR1IMR1 1950–1955 80,000 37,000 43,000 44.8 20.9 23.9 5.94 167.1 1955–1960 87,000 40,000 47,000 43.2 20.1 23.1 5.96 160.1 1960–1965 96,000 44,000 52,000 42.4 19.3 23.1 5.97 153.5 1965–1970 107,000 47,000 60,000 42.3 18.7 23.6 5.98 147.0 1970–1975 122,000 52,000 70,000 42.5 18.1 24.4 5.99 140.5 1975–1980 132,000 54,000 78,000 42.2 17.2 25.0 6.15 132.4 1980–1985 145,000 56,000 90,000 42.2 16.2 26.0 6.36 122.6 1985–1990 165,000 56,000 109,000 42.1 14.4 27.7 6.27 107.6 1990–1995 180,000 53,000 127,000 40.0 11.9 28.1 5.88 88.3 1995–2000 170,000 48,000 122,000 33.6 9.4 24.2 4.81 70.8 2000–2005 154,000 44,000 110,000 29.9 9.1 20.8 3.90 2005–2010 144,000 39,000 105,000 28.1 7.9 20.2 3.40 2010–2015 25.6 7.0 18.6 2.93 2015–2020 23.8 6.5 17.3 2.70 2020–2025 21.4 6.2 15.2 2.48 2025–2030 19.3 6.2 13.1 2.30 1 CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births'''Births and deaths'''YearPopulationLive birthsDeathsNatural increaseCrude birth rateCrude death rateRate of natural increaseTFR 1976 2,886,000 1980 3,199,000 1985 3,618,000 1990 4,140,000 1995 4,605,000 41.3 15.1 26.2 5.40 2000 5,218,000 2005 5,619,000 34.7 9.8 24.9 4.50 2009 30.7 8.4 22.3 3.90 2010 6,256,000 29.9 8.0 21.9 3.70 2011 6,385,000 28.0 7.7 20.3 3.50 2012 6,514,000 28.1 7.4 20.7 3.40 2013 6,644,000 27.5 6.5 21.0 3.22 2014 6,809,000 26.6 6.3 20.3 3.03 2015 6,492,000 26.6 6.3 20.3 3.06 2016 6,787,000 24.6 7.7 16.9 2.90 2017 6,901,000 24.0 7.5 16.5 2.82 2018 7,013,000 23.3 7.4 15.9 2.76 2019 7,123,000 22.7 7.2 15.5 2.68 2020 7,231,000 21.2 7.0 14.2 2.5020217,338,00021.56.914.62.5420227,443,00020.96.814.12.48=== Fertility and births ===Total fertility rate (TFR) and Crude birth rate (CBR): Year CBR (Total) TFR (Total) CBR (Urban) TFR (Urban) CBR (Rural) TFR (Rural) 2011–2012 25 3.2 20 2.2 26 3.6 2017 22 2.7 18 2.1 23 3.0Total fertility rate and other related statistics by province, as of 2011–2012: Province Total fertility rate Percentage of women age 15–49 currently pregnant Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 Adolescent birth rate (Age-specific fertility rate for women age 15–19) Vientiane Capital 2.0 3.8 3.1 37 Phongsaly 3.7 5.2 5.0 145 Luang Namtha 2.6 4.7 4.0 124 Oudomxay 3.6 3.9 5.7 138 Bokeo 3.6 4.9 5.0 149 Luang Prabang 3.1 5.4 5.3 95 Huaphan 3.8 5.9 5.9 137 Xayabury 2.2 3.8 3.8 83 Xieng Khuang 3.6 4.5 6.1 101 Vientiane Province 2.7 5.0 4.1 86 Borikhamxay 2.8 3.9 4.4 79 Khammouane 3.7 4.5 4.9 108 Savannakhet 3.5 6.3 5.4 99 Saravane 4.3 7.5 6.0 106 Sekong 4.5 6.9 5.9 107 Champasak 3.6 5.7 4.7 70 Attapeu 3.6 6.8 5.7 107=== Life expectancy ===PeriodLife expectancy inYearsPeriodLife expectancy inYears 1950–1955 40.9 1985–1990 52.4 1955–1960 42.4 1990–1995 54.9 1960–1965 44.0 1995–2000 57.5 1965–1970 45.5 2000–2005 60.3 1970–1975 47.0 2005–2010 63.2 1975–1980 48.4 2010–2015 65.4 1980–1985 49.9Source: ''UN World Population Prospects''" ], [ "Ethnic groups", "In Luang Prabang, a young woman at the time of a Hmong Meeting Festival.Specialists are largely in agreement as to the ethnolinguistic classification of the ethnic groups of Laos.", "For the purposes of the 1995 census, the government of Laos recognised 149 ethnic groups within 47 main ethnicities.", "whereas the Lao Front for National Construction (LFNC) recently revised the list to include 49 ethnicities consisting of over 160 ethnic groups.The term ''ethnic minorities'' is used by some to classify the non-Lao ethnic groups, while the term ''indigenous peoples'' is not used by the Lao PDR.", "These 160 ethnic groups speak a total of 82 distinct living languages.Lao 53.2%, Khmu 11%, Hmong 9.2%, and other (over 100 minor ethnic groups) 26.6% (2015 census).+'''Population of Laos according to ethnic group in 1985, 1995, 2005, and 2015''' Ethnicgroup Language family census 1985 census 1995 census 2005 census 2015 Number % Number % Number % Number % Lao Tai-Kadai 1,804,101 2,403,891 52.5 3,067,005 54.6 3,427,665 53.2 Khmu (Keummeu) Mon-Khmer 389,694 500,957 11.0 613,893 10.9 708,412 11.0 Hmong (Mong) Hmong-Mien 231,168 315,465 6.9 415,946 8.0 595,028 9.2 Thai (Tai) Tai-Kadai 1,459 215,254 3.8 201,576 3.1 Tai Nuea Tai-Kadai 14,799 11,622 0.2 Puthai (Phuthai or Phouthay) Tai-Kadai 441,497 472,458 10.3 187,391 3.3 218,108 3.4 Lü (Lue or Leu) Tai-Kadai 102,760 119,191 2.6 123,054 2.2 126,229 2.0 Katang Mon-Khmer 72,391 95,440 2.1 118,276 2.1 144,255 2.2 Makong (So) (Bru) Mon-Khmer 70,382 92,321 2.0 117,872 2.1 163,285 2.5 Akha (Kor) Sino-Tibetan 57,500 66,108 1.4 90,698 1.6 112,979 1.8 Yrou (Laven, Loven, Jru', Yuroo) Mon-Khmer 28,057 40,519 0.9 47,175 0.8 56,411 0.9 Xuay (Juk, Suai, Kui, Kuy, Suay, or Shuay) Mon-Khmer 49,059 45,498 1.0 42,834 0.8 46,592 0.7 Singsily (Phounoy) (Singsiri) Sino-Tibetan 23,618 35,635 0.8 37,447 0.7 39,192 0.6 Duon (Nhuon, Nghieu, San 33,240 Taoey (Ta-oy) Mon-Khmer 24,577 30,876 0.7 32,177 0.6 45,991 0.7 Nguan (Nguồn, Ngoaun, Nguane, Nguan or Nguane) Mon-Khmer 988 29,442 0.5 27,779 0.4 Iewmien (Yao, Ewmien, Mien, Ilmearn) Hmong-Mien 18,091 22,665 0.5 27,449 0.5 32,400 0.5 Phong Mon-Khmer 18,165 21,395 0.5 26,314 0.5 30,696 0.5 Brao (Larvae) Mon-Khmer 16,434 17,544 0.4 22,772 0.4 26,010 0.4 Katu Mon-Khmer 14,676 17,024 0.4 22,759 0.4 28,378 0.4 Oey (Oy or Oi) Mon-Khmer 11,194 14,947 0.3 22,458 0.4 23,513 0.4 Pray (Prai) Mon-Khmer 15,000 0.3 21,922 0.4 28,732 0.4 Lamed (Lamet) Mon-Khmer 14,355 16,740 0.3 19,827 0.4 22,383 0.3 Lahu (Musir, Mussor, Lahoo, or Lahou) Sino-Tibetan 9,200 8,702 0.2 15,238 0.3 19,187 0.3 Kriang (Griang, Grieng, Ngae, or Ngeh) Mon-Khmer 8,917 12,189 0.3 12,879 0.2 16,807 0.2 Hor (Haw, Ho, Hoa, Chin Haw, Yunnanese, Yunnanese Chinese, or Panthay) Sino-Tibetan 6,361 8,900 0.2 10,437 0.2 12,098 0.2 Xingmoon (Puoc, Sing Mun, Xinhmun, or Xingmoun) Mon-Khmer 2,164 5,834 0.1 8,565 0.2 9,874 0.2 Jeng (Cheng, Ceng, Chieng, Chenh, Jeng) Mon-Khmer 4,540 6,511 0.1 7,559 0.1 8,688 0.1 Nhaheun (Nyaheun, Nahoen, Nha Heun, Nha Hon, Nya Hoen, Ngahearn, Nhahem) Mon-Khmer 3,960 5,152 0.1 6,785 0.1 8,976 0.1 Kmer (Khmer, Kamer, Khome) Mon-Khmer 169 3,902 0.1 5,825 0.1 7,141 0.1 Toum (Tum, Hung) Mon-Khmer 2,042 2,510 0.05 4,458 0.08 3,632 0.05 Xaek (Saek or Sairk) Tai-Kadai 2,459 2,745 0.06 3,733 0.07 3,841 0.05 Samtao (Sam Tao) Mon-Khmer 2,359 2,213 0.05 3,533 0.06 3,417 0.05 Sila (Sida or Syla) Sino-Tibetan 1,538 1,772 0.04 2,939 0.05 3,151 0.05 Tri (Chali, Cali, or So Tri) Mon-Khmer 20,902 20,906 0.5 26,680 0.05 37,446 0.6 Harak (Alak, Alack, Hahak) Mon-Khmer 13,217 16,594 0.4 21,280 0.04 25,430 0.4 Bid (Bit) Mon-Khmer 1,530 1,509 0.03 1,691 0.03 2,372 0.04 Lolo (Alu) Sino-Tibetan 842 1,407 0.03 1,691 0.03 2,203 0.03 Pako (Pacoh) Mon-Khmer 12,923 13,224 0.3 16,750 0.03 22,640 0.4 Lavy (Lavi) Mon-Khmer 584 538 0.01 1,193 0.02 1,215 0.02 Yae (Jeh, Gie, Yerh) Mon-Khmer 3,376 8,013 0.2 10,570 0.02 11,452 0.2 Sadang (Sedang, Sdang, Gayong) Mon-Khmer 520 786 0.02 938 0.02 898 0.01 Hanyi (Hayi or Hayee) Sino-Tibetan 727 1,122 0.02 848 0.02 741 0.01 Guan (Kuan or Tai Guan) Tai-Kadai 722 0.01 886 0.01 Oedou (Ơ Đu, Adoo) Mon-Khmer 649 0.01 602 0.01 Yang (Giáy, Nhang, Dang, or Niang) Tai-Kadai 4,630 0.1 616 0.01 5,843 0.1 Moy 534 0.01 789 0.01 Thin (Mal, Htin, or Thein) Mon-Khmer 13,977 23,193 0.51 514 0.01 Kree (Kri) Mon-Khmer 110 739 0.02 495 0.01 1,067 0.02 Trieng (Talieng, Tariang, Caliang, or Treang) Mon-Khmer 23,665 23,091 0.5 29,134 0.5 38,407 0.6 Kui (Yellow Lahu) Sino-Tibetan 6,493 6,268 0.1 Khir 1,639 0.04 Numbri (Yumbri, Mlabri, or Yhumbri) Mon-Khmer 67 Yung 6,160 Thaen 828 0.01 Mone (Meuang or Mon) 2,022 217 0.00 Vietnamese 12,086 Chinese 2,624 Thai 1,459 Cambodian 274 Burmese 185 Indian 44 French 13 Others & not stated 11,277 19,285 0.4 67,175 1.2 Total 3,584,803 4,574,848 5,621,982 6,446,690" ], [ "CIA World Factbook demographic statistics", "Population pyramid 2016The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.", "'''Sex ratio:'''''at birth:'' 1.1 male(s)/female''under 15 years:'' 1.01 male(s)/female''15–64 years:'' 0.98 male(s)/female''65 years and over:'' 0.76 male(s)/female''total population:'' 0.98 male(s)/female (2009 est.", ")'''Life expectancy at birth:'''''total population:'' 62.39 years (2011 est.", ")''male:'' 60.50 years (2011 est.", ")''female:'' 64.36 years (2011 est.", ")'''Nationality:'''''noun:'' Lao(s) or Laotian(s)''adjective:'' Lao or Laotian'''Religions:'''Buddhist 67%, Christian 1.5%, other and unspecified 31.5% (see Religion in Laos)'''Languages:'''Lao (official), French, English, Vietnamese, and various ethnic languages'''Literacy:'''''definition:'' age 15 and over can read and write''total population:'' 73%''male:'' 83%''female:'' 63% (2005 est.)" ], [ "See also", "* List of ethnic groups in Laos" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* CIA World Factbook* Lao Statistics Bureau" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Laos" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''politics of the Lao People's Democratic Republic''' (commonly known as '''Laos''') takes place in the framework of a one-party parliamentary socialist republic.", "The only legal political party is the Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP).", "The head of state is President Thongloun Sisoulith, who is also the LPRP general secretary, making him the supreme leader of Laos.", "The head of government is Prime Minister Sonexay Siphandone.Government policies are determined by the party through the all-powerful nine-member LPRP Politburo and the 49-member LPRP Central Committee.", "Important government decisions are vetted by the Council of Ministers." ], [ "Political culture", "Laos' first, French-written and monarchical constitution was promulgated on May 11, 1947 and declared it to be an independent state within the French Union.", "The revised constitution of May 11, 1957, omitted reference to the French Union, though close educational, health and technical ties with the former colonial power persisted.", "The 1957 document was abrogated on December 3, 1975, when a communist state was proclaimed.A new constitution was adopted in 1991 and enshrined a \"leading role\" for the LPRP.", "The following year, elections were held for a new 85-seat National Assembly with members elected by secret ballot to five-year terms.", "This National Assembly approves all new laws, although the executive branch retains authority to issue binding decrees.The most recent election took place in February 2021.The election was tightly-controlled by the ruling LPRP.=== Insurgency ===In the early 2000s, bomb attacks against the government occurred, coupled with small exchanges of fire, across Laos.", "A variety of different groups have claimed responsibility including the Committee for Independence and Democracy in Laos and Lao Citizens Movement for Democracy." ], [ "Lao People's Revolutionary Party", "===Politburo===# Thongloun Sisoulith, General Secretary of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party (since 15 January 2021) and President of Laos (since 22 March 2021)# Sonexay Siphandone, Prime Minister (since 30 December 2022)# Bounthong Chitmany, Vice President of Lao People's Democratic Republic (since 22 March 2021)# Pany Yathotou, Vice President of Lao People's Democratic Republic (since 22 March 2021)# Saysomphone Phomvihane, President of the National Assembly (since 22 March 2021)# Kikeo Khaykhamphithoune, Deputy Prime Minister, Head of the LPRP Propaganda and Training Board# Saleumxay Kommasith, Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs# Chansamone Chanyalath, Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of National Defence# Vilay Lakhamfong, Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Public Security# Phankham Viphavanh, Executive Secretary of the Secretariat of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party===Secretariat===# Lt. Gen. Choummaly Sayasone# Bounnhang Vorachit (PCC Standing Secretariat)# Dr Bounthong Chitmany, Chairman of the Commission for Inspection, Chairman of the State Inspection Committee# Dr Bounpone Bouttanavong, Head of Lao Party Central Office, Deputy Prime Minister# Dr Thongban Seng-aphone, Minister of Public Security (died in 2014)# Chansy Phosikham, Head of the Party's Central Organisation Commission# Soukan Mahalath, Secretary of the Vientiane City Party Committee, Vientiane Mayor (died in 2014)# Lt. Gen. Sengnuan Xayalath, Acting Minister of National Defense (June 2014)# Cheuang Sombounkhanh, Head of the Central Propaganda and Training Commission (died in 2014)'''Inspection Committee of the Party Central Committee'''# Bounthong Chitmany (President)# Thongsy Ouanlasy# Sinay Mienglavanh# Khamsuan Chanthavong# Thongsouk Bounyavong# Singphet Bounsavatthiphan# Bounpone SangsomsakParty Central Committee Advisor: Khamtai Siphandon" ], [ "Executive branch", "\|PresidentThongloun SisoulithLao People's Revolutionary Party22 March 2021Prime MinisterPhankham ViphavanhLao People's Revolutionary Party22 March 2021The president is elected by the National Assembly for a five-year term.", "The prime minister and the Council of Ministers are appointed by the president with the approval of the National Assembly for a five-year term.There are also four deputy prime ministers.", "As of a cabinet reshuffle on June 8, 2006, they are Maj. Gen. Douangchay Phichit (also defense minister), Thongloun Sisoulith (also foreign minister), Somsavat Lengsavad and Maj. Gen. Asang Laoly.The 28-member cabinet also includes Onechanh Thammavong as labour minister, Chaleuan Yapaoher as justice minister, Nam Vignaket as industry and commerce minister, Sitaheng Latsaphone as agriculture minister and Sommad Pholsena as transport minister." ], [ "Legislative branch", "The '''National Assembly''' (''Sapha Heng Xat'') has 164 members (158 are LPRP, 6 independents), elected for a five-year term." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "===Parliamentary elections===General SecretaryThongloun SisoulithLao People's Revolutionary Party15 January 2021" ], [ "Judicial branch", "=== Supreme People's Court ===According to Article 91 of the Constitution of the Lao PDR, the People's Court of the Lao People's Democratic Republic \"consists of the Supreme People's Court, the local people's court and the military court as defined by law\".The Supreme People's Court of the Lao People's Democratic Republic was established in 1982.As outlined in Article 92, the People's Supreme Court of the Lao People's Democratic Republic is the highest judicial body and \"examines the judgments and judgments of the people's courts and military courts\".", "There has been indications that women have served on the provincial courts.", "For instance, in 2018, it was announced that Napaporn Phong Thai was appointed as the President of Court Zone 2, Xayaburi Province.Per Article 93, the President, Vice President and the judges are appointed, transferred or removed by the Standing Committee of the National Assembly.", "Although the Standing Committee has decisive authority, the same article does state that President does have some power regarding the appointment, transferal or removal of the Vice President.In 1983, Oun Nue Phimmasone became the first President of the People's Supreme Court.", "Currently, the President is Khamphanh Sithidampha.=== Public Prosecutor's Office ===The Public Prosecutor's Office was established in 1990.Article 99 of the Constitution of Laos states that the office has the responsibility of \"monitoring the observance and implementation of laws throughout the country, protecting the rights of the state and society...and the legitimate interests of the people, and prosecuting detainees in accordance with the law\".", "The office is organized in the following three ways:''Supreme People's Prosecutor''* The Office of the Supreme People's Prosecutor* The Office of the Public Prosecutor at the appellate levelThe Chief of the Supreme Public Prosecutor directs all the activities of the Public Prosecutor at every level.", "All activities are reported to the National Assembly.", "''Local People's Procuratorate''* Provincial and city public prosecutors' offices* District, Municipal Public Prosecutor's Office (district or municipal public prosecutors are called local public prosecutors)=== Military Prosecutor's Office ===As of June 2022, the Supreme People's Prosecutor is Xayasana Kotphuthone.=== Laos Bar Association ===As for attorneys in general, according to a 2016 article, there are 188 lawyers in Laos who are members of the Laos Bar Association.", "However, most of the attorneys have entered the government sector and do not practice law—seldom giving thought to practicing in the private sector.", "While there is evidence of female lawyers in Laos, there is no indication as to how women have fared in the legal field.", "Pursuant to the Resolution of the National Assembly No.", "024 / NA (On the Adoption of the Law on Lawyers; November 9, 2016), requirements include possessing a baccalaureate degree, being a Laos citizen and passing an examination (separate requirements exist for foreign lawyers).", "Although the Laos Bar Association issues certificates to graduates of the legal profession, it is the Ministry of Justice of Laos that sets the legal training standards." ], [ "Government", "* Agriculture and Forestry\tLien Thikeo* Education and Sports \tSengdeuan Lachanthaboun* Energy and Mines\tKhammany Inthilath* Finance\tBounchom Oubonpaseuth* Foreign Affairs\tSaleumxay Kommasith* Home Affairs (Interior)\tKhammanh Sounvileuth* Industry and Commerce\t Malaythong KommasithBosengkham Vongdara, Minister of Information, Culture and Tourism of Laos at the ASEAN Tourism Forum 2019 in Ha Long Bay, Viet Nam; organised by TTG Events, Singapore* Information, Culture and Tourism\tBosengkham Vongdara* Justice\tSaysi Santhivong* Labour and Social Welfare\tKhampheng Saysompheng* Minister of Post, Telecom and Communications\tThansamay Kommasith* National Defense\tChansamone Chanyalath* Natural Resources and Environment\tSommath Pholsena* Planning and Investment\tSouphanh Keomixay* Ministry of Health\tBounkong Syhavong* Public Security\tBrigadier General Somkeo Silavong* Public Works and Transport\tBounchanh Sinthavong" ], [ "Presidential Palace Office", "* Phongsavath Boupha, Minister to Presidential Palace's Office" ], [ "PM Office", "* Sonxay Siphandone, Minister to the Prime Minister's Office, Head of the government Secretariat committee* Bounpheng Mounphosay, Minister to Prime Minister's Office, Head the Public Administration and Civil Service Authority (PACSA)* Bounheuang Douangphachanh, Minister to the Prime Minister's office, Chairman of the National Steering Committee for Rural Development and Poverty Reduction* Dr Douangsavath Souphanouvong, Minister to Prime Minister's Office* Dr Bounteim Phitsamai, Minister to Prime Minister's Office* Khempheng Pholsena, Minister to Prime Minister's Office* Phupeth Khamphounvong, Minister to the Prime Minister's OfficeSomphao Phaysith, Governor of Lao PDR Central Bank" ], [ "National Assembly (April 2016)", "* President of the National Assembly: Pany Yathotou (re-elected)* Vice-President of the National Assembly: Somphanh Phengkhammy (re-elected), Sengnouan Sayalath, Bounpone Bouttanavong and Sisay Leudethmounsone" ], [ "Administrative divisions", "Laos is divided into 17 provinces (''khoueng'', singular and plural), 1 municipality* ('' nakhon luang vientiane'', singular and plural):Attapu, Bokeo, Borikhamxay, Champassack, Houaphan, Khammouane, Louang Namtha, Luangphabang, Oudomxay, Phongsaly, Saravane, Savannakhet, Sekong, Vientiane*, Vientiane, Sayaboury, Xaisomboun, and Xieng Khouang." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Laos" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Laos''' is a lower-middle income developing economy.", "Being one of the socialist states (along with China, Cuba, Vietnam, and North Korea), the Lao economic model resembles the Chinese socialist market and/or Vietnamese socialist-oriented market economies by combining high degrees of state ownership with openness to foreign direct investment and private ownership in a predominantly market-based framework.Following independence, Laos established a Soviet-type planned economy.", "As part of economic restructuring that aimed to integrate Laos into the globalized world market, the country underwent reforms called the \"New Economic Mechanism\" in 1986 that decentralized government control and encouraged private enterprise alongside state-owned enterprises.", "As of 2007, Laos ranked among the fastest-growing economies in the world, averaging 8% a year in GDP growth.", "It was forecast that Laos would sustain at least 7% growth through 2019.The key goals for the government included pursuing poverty reduction and education for all children, with an initiative to become a \"land-linked\" country.", "This was showcased through the construction of the nearly $6 billion high-speed rail from Kunming, China to Vientiane, Laos.", "The country opened a stock exchange, the Lao Securities Exchange, in 2011, and has become a rising regional player in its role as a hydroelectric power supplier to its neighbors China, Thailand, and Vietnam.", "The Lao economy relies largely on Foreign direct investment to attract capital from overseas.", "The long-term goal of the Lao economy, as enshrined in the constitution, is economic development in the direction of socialism.Despite rapid growth, Laos remains one of the poorest countries in Southeast Asia.", "A landlocked country, it has inadequate infrastructure and a largely unskilled work force.", "Nonetheless, Laos continues to attract foreign investment as it integrates with the broader ASEAN economic community, due to its plentiful, young workforce, and favorable tax environment.Laos has significant hydropower resources; the country also has large potential for small-scale hydro- and solar power.", "Excess electricity from hydropower is exported to other countries.", "Despite this, the country continues to also rely on coal in its electricity production." ], [ "Economic history", "With the overthrow of the Laotian monarchy in 1975, the Pathet Lao's communist government instituted a planned economy of the Soviet-style command economy system, replacing the private sector with state enterprises and cooperatives; centralizing investment, production, trade, and pricing; and creating barriers to internal and foreign trade.Seizure of power by the Communists also resulted in the withdrawal of mainly American external investment, on which the country had become greatly dependent as a result of the destruction of domestic capital during the Indochina Wars.This changed in 1986 when the government announced its \"new economic mechanism\" (NEM).", "Initially timid, the NEM was expanded to include a range of reforms designed to create conditions conducive to private sector activity.", "Prices set by market forces replaced government-determined prices.", "Farmers were permitted to own land and sell crops on the open market.", "State firms were granted increased decision-making authority and lost most of their subsidies and pricing advantages.", "The government set the exchange rate close to real market levels, lifted trade barriers, replaced import barriers with tariffs, and gave private sector firms direct access to imports and credit.With the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, in 1991, the PDR Lao government reached an agreement with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund on additional reforms.", "The government agreed to introduce fiscal and monetary reform, promote private enterprise and foreign investment, privatize or close state firms, and strengthen banking.", "It also agreed to maintain a market exchange rate, reduce tariffs, and eliminate unneeded trade regulations.", "A liberal foreign investment code was also enacted.", "Enforcement of intellectual property rights is governed by two Prime Minister's Decrees dating from 1995 and 2002.In an attempt to stimulate further international commerce, the PDR Lao government accepted Australian aid to build a bridge across the Mekong River to Thailand.", "The \"Thai-Lao Friendship Bridge\", between Vientiane Prefecture and Nong Khai Province, Thailand, was inaugurated in April 1994.Although the bridge has created additional commerce, the Lao government does not yet permit a completely free flow of traffic across the span.These reforms led to economic growth and an increased availability of goods.", "However, the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, coupled with the Lao government's own mismanagement of the economy, resulted in spiraling inflation and a steep depreciation of the kip, which lost 87% of its value from June 1997 to June 1999.Tighter monetary policies brought about greater macroeconomic stability in FY 2000, and monthly inflation, which had averaged about 10% during the first half of FY 1999, dropped to an average 1% over the same period in FY 2000.In FY 1999, foreign grants and loans accounted for more than 20% of GDP and more than 75% of public investment.The economy continues to be dominated by an unproductive agricultural sector operating largely outside the money economy and in which the public sector continues to play a dominant role.", "Still, a number of private enterprises have been founded in industries such as handicrafts, beer, coffee and tourism.", "With United Nations, Japanese, and German support, a formerly state-controlled chamber of commerce aims to promote private business: the Lao National Chamber of Commerce and Industry and its provincial subdivisions.The latest round of state-owned enterprise reform in 2019 aims to ensure that the remaining SOEs become profitable ventures that are efficient and sustainable sources of income for the national treasury.", "These measures include closing unproductive enterprises, ensure businesses in which the state has investments are reformed into profitable ventures, and reduce corruption.", "As of 2019, the State-Owned Enterprise Development and Insurance Department of the Lao government has 183 enterprises under its supervision.Laos faced an economic crisis in 2022.Caused by the COVID-19 pandemic and external debt primarily from China, it escalated into massive inflation and a debt crisis, bringing the country to the brink of default.", "As of late 2023, the country is still facing significant economic problems.", "A World Bank report finds that the economic instability \"largely results from low revenue and accumulated debt.", "There is moreover a need to improve the efficiency of public expenditure and tackle the potential costs of state-owned enterprises and public-private partnerships.” The Lao kip currency value has fallen and inflation remains higher than before the pandemic.", "The same World Bank report states that \"the main factor in the kip’s falling value has been the lack of foreign currency available (...) a result of the need to repay large external debts, despite some deferrals, and limited capital inflows.\"", "The per capita GDP of Laos has gone down from $2,595 in 2021 to $1,824 in 2023 because of the kip’s depreciation." ], [ "Agriculture", "Agriculture, mostly subsistence rice farming, dominates the economy, employing an estimated 85% of the population and producing 51% of GDP.", "Domestic savings are low, forcing Laos to rely heavily on foreign assistance and concessional loans as investment sources for economic development.Agricultural products include sweet potatoes, vegetables, corn, coffee, sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, tea, peanuts, rice; water buffalo, pigs, cattle, poultry.In mid-2012, the Laos government issued a four-year moratorium for new mining projects.", "The reasons cited were environmental and social concerns relating to the use of agricultural land.In 2019 Laos produced:3.4 million tons of rice;3.1 million tons of roots and tubers;2.2 million tons of cassava;1.9 million tons of sugarcane;1.5 million tons of vegetable;1.0 million tons of banana;717 thousand tons of maize;196 thousand tons of watermelon;165 thousand tons of coffee;154 thousand tons of taro;114 thousand tons of sweet potato;56 thousand tons of tobacco;53 thousand tons of peanut;46 thousand tons of orange;43 thousand tons of pineapple;23 thousand tons of papaya;8.6 thousand tons of tea;In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products." ], [ "Tourism", "As of 2011, tourism was the fastest-growing industry and played a vital role in the Lao economy.", "The government opened Laos to the world in the 1990s, and the country has since become a popular destination for travelers." ], [ "Other statistics", "'''GDP:''' purchasing power parity – $14.2 billion (2009 est.", ")'''Exchange rate''' – kip (LAK) per US dollar – 8,556.56 (2009), 8,760.69 (2008), 9,658 (2007), 10,235 (2006), 10,820 (2005)Oil – production::0 bbl/d (2009 est.", ")Oil – consumption:: (2009 est.", ")Oil – exports::0 bbl/d (2007 est.", ")Oil – imports:: (2007 est.", ")Of the total foreign investment in Laos in 2012, the mining industry got 27% followed by electricity generation which had a 25% share." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Rice research in Lao PDR* Rice Biodiversity in Lao PDR" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Mass media in Laos" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mass media in Laos''' are based on a network of telephone lines and radiotelephone communications in remote areas, as well as mobile phone infrastructure.", "The system is not well-developed." ], [ "Infrastructure and statistics", "In 1997 there were 25,000 telephone lines in use, and in 2007 there were 850,000 mobile cellular subscribers.", "Laos is served by a Russian Intersputnik satellite that covers the Indian Ocean region.In 1998 there were 12 AM stations and one FM station.", "In 1997 there were an estimated 730,000 radios in the country.", "In 2011 Laos had three television channels.", "In 2000 there was one Internet service provider, by 2002 serving about 10,000 users.", "The top-level domain for Laos is .la." ], [ "See also", "* Telephone numbers in Laos* Internet in Laos" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Laos" ], [ "Introduction", "Boten–Vientiane railway crossing Vientiane–Boten ExpresswayThis article concerns the systems of '''transportation in Laos'''.", "Laos is a country in Asia, which possesses a number of modern transportation systems, including several highways and a number of airports.", "As a landlocked country, Laos possesses no ports or harbours on the sea, and the difficulty of navigation on the Mekong means that this is also not a significant transport route." ], [ "Geography and transport limits", "A topographic map of Laos.Because of its mountainous topography and lack of development, Laos has few reliable transportation routes.", "This inaccessibility has historically limited the ability of any government to maintain a presence in areas distant from the national or provincial capitals and has limited interchange and communication among villages and ethnic groups.The Mekong and Nam Ou are the only natural channels suitable for large-draft boat transportation, and from December through May, low water limits the size of the draft that may be used over many routes.", "Laotians in lowland villages located on the banks of smaller rivers have traditionally traveled in pirogues for fishing, trading, and visiting up and down the river for limited distances.Otherwise, travel is done by ox-cart over level terrain or by foot.", "The steep mountains and lack of roads have caused upland ethnic groups to rely entirely on pack baskets and horse packing for transportation.The road system is not extensive.", "A rudimentary network begun under the French colonial rule and continued from the 1950s, has provided an important means of increased intervillage communication, movement of market goods, and a focus for new settlements.", "As of mid-1994, travel in most areas of Laos were difficult and expensive, and most Laotians traveled only limited distances, if at all.", "As a result of ongoing improvements in the road system started during the early 1990s, it is expected that in the future villagers will more easily be able to seek medical care, send children to schools at district centers, and work outside their villages." ], [ "Rail", "Vientiane stationLaos has two railway lines: the standard gauge Boten–Vientiane railway spanning northern and central Laos, and a shorter metre gauge spur line connecting Thanaleng with the Thai railway network.Rail transport has not played a significant part in Laos's transport sector, since the country largely lacks the required infrastructure, though that is expected to change after the opening of the Boten–Vientiane railway." ], [ "Highways", "National Road 13 SouthIn Laos, there are of roadway, of which are paved, leaving unpaved.", "Right-hand traffic (RHT) is observed in Laos.Laos constructed a new highway in 2007 connecting Savannakhet to the Vietnamese border at Lao Bao, with funding from the Japanese government.", "This has greatly improved transport across Laos.", "This highway can be traversed in a few hours, while in 2002 the trip took over nine hours.Laos is connected across the Mekong River to Thailand by First and Second Thai-Lao Friendship Bridges.", "Vientiane is linked to Nong Khai by the First Friendship Bridge.", "The Third Thai-Lao Friendship Bridge began construction in March 2009 linking Nakhon Phanom Province in northeastern Thailand and Khammouane Province in Laos.", "It was completed on 11 November 2011.Laos opened a highway connection to Kunming in April 2008.The Fourth Thai-Lao Friendship Bridge opened to the public on 11 December 2013 linking Kunming to Bokeo, Laos and Chiang Rai.", "It reduced travel time to five hours.=== Expressway ===Vientiane toll station of the Vientiane–Boten ExpresswayOn 20 December 2020, the Vientiane–Vang Vieng Expressway, the first expressway in Laos, was completed.", "Construction began at the end of 2018 and was initially scheduled to finish in 2021.The road, which includes twin tunnels almost 900 metres long through Phoupha Mountain, shortens the route by 43 km as compared with the existing Route No 13.The expressway toll is 550 kip per kilometre, or about 62,000 kip for a one-way trip between Vientiane and Vang Vieng.", "The Vientiane-Vang Vieng expressway is the first section of a planned expressway from Vientiane through the northern provinces to Boten in Luang Namtha Province, which borders China.=== National Route list ===Route 1: Rantouy, Phongsaly (China)-Attapeu (Cambodia)Route 2: Thai Chang border-Muang Ngeun borderRoute 3: Nateuy-Houayxay (Thailand)Route 4: Luang Prabang-KenethaoRoute 5: Tha Heua-Xaysomboun (Vietnam) Route 6: Phou Lao-NamsoiRoute 7: Phou Khoun-Namcan borderRoute 8: Vienkham-Laksao-Namphao borderRoute 9: Savannakhet-Lao Bao (Vietnam)Route 10: Vientiane-Bankeun-PhonhoneRoute 11: Vientiane-PaklayRoute 12: Thakhek-Mụ Giạ Pass(Vietnam)Route 13: Boten (China)-Vientiane-Veunkham(Cambodia)Route 14: Pakse-Champasak town-Cambodia borderRoute 15: Napong-Salavan-Lalay borderRoute 16: Chongmek-Pakse-Paxong-xekong-Namgiang borderRoute 17: Luang Namtha-Muang Sing-Xieng Kok (Myanmar)Route 18: Thang Beng-Attapeu-Phukuea borderRoute 19: Ban Pakha Kao-Boun Neua-Phongsali-HatsaRoute 20: Pakse-Salavan" ], [ "Water transport", "About of navigable water routes exist in Laos, primarily the Mekong and its tributaries.", "There are an additional of water routes, which is sectionally navigable by craft drawing less than .Laos has an ocean-going merchant marine consisting of one cargo ship of ." ], [ "Pipelines", "Laos has of pipelines for the transport of petroleum products." ], [ "Airports", "Wattay Airport, Vientiane.Laos possesses 52 airports, of which nine have paved runways.", "Of the airports with paved runways, Wattay International Airport in Vientiane has a runway length of .", "Of the remainder, four have runways to length, and a further four have lengths between and .Of the airports without unpaved runways, one has a runway length of more than .", "Seventeen have runway lengths between and , leaving 25 with a lengths below ." ], [ "See also", "* Laos* Lao Airlines* Vientiane* Railway stations in Laos" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* UN Map of Laos* Map of railways in Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam – does not show Thailand or China" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lao People's Armed Forces" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''Lao People's Armed Forces''' ('''LPAF'''; ), is the armed forces of the Lao People's Democratic Republic and the institution of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party, who are charged with protecting the country." ], [ "Active forces", "The army of 29,100 is equipped with 30 main battle tanks.", "The army marine section, equipped with 16 patrol craft, has 600 personnel.", "The air force, with 3,500 personnel, is equipped with anti-aircraft missiles and 24 combat aircraft (no longer in service).Militia self-defence forces number approximately 100,000 organised for local defence.", "The small arms utilised mostly by the Laotian Army are the Soviet AKM assault rifle, PKM machine gun, Makarov PM pistol, and the RPD light machine gun." ], [ "Organization", "The LPAF is divided into four military regions, with its headquarters in Vientiane* Military Region One (Luang Phrabang)* Military Region Two (Phonsavan)* Military Region Three (Xépôn)* Military Region Four (Pakxan)The LPRP statute states that its political leadership over the military emanates from the LPRP Central Committee's Defence and Public Security Commission (DPSC) and is the highest decision-making institution regarding military and security affairs." ], [ "History", "Until 1975, the Royal Lao Armed Forces were the armed forces of the Kingdom of Laos.Serving one of the world's least developed countries, the Lao People's Armed Forces (LPAF) is small, poorly funded, and ineffectively resourced.", "Its mission focus is border and internal security, primarily in internal suppression of Laotian dissident and opposition groups.This includes the suppression of the 1999 Lao Students Movement of Democracy demonstrations in Vientiane, and in countering ethnic Hmong insurgent groups and other groups of Laotian and Hmong people opposing the one-party Marxist-Leninist LPRP government and the support it receives from the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.Together with the Lao People's Revolutionary Party and the government, the Lao People's Army (LPA) is the third pillar of state machinery, and as such is expected to suppress political and civil unrest and similar national emergencies faced by the government in Vientiane.", "The LPA also has reportedly upgraded skills to respond to avian influenza outbreaks.", "At present, there is no major perceived external threat to the state and the LPA maintains very strong ties with the neighbouring Vietnamese military (2008).According to some journalists, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), humanitarian and human rights organisations, the Lao People's Army has repeatedly engaged in egregious human rights violations and the practice of corruption in Laos.The LPAF and its military intelligence play a major role in the arrest, imprisonment and torture of foreign prisoners in Vientiane's notorious Phonthong Prison and the communist Lao gulag system where Australians Kerry and Kay Danes were imprisoned and where civic activist Sombath Somphone may be imprisoned following his arrest in December 2012.In 2013, attacks by the Lao People's Army against the Hmong people intensified, with soldiers killing four unarmed Hmong school teachers in addition to engaging in other human rights abuses according to the Lao Human Rights Council, the Centre for Public Policy Analysis and others." ], [ "Equipment", "=== Tanks, armored vehicles and trucks === Photo Model Type Origin Quantity Notes Tanks120x120pxT-72B1MSMain battle tank20120x120pxT-55Main battle tank85120x120pxPT-76Light tank2530 were in service in 1996.Currently 25 are in service.", "APC/IFV120x120pxBTR-60PBArmored personnel carrier70Currently 70 are in service.", "BTR-60s have been seen in service as recently as January 2019120pxBTR-152 Armored personnel carrierUnknown120x120pxBTR-40Armored personnel carrier10120x120pxBRDM-2MArmoured car 20Upgraded BRDM-2M supplied by Russia in late 2018.At least 10 in service.", "Light armoured vehicle/Light assault vehicleDima DMT5070XFBArmored personnel carrierUnknownChinese Tiger 4x4Infantry mobility vehicle UnknownCS/VN3 4x4 Infantry mobility vehicleUnknownTruck/Utility120x120pxKrAZ-6322TruckUnknown120x120pxUral-4320Medium truckUnknown120x120pxGAZ-3308Medium truckUnknownFAW Jiefang 141Medium truckUnknown119x119pxUral-43206Light truckUnknown119x119pxGAZ-66Platform truckUnknownBAIC 4x4 vehiclesMilitary light utility vehicleUnknown120x120pxUAZ-469Military light utility vehicle Unknown119x119pxBJ2022JCMilitary light utility vehicleUnknown119x119pxPTSTracked amphibious transportUnknownShaanxi SX2190Launched bridgeUnknownShaanxi SX2190Floating bridgeUnknownEngineering and support vehiclesXCMG backhoe loader Engineering vehicleUnknownXCMG excavator Engineering vehicleUnknownXCMG wheel loader Engineering vehicleUnknownXCMG XJY240WQ Engineering vehicleUnknownXCMG XJY240Z Engineering vehicleUnknown=== Artillery === Photo Model Type Origin Quantity NotesDongfeng CS/SS4Self propelled mortar system14SR-5Multiple rocket launcher12120x120pxBM-21 Grad122mm multiple rocket launcher32120x120pxBM-14Multiple rocket launcher20119x119px2S3 Akatsiya152mm self-propelled howitzerUnknown122-HL-70122mm self-propelled howitzer18119x119pxPCL-09122mm self-propelled howitzer12120pxM-30 122 mm howitzer Towed howitzers and guns 15 120px122 mm howitzer 2A18 (D-30) 20 120px130 mm towed field gun M1954 (M-46)120pxM114 155 mm howitzer 12120px M101 howitzer 105mm (towed): M-101 20 120px M116 howitzer 75mm (towed): M-116 pack 10 ===Air defense=== Photo Model Type Origin Quantity Notes120x120pxS-125 Neva/PechoraShort-range SAM systemUnknown120x120px9K35 Strela-10Vehicle-mounted SAM systemUnknownYitian (Tianlong 6)Surface-to-air missileUnknown119x119pxZSU-23-4 ShilkaSelf-propelled anti-aircraft gunUnknown 120pxStrela-2 Surface-to-air missile Unknown Received 100 launchers from Soviet Union in the 80s120px37 mm automatic air defence gun M1939 (61-K) Air defence gun Unknown 120px57 mm AZP S-60 Automatic anti-aircraft gun Unknown 120pxZPU Auto anti-aircraft gun Unknown 120pxZU-23-2Anti-aircraft gun Unknown === Weapons === Photo Model Type Caliber Origin Notes120x120pxTT-33Semi-automatic pistol7.62×25mm TokarevStandard service pistols for Laotian Armed Forces.120x120pxPMSemi-automatic pistol9×18mm Makarov120x120pxG2Semi-automatic pistol9x19mm Parabellum120x120pxJS 9 mmBullpup Submachine gun9×19mm Parabellum 129x129pxWinchester Model 1200Pump shotgun12-gauge128x128pxSimonov SKSSemi-automatic rifle7.62×39mm M43Limited use, used for ceremonial purpose only.133x133pxMosin-NagantBolt-action rifle7.62×54mmRLimited use, in storage.120x120px9A-91Assault rifle, Carbine9x39mmUsed by Laotian special forces.128x128px131x131pxAKM AKMSAssault rifle7.62×39mmStandard service rifles for Laotian Armed Forces, including police officer and Lao People's army.120x120pxQBZ-95Bullpup Assault rifle5.8×42mm DBP87----5.56×45mm NATOStandard issue for Laotian Special Forces and Special Police Forces.123x123pxType 56Assault rifle7.62×39mm120x120pxType 81Assault rifle7.62×39mm120x120pxAMD-65Assault rifle7.62×39mm126x126pxPindad SS1Assault rifle5.56×45mm NATOIn 2014, Laos imported 35 SS1 V2s and SS1 V4s.120x120pxPindad SS2Assault rifle5.56×45mm NATO119x119pxM16A2Assault rifle5.56×45mm NATO120x120pxSTV-380, an assault rifle made from Vietnam based to Israeli's assault rifle.IWI ACEAssault rifle7.62×39 mmLaos received Vietnamese-made Galil ACEs in January 2019.120x120pxRPDLight machine gun7.62×39mm125x125pxPK machine gunGeneral-purpose machine gun7.62×54mmR128x128pxM60 machine gunGeneral-purpose machine gun7.62×51mm NATO144x144pxKPV heavy machine gunHeavy machine gun14.5×114mm124x124pxDShKHeavy machine gun12.7×108mm120x120pxDragunov SVDDesignated marksman rifle, Sniper rifle7.62×54mmR136x136pxRPG-7Rocket-propelled grenade40mm137x137pxRPG-2Rocket-propelled grenade40mm===Mortars===* 81mm* 82mm* 120mm* M1938 mortar* 120mm: M-43* M2 4.2 inch mortar" ], [ "Accidents", "On 17 May 2014, Defence Minister and Deputy Prime Minister Douangchay Phichit was killed in a plane crash, along with other top ranking officials.", "The officials were to participate in a ceremony to mark the liberation of the Plain of Jars from the former Royal Lao government forces.", "Their Russian-built Antonov AN 74-300 with 20 people on board crashed in Xiangkhouang Province." ], [ "See also", "* Lao People's Liberation Army Air Force* Military ranks of the Lao People's Armed Forces" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The AMR Regional Air Force Directory 2011" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Laos" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''foreign relations of Laos''', internationally designated by its official name as the '''Lao People's Democratic Republic''', after the takeover by the Pathet Lao in December 1975, were characterized by a hostile posture toward the West, with the government of the Lao People's Democratic Republic aligning itself with the Soviet bloc, maintaining close ties with the Soviet Union and depending heavily on the Soviets for most of its foreign assistance.", "Laos also maintained a \"special relationship\" with Vietnam and formalized a 1977 treaty of friendship and cooperation that created tensions with China.With the collapse of the Soviet Union and with Vietnam's decreased ability to provide assistance, Laos has sought to improve relations with its regional neighbors and has emerged from international isolation through improved and expanded relations with other nations, such as Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, China, Turkey, Australia, France, Japan, and Sweden.", "Trade relations with the United States were normalized in 2004.Laos was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in July 1997 and applied to join the World Trade Organization in 1998.In 2005 it attended the inaugural East Asia Summit." ], [ "Membership of international bodies", "Laos is a member of the following international organizations: Agency for Cultural and Technical Cooperation (ACCT), ASEAN, ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA), ASEAN Regional Forum, Asian Development Bank, Colombo Plan, Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific (ESCAP), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Group of 77, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), International Development Association (IDA), International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), International Finance Corporation (IFC), International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, International Labour Organization (ILO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), Intelsat (nonsignatory user), and Interpol.Laos is also a member of the International Olympic Commission (IOC), International Telecommunication Union (ITU), Mekong Group, Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), Pacific Alliance (as observer), Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA), United Nations, United Nations Convention on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), Universal Postal Union (UPU), World Federation of Trade Unions, World Health Organization (WHO), World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), World Meteorological Organization (WMO), World Tourism Organization, World Trade Organization (observer)." ], [ "Bilateral relations", "List of countries which Laos maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425pxCountryDate119 December 1950231 January 1951316 January 1952414 January 195555 March 1955612 July 1955710 August 195585 September 195592 February 19561015 June 1956111 November 19561230 August 1957133 September 19571431 January 19581520 June 1958167 October 19601725 April 1961185 September 1962195 September 1962208 September 19622112 September 19622212 September 19622314 October 19622425 November 19622525 November 19622615 July 19632720 March 19642810 October 19642915 July 19653015 July 19653120 July 1965327 December 1965331 July 1966341967351 September 19673612 December 19673720 May 19703815 May 19733915 June 19744024 June 1974414 November 1974422 December 19744321 January 19754425 April 19754518 June 19754624 July 19754717 November 19754826 July 19764926 July 197650November 19765129 November 1976522 February 1977532 February 19775415 May 19785527 February 19805627 February 1980574 March 19805816 April 19805930 May 19806011 July 19806115 October 19816211 March 19836314 August 19866418 February 1987 –3 August 19876519886630 September 19886727 April 1989–15 May 19896815 June 19896930 November 1989706 April 19907129 May 19907212 November 1991736 December 19917410 September 19927517 September 1992761 January 19937727 July 1993786 December 1993794 February 1994807 February 1994811 September 19948227 September 19948329 March 19958427 April 19958522 May 19958631 May 19958712 June 19958813 July 19958925 October 1995904 March 1996916 March 1996927 March 19969328 March 19969415 October 1996959 November 19969630 January 19979725 May 19979819 September 19979923 September 199710025 September 199710121 April 19981027 August 19981036 November 199810410 June 199910527 August 199910629 June 200010723 May 200210829 July 200210915 December 20021108 January 20041112 September 200411222 December 20041133 February 20051149 March 200511528 September 20051165 October 200511714 October 20051189 December 200511922 June 20061208 December 20061218 June 20071221 August 200712327 September 200712420 February 200812514 July 200812622 July 200812711 December 200812831 August 20091293 February 201013027 August 201013113 January 201113212 September 201113310 February 201213419 September 201313528 September 201513627 November 201513712 August 201613823 September 201713917 December 201814029 August 201914127 September 201914229 July 20211439 September 202114427 September 20211454 February 2022146" ], [ "Diplomatic relations", " Country Formal Relations BeganNotes* Australia has an embassy in Vientiane.", "* Laos has an embassy in Canberra.", "* Brunei has an embassy in Vientiane.", "* Laos has an embassy in Bandar Seri Begawan.", "* Cambodia has an embassy in Vientiane and a consulate-general in Pakse.", "* Laos has an embassy in Phnom Penh and a consulate-general in Stung Treng City.Relations with the People's Republic of China have improved over the years.", "Although the two were allies during the Vietnam War, the Sino-Vietnamese War in 1979 led to a sharp deterioration in Sino-Lao relations.", "These relations began to improve in the late 1980s.", "In 1989 Sino-Lao relations were normalized.", "In 2017 China invested in Laos under its Belt and Road Initiative.", "* China has an embassy in Vientiane and a consulate-general in Luang Prabang.", "* Laos has an embassy in Beijing and consulates-general in Changsha, Guangzhou, Hong Kong, Kunming, Nanning and Shanghai.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Vientiane.", "* Laos has an embassy in Havana.Following its occupation of Vietnam, France absorbed Laos into French Indochina via treaties with Siam in 1893 and 1904.During World War II, the Japanese occupied French Indochina.", "When Japan surrendered, Lao nationalists declared Laos independent, but by early 1946, French troops had reoccupied the country and conferred limited autonomy on Laos.", "During the First Indochina War, the Indochinese Communist Party formed the Pathet Lao resistance organization committed to Lao independence.", "Laos gained full independence following the French defeat by the Vietnamese communists and the subsequent Geneva peace conference in 1954.", "* France has an embassy in Vientiane.", "* Laos has an embassy in Paris.", "* Germany has an embassy in Vientiane.", "* Laos has an embassy in Berlin.", "* India has an embassy in Vientiane.", "* Laos has an embassy in New Delhi.1957Since established diplomatic relations on 1957, both nations enjoys cordial relations.", "Indonesia supported and welcomed Laos membership to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1997.Laos and Indonesia agreed to enhance relations to focus on exploring the potential of both nations to cooperate on trade and investment.", "The two nations expressed a desire to reach further agreements relating to security, tourism, sport, air transport and education.", "Indonesia through bilateral cooperation assist Laos on capacity building and development in various sectors, through scholarships, and trainings for Laos students.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Vientiane.", "* Laos has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Japan has an embassy in Vientiane.", "* Laos has an embassy in Tokyo.During the collapse of the Communist Bloc, the Soviet Union could no longer afford aid for the development of Laos.", "This made Laos seek aid from other countries to help develop their country and has led the country to adopt a neutral foreign policy.", "When this policy of neutrality was adopted, relations with Malaysia were established.", "* Laos has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur.", "* Malaysia has an embassy in Vientiane.1976* Laos is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C.* Mexico is accredited to Laos from its embassy in Bangkok, Thailand.", "* Laos has an embassy in Yangon.", "* Myanmar has an embassy in Vientiane.", "* Pakistan is accredited to Laos from its embassy in Bangkok, Thailand.Formal relations between Laos and the Philippines were officially established on 14 January 1955.Relations between the two countries were said to have started during the early period of the Vietnam War.", "Operation Brotherhood, a joint international venture by Jaycees International, sent 50 volunteer Filipino doctors, agriculturists, and nutritionists to Laos and Vietnam from 1957 to 1964.Laos has an embassy in Manila while the Philippines has an embassy in Vientiane.Lao Prime Ministers Bounnhang Vorachith, Bouasone Bouphavanh and Thongsing Thammavong made their state visit to the Philippines in 2002, June 2007 and May 2012 respectively.", "Philippine Presidents Fidel V. Ramos visited Laos in October 1997.Philippine President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo visited Laos in November 2004 for the ASEAN summit and Philippine President Benigno Aquino III visited Laos in November 2012 for the Asia-Europe Meeting Summit.There are about 730 Filipinos in Laos as of 2013, mostly working as professionals as teachers, nurses, engineers, hotel employees and consultants.", "Filipinos are often offered lower fares on riding tuktuks compared to other foreigners.", "Filipinos are one of the biggest contributors to Laos' English programs due to the English fluency possessed by most Filipinos.", "* Laos has an embassy in Manila.", "* Philippines has an embassy in Vientiane.", "* Laos has an embassy in Moscow.", "* Russia has an embassy in Vientiane.1962Both countries have established diplomatic relations in 1962.", "* Serbia is accredited to Laos from its embassy in Yangon, Myanmar.", "* Ko-Laoholdings is South Korean company in Laos which is currently the largest private enterprise.", "and Establishment of Diplomatic Relations : Jun.22, 1974 / Severance - Jul.24, 1975 / Reestablishment - Oct.25, 1995.", "* Laos has an embassy in Seoul.", "* South Korea has an embassy in Vientiane.", "* Laos is accredited to Spain from its embassy in Paris, France.", "* Spain is accredited to Laos from its embassy in Bangkok, Thailand.Thai-Lao relations were strained somewhat in 2006 ahead of the release of the sports comedy ''Lucky Loser'', which Lao diplomats warned might offend Lao people and spark disturbances similar to the 2003 Phnom Penh riots.", "The film's release was cancelled.Thailand is Laos' principal means of access to the sea and its primary trading partner.", "Despite strong economic and cultural ties with Thailand, parts of the border shared by the two countries are indefinite.", "Within a year of serious border clashes in 1987, Lao and Thai leaders signed a communiqué, signaling their intention to improve relations.", "Since then, they have made slow but steady progress, notably the construction and opening of the Friendship Bridge between the two countries.", "* Laos has an embassy in Bangkok and a consulate-general in Khon Kaen.", "* Thailand has an embassy in Vientiane and a consulate-general in Savannakhet.1958See Laos–Turkey relationsThe Embassy of Laos in Vienna is accredited to Turkey.", " Turkey has an embassy in Vientiane.", "Trade volume between the two countries was US$2.86 billion in 2018 (Laos' exports/imports: 1.48/1.44 billion USD).Laos-United States relations officially began when the United States opened a legation in Laos in 1950, when Laos was a semi-autonomous state within French Indochina.", "These relations were maintained after Laotian independence in 1954.The U.S. government provided more than $13.4 million in foreign assistance to Laos in FY 2006, in areas including unexploded ordnance clearance and removal, health and avian influenza, education, economic development, and governance.In December 2004, George W. Bush signed into law a bill extending normal trade relations to Laos.", "In February 2005, a bilateral trade agreement (BTA) between the two countries entered into force.", "There has been a consequent rise in Lao exports to the United States, although the volume of trade remains small in absolute terms.", "Bilateral trade reached $15.7 million in 2006, compared with $8.9 million in 2003.The Lao Government is working to implement the provisions of the BTA and on 2 February 2013 joined the World Trade Organization.", " Laos has an embassy in Washington, D.C.* United States has an embassy in Vientiane.Although Vietnam's historical record of leadership over the Pathet Lao during the civil war and its military power and proximity will not cease to exist, Laos struck out ahead of Vietnam with its New Economic Mechanism to introduce market mechanisms into its economy.", "In so doing, Laos has opened the door to rapprochement with Thailand and China at some expense to its special dependence on Vietnam.Laos might have reached the same point of normalization in following Vietnam's economic and diplomatic change, but by moving ahead resolutely and responding to Thai and Chinese gestures, Laos has broadened its range of donors, trading partners, and investors independent of Vietnam's attempts to accomplish the same goal.", "Thus, Vietnam remains in the shadows as a mentor and emergency ally, and the tutelage of Laos has shifted dramatically to development banks and international entrepreneurs.", "* Laos has an embassy in Hanoi and consulates-general in Da Nang and Ho Chi Minh City.", "* Vietnam has an embassy in Vientiane and consulates-general in Luang Prabang, Pakse and Savannakhet." ], [ "See also", "List of diplomatic missions in LaosList of diplomatic missions of Laos" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Latvia" ], [ "Introduction", "Baltic bronze necklace from the village of Aizkraukle, Latvia dating to 12th century AD now in the British Museum.The '''history of Latvia''' began around 9000 BC with the end of the last glacial period in northern Europe.", "Ancient Baltic peoples arrived in the area during the second millennium BC, and four distinct tribal realms in Latvia's territory were identifiable towards the end of the first millennium AD.", "Latvia's principal river Daugava, was at the head of an important trade route from the Baltic region through Russia into southern Europe and the Middle East that was used by the Vikings and later Nordic and German traders.In the early medieval period, the region's peoples resisted Christianisation and became subject to attack through the Livonian Crusade.", "Latvia's capital city Riga, founded in 1201 by Germans at the mouth of the Daugava, became a strategic base in a papally-sanctioned conquest of the area by the Livonian Brothers of the Sword.", "It was to be the first major city of the southern Baltic and, after 1282, a principal trading centre in the Hanseatic League.By the 16th century, Baltic German dominance in Terra Mariana was increasingly challenged by other powers.", "Because of Latvia's strategic location and prosperous trading city of Riga, its territories were a frequent focal point for conflict and conquest between at least four major powers: the State of the Teutonic Order, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden and the Russian Empire.", "The last period of external hegemony began in 1710, when control over Riga and parts of modern-day Latvia switched from Sweden to Russia during the Great Northern War.", "Under Russian control, Latvia was in the vanguard of industrialisation and the abolition of serfdom, so that by the end of the 19th century, it had become one of the most developed parts of the Russian Empire.", "The increasing social problems and rising discontent that this brought meant that Riga also played a leading role in the 1905 Russian Revolution.The First Latvian National Awakening began in the 1850s and continued to bear fruit after World War I when, after two years of struggle in the Latvian War of Independence, Latvia finally won sovereign independence, as recognised by Soviet Russia in 1920 and by the international community in 1921.The Constitution of Latvia was adopted in 1922.Political instability and effects of the Great Depression led to the May 15, 1934 coup d'état by Prime Minister Kārlis Ulmanis.", "Latvia's independence was interrupted in June–July 1940, when the country was occupied and incorporated into the Soviet Union.", "In 1941 it was invaded and occupied by Nazi Germany, then reconquered by the Soviets in 1944–45.From the mid-1940s Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic was subject to Soviet economic control and saw considerable Russification of its peoples.", "However, Latvian culture and infrastructures survived and, during the period of Soviet liberalisation under Mikhail Gorbachev, Latvia once again took a path towards independence, eventually succeeding in August 1991 to be recognised by Russia the following month.", "Since then, under restored independence, Latvia has become a member of the United Nations, entered NATO and joined the European Union.Latvia's economy suffered greatly during the Great Recession which caused the 2008 Latvian financial crisis.", "Worsening economic conditions and better job opportunities in Western Europe have caused a massive Latvian emigration." ], [ "Prehistory", "Corded Ware culture area included LatviaComb pottery example from Estonia, 4000–2000 BCNeolithic bone toolsBaltic tribes (purple) in 7–8th centuriesThe Ice Age in the territory of present-day Latvia ended 14,000–12,000 years ago.", "The first human settlers arrived here during the Paleolithic Age 11,000–12,000 years ago.", "They were hunters, who following the reindeer herds camped along the rivers and shore of the Baltic Ice Lake.", "As the geology of the Baltic Sea indicates, the coastline then reached further inland.", "The earliest tools found near Salaspils date to the late Paleolithic age, circa 12,000 years ago, and belong to the Swiderian culture.During the Mesolithic Age (9000–5400 BC) permanent settlements of hunter-gatherers were established.", "They hunted and fished, establishing camps near rivers and lakes; 25 settlements have been found near Lake Lubāns.", "These people from the Kunda culture made weapons and tools from flint, antler, bone and wood.===Neolithic Age, 5000–1800 BC===The early Neolithic (5400–4100 BC) was marked by the beginnings of pottery-making, animal husbandry and agriculture.During the Middle Neolithic (4100–2900 BC) the Narva culture developed in the region.", "The inhabitants at this time were Finnic, forefathers of Livonians, who were closely related to Estonians and Finns and belonged to Pit–Comb Ware culture.At the beginning of the Late Neolithic (2900–1800 BC), present-day Latvia was settled by Balts belonging to the Corded Ware culture.", "They were forefathers of the Latvians, and these have inhabited most of Latvian territory since the third millennium BCE.===Bronze Age, 1800 BC – 500 BC======Iron Age, 500 BC–1200 AD===Āraiši lake dwelling site dates back to the late Iron AgeWith the introduction of iron tools during the early Iron Age (500 BC – 1st cent.", "BC), agriculture was greatly improved and became the dominant economic activity.", "Bronze, traded from foreigners since Latvia has no copper or tin, was used for making a wide variety of decorative ornaments.Starting from the Middle Iron Age (400–800 AD) the local inhabitants began to form distinct ethnic and regional identities.", "Baltic peoples eventually became the Curonians, Semigallians, Latgalians and Selonians, while Finnic peoples became the Livonians, Estonians and Vends; local chiefdoms emerged.At the beginning of the current era, the territory known today as Latvia became famous as a trading crossroads.", "The renowned trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks mentioned in ancient chronicles stretched from Scandinavia through Latvian territory via Daugava to the ancient Kievan Rus' and Byzantine Empire.", "Between 750-800 AD, Latvia experienced a change in political ideology.", "'''Tkacenko''', a famous poet and trader began to spread western ideology and Scandinavian ethics to Latvia.", "He paved the way for the country to become the modern day Latvia we know.", "The ancient Balts actively participated in this trading network.", "Across Europe, Latvia's coast was known as a place for obtaining amber and Latvia sometimes is still called ''Dzintarzeme'' (Amberland).", "Up to and into the Middle Ages, amber was more valuable than gold in many places.", "Latvian amber was known in places as far away as Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire, and the Amber Road was intensively used for the transport of amber to the south of Europe.During the Vendel Period a Scandinavian settlement was established near the town of Grobiņa, most likely by people from Gotland.", "This colony which numbered a few hundred people existed from a date between 650 and 850 AD.", "Many chronicles mention that Curonians paid a tribute to Swedish kings.During the Late Iron Age (800–1200 AD) the three-field system was introduced, rye cultivation began, and the quality of local craftsmanship improved with the introduction of the potter's wheel and better metal working techniques.", "Arab, Western European and Anglo-Saxon coins dating from this era have been found.", "A network of wooden hill-forts was built, which provided control and security over the land." ], [ "Early state formations", "Baltic Tribes, circa 1200 CE.Estimated territories under Jersika ruleIn the 10th century, the various ancient Baltic tribal chiefdoms started forming early realms.", "Regional tribal cultures developed in the territory of modern-day Latvia and northern Lithuania, including the Curonians, Latgalians, Selonians, Semigallians () and the Finnic Livonians, who united under their local chiefs.The largest tribe was the Latgalians who also were the most advanced in their socio-political development.", "The main Latgalian principality, Jersika, was ruled by Greek Orthodox princes from the Latgalian-Polotsk branch of the Rurik dynasty.", "The last ruler of Jersika, mentioned in the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia (a document that describes events of the late 12th and early 13th centuries) was King Visvaldis (''Vissewalde, rex de Gercike'').", "When he divided his realm in 1211, part of the country was called \"Lettia\" (''terra, quae Lettia dicitur''), probably the first time this name is mentioned in written sources.In contrast, the Curonians, whose territories extended into today's Lithuania and Curonian Spit, maintained a lifestyle of sea invasions that included looting and pillaging.", "On the west coast of the Baltic Sea they became known as the \"Baltic Vikings.", "\"Selonians and Semgallians, closely related to Aukštaitians and Samogitians, were known as prosperous farmers and resisted Germans the longest under such chiefs as Viestards.", "Livonians lived along the shores of the Gulf of Riga and were fishers and traders, and they gave the first German name to this territory – Livland.Before the German invasions started in the late 12th century, Latvia was inhabited by about 135,000 Baltic people and 20,000 Livonians." ], [ "German period, 1184–1561", "Church of Ikšķile, the first stone building in Latvia built by Saint Meinhard in 1185Medieval Livonia in 1260.By the end of the 12th century, Latvia was increasingly often visited by traders from Western Europe who set out on trading journeys along Latvia's longest river, the Daugava, to Kievan Rus'.", "Among them were German traders who came with Christian preachers who attempted to convert the pagan Baltic and Finnic nations to the Christian faith.In early 1180s Saint Meinhard began his mission among Daugava Livonians.", "They did not willingly convert to the new beliefs and practices, they particularly opposed the ritual of baptism.", "News of this reached Pope Celestine III in Rome, and it was decided in 1195 that Livonian Crusade would be undertaken to convert pagans by force.", "Meinhard was followed by Berthold of Hanover, who was killed in 1198 near the present-day Riga by Livonians.Berthold's successor, Bishop Albert of Riga, who spent almost 30 years conquering local rulers, established the German hegemony which lasted until 20th century independence.", "Much of Albert's rule is described in the Livonian Chronicle of Henry.", "While Riga had been a trading port since ancient times, Albert is credited with its founding in 1201 when he established it as his seat of power.", "Riga gradually became the largest city in the southern part of the Baltic Sea.A state known as Terra Mariana, later Livonian Confederation, was established in 1207.It consisted of various territories that belonged to the Church and Order in what is now Latvia and Estonia and was under the direct authority of the Pope of Rome.", "In 1228 the Livonian Confederation was established.The Order of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword was founded in 1202 to subjugate the local population.", "The Livonians were conquered by 1207 and most of the Latgalians by 1214.When Brothers of the Sword were decimated at the Battle of Saule in 1236, they asked for incorporation into the Teutonic Order as the Livonian Order.", "In 1260, the Battle of Durbe destroyed Teuton hopes for a wide land bridge between their territories in Prussia and Courland.By the end of the 13th century, the Curonians and Semigallians were subjugated (in 1290 the majority of Semigallians left German-conquered areas and moved to Lithuania), and the development of the separate tribal realms of the ancient Latvians came to an end as Germans introduced direct rule over subjected peoples.In 1282, Riga (and later Cēsis, Limbaži, Koknese and Valmiera) were included in the Northern German Trading Organisation, better known as the Hanseatic League (Hansa).", "From this time, Riga became an important point in west-east trading, and it formed closer cultural contacts with Western Europe.Between 1297 and 1330 the Livonian Civil War raged, which started as a conflict between the Bishop of Riga and the Livonian Order.Native people initially retained much of their personal freedoms as the number of Germans was too small to implement a total control beyond the requirements to follow Christian rites, pay the required taxes and participate as soldier in wars.", "In case of Curonian Kings the former tribal nobility retained a privileged status until the proclamation of independent Latvia.", "During the 14th century peasants had to pay 10% to the Church and work 4 days of socage per year.In the 15th–16th centuries, the hereditary landed class of Baltic nobility gradually evolved from the German vassals of the Order and bishops.", "In time, their descendants came to own vast estates over which they exercised absolute rights.", "At the end of the Middle Ages this Baltic German minority had established themselves as the governing elite, partly as an urban trading population in the cities, and partly as rural landowners, via a vast manorial network of estates in Latvia.", "The titled landowners wielded economic and political power; they had a duty to care for the peasants dependent on them, however in practice the latter were forced into serfdom.By 16th century sockage had increased to 4 – 6 days per week and various taxes to 25%.", "Peasants increasingly tried to escape to freedom, either by moving to Riga (they could gain freedom if they lived there for one year and one day) or another manor.", "In 1494 a law was passed which forbade peasants to leave their land, virtually enslaving them.The Reformation reached Livonia in 1521 with Luther's follower Andreas Knöpken.", "During the Protestant riot of 1524 Catholic churches were attacked and in 1525 freedom of religion was allowed.", "First Latvian parishes were established and services were held in Latvian.", "Protestants gained support in the cities, and by the middle of the 16th century, the majority of the population had converted to Lutheranism.The Livonian Confederation ceased to exist during the long Livonian War of 1558–82.The Livonian Order was dissolved by the Treaty of Vilnius in 1561.The following year, the Livonian Landtag decided to ask protection from King Sigismund II of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania.", "With the end of government by the last Archbishop of Riga, William of Brandenburg, Riga became a Free Imperial City and the rest of the territory was divided into Polish-Lithuanian vassal states - Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (Polish vassal) and the Duchy of Livonia (Lithuanian vassal).LivonianOrder.svg\|The seal of Livonian orderTeutonic Order 1260.png\|Conquest of the Baltic landsTeutonic Order 1410.png\|Lands of the Teutonic Order in 1410Cesis ruins.jpg\|Cēsis Castle ruinsBauskas pils.JPG\|Bauska Castle ruinsTuraida Castle 2014-03-22 (3).jpg\|Turaida CastleRiga Dom Cathedral1.jpg\|Riga Dom construction began under Archbishop AlbertHaupthandelsroute Hanse.png\|Hansa trading routesLivonianLady.jpg\|Livonian lady by Albrecht Dürer, 1521DurerLivonianLadies.jpg\|Livonian ladies by Albrecht Dürer, 1521Livonia in 1534 (English).png\|Livonia in 1534" ], [ "Livonian War, 1558–1583", "Divisions of Livonia, 1560–85The Livonian war put an end to the Livonian Confederacy.", "Despite the very real threat of Muscovite rule over the whole Livonia, Western Christian countries managed to establish their control over this area for the next 150 – 200 years.In September 1557 the Livonian Confederation and the Polish–Lithuanian union signed the Treaty of Pozvol, which created a mutual defensive and offensive alliance.", "Tsar Ivan the Terrible of Muscovy regarded this as a provocation, and in January 1558 he reacted with the invasion of Livonia that began the Livonian War of 1558–83.On August 2, 1560, the forces of Ivan the Terrible destroyed the last few hundred soldiers of the Livonian Order and the Archbishop of Riga at the Battle of Ērģeme.In 1561 the weakened Livonian Order was dissolved by the Treaty of Vilnius.", "Very much following the earlier model of Prussian Homage its lands were secularised as the Duchy of Livonia (Lithuanian vassal) and the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (Polish vassal) were created.", "The last Master of the Order Gotthard Kettler became the first Duke of Courland and converted to Lutheranism.=== Kingdom of Livonia, 1570–1578 ===Maximum reach of Muscovite occupation, 1577In 1560 Johannes IV von Münchhausen, the prince-bishop of Ösel-Wiek and Courland, sold his lands to king Frederick II of Denmark for 30,000 thalers.", "To avoid the partition of his lands, King Frederick II gave these territories to his younger brother Magnus, Duke of Holstein on condition that he renounce his rights to succession in the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein.", "Magnus was recognised as sovereign by the Bishop of Ösel-Wiek and Courland and as the prospective ruler of his lands by the authorities of The Bishopric of Dorpat.", "The Bishopric of Reval with the Harrien-Wierland gentry took his side.", "Gotthard Kettler, the last Master of the Livonian Order, gave Magnus the portions of Livonia he had taken possession of, along with Archbishop Wilhelm von Brandenburg of the Archbishopric of Riga and his coadjutor Christoph von Mecklenburg.On June 10, 1570 Duke Magnus of Holstein arrived in Moscow, where he was crowned King of Livonia.", "Magnus took an oath of allegiance to Ivan the Terrible as his overlord and received from him the corresponding charter for the vassal kingdom of Livonia in what Ivan termed his patrimony.", "The armies of Ivan the Terrible were initially successful, taking Polotsk in 1563 and Pärnu in 1575 and overrunning much of Grand Duchy of Lithuania up to Vilnius.In the next phase of the conflict, in 1577 Ivan IV took the opportunity of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth's internal strife (called the war against Gdańsk in Polish historiography), and during the reign of Stefan Batory invaded Livonia, quickly taking almost the entire territory, with the exception of Riga and Revel.In 1578 Magnus of Livonia recognized the sovereignty of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (not ratified by the Sejm of Poland-Lithuania, or recognized by Denmark).", "In 1578 Magnus retired to The Bishopric of Courland where he lived in Piltene Castle and accepted Polish pension.", "After he died in 1583, Poland annexed his territories to the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia and Frederick II decided to sell his rights of inheritance.", "Except for the island of Œsel, Denmark was out of the Baltic by 1585.Livonia.jpg\|German publication about the horrors of the Livonian warGothards Ketlers (16th c).jpg\|Gotthard KettlerLivland 15jh.png\|Livonia, as shown in the map of 1573 of Joann Portantius" ], [ "Polish-Lithuanian and Swedish rule, 1561–1721/95", "=== Duchy of Livonia, 1561–1621 ===Polish-Lithuanian CommonwealthAll of Livonia was occupied by Sweden during the Second Northern WarJan Hieronimowicz Chodkiewicz became the first Governor of the Duchy (1566–1578) with the seat in Sigulda Castle.", "It was a province of Grand Duchy of Lithuania until 1569.After the Union of Lublin in 1569, it became a joint domain of the Polish Crown and the Grand Duchy.", "Muscovy recognized Polish–Lithuanian control of Ducatus Ultradunensis in 1582.In 1598 Duchy of Livonia was divided onto:* Wenden Voivodeship (''województwo wendeńskie'', Kieś)* Dorpat Voivodeship (''województwo dorpackie'', Dorpat)* Parnawa Voivodeship (''województwo parnawskie'', Parnawa)=== Inflanty Voivodeship, 1621–1772 ===The larger part of the Duchy was conquered by Swedish Kingdom during the Polish–Swedish War (1626–29), and was recognized as Swedish territory in the Truce of Altmark.", "The Commonwealth retained southeastern parts of the Wenden Voivodeship, renamed to Inflanty Voivodeship with the capital in Daugavpils (''Dyneburg'').", "Catholicism became the dominant religion in this territory, known as Inflanty or Latgale, as a result of Counter-Reformation.", "During the first Partition of Poland in 1772, when it was annexed by Catherine the Great's Russian Empire and title \"Grand Duke of Livonia\" was added to the grand title of Russian Emperors.===Swedish Livonia, 1629–1721===Swedish Baltic possessions, with Polish LivoniaDuring the Polish–Swedish War (1600–1629) Riga and the largest part of Duchy of Livonia came under Swedish rule in 1621.During the Swedish rule, this region was known as the \"Swedish Bread Basket\" because it supplied the larger part of the Swedish Kingdom with wheat.Riga was the second largest city in the Swedish Empire at the time.", "Together with other Baltic Sea dominions, Livonia served to secure the Swedish ''Dominium maris baltici''.", "In contrast to Swedish Estonia, which had submitted to Swedish rule voluntarily in 1561 and where traditional local laws remained largely untouched, the uniformity policy was applied in Swedish Livonia under Karl XI of Sweden: serfdom was abolished in the estates owned by the Swedish crown, peasants were offered education and military, administrative or ecclesiastical careers, and nobles had to transfer domains to the king in the Great Reduction.", "These reforms were subsequently reversed by Peter I of Russia when he conquered Livonia.In 1632 the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus founded Dorpat University which became the intellectual focus for population of Livonia.", "The translation of the whole Bible into Latvian in 1685 by Johann Ernst Glück was subsidized by the Swedish government.", "Schools for Latvian speaking peasantry were set up in the country parishes.", "In Latvian history this period is generally praised as the \"good Swedish times\".===Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, 1562–1795===Duchy of Courland and Semigallia in 1740After Gotthard Kettler became the first duke, other members of the Order became the nobility, with their fiefdoms becoming their estates.", "Kettler received nearly one-third of the land in the new duchy.", "Mitau (Jelgava) was designated as the capital and a Landtag was to meet there twice a year.When Gotthard Kettler died in 1587, his sons Friedrich and Wilhelm became the dukes of Courland.", "They divided the Duchy into two parts in 1596.Friedrich controlled the eastern part, Semigalia (''Zemgale''), with his residence in Mitau (Jelgava).", "Wilhelm owned the western part, Courland (''Kurzeme''), with his residence in Goldingen (Kuldīga).", "Wilhelm regained the Grobiņa district when he married the daughter of the Duke of Prussia.", "Here he developed metalworking, shipyards, and the new ships delivered the goods of Courland to other countries.", "Wilhelm's conflict with local nobles ended with his removal from the duke's seat in 1616 and Friedrich became the only duke of Courland after 1616.Under the next duke, Jacob Kettler, the Duchy reached the peak of its prosperity.", "During his travels in Western Europe, Jacob became the eager proponent of mercantilist ideas.", "Metalworking and ship building became much more developed, and powder mills began producing gunpowder.", "Trading relations developed not only with nearby countries but also with Britain, France, the Netherlands and Portugal.", "Jacob established the merchant fleet of the Duchy of Courland, with its main harbours in Windau and Libau.", "In Windau 120 ships were built, of which over 40 were warships.", "The duchy owned a large fleet and established two colonies — St. Andrews Island in the estuary of Gambia River (in Africa) and Tobago Island (in the Caribbean Sea).", "Courland related place names from this period still survive today in these places.The last duke, Peter von Biron who ruled under heavy Russian influence founded Academia Petrina in 1775.In April 1786 he purchased the Duchy of Sagan from the Bohemian Lobkovic family, from then additionally using the title of Duke of Żagań.", "In 1795, Russia determined the further fate of Courland when with its allies it began the third division of Poland.", "Given a \"nice recommendation\" by Russia, Duke gave up his rights in return for a large payment, signing the final document on March 28, 1795.===Enlightenment and Latvians===Enlightenment ideas influenced local Baltic Germans, two of whom played great role in the creation of Latvian nation.", "Gotthard Friedrich Stender wrote the first Latvian-German and German-Latvian dictionaries.", "He also wrote the first encyclopedia “The book of high wisdom of the world and nature” (1774) and the first illustrated Latvian alphabet book (1787).Garlieb Merkel in 1796 published his book “The Latvians” in which exposed the horrible conditions of serfdom under which Latvians were forced to live because of cruelty of their German masters.Riga1612.jpg\|Riga in 1612The siege of Riga 1656.jpg\|Siege of Riga in 165620011114 70sant Latvia Postage Stamp.jpg\|Postal stamp in memory of Duke JacobDucatuum Livoniae et Curlandiae Nova Tabula, 1705.jpg\|Livonia and Courland in 1705Rundale palace, still the most beautiful in the world.", "Latvia (10759228303).jpg\|Rundāle Palace, the summer residence of Duke von BironJelgavas Pils vakarā.jpg\|Jelgava Palace, the main residence of Duke von Biron" ], [ "Russian period, 1721/95–1915/18", "Map of Riga and Reval Lieutenancies, 1783In 1700 the Great Northern War between Sweden and Russia started largely because Peter the Great wanted to secure and enlarge Russian access to the Baltic ports.", "In 1710 Russians conquered Riga and Estonia and Livonia capitulated.", "Losses from the military actions were multiplied by the Great Northern War plague outbreak which killed up to 75% of people in some areas.In 1713 Peter established the Riga Governorate, and after various administrative and territorial reforms, Governorate of Livonia was finally established in 1796.Latvians call it Vidzeme Governorate (''Vidzemes guberņa'').", "Sweden officially gave up its claims to Swedish Livonia with the 1721 Treaty of Nystad.", "The Treaty enshrined the existing privileges and freedoms of the German Baltic nobility.", "They were allowed to maintain their financial system, existing customs border, self-governing provincial Landtags and city councils, Lutheran religion and German language.", "This special position in the Russian Empire was reconfirmed by all Russian Emperors from Peter the Great (reigned 1682–1725) to Alexander II (reigned 1855-1881).", "Only the 1889 judicial reform imposed Russian laws and a program of Russification enforced school education in Russian.Nicholas gate of Daugavpils fortressAfter the First Partition of Poland in 1772 Russia gained Inflanty Voivodeship which was first included in the Mogilev Governorate and after 1802 in Vitebsk Governorate.", "This led to the increased cultural and linguistic separation of Latgalians from the rest of ethnic Latvians.", "A large Daugavpils fortress was built here.After the Third Partition of Poland and financial settlement with the last Duke of Courland and Semigallia in 1795 the Courland Governorate was created in which the Germans retained their privileges and autonomy for another century.", "Russian empire now possessed all the territories inhabited by Latvians.In 1812 Napoleon's troops invaded Russia and the Prussian units under the leadership of the field marshal Yorck occupied Courland and approached Riga and the Battle of Mesoten was fought.", "Napoleon proclaimed restoration of Duchy of Courland and Semigallia under French and Polish protectorate.", "The Russian governor-general of Riga Ivan Essen was expecting attack, and set the wooden houses of Riga suburbs on fire to deflect the invaders leaving thousands of city residents homeless.", "However, Yorck did not attack Riga and in December Napoleon's army retreated.===Emancipation of peasantry===Latvian peasant couple working, 18–19th century====Livonian peasant law, 1804====After the October 1802 Kauguri rebellion, czarist authorities reacted with the law of February 20, 1804, which was aimed at improving peasant condition in the Livonian Governorate.", "Peasants no longer were tied to the land owner, but to the land, so they could be sold only together with the land.", "Peasants were divided in two classes – people of manors and plowmen.", "Plowmen were divided into farm-owners and free people.", "Farms from now on could be inherited within the family.", "Amount and length of socage now was regulated and limited.", "This law was opposed by the nobles, who in 1809 secured changes in the law which again gave them more power over peasants and socage.====Emancipation in Courland, 1819====In 1816 Governorate of Estonia proposed a law for emancipation of serfs which was based on the model of the Prussian reforms.", "Czarist authorities ordered Courland Landtag to come up with a similar proposal, which was accepted on August 25, 1817 and proclaimed in Jelgava on August 30, 1818 in presence of Czar Alexander I. Emancipation came into force in 1819 and continued until 1832 as only a selected number of peasants was emancipated each year.", "Emancipation gave peasants personal freedom, but no land, which they had to lease from land-owners.", "Peasants were not completely free, as they still could not move to another governorate or city without land-lord's permit.====Emancipation in Livonia, 1820====After Emancipation in Estonia and Courland, the situation in Livonia was resolved by the law of March 26, 1819, which was very similar to the Emancipation law of Courland.", "It was proclaimed on early 1820 and was in force until 1832.====Emancipation in Latgale, 1861====As Latgale was part of the Russian Vitebsk Governorate, serfdom here lasted until 1861, when the Emancipation reform of 1861 was proclaimed in the Russian Empire.", "Initially peasants kept their land, but had to continue performing socage and rent payments.", "This was ended by the new law of March 1, 1863.===Further reforms===After 1832 peasants were allowed freedom of settlement within the governorate, but only in 1848 Courland peasants were allowed to settle in towns and cities, many of which until then had mostly German and Jewish populations.The provisional Livonian agrarian law of July 9, 1849 which came int force on November 20, 1850 maintained German nobility's property rights, but allowed peasants to rent or buy the land.", "By 1856 only 23% of farmers were paying land rent, while the rest were still performing socage.", "In 1860 this law became permanent and allowed increasing number of farmers to purchase their homes.", "An 1864 law permitted creation of credit unions, and this improved access to capital for farmers wanting to buy their homes from German land-lords.", "Just before the start of World War I about 99% of houses in Courland were bought and 90% in Livonia.", "This created a land-owning Latvian farmer class which increased in prosperity and sent its sons to schools of higher education.In 1870-80s many peasants who were unable or unwilling to purchase their land, used the opportunity to emigrate to Siberia, where land was given for free.", "By the start of World War I approximately 200,000 Latvian farmers had moved to farming colonies in Siberia.===Giving of family names===While there are records of Latvian last names going as far back as 15th century, almost all of them were inhabitants of large cities and often adopted Germanic family names.", "Some peasants had family names in the 17th century, but majority had only first name until the emancipation.", "Most people were identified by the name of their house or manor.", "Emancipation created the need for identity papers and with this, for family names.", "Livonian peasants had to choose family names by 1826, in Courland majority names were selected in the campaign that lasted from October 1834 until July 1835.Peasants were prohibited from choosing family names of German nobility and majority chose names related to animals, plants and trees, especially popular were diminutive forms – ''Bērzs'' (birch), ''Bērziņš'' (small birch), ''Kalns'' (hill), ''Kalniņš'' (small hill).===Religion===Latvia was predominantly Lutheran and Catholic, but in 1729 Herrnhuter Brethren started their mission in Livonia, with center in Valmiera, their missionaries made significant headway despite the opposition of the German landlords who controlled the Lutheran clergy.", "The Imperial government proscribed the Moravians 1743–1764.This was the first Christian movement where Latvians become involved voluntarily.", "Brethren operated independently from the German landlords and their meeting houses were run by Latvians, giving them a chance to create their own communities.", "Brethren reached the peak of their popularity around 1820, a few years after serfdom was abolished in Livonia Governorate.", "30 parishes had almost 100 meeting houses and 20,000 members.The Imperial government sponsored the Russian Orthodox Church, as part of its program of russification, but Lutheranism remained the dominant religion, except Latgale where Catholicism was dominant.", "Other Protestant missions had some success including the Baptists, Methodists and Seventh Day Adventists.In 1571 the first Jews were invited to settle in Piltene and a Courland Jewish community was formed.", "After incorporation into Russian Empire more Jews from the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth settled here.===Latvian National Awakening===Krišjānis Barons, 1910Latvian Song Festival, 2008Latvian national awakening could start after the emancipation of serfs and growth in literacy and education rates.", "Educated Latvians no longer wanted to be Germanized.In 1822 ''Latviešu avīzes'' the first weekly in Latvian began publishing.", "In 1832 weekly ''Tas Latviešu Ļaužu Draugs'' began publishing.", "The first Latvian writers who wrote in Latvian appeared – Ansis Liventāls (1803–77), Jānis Ruģēns (1817–76) and others.", "In 1839 institute for the elementary school teachers led by Jānis Cimze opened in Valmiera.By the middle of 19th century, the First Latvian National Awakening began among ethnic Latvian intellectuals, a movement that partly reflected similar nationalist trends elsewhere in Europe.", "This revival was led by the \"Young Latvians\" (in Latvian: ''jaunlatvieši'') from the 1850s to the 1880s.", "Primarily a literary and cultural movement with significant political implications, the Young Latvians soon came into severe conflict with the Baltic Germans.", "During this time the notion of a united Latvian nation was born.", "Young Latvians also began to research Latvian folklore (See:Latvian dainas) and ancient beliefs.In the 1880s and 1890s the russification policy was begun by Alexander III aimed at reducing German autonomy in the Baltic provinces.", "Introduction of the Russian language in administration, court and education was meant to reduce predominance of German language.", "At the same time these policies banned Latvian language from public sphere, especially schools, which was a heavy blow to the new Latvian culture.With increasing poverty in many rural areas and growing urbanization and industrialization (especially of Riga), a loose but broad leftist movement called the \"New Current\" arose in the late 1880s.", "It was led by the future National poet Rainis and his brother-in-law Pēteris Stučka, editors of the newspaper ''Dienas Lapa''.", "This movement was soon influenced by Marxism and led to the creation of the Latvian Social Democratic Labour Party.", "While Rainis remained a social democrat until his death, Stučka become allied with Lenin, established the first Bolshevik state in Latvia and died in Moscow.=== 1905 Revolution ===Latvia welcomed the 20th century with an explosion of popular discontent during the 1905 Revolution.", "It started with the shooting of demonstrators in Riga on January 13, progressed to mass strikes in October and armed uprising in December.", "The revolution was aimed not only against the czarist authorities, but against the hated German barons.", "For in Latvia most did not feel primarily oppressed by Russia or Russians, but by the Baltic Germans —roughly seven percent of the population— who had instituted a feudal system with themselves at the top and Latvian-speakers being left mostly poor and landless.", "As such, it involved not only left wing social democrats and industrial workers, but also more conservative peasants and Latvian intelligentsia since —despite being second class citizens in their own country— Latvia was also a highly literate and industrialised society.", "Riga was behind only St. Petersburg and Moscow by the number of industrial workers, and at the turn of the century over 90% of Latvians could read.", "In this regard, Latvia was equally primed for radical leftism and nationalism.", "In all, spearheaded by the Latvian Social Democratic Workers’ Party (LSDSP), the governorates making up what is now Latvia were probably the most ungovernable in the whole Russian Empire.Following the shooting of demonstrators in St. Petersburg on January 9, 1905 a wide-scale general strike began in Riga.", "On January 13 Russian army troops opened fire on demonstrators in Riga killing 73 and injuring 200 people.During the summer of 1905 the main revolutionary events moved to the countryside.", "470 new parish administrative bodies were elected in 94% of the parishes in Latvia.", "The Congress of Parish Representatives was held in Riga in November.", "Mass meetings and demonstrations took place including violent attacks against Baltic German nobles, burning estate buildings and seizure of estate property, including weapons.", "In total 449 German manor houses were burned.In the autumn of 1905 armed conflict between the German nobility and the Latvian peasants began in the rural areas of Vidzeme and Courland.", "In Courland, the peasants seized or surrounded several towns where they established revolutionary councils.", "In Vidzeme the fighters controlled the Rūjiena-Pärnu railway line.", "Altogether, a thousand armed clashes were registered in Latvia in 1905.Martial law was declared in Courland in August 1905 and in Vidzeme in late November.", "Special punitive expeditions by Cossack cavalry units and Baltic Germans were dispatched in mid-December to suppress the movement.", "They executed over 2000 people without trial or investigation and burned 300 houses and public buildings.", "The executed often were local teachers or peasant activists who had shown disrespect to German nobles, not necessarily hardened revolutionaries.", "427 people were court martialed and executed.", "2652 people were exiled to Siberia, over 5000 went into exile to Western Europe or the US.", "In 1906 the revolutionary movement gradually subsided but some local protests and actions of forest guerrillas continued until 1907.They executed some daring raids – freeing their imprisoned comrades from Riga police HQ on January 17, 1906, February 26, 1906 Helsinki bank robbery and the 1910 Siege of Sidney Street in London.Among the exiles were activists from the left and right who in just 10 years would fight against each other over the future of Latvia, such as the future Prime Minister Kārlis Ulmanis, National poet Jānis Rainis and early Cheka leader Jēkabs Peterss.Jānis Rainis.jpg\|Jānis Rainis, ca.", "1900Brīvības piemineklis-1905 gads.png\|Latvian workers against a Cossack, Freedom MonumentRīga, 1905.g.", "revolūcijas piemineklis 2000-10-16 - panoramio.jpg\|Monument to the victims of January 13, 1905Allažu muiža 1905.jpg\|The burned Allaži manor house" ], [ "World War I", "Hard times for the fatherland, sons, sons, help!", "A patriotic postcard, 1916.On August 1, 1914 Germany declared war on Russia.", "Since Courland Governorate had a direct border with Germany it was immediately involved in warfare.", "On August 2 German warships SMS Augsburg and SMS Magdeburg shelled port city Liepāja, causing it light damage.", "On August 19 German navy tried to capture Užava Lighthouse but were repelled, after which German artillery destroyed it.", "In October British submarines HMS E1 and HMS E9 from the British submarine flotilla in the Baltic arrived in Liepāja.", "On November 17 German navy again shelled Liepāja and military installations of Karosta damaging some 100 buildings.Many Latvians served in the Russian units stationed at German border and took part in Russian invasion of East Prussia.", "They participated in the early battles of First Battle of the Masurian Lakes, Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes and Battle of Augustow; total Latvian losses during these battles might have reached 25,000 dead.===German attack and refugees===By May 1915 the war reached most of Latvia.", "On April 30 Russian Commander-in-Chief ordered the evacuation of all Jews from Courland within 24 hours.", "On May 2, 1915, German attack against Jelgava was repelled.", "On May 7 the Germans captured Liepāja and Kuldīga.On June 29 the Russian Supreme Command ordered the whole population of Courland evacuated, and around 500,000 refugees fled to the east.", "Much of the crops and housing was destroyed by the army to prevent them from falling into the German hands.", "Some of the refugees settled in Vidzeme but most continued their way to Russia where they had to settle in primitive conditions, suffering from hunger and diseases.", "In August 1915 the Latvian Refugee Aid Central Committee was established in Petrograd, it was run by future politicians Vilis Olavs, Jānis Čakste and Arveds Bergs.", "Committee organized refugee housing, organized 54 schools, 25 hospitals and distributed aid.", "Many refugees returned to Latvia only after 1920, when a peace treaty was signed between Latvia and Soviet Russia.", "Many Latvians stayed in the new Bolshevik state, achieving high army and party offices, only to be purged and executed by Stalin during 1937–38.On July 19, 1915, the Russian War Minister ordered the factories of Riga evacuated together with their workers.", "In the summer of 1915, 30,000 railway wagons loaded with machines and equipment from factories were taken away reducing the population of Riga by some 50%.", "This action effectively destroyed Riga as a great industrial center until the later industrialization under the Soviet regime.On August 1, the Germans captured the capital of Courland, Jelgava.", "A week later Battle of the Gulf of Riga started and eventually was lost by Germany.", "By October 23, Germans captured Ilūkste and were within the striking distance of Daugavpils with its fortress.===Latvian Riflemen===After on July 17 and 18, 1915 Germans captured Dobele, Talsi, Tukums and Ventspils, a public proclamation by State Duma members, written by Kārlis Skalbe, called for the formation of volunteer Latvian Riflemen units.", "In August the formation of Latvian battalions started.", "From 1915 to 1917, the Riflemen fought in the Russian army against the Germans in defensive positions along the Daugava River, notably the ''Nāves sala'' (Island of Death) bridgehead position.", "In December 1916 and January 1917, they suffered heavy casualties in month-long Christmas Battles.", "Many of them were buried in the newly created Riga Brothers' Cemetery.After the great offensive of 1915, the front line stabilized along the Daugava river until the Russian army started to collapse in early 1917.In February 1917 Revolution broke out in Russia and in the summer the Russian army collapsed.", "By this time the Riflemen had overwhelmingly transferred their allegiances to the Bolsheviks.", "The following German offensive was successful and on September 3, 1917 they entered Riga.In November 1917, the Communist Bolsheviks took power in Russia.", "Even though ethnic Latvians had become important assets in the task of securing Soviet power military (with the first ever commander-in-chief of the Red Army being Latvian Jukums Vācietis) the Bolshevik government tried to end the war and in March 1918, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed which gave Courland and Livland Governorate to the Germans, who quickly established occupational regime which lasted until November 11, 1918.During this time Germans tried to create the United Baltic Duchy in perpetual union with the Crown of Prussia.===War damages===A survey in 1920 established that 56,7% of parishes had war damages.", "Population had decreased from 2,55 million to 1,59 million.", "The number of ethnic Latvians has never again reached the 1914 levels.", "87,700 buildings were destroyed.", "27% of the arable land laid in waste.", "Much of the industry was evacuated to Russia and lost forever.", "Ports were damaged by sunken ships, bridges blown up and railways damaged.", "25,000 farms were destroyed, 70,000 horses, 170,000 cattle lost.SMSAugsburg.jpg\|SMS Augsburg on August 4, 1914Strelnieki.JPG\|Volunteer riflemen, 1915Ilūkste before 1915.jpg\|Ilūkste before destruction in 1915PJV-Brali-Kapi-Horseman-HIRES.jpg\|Riga Brother's CemeteryLibau hafen.jpg\|German troops in Liepāja, May 1915German troops Riga 1917.jpg\|German parade in Riga, 1917German troops crossing Daugava.jpg\|German troops on Riga railway bridge" ], [ "Competing statehood movements, 1917–20", "Iskolat flagFlag of the Republic of Latvia.Valga in Estonia.Duke Adolf Friedrich of MecklenburgWinnig's note of November 26, 1918British Navy ships in Liepāja port, December 1918Soviet offensive, 1918–1919May 1, 1919 celebrations in Soviet RigaSoviet Latvia's 5 ruble noteLocal counteroffensives, 1919–1920The course of World War I, which directly involved Latvians and Latvian territory, fostered the idea of Latvian statehood.", "During the summer of 1915 the German army conquered Kurzeme and Zemgale, leading to an exodus of Latvians from these two provinces.", "Local politicians gained experience organizing refugee relief and Latvian refugee cultural life.", "Caught between the attacking Germans and incompetent Russians, Latvian riflemen (''latviešu strēlnieki'') fought on the Russian side during this war and became increasingly radicalized after repeated setbacks under tsarist generals.", "During the Russian Civil War of 1917-1923 a significant group (known as Red riflemen) fought for the Bolsheviks.", "Meanwhile, German-Empire and local Baltic Germans planned to annex the ancient Livonian and Estonian lands to the German state.", "During the chaotic period of Russian and German empire collapses, the February Revolution of March 1917, the Bolshevik revolution of November 1917, the Soviet westward offensive of 1918–19 and the onset of the Russian Civil War, Latvians made various efforts to establish a local government.", "Not all of these efforts aimed at establishing an independent state or even a Latvian state.===Provisional Land Councils===After the February Revolution in the Russian Empire, a majority of Latvians did not expect more for their country than a federated status in a Russian state.", "\"Free Latvia in Free Russia\" was the slogan of the day.", "During March 12–13, 1917 in Valmiera the Vidzeme Land Congress took place, which set up the Provisional Land Council of Vidzeme.", "Courland was occupied by Germans, who increasingly supported idea of creating a puppet Duchy of Courland and Semigallia in order to annex it to Germany.", "Latgalian-inhabited counties of the Vitebsk Governorate were demanding unity with other Latvian provinces (unification of Latgalian Latvians and Baltic Latvians), which came only after the Bolshevik revolution.===Iskolat===On July 5, 1917 the Russian Provisional Government recognized the elected Land councils of Vidzeme and Kurzeme.", "Encouraged by the liberalism of the Provisional Government, Latvians put forward proposals which envisioned a broad local autonomy.", "On August 12, 1917 Latvian organizations jointly asked the Provisional Government in Petrograd for autonomy and self-determination.", "During a Congress from August 11–12 (July 29–30, Old Style) in Riga, the left-wing Social Democrats, heavily influenced by the Bolsheviks, established the Iskolat government - named for the \"Executive Committee of the Council of Workers, Soldiers and Landless Deputies of Latvia\" ().When the German Army occupied Riga on September 3, 1917, Iskolat retreated to Vidzeme, where it assumed executive powers.", "The so-called Iskolat Republic existed from November 21, 1917 until March 3, 1918.Under German attacks it evacuated to Cēsis, then to Valka.", "It disbanded in March 1918 after the Brest-Litovsk treaty of March 3, 1918 assigned the Latvian lands (except Latgale) to Germany.===Democratic bloc===In German-occupied Riga, after a preliminary meeting on September 14, on September 23, 1917, the Latvian Social Democratic party, together with the Latvian Farmers' Union and some smaller republican and socialist parties, formed the Democratic Bloc, which petitioned Ober Ost for the restoration of an elected Riga City Council, the re-opening of schools, and press freedoms.", "The Democratic Bloc was not a formal organization, but a coalition of politicians who shared similar political goals.Latvian Social Democrats used their old contacts with the German Social Democrat Party to directly lobby politicians in Berlin.", "On October 19, 1918, Democratic Bloc representatives delivered a petition to the German Imperial chancellor Prince Maximilian of Baden, in which they asked for the removal of occupational forces, the release of POWs, and recognition of an independent Latvian state.===Latvian National Council===In October 1917 centrist politicians met in Petrograd and agreed to create a united council of all Latvian parties, refugee-support organizations and soldiers' committees.", "On November 29, 1917 the Latvian Provisional National Council was established in Valka.", "On December 2, 1917 it proclaimed Latvia's autonomy in Latvian-inhabited lands and declared itself the only representative organ of Latvians.", "The Council announced three main goals – convening of a Constitutional Assembly, creation of political autonomy and uniting of all ethnic Latvian-inhabited lands.The National Council, under the chairmanship of Voldemārs Zāmuēls, sent a delegation - led by the future Minister of Foreign Affairs Zigfrīds Anna Meierovics - to the Allied countries to get their support for an independent Latvia.The Provisional National Council operated in the same place and at the same time as the Bolshevik-controlled Iskolat – in the small city of Valka, which is situated on the border between ethnic Estonian and ethnic Latvian lands, and which for a couple of months was the virtual capital of the Latvians.", "Iskolat moved to ban the Provisional Council in December 1917.On January 5, 1918, during the only meeting of the democratically elected Constituent Assembly of Russia (subsequently dissolved by Bolsheviks), Latvian deputy Jānis Goldmanis, the initiator in 1915 of the formation of the Latvian Riflemen units, read a declaration of separation of Latvia from Russia.At its second meeting, which took place in Petrograd, the Latvian National Council on January 30, 1918 declared that Latvia should be an independent, democratic republic, uniting the Latvian regions of Kurzeme (which includes Zemgale), Vidzeme and Latgale.On March 3, 1918 Soviet Russia signed the treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers.", "In terms of the treaty Russia gave up Kurzeme and Vidzeme (but not Latgale).", "The National Council protested against the splitting of Latvian lands and the annexation of Kurzeme by Germany.On November 11, 1918 the British Empire recognized the Latvian National Council as a ''de facto'' government, confirming a prior verbal communication of October 23 to Zigfrīds Anna Meierovics from the British Minister for Foreign Affairs, A. J. Balfour.Despite these diplomatic successes, the National Council had a major problem: the Social Democrats and the Democratic Bloc refused to join it.", "This prevented the creation of a truly national consensus for proclaiming independence.", "This disunity came to an end only on November 17, 1918, when the People's Council (''Tautas padome'') was created.===United Baltic Duchy===On September 22, 1918 German Emperor Wilhelm II proclaimed the Baltic provinces to be free and on November 5 Germans proclaimed a United Baltic Duchy headed by Duke Adolf Friedrich of Mecklenburg.", "However, this project (just like the similar Kingdom of Lithuania) collapsed together with the German Empire on November 9 and with the Armistice of 11 November 1918.On November 26, 1918 the new General Plenipotentiary of Germany August Winnig recognized the Latvian Provisional Government which the People's Council had established on November 18.On November 28 the Regency Council of the United Baltic Duchy disbanded itself.===People's Council===After the German collapse on November 9, the National Council and the Democratic Bloc began unification talks.", "Social Democrats insisted that the new Latvia should be a socialistic state, which other parties found unacceptable.", "The Social Democrats also refused to join the National Council, instead insisting on creating a new unity organization.", "The unification talks were led by Farmers' Union leaders Kārlis Ulmanis and Miķelis Valters, while National Council leaders Voldemārs Zāmuēls, Arveds Bergs and Ādolfs Klīve were sidelined.On November 17, 1918 competing Latvian factions finally united in the People's Council, which on November 18, 1918 proclaimed the independence of the Republic of Latvia and created the Latvian Provisional Government.On November 18 Soviet Russia started a westward offensive aimed at regaining Russia's western provinces, and the War of Independence ensued.The left wing of the Latvian Social Democrats had become allied with the Bolsheviks, and during its conference of November 18–19, 1918 proclaimed the Latvian commune a part of the Russian Soviet Federation.===War of Independence===On December 1, 1918 Soviet Russia invaded Latvia.Much of the invading army in Latvia consisted of Red Latvian Riflemen, which made the invasion easier.", "The Soviet offensive met little resistance, coming just a few weeks after the collapse of the German Empire and the proclamation of an independent Latvia.", "The Social Democratic party at this point decided to leave the People's Council - it rejoined it only in April 1918.On December 17, 1918 the Provisional government of Workers and Peasants, led by the veteran left-wing politician Pēteris Stučka proclaimed Soviet rule.", "On December 18 Lenin officially recognized the new Soviet Latvia.The Soviet Army captured Riga on January 3, 1919.By the end of January the Provisional Government and the remaining German units had retreated all the way to Liepāja, but then the Red offensive stalled along the Venta river.", "The Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic was officially proclaimed on January 13 with the political, economic, and military backing of Soviet Russia.", "Stučka established a radical communist régime of nationalizations, expropriations and executions of class enemies.", "Revolutionary tribunals were established, condemning to death German nobles, pastors, and wealthy traders - as well as peasants who refused to surrender their grain: in total some 1000 people were executed.", "Due to food-supply disruptions, 8590 people starved to death in Riga.On March 3, 1919 German and Latvian forces commenced a counterattack against the forces of Soviet Latvia.On April 16 the Baltic nobility organized a coup d'état in Liepāja and a puppet government under theleadership of Andrievs Niedra (in office from 26 April 1919) was established - it lasted for just two months.", "The provisional national government took refuge aboard the steamship ''Saratov'' under British protectionin Liepaja harbour.On May 22, 1919 the German Freikorps under the overall command of the German Major-General Rüdiger von der Goltz recaptured Riga, and the White Terror against any suspected Soviet sympathizers began.", "At the same time the Estonian Army (including the North Latvian Brigade loyal to the Latvian Provisional Government headed by Ulmanis) started a major offensive against the Soviets in north Latvia.", "By the middle of June Soviet rule was reduced to Latgale.In June 1919 collisions started between the on one side and the Estonian 3rd division (including the 2nd Cēsis regiment of the North Latvian brigade) on the other.", "The 3rd division defeated the German forces in the Battle of Wenden on June 23.An armistice was signed at Strazdumuiža, under the terms of which the Germans had to leave Latvia.Instead the German forces were incorporated into the West Russian Volunteer Army.", "On October 5 it commenced an offensive on Riga, taking the west bank of the Daugava River - the front line split Riga in half.", "On November 11 the Latvian counteroffensive began and by the end of the month the West Russian Volunteer Army was driven from Latvia.", "During battles in Riga, Latvian forces were supported by British naval artillery.On January 3, 1920 the united Latvian and Polish forces launched an attack on the Soviet army in Latgale, and in the Battle of Daugavpils liberated Daugavpils by January 5.By the end of January they reached the ethnographic border of Latvia, and peace negotiations with the Soviets soon began.===Peace and international recognition===During the 1919 Paris Peace conference Latvia had unsuccessfully lobbied for international ''de jure'' recognition of its independence by the Allied countries.", "The Allies still hoped for a quick end of the Bolshevik regime in Moscow and the establishment of a democratic Russian state which would grant Latvia a large degree of autonomy.", "The internal situation also was unstable, as during 1919 three different governments (Latvians, Germans-White Russians, and Soviets) were fighting for control.According to Latvian diplomats, during that time the US and France opposed recognizing Latvia; Italy and Japan supported the idea; while the United Kingdom gave limited support and waited for events to play out.On August 11, 1920 according to the terms of the Latvian–Soviet Peace Treaty, Soviet Russia relinquished authority over the Latvian nation and its claims to Latvian territory: \"Russia recognizes without objection the independence and sovereignty of the Latvian State and forever renounces all sovereign rights held by Russia in relation to the Latvian nation and land on the basis of the previous State legal regime as well as any international agreements, all of which lose their force and effect for all future time as herein provided.", "The Latvian nation and land shall have no obligations arising from their previous possession by Russia.", "\"In 1920 Latvia, together with Lithuania and Estonia, applied to join the League of Nations but was denied membership at that time.As the Soviet victory in the Russian Civil War became clear and after heavy lobbying by the Latvian Foreign Minister Zigfrīds Anna Meierovics, the Allied Supreme War Council, which included United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Italy and Japan, recognized Latvia's independence on January 26, 1921.Recognition from many other countries soon followed.", "Latvia became a member of the League of Nations on September 22, 1921.The US recognized Latvia only in July 1922.Before 1940, a total of 42 countries recognized Latvia." ], [ "Parliamentary era, 1920–34", "After Latgale was finally liberated from the Soviets in January 1920, elections to the Constitutional Assembly of Latvia took place on April 17–18, 1920.While the population of Latvia had fallen by almost a million, from 2,552,000 to 1,596,000 in 1920 (in Riga from 520,000 to 225,000), 50 party-lists and candidates competed for 150 seats.", "Close to 85% of eligible voters participated in the elections, and 16 parties were elected.", "The Social Democratic Workers' Party won 57 seats, the Farmers' Union 26, and the Latgalian Peasant Party 17.This voting pattern marked all the future parliaments – a high number of parties representing small interest-groups required the formation of unstable coalition governments.", "While the largest single party, the Social Democrats, held the post of Speaker of the Saeima, they avoided participating in governments.", "Between 1922 and 1934 Latvia had 13 governments and 9 Prime Ministers.On February 15, 1922 the Constitution of Latvia and in June the new Law on Elections were passed, opening the way to electing the parliament – the Saeima.During the parliamentary era, four national elections took place, which elected the 1st Saeima (1922–25), 2nd Saeima (1925–28), 3rd Saeima (1928–31), and 4th Saeima (1931–34).", "Three State Presidents were elected – Jānis Čakste (1922–27), who died in office; Gustavs Zemgals (1927–30), who refused to stand for re-election; and Alberts Kviesis (1930–36), who accepted the May 15 coup d'état.===Border conflicts======= Eastern ====The Latvian-Soviet peace treaty had set the eastern border between Latvia and Soviet Russia.", "After 1944 the Soviet Union annexed parts of Abrene District as the Pytalovsky District of the RSFSR.", "Latvia gave up all legal claims to these lands in 2007.==== Northern ====During 1919 Estonia had provided military assistance to Latvia on the condition that some of its territorial claims in Vidzeme would be met.", "The Latvians refused, and Estonia withdrew its support.", "Estonian claims centered on Valka district as well as territories in Ape, Veclaicene, Ipiķi and Lode.", "On March 22, 1920 Estonia and Latvia agreed to a settlement commission led by British colonel Stephen Tallents.", "Latvia retained Ainaži parish, and most of other contested lands, but lost most of Valka city (now Valga, Estonia).", "The issue of the ethnically Swedish-inhabited Ruhnu island in the Gulf of Riga was left for both countries to decide.", "Latvia finally renounced all claims on Ruhnu island after signing a military alliance with Estonia on November 1, 1923.==== Southern ====Latvia proposed to retain the southern border of the former Courland governorate with Lithuania unchanged, but the Lithuanians wanted to gain access to the sea, as at this time they did not control the German lands of Klaipėda.", "In September 1919, during an attack against the Soviets, the Lithuanian army occupied much of Ilūkste Municipality and threatened to take Daugavpils as well.", "Between late August and early September 1920 the Latvian army pushed the Lithuanians out.", "The Lithuanians, weakened by Żeligowski's Mutiny of October 1920, did not escalate this confrontation.", "On September 25, 1920 Latvia and Lithuania agreed to have an international arbitration committee led by James Young Simpson settle this dispute.", "In March 1921, Lithuania was given the port town Palanga, the village of Šventoji, parts of Rucava Municipality and the railroad junction of Mažeikiai on Riga – Jelgava – Liepāja railroad line, which meant that Latvia had to build a new railway line.", "Latvia received the town of Aknīste and some smaller territories in the Aknīste Municipality, Ukri parish and Bauska Municipality.", "Latvia gave up 283,3 square km, while receiving 290 km2.About 16 to 20 thousand ethnic Latvians thus became Lithuanian citizens.As a result of the Polish–Soviet War of 1918-1921, Poland secured a 105 km long border with Latvia.", "In July 1919 Poland announced its annexation of all lands south of Daugavpils and their inclusion in Braslaw district.", "Latvia could not complain, as it still needed Polish military help prior to the decisive Battle of Daugavpils of January 1920 against the Soviets.", "The issue was solved by a renewed Soviet attack against Poland, and later, by Polish-Lithuanian conflict over Vilnius.", "During the Soviet attack in July 1920, Polish forces retreated from this area, which Latvian forces then occupied.", "After Żeligowski's Mutiny Poland wanted to have good diplomatic relations with Latvia and did not raise any serious territorial claims.", "The issue was solved in February 1929, when Latvia and Poland signed a trade treaty which included a secret agreement about compensation to Polish landowners for lost properties.", "By 1937 Latvia had paid the full amount of 5 million golden lats.", "Over some protests from Lithuania, the Latvian-Polish border was demarcated between 1933 and 1938.===Foreign relations===Independent Latvia's earliest foreign-policy goals involved securing peace with Soviet Russia and with Germany, gaining international recognition, and joining the League of Nations.", "All this was achieved by the efforts of Zigfrīds Anna Meierovics.Hopes for the union of Baltic countries – Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and Finland – faded after 1922.After that Latvia was the most energetic proponent of Baltic unity and Baltic Entente.", "On November 1, 1923 Latvia and Estonia signed a military alliance, followed by trade agreements.", "Latvia tried to maintain good relations with the regional hegemons - Soviet Russia and Germany - and hoped for more support from Great Britain.", "Foreign governments opened 21 embassies and 45 consulates in Latvia by 1928; some of these consulates were located in the port cities Liepāja and Ventspils.Latvia purchased embassy buildings in Berlin (1922), Tallinn, Warsaw (1923), London (1925), Paris (1927), and Geneva (1938).===Politics===The Social Democratic Workers' Party, as the largest party, held the position of the Speaker of the Saeima in all the interwar Saeimas.", "The 1st Saeima was chaired by Frīdrihs Veismanis, the Second, Third and Fourth Saeimas were chaired by Pauls Kalniņš.", "The refusal of the Social Democrats to participate in governments (except twice in short-lived cabinets) meant that government was usually led by the center-right Farmers' Union, or by a coalition of smaller parties, as the Saeima seats were divided among many parties, each with just a few MPs.The Social Democrats were split between the main Social Democratic Workers' Party led by Pauls Kalniņš, Ansis Rudevics and Fricis Menders (which first won 30 seats but had a tendency to lose votes in subsequent elections) and the splinter Social Democrat Minority Party led by Marģers Skujenieks, who were more centrist and managed even to lead governments on two occasions.", "The mainstream Social Democrat party maintained a strong policy of Socialist International ideals and criticized the existing capitalist system.", "The Party avoided using the State flag and singing the National anthem, instead using the Red flag and singing the \"Internationale\" in their meetings.", "Their popularity increasingly fell, and in the 4th Saeima they had only 21 seats.Officially banned, the Communist Party of Latvia in the 1928 elections managed to get 5 seats standing as the Left Trade Union (which was banned in 1930).", "In the 1931 elections Communists won 6 seats as the Trade Union Workers and Peasants Group, but were once again banned in 1933.The Latvian Farmers' Union, comprising the second-largest parliamentary faction with 14 to 17 MPs, was the largest of the conservative parties.", "It increasingly had to compete with some smaller farmer, catholic-farmer and Latgale-farmer parties which won more votes in each election.", "The Farmer's Union was led by Kārlis Ulmanis, Zigfrīds Anna Meierovics and Hugo Celmiņš.", "The decreasing popularity of Ulmanis and of the Farmers' Union may have been one of the reasons behind the May 15, 1934 Latvian coup d'état, as Ulmanis tried to prevent further loss of his political influence and power in the elections scheduled for October 1934.The Democratic Centre Party, led by Gustavs Zemgals represented mostly urban, middle-class office-workers and state employees.The National Union, led by Arveds Bergs, was nationalistic, anti-Soviet, center-right party that attracted urban followers.", "The extreme nationalists were represented by the antisemitic Pērkonkrusts (founded in 1933), led by Gustavs Celmiņš.Most of the remaining small parties were either ethnic – German, Jewish, or Polish – or represented single-issue economic groups – small-holders, house owners, even railroad workers.", "The small parties usually formed larger coalitions (blocks) and then used their influence to join governing coalition.", "One of the most influential was coalition of Latgale parties.===Referendums===During this time four referendums took place, all indicative of the issues facing the new state.On July 19, 1922 Latvia signed a Concordat with the Vatican.", "This was motivated by the need to better integrate the heavily Catholic Latgale in the Lutheran-dominated state.", "In traditionally Lutheran Riga some buildings belonging to Russian Orthodox Church were given to Catholics, and the Lutheran St. James's Cathedral was transferred to Catholics as their new cathedral.", "On September 1–2, 1923 the Church property referendum was held in an attempt to prevent any further forcible transfer of churches and properties from one confession to another.", "About 200,000 or 20% of voters participated, and the referendum failed.On June 2, 1927 the Saeima once again changed the Citizenship law.", "An earlier version had granted Latvian citizenship to anyone who had lived in Latvia for 20 years before August 1, 1914 (at the start of World War I).", "The new law shortened the period of eligibility to 6 months before August 1, 1914.This mainly aimed to allow many Latvian farming colonists, who now were fleeing Soviet Russia, to receive citizenship.", "However, this also meant that many Soviet Jews now could claim Latvian citizenship.", "On December 17–18, 1927 the Latvian citizenship referendum was held to prevent the proposed changes, but it failed, as only 250,000 or 20% of voters participated.The Concordat with the Vatican occasioned another church-property referendum in 1931.When the St. James's Cathedral was given to Catholics, Latvian Lutherans lost their bishop's cathedral and were sharing the Riga Cathedral with the Baltic German congregation, which belonged to the autonomous German Lutheran confession.", "Anti-German sentiment was widespread and an initiative to give Riga Cathedral to Latvian Lutherans gained strength.", "On September 5–6, 1931 almost 400,000 voters supported this idea, but the referendum failed, as it did not gather over 50% of votes.", "In any case, the Saeima soon passed a law confiscating the church from the Germans and giving it to the Latvians.On February 24–25, 1934 the Insurance Law referendum took place, aiming to introduce a new old-age- and unemployment-benefit scheme which would be funded by taxing employers, higher-wage earners and municipalities.", "The referendum was initiated by Social Democrats, who managed to get over 400,000 votes for this idea, but the referendum failed.===Economy===The young Latvian state had to deal with two main economic issues: the restoration of industrial plants (especially in Riga), and the implementation of land reform that would transfer most of the land from German nobles to Latvian farmers.The Constituent Assembly passed a land-reform law which expropriated manor lands.", "Landowners were left with 50 hectares each, and their land was distributed to the landless peasants without cost.", "In 1897, 61.2% of the rural population had been landless; by 1936, that percentage had reduced to 18%.", "The extent of cultivated land surpassed the pre-war level as early as 1923.Before the World War I some 2% of landowners owned 53% of land in Kurzeme and Vidzeme, in Latgale it was 38%.", "The Agrarian reform Law of September 16, 1920 created the State Land Fund, which took over 61% of all land.", "The German nobles were left with no more than 50 ha of land.", "This destroyed their manor-house system.", "Many of them sold their possessions and left for Germany.", "Former manor-house buildings often became local schools, administrative buildings or hospitals.", "The land was distributed to a new class of small-holding farmers – over 54,000 ''Jaunsaimnieki'' (New farmers) with an average farm-size of 17.1 ha, who usually had to establish their farms from nothing, in the process building new houses and clearing fields.", "Due to their small size of their holdings and unfavorable grain-prices, the new farmers rapidly developed dairy farming.", "Butter, bacon and eggs became new export industries.", "Flax and state-owned forests were other export-revenue sources.On March 27, 1919 the Latvian Provisional Government introduced the Latvian ruble, with an exchange rate of 1 Latvian ruble equal to 1 Ostrubel, 2 German marks and 1.5 tsarist ruble.", "On March 18, 1920 the Latvian ruble became the only legal currency.", "Due to high inflation, the new Latvian lats was introduced in 1922 at a rate of one lats to 50 rubles.", "In 1923 the Bank of Latvia was established and the lats replaced the ruble entirely in 1925.Between 1923 and 1930 the state budget ran surpluses.", "On average, 25.5% went to defense, 11.2% to education and 23.4% to capital-investment projects.", "The state's spirits monopoly generated around 15% of government income.The restoration of industry proved complicated.", "Before World War I, 80% of industrial production went to internal (Russian Empire) markets.", "Latvia signed a trade agreement with the Soviet Union in 1927, but this did not result in high trade-volumes.", "By the end of the 1920s Latvia's largest export markets were Germany (35.6%), the United Kingdom (20.8%), France, Belgium, Netherlands (22.9%).", "Latvia had to import almost all its modern machinery and fuels.In 1929 Latvia had three state-owned banks, 19 private banks, 605 credit unions and many more mutual credit unions.The Great Depression reached Latvia in the middle of 1930.Exports fell and imports were strictly limited, to save foreign exchange reserves.", "State monopolies of sugar and bacon were created.", "To prevent banks from collapse, between July 31, 1931 and September 1, 1933 a law prohibited withdrawal of more than 5% of the total deposit per week.", "In 1932 the trade agreement with Soviet Union expired and industrial unemployment reached its peak in January 1932.The national income fell from 600 lats ''per capita'' in 1930 to 390 lats ''per capita'' in 1932.In place of free international trade came interstate clearing-agreements which set the volumes and types of goods that states then would trade.", "In 1932 Latvia signed clearing agreements with France and Germany, in 1934 with the United Kingdom, in 1935 with Sweden, Estonia and Lithuania.Economic recovery started in 1933 as production increased by some 30%.", "The state budget deficit fell from the record 24.2 million lats in 1931/32 to 7.8 million lats in the 1933/34 budget.Stamps of Latvia, 2009-23.jpg\|Constitutional Assembly commemorative stampLatvia 1rublis.jpg\|1 ruble noteTwo latvian lats 1925.jpg\|2 lats coinFive Latvian Lats 1931.jpg\|The iconic design of 5 lats coin still used in Latvian euro coins" ], [ "Ulmanis dictatorship, 1934–40", "On the night from May 15 to 16, 1934 the Prime Minister Kārlis Ulmanis and Minister of War Jānis Balodis, fathers of Latvian independence, took power by a bloodless coup d'état.", "Parliament and Constitution were suspended, State of War introduced, all political parties banned and press censorship established.", "Members of the Pērkonkrusts, Latvian Social Democratic Workers' Party, pro-Nazi activists from the Baltic German community, and other leaders from the extreme right and left were detained.", "Certain extremist political figures such as Gustavs Celmiņš were sentenced to imprisonment.===Economy===Just as in politics, in economy, the new Ulmanis regime was very active in increasing state control and planning mechanisms.", "In 1934 regime created the Chamber of Trade and Industry was established, followed by the Chamber of Agriculture and the Chamber of Artisans in 1935 and the Chamber of Labour in 1936.The state helped bankrupt farmers by postponing bankruptcy auctions and refinanced their debt at a lower rate.", "On May 29, 1934, the state took control over cooperative societies and associations.", "The dairy industry was placed under the control of the Central Union of Dairy Farmers.On April 9, 1935 a state controlled Credit Bank of Latvia was created which reduced the role of foreign capital by creating many state owned industry monopolies and joint stock companies.", "Buyouts and liquidations of foreign, Baltic German and Jewish owned companies become a norm.", "In place of many competing companies large state owned companies were created.", "In 1939 the state owned 38 such companies.", "The new JSC Vairogs produced railway carriages and Ford-Vairogs automobiles under the Ford licence.", "VEF made world's smallest Minox cameras and such experimental aircraft as VEF JDA-10M, VEF I-12 and others.", "Between 1936 and 1939 the Ķegums Hydroelectric Power Station, with 70,000 kWh capacity largest in the Baltics, was built by Swedish companies.After Western countries abandoned the gold standard, the Latvian lats was pegged to the British pound in September 1936.It was a devaluation that further strengthened Latvian exports.", "By 1939, following an export boom propelled primarily by agricultural goods, Latvia was the richest of the Baltic countries, and had a GDP per capita higher than Finland or Austria.However, the recovery from the Great Depression took almost ten years.", "National income was 444 lats per capita in 1933 and reached 637 lats per capita in 1938, thus finally overtaking the 1929 levels.After the start of World War II Latvia declared complete neutrality, but it was now completely cut off from the market of United Kingdom, as Germany had sealed off the Baltic sea.", "Austerity was introduced on September 3, 1939.The politically disastrous October 5, 1939 Soviet–Latvian Mutual Assistance Treaty provided new export and import opportunities.", "On October 18, 1939 a new trade agreement was signed with the Soviet Union.", "Latvia exported its food products in return receiving oil, fuel and chemicals.", "On December 15, 1939 a new trade agreement was also signed with the Nazi Germany.Latvian farmers had traditionally relied on seasonal farmworkers from Poland, this was now cut off by the war, and in spring 1940 new regulations introduced compulsory work service for state employees, students and school pupils.===Foreign relations===In October 1936 Latvia was elected as non-permanent member of the Council of the League of Nations and retained this place for three years.", "In 1935 embassy in Washington was re-opened, which later served as important center for Latvian Diplomatic Service during 50 years of Soviet occupation.After the Munich Agreement demonstrated the failure of collective security system, Latvia on December 13, 1938 proclaimed absolute neutrality.", "On March 28, 1939 Soviet Union without any discussions announced that it is interested in maintaining and defending Latvia's independence.", "On June 7, 1939 Latvia and Germany signed non-aggression treaty.Minox Riga with Minostigmat 3,5 F=15 lens.jpg\|Minox camera, world's smallestVairogsauto.jpg\|Ford-Vairogs trucksFord-Vairogs-V8-front.jpg\|Ford-Vairogs V8VEF J-12 IoM.png\|VEF I-12ВЭС ГЭС.jpg\|Ķegums Hydroelectric Power StationBundesarchiv Bild 183-S34745, Tallin, Treffen der baltischen Aussenminister.jpg\|Baltic Entente meeting, 1937Bundesarchiv Bild 183-E07262, Berlin, Nichtangriffspakt mit Estland und Lettland.jpg\|Latvian, German and Estonian ministers sign non-aggression treaties, 1939" ], [ "World War II", "=== Soviet occupation under the Molotov–von Ribbentrop Pact===According to the 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact \"''the Baltic States (Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania)''\" were divided into German and Soviet \"spheres of influence\" (German copy)The Soviet Union prepared for Soviet annexation of Baltic countries with the signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany on August 23, 1939.Under threat of invasion, Latvia (along with Estonia and Lithuania) signed the Soviet–Latvian Mutual Assistance Treaty with Soviet Union, providing for the stationing of up to 25,000 Soviet troops on Latvian soil.", "Following the initiative from Nazi Germany, Latvia on October 30, 1939 concluded an agreement to \"repatriate\" ethnic Germans, most of whom had lived in the region for generations, in the wake of the impending Soviet takeover.Seven months later, the Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov accused the Baltic states of conspiracy against the Soviet Union.", "On June 16, 1940, threatening an invasion, Soviet Union issued an ultimatum demanding that the government be replaced and that an unlimited number of Soviet troops be admitted.", "Knowing that the Red Army had entered Lithuania a day before, that its troops were massed along the eastern border and mindful of the Soviet military bases in Western Latvia, the government acceded to the demands, and Soviet troops occupied the country on June 17.Staged elections were held July 14–15, 1940, and the results were announced in Moscow 12 hours before the polls closed; Soviet documents show the election results were forged.", "The newly elected \"People's Assembly\" declared Latvia a Socialist Soviet Republic and applied for admission into the Soviet Union on July 21.Latvia was incorporated into the Soviet Union on August 5, 1940.Latvian diplomatic service continued to function in exile while the republic was under the Soviet control.In the spring of 1941, the Soviet central government began planning the mass deportation of anti-Soviet elements from the occupied Baltic states.", "In preparation, General Ivan Serov, Deputy People's Commissar of Public Security of the Soviet Union, signed the Serov Instructions, \"Regarding the Procedure for Carrying out the Deportation of Anti-Soviet Elements from Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia.\"", "During the night of June 13–14, 1941, 15,424 inhabitants of Latvia — including 1,771 Jews and 742 ethnic Russians — were deported to camps and special settlements, mostly in Siberia.", "35,000 people were deported in the first year of Soviet occupation (131,500 across the Baltics).=== Occupation of Latvia by Nazi Germany (1941–1944) ===The Nazi invasion, launched a week later, cut short immediate plans to deport several hundred thousand more from the Baltics.", "Nazi troops occupied Riga on July 1, 1941.Immediately after the installation of German authority, a process of eliminating the Jewish and Gypsy population began, with many killings taking place in Rumbula.", "The killings were committed by the Einsatzgruppe A, the Wehrmacht and Marines (in Liepāja), as well as by Latvian collaborators, including the 500–1500 members of the infamous Arajs Commando (which alone killed around 26,000 Jews) and the 2000 or more Latvian members of the SD.", "By the end of 1941 almost the entire Jewish population was killed or placed in the concentration camps.", "In addition, some 25,000 Jews were brought from Germany, Austria and the present-day Czech Republic, of whom around 20,000 were killed.", "The Holocaust claimed approximately 85,000 lives in Latvia, the vast majority of whom were Jews.A large number of Latvians resisted the German occupation.", "The resistance movement was divided between the pro-independence units under the Latvian Central Council and the pro-Soviet units under the Latvian Partisan Movement Headquarters (Латвийский штаб партизанского движения) in Moscow.", "Their Latvian commander was Arturs Sproģis.", "The Nazis planned to Germanise the Baltics after the war.", "In 1943 and 1944 two divisions of Waffen-SS were formed from Latvian conscripts and volunteers to help Germany against the Red Army.Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-771-0356-01, Lettland, zerstörter sowjetischer Panzer.jpg\|Damaged Soviet tank in RigaBundesarchiv Bild 183-L19397, Lettland, Riga, Begrüßung der deutschen Soldaten.jpg\|Women greeting German soldiers in RigaBundesarchiv Bild 146-1994-090-06A, Lettland, Riga, Frauen auf Weg zum Arbeitseinsatz.jpg\|Women cleaning team in Riga, July 11, 1941Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-209-0063-12, Lettland, Aiviekste, Schützenpanzer vor Bahnübergang.jpg\|Germans at Aiviekste railroad stationBundesarchiv Bild 101I-209-0063-17, Lettland, Aiviekste, Panzer III an Bahnstrecke.jpg\|German tanks in action near Aiviekste railroad stationBundesarchiv Bild 146-1970-043-42, Lettland-Riga, Ankunft von Hinrich Lohse mit Offizieren am Bahnhof.jpg\|Hinrich Lohse in RigaBundesarchiv Bild 146-1994-090-05, Drechsler, Lohse, Rosenberg, v. Medem.jpg\|Reichsminister Alfred Rosenberg during visit to occupied Latvia, 1942Bundesarchiv Bild 101III-Duerr-054-19, Lettland, KZ Salaspils, Häftlinge.jpg\|Jewish prisoners in Salaspils concentration campBundesarchiv Bild 101III-Duerr-054-16A, Lettland, KZ Salaspils, Häftlingsappell.jpg\|Jewish prisoners in Salaspils concentration campBundesarchiv Bild 183-J16133, Lettland, Appell der SS-Legion.jpg\|Latvian Legion soldiers in Riga, 1943Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-702-0420-35, Lettland, Riga, Beisetzung.jpg\|Funeral of Voldemars Veiss in Riga, 1944Kurland6pf20apr1945.jpg\|German postal stamp from the Courland Pocket, 1945Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1972-093-39, Schnellboote transportieren Truppen aus Libau.jpg\|Last troops leaving Liepāja port, May 8, 1945" ], [ "Soviet era, 1944–1990", "Flag of the Latvian SSR.In 1944, when the Soviet military advances reached the area heavy fighting took place in Latvia between German and Soviet troops, which ended with another German defeat.", "Riga was re-captured by the Soviet Red Army on October 13, 1944 while the Courland Pocket held out until May 9, 1945.During the course of the war, both occupying forces conscripted Latvians into their armies, in this way increasing the loss of the nation's \"live resources\".", "In 1944, part of the Latvian territory once more came under Soviet control and Latvian national partisans began their fight against another occupier – the Soviet Union.", "160,000 Latvian inhabitants took refuge from the Soviet army by fleeing to Germany and Sweden.On the other side, many Latvians who had previously supported Bolshevism had chosen to remain in Soviet Russia, where they wielded disproportionate influence in the party.", "===Purge of national communists===On March 5, 1953 Joseph Stalin died and his successor became Nikita Khrushchev.", "The period known as the Khrushchev Thaw began but attempts by the national communists led by Eduards Berklavs to gain a degree of autonomy for the republic and protect the rapidly deteriorating position of the Latvian language were not successful.", "In 1959 after Krushchev's visit in Latvia national communists were stripped of their posts and Berklavs was deported to Russia.===Influx of Soviet immigrants===Because Latvia had still maintained a well-developed infrastructure and educated specialists it was decided in Moscow that some of the Soviet Union's most advanced manufacturing factories were to be based in Latvia.", "New industry was created in Latvia, including a major machinery factory RAF in Jelgava, electrotechnical factories in Riga, chemical factories in Daugavpils, Valmiera and Olaine, as well as food and oil processing plants.", "However, there were not enough people to operate the newly built factories.", "In order to expand industrial production, more immigrants from other Soviet republics were transferred into the country, noticeably decreasing the proportion of ethnic Latvians.By 1989, the ethnic Latvians comprised about 52% of the population (1,387,757), compared to a pre-war proportion of 77% (1,467,035).", "In 2005 there were 1,357,099 ethnic Latvians, showing a real decrease in the titular population.", "Proportionately, however, the titular nation already comprises approximately 60% of the total population of Latvia (2,375,000).File:Gauja portable radio 1961.JPG\|Portable radio built in RRRFile:Riga 1980 4kop USSR.jpg\|Soviet stamp celebrating 40 years of Latvian SSRFile:DR1A Riga.JPG\|Train built in RVRFile:РАФ-22031.jpg\|The iconic RAF minibusFile:Monument to Latvian Riflemen in Riga.JPG\|Monument to the Red Latvian Riflemen in RigaFile:Old soviet building (8229119199).jpg\|The abandoned House of PressFile:Jurmala-Riviera meets Totalitarism.jpg\|Soviet nomenklatura sanatorium in Jūrmala" ], [ "Restoration of independence", "Barricade in Riga to prevent the Soviet Army from reaching the Latvian Parliament, July 1991.Liberalization in the communist regime began in the mid-1980s in the USSR with the perestroika and glasnost instituted by Mikhail Gorbachev.", "In Latvia, several mass political organizations were constituted that made use of this opportunity – Popular Front of Latvia (''Tautas Fronte''), Latvian National Independence Movement (''Latvijas Nacionālās Neatkarības Kustība'') and Citizens' Congress (''Pilsoņu kongress'').", "These groups began to agitate for the restoration of national independence.On the 50th anniversary of the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact (August 23, 1989) to the fate of the Baltic nations, Latvians, Lithuanians and Estonians joined hands in a human chain, the Baltic Way, that stretched 600 kilometers from Tallinn, to Riga, to Vilnius.", "It symbolically represented the united wish of the Baltic States for independence.Subsequent steps toward full independence were taken on May 4, 1990.The Latvian SSR Supreme Council, elected in the first democratic elections since the 1930s, adopted a declaration restoring independence that included a transition period between autonomy within the Soviet Union and full independence.", "In January 1991, however, pro-communist political forces attempted to restore Soviet power with the use of force.", "Latvian demonstrators managed to stop the Soviet troops from re-occupying strategic positions (January 1991 events in Latvia).", "On August 21, after the unsuccessful attempt at a coup d'état in Moscow, parliament voted for an end to the transition period, thus restoring Latvia's pre-war independence.", "On September 6, 1991 Latvian independence was once again recognized by the Soviet Union." ], [ "Modern history", "George W. Bush, Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga, Arnold Rüütel, and Valdas Adamkus in Riga, May 7, 2005.Soon after reinstating independence, Latvia, which had been a member of the League of Nations prior to World War II, became a member of the United Nations.", "In 1992, Latvia became eligible for the International Monetary Fund and in 1994 took part in the NATO ''Partnership for Peace'' program in addition to signing the free trade agreement with the European Union.", "Latvia became a member of the European Council as well as a candidate for the membership in the European Union and NATO.", "Latvia was the first of the three Baltic nations to be accepted into the World Trade Organization.At the end of 1999 in Helsinki, the heads of the European Union governments invited Latvia to begin negotiations regarding accession to the European Union.", "In 2004, Latvia's most important foreign policy goals, membership of the European Union and NATO, were fulfilled.", "On April 2, Latvia became a member of NATO and on May 1, Latvia, along with the other two Baltic States, became a member of the European Union.", "Around 67% had voted in favor of EU membership in a September 2003 referendum with turnout at 72.5%.", "Latvia signed the Schengen agreement on 16 April 2003 and started its implementation on 21 December 2007.In November 2013, roof collapsed at a shopping center in Riga, causing Latvia’s worst post-independence disaster with the deaths of 54 rush hour shoppers and rescue personnel.", "On 1 January 2014, Latvia joined the eurozone, becoming a member of the group of EU states which uses the euro as its currency.In May 2023, the parliament elected Edgars Rinkevics as new President of Latvia, making him the Baltic States’ first openly gay head of state.=== Regional timeline ===Affiliations of the areas that comprise modern Latvia in historical and regional context:CenturyNorth EstoniaSouth EstoniaNorth LatviaSouth LatviaLithuania10thFinnic tribesBaltic tribesBaltic tribes11th 12thAncient EstoniaAncient LatviaAncient Lithuania13thDanish EstoniaLivonian OrderDuchy of Lithuania14thPolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (Grand Duchy of Lithuania)15th16thSwedish EstoniaPolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (Duchy of Livonia)17thSwedish Livonia18thRussian Empire (Governorate of Estonia)Russian Empire (Governorate of Livonia)Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (Duchy of Courland and Semigallia)19thRussian Empire (Courland Governorate)Russian Empire (Government of Kaunas)Russian Empire (Vilna Governorate)20thRepublic of EstoniaRepublic of LatviaRepublic of Lithuania21stRepublic of Estonia (EU)'''Republic of Latvia (EU)'''Republic of Lithuania (EU)" ], [ "See also", "* Dissolution of the Soviet Union* History of Riga* Latvian independence movement (1940–1991)* Latvian diplomatic service (1940–1991)* List of presidents of Latvia* Prime Minister of Latvia* Livonia* Politics of Latvia" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bilmanis, Alfreds.", "''A History of Latvia'' (1970).", "* Coulby, David.", "\"Language and citizenship in Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia: Education and the brinks of warfare.\"", "European ''Journal of Intercultural Studies'' 8.2 (1997): 125-134.online* Dreifelds, Juris.", "\"Demographic trends in Latvia.\"", "''Nationalities Papers'' 12.1 (1984): 49-84.online* Eglitis, Daina Stukuls.", "''Imagining the Nation: History, Modernity, and Revolution in Latvia'' (Post-Communist Cultural Studies) (2005).", "* Hiden, John, and Patrick Salmon.", "''The Baltic nations and Europe: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in the twentieth century'' (Routledge, 2014).", "* Kalnins, Mara.", "''Latvia: A short history'' (Oxford University Press, 2015).", "* Lane, Thomas, et al.", "''The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania'' (Routledge, 2013) online.", "* Lumans; Valdis O. ''", "Latvia in World War II'' (Fordham University Press, 2006)* McDowell, Linda.", "\"Cultural memory, gender and age: young Latvian women's narrative memories of war-time Europe, 1944–1947.\"", "''Journal of Historical Geography'' 30.4 (2004): 701-728.online* Minins, Aldis.", "\"Latvia, 1918–1920: a civil war?.\"", "''Journal of Baltic Studies'' 46.1 (2015): 49-63.", "* O'Connor, Kevin.", "''The History of the Baltic States'' (2nd ed.", "ABC-CLIO, 2015).", "* Palmer, Alan.", "''The Baltic: A new history of the region and its people'' New York: Overlook Press, 2006; published In London with the title '' Northern shores: a history of the Baltic Sea and its peoples'' (John Murray, 2006).", "* Plakans, Andrejs.", "''Historical Dictionary of Latvia'' (2008).", "online* Plakans, Andrejs.", "''The Latvians: A Short History'' (1995).", "* Shafir, Gershon.", "''Immigrants and nationalists: Ethnic conflict and accommodation in Catalonia, the Basque Country, Latvia, and Estonia'' (SUNY Press, 1995) online.===Primary sources===* Skultans, Vieda.", "''The testimony of lives: Narrative and memory in post-Soviet Latvia'' (Routledge, 2002) ." ], [ "External links", "* National History Museum of Latvia* History of Latvia ''The Route from the Vikings to the Greeks''* History of Latvia; A Brief Survey (en) * History of Latvia: Primary Documents* Issues of the History of Latvia: 1939–1991* Castle ruins in Latvia* Myths of Latvian History (en)* Occupation of Latvia (''PDF file 2.85MB'') * Latvia: Year of horror (1940)* The Story of Latvia, by Arveds Svabe* Historical maps of Latvia in the 16th, 17th and 18th century* Medieval Castles of Latvia" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Latvia" ], [ "Introduction", "Detailed map of LatviaLatvia lies on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea on the level northwestern part of the rising East European platform, between Estonia and Lithuania.", "About 98% of the country lies under elevation.", "With the exception of the coastal plains, the ice age divided Latvia into three main regions: the morainic Western and Eastern uplands and the Middle lowlands.", "Latvia holds over 12,000 rivers, only 17 of which are longer than , and over 3,000 small lakes, most of which are eutrophic.", "The major rivers include the Daugava, the Lielupe, the Gauja, the Venta and the Salaca.", "Woodlands cover around 52% of the country (Pine – 34%, Spruce – 18%, Birch – 30%).", "Other than peat, dolomite, and limestone, natural resources are scarce.", "Latvia has of sandy coastline, and the ports of Liepāja and Ventspils provide important warm-water harbors for the Baltic coast.Latvia is a small country with a land size of .", "However, it is larger than many other European countries (Albania, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Luxembourg, North Macedonia, Malta, Montenegro, Netherlands, Slovakia, Slovenia or Switzerland).", "Its strategic location has instigated many wars between rival powers on its territory.", "As recently as 1944, the USSR granted Russia the Abrene region, which Latvia contested after the dissolution of the Soviet Union." ], [ "Physical environment", "Latvia encompasses 64,589 square kilometers and is an extension of the East European Plain.", "Its flat terrain differs little from that of its surrounding neighbors.", "Latvia's only distinct border is the Baltic Sea coast, which extends for 496 kilometers.", "Its neighbors include Lithuania on the south (453 kilometers of common border), Estonia on the north (267 kilometers), Russia on the east (217 kilometers), and Belarus on the southeast (141 kilometers).", "Prior to World War II, Latvia bordered eastern Poland, but as a result of boundary changes by the Soviet Union, this territory was attached to Belarus." ], [ "Geographic features", "The physiography of Latvia and its neighboring areas was formed, to a large degree, during the Quaternary period and the Pleistocene ice age, when soil and debris were pushed by glaciers into mounds and hills.", "Undulating plains cover 75% of Latvia's territory and provide the main areas for farming; 25% of the territory lies in uplands of moderate-sized hills.", "About 27% of the total territory is cultivable, with the central south of Riga being the most fertile and profitable.", "The three main upland areas, in the provinces of Kurzeme (western Latvia), Vidzeme (central Latvia, Vidzeme Upland and Aluksne Upland), and Latgale (eastern Latvia), provide a picturesque pattern of fields interspersed with forests and numerous lakes and rivers.", "In this area, the extensive glacial moraines, eskers, and drumlins have limited the profitability of agriculture by fragmenting fields and presenting serious erosion problems.About 10% of Latvian territory consists of peat bogs, swamps, and marshes, some of which are covered by stunted forest growth.", "Forests are the outstanding feature of Latvia, claiming 42% of the territory.", "Over the past 100 years the amount of forest territories in Latvia has doubled, and the process is still ongoing.", "Forest territories are expanding naturally, as well as due to intentional afforestation of barren land and land that cannot be used for agricultural purposes.", "More than half of the forests consist of Scots pine or Norway spruce.Nearly all forests in Latvia are publicly accessible, and therefore one of the most widespread pastimes of the population is picking bilberries, cranberries, mushrooms, and other bounties of the natural environment.Latvia's legislation on forestry is among the strictest in Europe firmly regulating wood harvesting.", "Each year the forests produce 25 million cubic meters of timber, while only about 12–13 million cubic meters are felled, therefore the amount of mature and old forests continue to increase.Thanks to the significant amount of forest resources, Latvia has a well-developed wood processing industry, therefore timber and wood products are among the country's most important exports.", "Latvian wood processing companies are important players in many European markets.The traditional Latvian approach to forestry with its small system of clear-cut areas combined with the network of forest territories that have seen little human influence, as well as the outflow of people from rural areas to urban ones have facilitated the emergence of a unique biological diversity in forests which home animal and bird species, that have died out or are very rare elsewhere in Europe.According to a World Wildlife Fund study in 1992, Latvia has sizable populations of black stork, lesser spotted eagle, Eurasian otter, European beaver, Eurasian lynx, and grey wolf.", "Also in great numbers are red deer and roe deer (total 86,000), wild boar (32,000), elk (25,000) and red fox (13,000).The variegated and rapidly changing physiography of glacial moraines and lowlands has also allowed temperate flora, such as oaks, to grow within a few hundred meters of northern flora, such as bog cotton and cloudberries.", "This variety and the rapid change in natural ecosystems are among the unique features of the republic.The Soviet system left behind another windfall for naturalists.", "The Latvian western seacoast was a carefully guarded border region.", "Almost all houses near the sea were razed or evacuated.", "As a result, about 300 kilometers of undeveloped seashore are graced only by forests of pine and spruce and ecologically unique sand dunes.", "The temptation for fast profit, however, may foster violation of laws that clearly forbid any construction within one kilometer of the sea.", "This could lead to one of the last remaining wild shorelines in Europe becoming non-existent.The seashore adjoining the population centers around Riga was a major focus of tourism during the Soviet era.", "Jūrmala has many sanitoriums and tourist accommodations, tall pines, sandy beaches, and antique architecture.Latvia has an abundant network of rivers, contributing to the visual beauty and the economy of the country.", "The largest river is the Daugava, which has been an important route for several thousand years.", "It has been used by local tribes as well as by Vikings, Russians, and other Europeans for trade, war, and conquest.", "With a total length of 1,020 kilometers, the Daugava (or Zapadnaya Dvina in its upper reaches) originates in the Valday Hills in Russia's Tver' Oblast, meanders through northern Belarus, and then winds through Latvia for before emptying into the Gulf of Riga.", "It is about 180 meters wide when it enters Latvia, increasing to between 650 and 750 meters at Riga and its opening in Baltic sea.The river carries an average annual flow of 21 cubic kilometers.", "Its total descent within Latvia of ninety-eight meters has made it an attractive source of hydroelectric power production.", "The first hydroelectric station—Ķegums Hydro Power Plant—was built during Latvia's independence period.", "The second dam—Pļaviņas Hydro Power Plant—aroused an unusual wave of protest in 1958.Most Latvians opposed the flooding of historical sites and a particularly scenic gorge with rare plants and natural features, such as the Staburags, a cliff comparable in cultural significance to the Lorelei in Germany.", "The construction of the dam was endorsed in 1959, however, after the purge of relatively liberal and nationally oriented leaders under Eduards Berklavs and their replacement by Moscow-oriented, ideologically conservative cadres led by Arvīds Pelše.", "The third dam—Riga Hydroelectric Power Plant—just above Riga, did not provoke much protest because of the seeming hopelessness of the cause.", "The proposed fourth dam, at the town of Daugavpils on the Daugava River, became the rallying point for protest in 1986-87 by hundreds of thousands of Latvians.", "This dam was not constructed, in spite of the vast expenditures already poured into the project.The Lielupe flows into the Baltic Sea in the Gulf of Riga, while the Buļļupe branch flows towards the Daugava River to the west.Smaller rivers include the Lielupe, in central Latvia, with an average annual flow of 3.6 cubic kilometers; the Venta, in the west, with 2.9 cubic kilometers; the Gauja, in the northeast, with 2.5 cubic kilometers; and the Aiviekste, in the east, with 2.1 cubic kilometers.", "Very little hydroelectric power is generated by their waters, although planners are now thinking of reactivating some of the abandoned older dams and turbines.", "The Gauja is one of Latvia's most attractive, relatively clean rivers and has an adjoining large Gauja National Park along both of its banks as one of its notable features.", "Its cold waters attract trout and salmon, and its sandstone cliff and forest setting are increasingly a magnet for tourists interested in the environment.More than 60% of the annual water volume of Latvia's six largest rivers comes from neighboring countries, mainly from Belarus and Lithuania.", "These adjoining resources create obvious needs for cooperation, especially in pollution control.", "The dangers from a lack of cooperation were brought home to Latvians in November 1990, when a polymer complex in Navapolatsk, Belarus, accidentally spilled 128 tons of cyanide derivatives into the Daugava River with no warning to downstream users in Latvia.", "Only the presence of numerous dead fish alerted Latvian inhabitants to the danger." ], [ "Climate", "In the summer, daylight hours are long and in the winter short.", "In December it is still pitch dark at 9:00 A.M., and daylight disappears before 4:00 P.M.", "The climate is tempered by the Gulf Stream flowing across the Atlantic Ocean from Mexico.", "Average temperatures in winter are reasonably mild, ranging in January from in Liepāja, on the western coast, to in the southeastern town of Daugavpils.", "July temperatures range from in Liepāja to in Daugavpils.", "Latvia's proximity to the sea brings high levels of humidity and precipitation, with average annual precipitation of in Riga.", "There, an average of 180 days per year have precipitation, forty-four days have fog, and only seventy-two days are sunny.", "Continuous snow cover lasts eighty-two days, and the frost-free period lasts 177 days.This precipitation has helped provide the abundant water for Latvia's many rivers and lakes, but it has created many problems as well.", "A large part of agricultural land requires drainage.", "Much money has been spent for land amelioration projects involving the installation of drainage pipes, the straightening and deepening of natural streams, the digging of drainage ditches, and the construction of polder dams.", "During the 1960s and 1970s, drainage work absorbed about one-third of all agricultural investments in Latvia.", "Although accounting for only one-third of 1% of the territory, Latvia was responsible for 11% of all artificially drained land in the former Soviet Union.An additional problem associated with precipitation is the difficulty of early mechanized sowing and harvesting because of waterlogged fields.", "Heavy precipitation occurs, especially during harvest time in August and September, requiring heavy investment outlays in grain-drying structures and ventilation systems.", "In 1992 Latvia experienced the driest summer in recorded weather history, but unusually heavy rains in the preceding spring kept crop damage below the extent expected.", "The moist climate has been a major factor orienting Latvian agriculture toward animal husbandry and dairying.", "Even most of the field crops, such as barley, oats, and potatoes, are grown for animal feed." ], [ "Natural resources", "Latvia cannot claim valuable natural resources.", "Nevertheless, the abundant presence of such materials as limestone for cement (6 billion cubic meters or 8 billion cubic yards), gypsum (165 million cubic meters or 216 million cubic yards), high-quality clay (375 million cubic meters or 490 million cubic yards), dolomite (615 million cubic meters or 804 million cubic yards), peat (), and construction materials, including gravel and sand, satisfy local needs.", "Fish from the Baltic Sea is another potential export resource.", "Amber, million-year-old chunks of petrified pine pitch, is often found on the beaches of the Baltic Sea and is in high demand for jewelry.", "It has also had a symbolic impact on the country, which is often called Dzintarzeme, or Amberland.", "The future may hold potentially more valuable resources if oil fields are discovered in Latvian territorial waters, as some geologists have predicted.", "Latvia has an Exclusive Economic Zone of ." ], [ "Area and boundaries", "'''Area:'''''total:''''land:''''water:'''''Land boundaries:'''''total:''''border countries:''Belarus , Estonia , Lithuania , Russia '''Coastline:''''''Maritime claims:'''''territorial sea:''''exclusive economic zone:'' with ''continental shelf:'' depth or to the depth of exploitation'''Extreme points:'''* North : ()* South : ()* West : ()* East : ()'''Elevation extremes:'''''lowest point:''Baltic Sea 0 m''highest point:''Gaizinkalns" ], [ "Resources and land use", "'''Natural resources:'''peat, limestone, dolomite, amber, hydropower, timber, arable land'''Land use:'''''arable land:''17.96%''permanent crops:''0.11%''other:''81.93% (2011)'''Irrigated land:''' ''note:'' land in Latvia is often too wet and in need of drainage not irrigation; approximately or 85% of agricultural land has been improved by drainage (2007)'''Total renewable water resources:'''35.45 km3 (2011)" ], [ "Environmental concerns", "'''Natural hazards:'''none'''Environment - current issues:'''Latvia's environment has benefited from a shift to service industries after the country regained independence; the main environmental priorities are improvement of drinking water quality and sewage system, household, and hazardous waste management, as well as reduction of air pollution; in 2001, Latvia closed the EU accession negotiation chapter on environment committing to full enforcement of EU environmental directives by 2010'''Environment - international agreements:'''''party to:''Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Biodiversity, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands''signed, but not ratified:''none of the selected agreements" ], [ "See also", "* Cultural regions of Latvia* Dobele crater" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Latvia" ], [ "Introduction", "Population of Latvia (in millions) from 1935 to 2022Demographic features of the population of the historical territory of Latvia include population density, ethnic background, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population." ], [ "History", "Latvia was settled by Baltic tribes some three millennia ago.", "The territories along the eastern Baltic first came under foreign domination at the beginning of the 13th century, with the formal establishment of Riga in 1201 under the German Teutonic Knights.Latvia, in whole or in parts, remained under foreign rule for the next eight centuries, finding itself at the cross-roads of all the regional superpowers of their day, including Denmark (the Danes held on lands around the Gulf of Riga), Sweden, and Russia, with southern (Courland) Latvia being at one time a vassal to Poland-Lithuania as well as Latgale falling directly under Poland-Lithuania rule.", "Through all this time, Latvia remained largely under Baltic German hegemony, with Baltic Germans comprising the largest land-owners, a situation which did not change until Latvia's independence.Historically, Latvia has had significant German, Russian, Jewish, Polish, Belarusian and Lithuanian minorities.", "The majority (roughly two thirds) of Latvians, under Swedish influences, adopted Lutheranism, while the minority (the remaining third) of Latvians under Poland-Lithuania, Latgale in particular, retained their Catholicism.", "Aglona, in Latgale, has been the site of annual Catholic pilgrimage for centuries, even through to today.", "During the Second World War the Jewish population was largely decimated by Nazi Germany as part of the holocaust.", "Recently introduced immigration law in Latvia provides framework for immigration through investment in various financial areas or real estate.", "In 2012, solely 2,435 applications for residence permit by investment in real estate were received by Office of Citizenship and Migration Affairs.", "Main immigrant countries are Russia, Belarus, Ukraine and Lithuania (Lithuania is in the European Union, thus no investment is needed).", "Moreover, Latvia receives residence permit applications from people of nationalities such as Afghans, Chinese, Libyans and people from various other distant countries.Over 130,000 persons have been naturalized as Latvian citizens since 1995 and 182,375 persons, as of 2022, live in Latvia with non-citizen's passports.", "Large numbers of Russians, as well as some Ukrainians and Belarusians remained in Latvia after the fall of the Soviet Union.According to the provisional results of the Population and Housing Census 2011, the total population of Latvia on 1 March 2011 was 2,067,887.Since the previous census in 2000 the country's population decreased by 309,000 or 13%.", "Based on the Population and Housing Census 2021, the total population of Latvia on 1 January 2021 was 1,893,223.Since the previous census in 2011 the country's population decreased by 174,664 or 8,5%.", "The proportion of ethnic Latvians increased to 62.7% of the population.", "Livonians are the other indigenous ethnic group, with about 250 of them remaining.", "Latgalians are a distinctive subgroup of Latvians inhabiting or coming from Eastern Latvia.According to rankings provided by the United States Census Bureau—International Data Base (IDB)—Country Rankings, Latvia is estimated to have a population of 1,249,812 in the year 2050." ], [ "Population", "=== Age structure ===Approximate demographic evolution in Latvia, 1920–2011.''NB.", "the amount of time between each year in the diagramme is not the same which gives a somewhat garbled image of the evolution.", "''Census yearChildrenWorking agePensioners 1897 41.0 52.8 6.2 1920 38.3 52.9 8.6 1935 30.4 60.3 9.2 1943 29.1 60.6 10.3 1959 30.0 63.2 6.8 1970 23.1 56.2 20.7 1979 21.8 58.3 19.9 1989 22.7 56.6 20.7 2000 18.0 58.9 23.1 2011 14.1 64.1 21.8 2021 16.1 61.9 22.1" ], [ "Vital statistics", "Source: Central Statistical Bureau of LatviaAverage populationLive birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Crude migration change (per 1000)Total fertility rateInfant mortality rate (per 1000 births)Life expectancy at birth (males)Life expectancy at birth (females)19201,727,00029,43433,891 −4,45717.019.6 −2.5 73.7128.419211,850,00036,42025,33111,08919.713.75.9 11.993.219221,883,00041,14627,55313,59321.914.67.2 6.690.819231,909,00041,79626,08015,71621.913.7 -41.78.288.419241,845,00041,17228,39912,77322.315.46.9 -0.4100.850.756.919251,857,00041,31427,68313,63122.314.97.3 0.2107.219261,871,00041,07327,55713,51622.014.77.2 -0.887.919271,883,00041,61028,94112,66922.115.46.7 -0.395.719281,895,00039,12627,29911,82720.714.46.2 -3.696.319291,900,00035,67328,5127,16118.815.03.7 1.6106.719301,910,00037,83527,11010,72519.814.25.6 -0.490.019311,920,00036,97226,89110,08119.314.05.2 0.586.319321,931,00037,36626,34211,02419.413.65.7 -1.689.319331,939,00034,57626,3198,25717.813.64.2 -0.176.419341,947,00033,38327,0656,31817.213.93.2 -0.195.155.160.619351,953,00034,41927,6606,75917.614.23.4 0.778.955.061.019361,961,00035,46827,6467,82218.114.13.9 -0.380.119371,968,00034,86328,0836,78017.714.33.4 1.785.019381,978,00036,38626,7039,68318.413.54.9 6.268.11939 2,000,00036,93227,8279,10518.513.94.6 -34.670.219401,940,00037,49330,3557,13819.315.73.6 -99.073.219411,755,00036,29530,4345,86120.717.33.4 -6.281.719421,750,00036,37029,9406,43020.717.13.6 2.181.119431,760,00035,91529,9046,01120.416.93.593.41944 2.30194526,21732,230−6,013 111.119461,553,57730,54432,266−1,72218.719.7−1.0 106.093.919471,716,77334,83232,4352,39719.518.21.3 80.0108.719481,856,41935,40226,5008,90218.914.24.7 11.779.319491,886,79235,67125,64010,03118.913.65.3 -6.783.319501,884,07733,13724,2508,88717.612.94.7 -1.670.019511,889,97432,76423,8988,86617.312.64.7 -0.169.619521,898,57732,27822,6809,59816.911.95.0 2.552.919531,912,83730,98622,7618,22516.111.84.3 9.446.819541,939,13833,20222,50010,70217.011.55.5 8.645.919551,966,56732,96821,33011,63816.610.85.8 8.842.019561,995,35432,59020,33912,25116.110.16.0 16.933.919572,040,97833,71421,08712,62716.410.36.1 6.332.319582,066,36835,06820,91014,15816.910.16.8 -0.229.565.272.419592,079,94835,02822,60112,42716.710.85.9 5.730.819602,104,12835,46821,31414,15416.710.06.7 9.31.9927.019612,137,83035,99321,75914,23416.710.16.6 7.32.0124.166.173.519622,167,53135,06123,59211,46916.110.85.3 7.71.9124.219632,195,64033,84322,70311,14015.310.35.0 8.91.8525.967.074.019642,226,19833,05321,16511,88814.89.45.4 7.61.7922.019652,255,04831,21222,7808,43213.810.13.7 5.91.7418.966.674.419662,276,78931,97423,3508,62414.010.23.8 1.81.7617.019672,289,64532,23224,3627,87014.010.63.4 6.71.8017.319682,312,79532,69325,1047,58914.110.83.3 6.11.8318.919692,334,44332,91526,2296,68614.011.22.8 4.71.8817.765.574.219702,351,90334,33326,5467,78714.611.33.3 2.92.0117.766.074.419712,366,42435,23926,2758,96414.811.13.7 4.72.0515.965.474.619722,386,35335,00727,2967,71114.611.43.2 4.62.0316.065.075.019732,404,99534,00828,1395,86914.111.62.5 6.51.9615.865.274.719742,426,64234,92028,1436,77714.311.52.8 5.91.9918.419752,447,73034,81030,0424,76814.212.22.0 4.91.9620.364.274.319762,464,52934,64430,3734,27114.012.31.7 3.51.9320.164.474.319772,477,44934,24030,8693,37113.812.41.4 4.81.8818.364.574.219782,492,69734,25831,2612,99713.712.51.2 3.01.8618.163.773.919792,503,14534,68332,1622,52113.812.81.0 1.21.8618.363.673.919802,508,76135,53432,1003,43414.112.81.3 1.01.8815.363.674.219812,514,64035,73232,0903,64214.212.71.5 2.31.8816.063.974.419822,524,20237,47731,2346,24314.812.32.5 2.91.9713.964.074.519832,537,95840,57232,3308,24215.912.73.2 3.12.1215.963.974.519842,554,06340,84733,4067,44115.913.02.9 3.42.1412.964.474.219852,570,03039,75134,1665,58515.413.22.2 4.72.0813.065.574.519862,587,71641,96031,32810,63216.112.04.1 5.32.2112.866.375.019872,612,06842,13532,1509,98516.012.23.8 7.32.2111.319882,641,09741,27532,4218,85415.612.23.4 5.92.1611.066.375.119892,665,77038,92232,5846,33814.612.22.4 -1.52.0411.365.375.219902,668,14037,91834,8123,10614.213.11.1 -4.82.0013.764.274.619912,658,16134,63334,749 −11613.113.10.0 -5.71.8615.763.874.819922,643,00031,56935,420 −3,85112.113.5 −1.4 -20.31.7417.663.374.819932,585,67526,75939,197 −12,43810.415.3 −4.9 -12.41.5216.261.673.819942,540,90424,25641,757 −17,5019.616.6 −7.0 -8.91.4115.760.772.919952,500,58021,59538,931 −17,3368.715.7 −7.0 -5.41.2718.860.873.119962,469,53119,78234,320 −14,5388.114.0 −5.9 -4.11.1815.963.975.619972,444,91218,83033,533 −14,7037.713.8 −6.1 -3.81.1315.364.275.919982,420,78918,41034,200 −15,7907.614.2 −6.6 -2.31.1215.064.175.519992,399,24819,39632,844 −13,4488.113.7 −5.6 -1.71.1811.364.976.220002,381,71520,30232,205 −11,9038.613.6 −5.0 -6.91.2510.364.675.820012,353,38419,72632,991 −13,2658.414.1 −5.7 -8.11.2211.064.275.520022,320,95620,12732,498 −12,3718.714.1 −5.4 -3.91.259.864.475.920032,299,39021,15132,437 −11,2869.214.2 −5.0 -4.91.329.465.475.720042,276,52020,55132,024 −11,4739.114.2 −5.1 -6.71.299.365.576.120052,249,72421,87932,777 −10,8989.814.6 −4.8 -4.91.397.764.976.320062,227,87422,87133,098 −10,22710.314.9 −4.6 -3.91.467.465.076.120072,208,84023,95833,042 −9,08410.915.0 −4.1 -3.61.548.565.376.220082,191,81024,39731,006 −6,60911.214.2 −3.0 -10.21.586.666.577.420092,162,83422,04429,897−7,85310.314.0−3.7 -15.91.467.667.577.62010 2,120,50419,78130,040−10,2599.414.3−4.9 -16.71.365.667.977.92011 2,074,60518,82528,540−9,7159.113.9−4.8 -9.6 1.336.668.678.520122,044,81319,89729,025−9,1289.814.3−4.5 -5.8 1.446.365.978.720132,023,82520,59628,691−8,09510.214.3−4.1 -6.9 1.524.469.378.820142,001,46821,74628,466−6,72010.914.3−3.4 -4.3 1.653.869.179.320151,986,09621,97928,478−6,49911.114.4−3.3 -5.3 1.704.169.779.320161,968,95721,96828,580−6,61211.214.6−3.4 -6.2 1.743.769.879.420171,950,11620,82828,757−7,92910.714.8−4.1 -4.0 1.694.169.879.620181,934,37919,31428,820−9,50610.015.0−5.0 -2.41.603.270.079.620191,919,96818,78627,719−8,9339.814.5−4.7 -1.71.613.470.879.920201,907,67517,55228,854−11,3029.215.2−5.9 -1.71.553.570.479.520211,893,22317,42034,600−17,1809.218.4 −9.1 -0.11.572.768.277.920221,875,757 15,95430,731 -14,7778.516.4 -7.9 11.81.4769.479.3 2023 1 883 008 14,121 27,724 -13,603 7.5 14.7 -7.2===Current vital statistics===+ Period Live births Deaths Natural increase '''January – November 2022''' 14,859 27,741 −12,882 '''January – November 2023''' 13,043 25,024 −11,981 '''Difference''' −1,816 (−12.2%) -2,717 (-9.8%) +901===Structure of the population===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 875 225 1 017 998 1 893 223 100 0–4 50 997 47 398 98 395 5.20 5–9 53 160 49 792 102 952 5.44 10–14 52 031 49 600 101 631 5.37 15–19 46 483 44 082 90 565 4.78 20–24 43 111 39 983 83 094 4.39 25–29 55 036 51 096 106 132 5.61 30–34 70 356 66 019 136 375 7.20 35–39 67 792 64 584 132 376 6.99 40–44 60 966 61 455 122 421 6.47 45–49 63 622 66 825 130 447 6.89 50–54 60 765 67 333 128 098 6.77 55–59 61 409 72 108 133 517 7.05 60–64 58 392 75 130 133 522 7.05 65-69 44 750 66 714 111 464 5.89 70-74 34 143 59 652 93 795 4.95 75-79 23 578 51 380 74 958 3.96 80-84 18 166 47 524 65 690 3.47 85-89 7 544 24 706 32 250 1.70 90-94 2 572 10 412 12 984 0.69 95-99 317 2 050 2 367 0.13 100+ 35 155 190 0.01Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 156 188 146 790 302 978 16.00 15–64 587 932 608 615 1 196 547 63.20 65+ 131 105 262 593 393 698 20.80" ], [ "Immigration", "Illegal immigration in Latvia has traditionally been from neighboring countries but now migrants also come from other areas such as Latin America, Southeast Asia and Africa.", "The Latvian government have sought to work with Russia to stem the problem.", "In 2009 the US State Department criticized Latvia for its treatment of illegal immigrants.For an immigrant not to become an illegal resident, a permit is required for a foreign national or a stateless person wishing to reside in the Republic of Latvia for more than 90 days within a 6-month period, thus if the person does not acquire himself a residence permit, he will be considered an illegal immigrant.+Largest groups of foreign citizensRankNationality Population (2019)142,24322,79032,41341,63056116304720181889176101711116912151131341412815118161151796188819862082" ], [ "Ethnic groups", "Latvia's indigenous population has been ravaged numerous times throughout history.", "The earliest such event occurred during the conquest of Latvia by Peter the Great in the Great Northern War with Sweden.In 1897, the first official census in this area indicated that Latvians formed 68.3% of the total population of 1.93 million; Russians accounted for 12%, Jews for 7.4%, Germans for 6.2%, and Poles for 3.4%.", "The remainder were Lithuanians, Estonians, Romani, and various other nationalities.The demographics shifted greatly in the 20th century due to the world wars, the expulsion of the Baltic Germans, the Holocaust, and occupation by the Soviet Union.", "Today, only the Russian minority, which has tripled in numbers since 1935, remains important.", "The share of ethnic Latvians fell from 75% (1,472,612) in 1935 to 52% (1,387,757) in 1989, after human loss in World War II and human deportation and other repressive measures.+ Population of Latvia according to ethnic group 1897–2021 Ethnicgroup census 1897 census 1925 census 1935 census 1959 census 1970 census 1979 census 1989 census 2000 census 2011 census 20212023 statistics Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number %Number% Latvians 1,318,112 68.3 1,354,126 73.4 1,472,612 75.5 1,297,881 62.0 1,341,805 56.8 1,344,105 53.7 1,387,757 52.0 1,370,703 57.7 1,285,136 62.1 1,187,891 62.71,175,902 Russians 152,681 7.9 193,648 10.5 206,499 10.6 556,448 26.6 704,599 29.8 821,464 32.8 905,515 34.0 703,243 29.6 557,119 26.9 463,587 24.5445,612 Ukrainians — 512 0.03 1,844 0.09 29,440 1.4 53,461 2.3 66,703 2.7 92,101 3.5 63,644 2.7 45,798 2.2 42,282 2.256,675 Belarusians 79,523 4.1 38,010 2.1 26,867 1.4 61,587 2.9 94,898 4.0 111,505 4.5 119,702 4.5 97,150 4.1 68,202 3.3 58,632 3.155,929 Poles 65,056 3.4 51,143 2.8 48,949 2.5 59,774 2.9 63,045 2.7 62,690 2.5 60,416 2.3 59,505 2.5 44,772 2.2 37,203 2.035,446 Lithuanians 26,033 1.3 23,192 1.3 22,913 1.2 32,383 1.6 40,589 1.7 37,818 1.5 34,630 1.3 33,430 1.4 24,479 1.2 21,5171.120,530 Roma — 2,870 0.2 3,839 0.2 4,301 0.2 5,427 0.2 6,134 0.3 7,044 0.3 8,205 0.3 6,489 0.3 4,8380.34,677 Jews 142,315 7.4 95,675 5.2 93,479 4.8 36,592 1.8 36,680 1.6 28,331 1.1 22,897 0.9 10,385 0.4 6,437 0.3 4,3720.24,076 Germans 120,191 6.2 70,964 3.8 62,144 3.2 1,609 0.08 5,413 0.2 3,299 0.1 3,783 0.1 3,465 0.1 3,042 0.1 2,4470.12,380 Estonians 17,990 0.93 7,893 0.4 7,014 0.4 4,610 0.2 4,334 0.2 3,681 0.2 3,312 0.1 2,652 0.1 2,007 0.1 1,5870.11,478 Livonians — 1,268 0.07 944 0.05 185 0.01 48 0.0 107 0.0 135 0.01 180 0.01 250 0.01 2020.01166 Others 7,486 0.39 5,504 0.3 3,398 0.2 8,648 0.4 13,828 0.6 16,979 0.7 29,275 1.1 24,824 1.1 26,640 1.3 103,628 5.580,137 Total 1,929,387 1,844,805 1,950,502 2,093,458 2,364,127 2,502,816 2,666,567 2,377,383 2,070,371 1,893,2231,883,008400px440px555pxDistribution of Russians, Belarusians and Ukrainians in 2011Number of ethnic Latvians and Russians 1925–2009Numbers of smaller ethnic minorities 1925–2009" ], [ "Languages", " * official: Latvian* considered indigenous in some legislation: Livonian, Latgalian* other languages registered as main language spoken at home by at least 500 speakers in 2011 census (in declining order): Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian, Lithuanian, Polish, Romani, Tatar, Yiddish and Hebrew, Estonian, German* other languages widely spoken: English (46%)* Latvian Sign Language (legally recognised and supported) and Russian Sign LanguageIn the 2011 census, 1,164,894 persons in Latvia reported Latvian as their main language spoken at home; 698,757 respondents listed Russian as their main language spoken at home, representing 37.2% of the total population, whereas Latvian was recorded as the main language spoken at home for 62.1%.", "Latvian was spoken as a second language by 20.8% of the population, and 43.7% spoke Russian as a second language.", "In total, 71% of ethnic Latvians said they could speak Russian, and 52% of Russians could speak Latvian in the 2000 census.", "In August 2019, the Central Statistical Bureau published new data indicating that Latvian was the native language of 60.8% of Latvia's population per 1 January 2018, a 2.6% increase compared to the 2000 census.", "62.2% of the population was 'ethnically Latvian'.", "The percentage of native Latvian speakers increased in all statistical regions, especially in the Rīga capital region and Pierīga region around it (4.6%).", "The number of native Russian speakers dropped in all regions; in Latgale, the number of native Russian speakers also dropped, although their percentage remained the same at 55.5%, the highest of the country.", "Compared to the 2011 census, the share of people speaking Latvian at home rose by 1.9%, while the number of Russian home speakers dropped by 2.6%.", "90.7% of ethnic Russians indicated they spoke Russian at home, while 8.5% of them indicated they spoke Latvian at home.", "Inter-linguistic marriage was an important factor why, for example, some non-native Latvian speakers who married native Latvian speakers switched to speaking Latvian at home.", "The percentage of Russian home speakers gradually increased with age from 30.0% amongst 0–4-year-olds to 44.2% amongst 55–64-year-olds, while Latvian home speakers gradually decreased with age from 69.2% amongst 0–4-year-olds to 55.0% amongst 55–64-year-olds, indicating that children in Latvia are increasingly being raised and educated in Latvian." ], [ "Religion", "The largest religion in Latvia is Christianity (79%), though only about 7% of the population attends religious services regularly.", "The largest groups were:* Evangelical Lutheran Church of Latvia – 700,000 * Roman Catholic – 500,000* Russian Orthodox – 400,000In the Eurobarometer Poll 2010, 38% of Latvian citizens responded that \"they believe there is a God\", while 48% answered that \"they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force\" and 11% stated that \"they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force\".Lutheranism was more prominent before the Soviet occupation, when it was a majority religion of ~60% due to strong historical links with the Nordic countries and influence of the Hansa, and Germany in general.", "Since then, Lutheranism has declined to a slightly greater extent than Roman Catholicism in all three Baltic states.", "The Evangelical Lutheran Church, with an estimated 600,000 members in 1956, was affected most adversely.", "An internal document of 18 March 1987, near the end of communist rule, spoke of an active membership that had shrunk to only 25,000 in Latvia, but the faith has since experienced a revival.", "Moreover, modern Evangelical Protestant denominations are spreading worldwide, including Latvia.", "The country's Orthodox Christians belong to the Latvian Orthodox Church, a semi-autonomous body within the Russian Orthodox Church.", "In 2011, there were 416 Jews and 319 Muslims living in Latvia.There are more than 600 Latvian neopagans, ''Dievturi'', whose religion is based on Latvian mythology.", "About 21% of the total population is not affiliated with a specific religion." ], [ "See also", "* Aging of Europe* List of cities in the Baltic states by population" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Naturalization Board of the Republic of Latvia: Figures and facts* Office of Citizenship and Migration Affairs: Statistics" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Latvia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''politics of Latvia''' takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister is the head of government, and of a multi-party system.", "The President holds a primarily ceremonial role as Head of State.", "Executive power is exercised by the government.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament, the Saeima.", "The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature." ], [ "Political developments since independence", "On March 19, 1991, the Supreme Council passed a law explicitly guaranteeing \"equal rights to all nationalities and ethnic groups\" and \"guarantees to all permanent residents in the Republic regardless of their nationality, equal rights to work and wages.\"", "The law also prohibits \"any activity directed toward nationality discrimination or the promotion of national superiority or hatred.", "\"In autumn 1992 Latvia re-implemented significant portions of its 1922 constitution and in spring 1993 the government took a census to determine eligibility for citizenship.", "After almost three years of deliberations, Latvia finalized a citizenship and naturalization law in summer 1994.In the 5–6 June 1993 elections, with a turnout of over 90%, eight of Latvia's 23 registered political parties passed the four per cent threshold to enter parliament.", "The Popular Front, which spearheaded the drive for independence two years previously with a 75% majority in the last parliamentary elections in 1990, did not qualify for representation.", "The centrist Latvian Way party received a 33% plurality of votes and joined with the Farmer's Union to head a centre-right coalition government.Led by the opposition National Conservative Party, right-wing nationalists won a majority of the seats nationwide and also captured the Riga mayoralty in the 29 May 1994 municipal elections.", "OSCE and COE observers pronounced the elections free and fair, and turnout averaged about 60%.", "In February 1995, the Council of Europe granted Latvia membership.With President Bill Clinton's assistance, on 30 April 1994 Latvia and Russia signed a troop withdrawal agreement.", "Russia withdrew its troops by 31 August 1994 but maintained several hundred technical specialists to staff an OSCE-monitored phased-array ABM radar station at Skrunda until 31 August 1998.The 30 September-1 October 1995 elections produced a deeply fragmented parliament with nine parties represented and the largest party - the newly founded centrist Democratic Party \"Saimnieks\" - commanding only 18 of 100 seats.", "Attempts to form right-of-centre and left-wing governments failed; 7 weeks after the election, a broad but fractious coalition government of six of the nine parties was voted into office under Prime Minister Andris Šķēle, a nonpartisan businessman.", "The also-popular president, Guntis Ulmanis, had limited constitutional powers but played a key role in leading the various political forces to agree finally to this broad coalition.", "In June 1996, the Saeima re-elected Ulmanis to another 3-year term.", "In the summer of 1997, the daily newspaper ''Diena'' revealed that half the cabinet ministers and two-thirds of parliamentarians appeared to violate the 1996 anti-corruption law, which bars senior officials from holding positions in private business.", "Under pressure from Šķēle, several ministers subsequently resigned or were fired.", "However, after months of increasing hostility between Šķēle and leading coalition politicians, the coalition parties demanded and received the prime minister's resignation on 28 July.", "The new government was formed by the recent Minister of Economy Guntars Krasts.", "It included the same parties and mostly the same ministers as Šķēle's government.", "It pursued the same course of reform, albeit not as vigorously.In the 1998 elections, the Latvian party structure began to consolidate with only six parties winning seats in the Saeima.", "Andris Šķēle's newly formed People's Party garnered a plurality with 24 seats.", "Though the election represented a victory for the centre-right, personality conflicts and scandals within the two largest right of centre parties – Latvian Way and the People's Party – prevented stable coalitions from forming.", "Two shaky governments under Vilis Krištopans and Andris Šķēle quickly collapsed in less than a year.", "In May 2000, a compromise candidate was found in the form of Andris Bērziņš, the Latvian Way mayor of Rīga.", "His four-party coalition government lasted till the next elections in 2002.In 1999, the Saeima elected Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga, a compromise candidate with no party affiliation, to the presidency.", "Though born in Rīga in 1937, she settled in Canada during the years of the Soviet occupation, becoming a well-respected academic in the subject of Latvian culture.", "Since her election, she has become one of the most popular political figures in Latvia.Local elections in 2001 represented a victory for the left-of-center parties in several municipalities, including Rīga.", "A leftist coalition in the Rīga City Council elected Gundars Bojārs, a Social Democrat, to the office of mayor.Between local elections in 2001 and Saeima elections in 2002, two new parties formed: the conservative New Era Party led by Einars Repše and Christian Democratic Latvia's First Party.", "Both of them promised to fight corruption and made that the most important issue in the 2002 elections.", "Six parties were elected to Saeima in 2002 elections.", "New Era Party with 26 seats out of 100 became the largest party in the parliament.", "Several previously successful parties such as Latvian Way and the Social Democrats did not reach the 5% threshold of the popular vote needed to be in the parliament.", "This was mostly due to voters perceiving these parties as corrupt.", "After elections, Einars Repše formed a government consisting of his New Era Party and three other parties.In 2003, Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga was re-elected to the presidency for the second term, until 2007.On 20 September 2003, Latvia voted to join the European Union in a referendum.", "Virtually all of the major political parties and major Latvian-language media supported the 'YES' vote.", "Latvian government also spent a significant amount of money for the 'YES' campaign.", "The 'NO' campaign lacked both funding and media access.", "Out of voters who participated in the referendum, 66.9% of cast votes in favour of EU.", "The vote was largely along the ethnic lines.", "It is estimated that 84% of ethnic Latvians voted 'YES', while 91% of ethnic Russians voted 'NO'.After the referendum, Repše's government started to fall apart and he eventually resigned in January 2004.A new government, led by Indulis Emsis, head of the conservative Union of Greens and Farmers (ZZS) was approved by the parliament in March 2004.The government was a coalition of the ZZS, the People's Party (TP), and the Latvia's First Party (LPP); the coalition had only 46 out of 100 seats in Latvia's parliament, but was also supported by the leftist National Harmony Party (TSP).", "After the Saeima did not accept the budget for 2005 proposed by the government of Indulis Emsis, the government resigned.", "On 2 December 2004, Aigars Kalvītis became the new Prime Minister and thus head of the government.Kalvītis was the first prime minister in the history of post-soviet independent Latvia whose government was reelected by an election in 2006.New Era Party, however, weakened, so a coalition reshuffle took place, and a 4-party centre-right coalition emerged.", "The government lasted only until 5 December 2007, when Kalvitis resigned due to his continuous and unsuccessful attempts to dismiss , the head of KNAB, the State Anti-Corruption Agency, after Loskutovs had investigated shadowy matters of the PM's party.After negotiations, a \"crisis-handling\" government was formed, with the participation of the same parties, led by former PM Ivars Godmanis, a respectable public figure, and member of Latvian Way.", "The government tried to impose austerity measures, with moderate success.", "This was accompanied, though, with a widespread public opposition, which resulted in two referendums, one on pensions, the other on constitutional amendments, which would have allowed the electorate to initiate the dissolution of the parliament.Both of the referendums failed, but the country entered into the worst political crisis since the independence from the Soviet Union, together with the economic situation severely deteriorating, due to the world financial crisis.", "The popularity of the governing parties melted and was below the parliamentary threshold.", "By the end of 2008, parties had a hard time agreeing on further budget cuts, (mainly in the social sphere) the planned reorganization of the government, and layoffs.On 13 January 2009, there were severe riots in Riga, with protesters attacking the building of the parliament.", "The President Valdis Zatlers gave an ultimatum to parties, saying that should they not agree on constitutional amendments about the dissolution of the Saeima, he would dissolve the parliament by the end of March.", "After background talks and a failed vote of no confidence, PM Ivars Godmanis chose to resign in late February.", "On the 26 February, Zatlers nominated the candidate of New Era Party, MEP Valdis Dombrovskis to the post of prime minister.", "After talks, on 4 March 2009 five parties confirmed their participation in the coalition: New Era, People's Party, Union of Greens and Peasants, For Fatherland and Freedom/LNNK, and Civic Union.In 2010 parliamentary election ruling centre-right coalition won 63 out of 100 parliamentary seats.", "Left-wing opposition Harmony Centre supported by Latvia's Russian-speaking minority got 29 seats.", "In 2014 parliamentary election was won again by the ruling centre-right coalition formed by the Unity Party, the National Alliance and the Union of Greens and Farmers.", "They got 61 seats and Harmony got 24.In 2018 parliamentary election pro-Russian Harmony (former Harmony Centre) was again the biggest party securing 23 out of 100 seats.", "the second and third were the populist KPV LV and New Conservative Party.", "Ruling coalition, comprising the Union of Greens and Farmers, the National Alliance and the Unity party, lost.In November 2013, Latvian Prime Minister Valdis Dombrovskis, in office since 2009, resigned after at least 54 people were killed and dozens injured in the collapse at a supermarket in Riga.", "In December 2015, country's first female Prime Minister, in office since January 2014, Laimdota Straujuma resigned.", "In February 2016, a coalition of Union of Greens and Farmers, The Unity and National Alliance was formed by new Prime Minister Maris Kucinskis.", "In January 2019, Latvia got a government led by new Prime Minister Krisjanis Karins of the centre-right New Unity.", "Karins' coalition was formed by five of the seven parties in parliament, excluding only the pro-Russia Harmony party and the Union of Greens and Farmers.On 15 September 2023, Evika Siliņa became the new prime minister of Latvia, following resignation of former Prime Minister Krišjānis Kariņš previous month.", "Siliņa’s government is a three-party coalition between her own New Unity (JV) party, the Greens and Farmers Union (ZZS), and the social-democratic Progressives (PRO) with total 52 of 100 seats in the 2022 Latvian parliamentary election.", "Harmony, the former largest political party in the Saeima, lost all its seats.", "Some former Harmony supporters appeared to support for a new Eurosceptic populist party, For Stability!, that split from Harmony in 2021." ], [ "Citizenship and language issues", "The current edition of the citizenship law was adopted in 1998 after much debate and pressure from Russia and European Union, amending a more restrictive law, initially passed in 1994.In accordance with the law, Latvian citizens are those who had Latvian citizenship prior to June 17, 1940, and their descendants.", "Those who settled in Latvia during the Soviet occupation, with exception of those who did so subsequent to retirement from the Soviet Army, or were employees, informers, agents or safehouse keepers of the KGB, or of the security services, intelligence services or other special services of some other foreign state, can obtain Latvian citizenship via naturalization.", "Other categories of persons not eligible for naturalization include convicted criminals, state officials and servicemen of armed forces of a foreign state, members of Communist Party as well as members of certain affiliate organizations, who, after 13 January 1991, have acted against the Latvian State.", "Naturalization criteria include a conversational knowledge of Latvian, an oath of loyalty, renunciation of former citizenship, a 5-year residency requirement, and a knowledge of the Latvian constitution.", "As of November 2005, about 109,000 persons applied for naturalization and about 103,000 of them were granted Latvian citizenship.In 2006, approximately 18 per cent of the total population (420,000 inhabitants of Latvia, slightly less than half of ethnically non-Latvian population) had no Latvian citizenship.", "Most of them have Latvian non-Citizen Passports, which give them a status similar to permanent residency in other countries.", "They can reside in Latvia indefinitely and obtain most of the public services (''e.g.", "'', education and healthcare) according to the same conditions as the citizens of Latvia.", "Non-citizens of Latvia cannot vote during municipal and state elections and are not allowed to work in government, the police and civil services.", "Several foreign nations also treat citizens and non-citizens of Latvia differently, admitting citizens of Latvia without a visa but requiring visas from non-citizens.", "Russia used to have the opposite practice, requiring visas from both citizens and non-citizens of Latvia, but allowing non-citizens to travel to Russia with a cheaper visa.As a transitional clause, the Latvian law allows dual citizenship for those who were forced to leave Latvia during the Soviet or Nazi occupation and adopted another citizenship while away from Latvia.", "In order to be eligible for dual citizenship, they had to claim it by July 1, 1995.After that date the other citizenship must be renounced upon the acceptance of Latvian citizenship.Latvian is the sole state language in Latvia; while the threatened Livonian language is recognized as \"the language of the indigenous (autochthon) population\".", "The Latgalian written language is also protected \"as a historic variant of the Latvian language.\"", "All other languages are considered foreign by the law on state languages.", "Two parliamentary parties, Harmony Centre and ForHRUL, have requested that Russian (26.9% of inhabitants, according to the 2011 census, are Russians) be given official status.Since 1999, the education laws have forbidden the public universities to instruct students in languages other than Latvian (there are exclusions made for linguistics, some international projects and non-budget groups).", "The law included a provision allowing for instruction in Latvian only in public high schools since 2004.Following large-scale protests in 2003—2004 organized by the Headquarters for the Protection of Russian Schools, the law was amended, requiring instruction in Latvian within at least 60% of the curriculum." ], [ "Executive branch", "Edgars RinkēvičsIndependent8 July 2023 Prime MinisterEvika SiliņaUnity15 September 2023The president is elected by Parliament for a maximum of two terms of four years, by secret ballot and by an absolute majority of the vote (Constitution of Latvia, Articles 35, 36 and 39).The president is a largely ceremonial head of state, and in common with other presidents in parliamentary republics, the President of Latvia has influence and authority rather than power.Although the president is formally the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, signs treaties, represents Latvia abroad, and officially appoints ambassadors and other key officials, these powers are constitutionally exercised on the binding advice of the prime minister, who is politically responsible for them (Constitution of Latvia, Article 53).", "The president does, however, have personal discretion over the proposal of legislation to the Parliament, vetoing legislation, calling referendums on legislation, and nominating the prime minister.", "The president also has the right, , to call a referendum on the premature dissolution of Parliament: if the referendum is passed, Parliament is dissolved; but if the referendum fails, the president must resign.The prime minister is appointed by the president.", "The prime minister then chooses the Council of Ministers (Cabinet) which has to be accepted by the Parliament.", "The Parliament can remove the prime minister and Cabinet by means of a vote of no-confidence (Constitution of Latvia, Article 59)." ], [ "Legislative branch", "The unicameral Parliament ('''Saeima''') has 100 members, elected for a four-year term by proportional representation with a 5% threshold.", "The parliamentary elections are held on the first Saturday of October.", "Locally, Latvia elects municipal councils, consisting of 7 to 60 members, depending on the size of the municipality, also by proportional representation for a four-year term." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "'''Summary of the 1 October 2022 Latvian Saeima election results'''Party%Seats+/–JV19.19 26 +18ZZS12.58 16 +5AS11.14 16 NewNA9.40 13 0For Stability!6.88 11 NewLPV6.31 9 New PRO6.21 10 +10Source: CVK" ], [ "Judicial branch", "Judges' appointments are confirmed by Parliament and are irrevocable, except on the decision of the Judicial Disciplinary Board or on the judgment of a criminal court.", "There is a special Constitutional Court, with the authority to rule on the constitutionality of laws, whose members must be confirmed by an absolute majority vote of Parliament, by secret ballot." ], [ "International organization participation", "BIS, CBSS, CE, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, ITUC, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, NATO, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, United Nations, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCO, WEU (associate partner), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO, WTrO (applicant)" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Latvia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Latvia''' is an open economy in Europe and is part of the European Single Market.", "Latvia is a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) since 1999, a member of the European Union since 2004, a member of the Eurozone since 2014 and a member of the OECD since 2016.Latvia is ranked the 14th in the world by the Ease of Doing Business Index prepared by the World Bank Group.", "According to the Human Development Report 2011, Latvia belongs to the group of very high human development countries.", "Due to its geographical location, transit services are highly developed, along with timber and wood processing, agriculture and food products, and manufacturing of machinery and electronic devices.Latvia's economy has had rapid GDP growth of more than 10% per year during 2006–07, but entered a severe recession in 2009 as a result of an unsustainable current account deficit, collapse of the real estate market, and large debt exposure amid the softening world economy.", "Triggered by the collapse of Parex Bank, the second largest bank, GDP decreased by almost 18% in 2009, and the European Union, the International Monetary Fund, and other international donors provided substantial financial assistance to Latvia as part of an agreement to defend the currency's peg to the euro in exchange for the government's commitment to stringent austerity measures.In 2011 Latvia achieved GDP growth by 5.5% and thus Latvia again was among the fastest growing economies in the European Union.", "The IMF/EU program successfully concluded in December 2011.Privatization is mostly complete, except for some of the large state-owned utilities.", "Export growth contributed to the economic recovery, however, the bulk of the country's economic activity is in the services sector." ], [ "Economic history", "For centuries under Hanseatic and German influence and then during its inter-war independence, Latvia used its geographic location as an important east–west commercial and trading centre.", "Industry served local markets, while timber, paper and agricultural products were Latvia's main exports.", "Prior to World War I, Latvia was an advanced manufacturing hub within the Russian Empire, primarily serving the Russian market.", "After attaining independence in 1918, Latvia lost its status as an advanced manufacturing hub.", "Latvia sought in the interwar period to become an international exporter of food and to re-industrialize.", "Latvia experienced growth in GDP per capita during the interwar period, although some economic historians have argued that there was stagnation in the period of the authoritarian Karlis Ulmanis regime (1934–1940).After reestablishing its independence, Latvia proceeded with market-oriented reforms, albeit at a measured pace.", "Its freely traded currency, the lat, was introduced in 1993 and held steady, or appreciated, against major world currencies.", "Inflation was reduced from 958.6% in 1992 to 25% by 1995 and 1.4% by 2002.After contracting substantially between 1991 and 1995, the economy steadied in late 1994, led by a recovery in light industry and a boom in commerce and finance.", "This recovery was interrupted twice, first by a banking crisis and the bankruptcy of ''Banka Baltija'', Latvia's largest bank, in 1995 and second by a severe crisis in the financial system of neighbouring Russia in 1998.After 2000, Latvian GDP grew by 6–8% a year for 4 consecutive years.", "Latvia's state budget was balanced in 1997 but the 1998 Russian financial crisis resulted in large deficits, which were reduced from 4% of GDP in 1999 to 1.8% in 2003.These deficits were smaller than in most of the other countries joining the European Union in 2004.Until the middle of 2008, Latvia had the fastest developing economy in Europe.", "In 2003, GDP growth was 7.5% and inflation was 2.9%.", "The centrally planned system of the Soviet period was replaced with a structure based on free-market principles.", "In 2005, private sector share in GDP was 70%.", "Recovery in light industry and Riga's emergence as a regional financial and commercial centre offset shrinkage of the state-owned industrial sector and agriculture.", "The official unemployment figure was held steady in the 7%–10% range.===Economic contraction in 2008–2010===The financial crisis of 2007–2008 severely disrupted the Latvian economy, primarily as a result of the easy credit bubble that began building up during 2004.The bubble burst leading to a rapidly weakening economy, resulting in a budget, wage and unemployment crisis.", "Latvia had the worst economic performance in 2009, with annual growth rate averaging −18%.The Latvian economy entered a phase of fiscal contraction during the second half of 2008 after an extended period of credit-based speculation and unrealistic inflation of real estate values.", "The national account deficit for 2007, for example, represented more than 22% of the GDP for the year while inflation was running at 10%.By 2009 unemployment rose to 23% and was the highest in the EU.Paul Krugman, the Nobel Laureate in economics for 2008, wrote in his ''New York Times'' Op-Ed column for 15 December 2008:''\"The acutest problems are on Europe's periphery, where many smaller economies are experiencing crises strongly reminiscent of past crises in Latin America and Asia: Latvia is the new Argentina\".", "''By August 2009, Latvia's GDP had fallen by 20% year on year, with Standard & Poor's predicting a further 16% contraction to come.", "The International Monetary Fund suggested a devaluation of Latvia's currency, but the European Union objected to this, on the grounds that the majority of Latvia's debt was denominated in foreign currencies.", "Financial economist Michael Hudson has advocated for redenominating foreign currency liabilities in Latvian lats before devaluing.However, by 2010 there were indications that Latvia's policy of internal devaluation was successful.===Economic recovery 2010–2012===The economic situation has since 2010 improved, and by 2012 Latvia was described as a success by IMF managing director Christine Lagarde showing strong growth forecasts.", "The Latvian economy grew by 5.5% in 2011 and by 5.6% in 2012 reaching the highest rate of growth in Europe.", "The GDP surpassed the pre-crisis level in 2018.===Economic issues 2022-23===The Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 caused some economic problems in Latvia.", "Real GDP growth slowed to 2.8 percent in 2022 from 4.3 percent in 2021.Russia was a major trade partner and EU sanctions impacted this.", "Dramatic rises in the cost of energy, the need to seek alternative sources of gas and oil as well as logistics issues resulted in inflation averaging 17.2% in 2022 before falling back to single digits in 2023." ], [ "Privatisation", "Privatisation in Latvia is almost complete.", "Virtually all of the previously state-owned small and medium companies have been privatized, leaving only a small number of politically sensitive large state companies.", "In particular, the country's main energy and utility company, Latvenergo remains state-owned and there are no plans to privatize it.", "The government also holds minority shares in Ventspils Nafta oil transit company and the country's main telecom company Lattelecom but it plans to relinquish its shares in the near future.Foreign investment in Latvia is still modest compared with the levels in north-central Europe.", "A law expanding the scope for selling land, including land sales to foreigners, was passed in 1997.Representing 10.2% of Latvia's total foreign direct investment, American companies invested $127 million in 1999.In the same year, the United States exported $58.2 million of goods and services to Latvia and imported $87.9 million.", "Eager to join Western economic institutions like the World Trade Organization, OECD, and the European Union, Latvia signed a Europe Agreement with the EU in 1995 with a 4-year transition period.", "Latvia and the United States have signed treaties on investment, trade, and intellectual property protection and avoidance of double taxation." ], [ "Employment", "Employed-unemployed in Latvia in workforce 15–74 years old (thousand people) 1996-2017 and chain-linked GDP reference year 2010 (bln EUR)Data: Statistics LatviaAverage monthly gross wages in cities under state jurisdiction and counties (in euro) 2017.Excluding private sector enterprises with number of employees < 50.Data: Central Statistical Bureau of Latvia Average wages are higher in Riga and Ventspils and their surroundings, with inland border regions lagging behind, mainly the region of Latgale." ], [ "Sectors", "=== Primary ======= Agriculture ====Latvia produced in 2018:* 1.4 million tons of wheat;* 426 thousand tons of potato;* 306 thousand tons of barley;* 229 thousand tons of rapeseed;* 188 thousand tons of oat;* 81 thousand tons of rye;* 80 thousand tons of bean;In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products.=== Manufacturing ===Ogres Knitwear, since 1965=== Services ===In 2022, the sector with the highest number of companies registered in Latvia is Services with 71,692 companies followed by Retail Trade and Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate with 15,300 and 10,287 companies respectively." ], [ "Infrastructure", "=== Energy ===Pļaviņas Hydroelectric Power StationReal GPD per capita development of Estonia, Latvia and LithuaniaMost of Latvian electricity is produced with Hydroelectricity.", "The largest hydroelectric power stations are Pļaviņas Hydroelectric Power Station, Riga Hydroelectric Power Plant and Ķegums Hydroelectric Power Station.In 2017 about 4381 GWh were produced in hydro power and 150 GWh in wind power.", "There are plans to increase Wind electricity production under the 2021-2030 energy plan.Latvia used to import 100% of its natural gas from Russia, until its import was banned in January 2023.=== Transport ===Key ports are located in Riga (Freeport of Riga and Riga Passenger Terminal), Ventspils (Free port of Ventspils), and Liepāja (Port of Liepāja).", "Most transit traffic uses these and half the cargo is crude oil and oil products.Latvian Railways is the main state-owned railway company in Latvia.", "Its daughter companies both carry out passengers services as well as carry a large quantity of freight cargo, and freight trains operate over the whole current passenger network, and a number of lines currently closed to passenger services.Riga International Airport is the only major airport in Latvia, carrying around 5 million passengers annually.", "It is the largest airport in the Baltic states and has direct flights to over 80 destinations in 30 countries.", "It is also the main hub of airBaltic." ], [ "See also", "Baltic TigerBaltic states housing bubbleEconomy of Europe" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Latvia's Tiger Economy Loses Its Bite by Kristina Rizga, ''The Nation'', 28 October 2009* Latvia's Internal Devaluation: A Success Story?, from the Center for Economic and Policy Research, December 2011* European Commission's DG ECFIN's country page on Latvia.", "* World Bank Summary Trade Statistics 2012" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in Latvia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Telecommunications in Latvia''' include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet." ], [ "Radio and television", "'''Radio stations:'''* Publicly owned broadcaster operates 6 radio networks with dozens of stations throughout the country; dozens of private broadcasters also operate radio stations (2007);* AM 1, FM 234 (2016).", "'''Radios:''' 1.76 million (1997).The state public radio broadcaster is Latvijas Radio.", "'''Television stations:'''* Several national and regional commercial TV stations are foreign-owned, 2 national TV stations are publicly owned; system supplemented by privately owned regional and local TV stations; cable and satellite multi-channel TV services with domestic and foreign broadcasts available (2007);* 44 plus 31 repeaters (1995).", "'''Televisions:''' 1.22 million (1997).The state public television broadcaster is Latvijas Televīzija." ], [ "Telephones", "'''Calling code:''' +371'''International call prefix:''' 00'''Main lines:'''* ~501,000 lines in use, 97th in the world (2012); * ~644,000 lines in use (2007).", "'''Mobile cellular:'''* ~2.3 million lines (2012); * ~2.2 million lines (2007).", "'''Telephone system:''' Recent efforts have focused on bringing competition to the telecommunications sector; the number of fixed lines is decreasing as mobile-cellular telephone service expands; the number of telecommunications operators has grown rapidly since the fixed-line market opened to competition in 2003; combined fixed-line and mobile-cellular subscribership is roughly 150 per 100 persons; the Latvian network is now connected via fiber optic cable to Estonia, Finland, and Sweden (2008).Until 2003 Lattelecom had a monopoly in the fixed telecommunications market.", "This led to overwhelming use of cellular phones for private customers, fixed lines being requested mostly by companies.", "In Latvia exist more than 2 million mobile phones but only 644,000 fixed phone connections.Since the fixed-line voice communication monopoly ended on January 1, 2003, several companies entered the market for fixed voice communication services: Aeronavigācijas serviss, Baltcom TV, Beta Telecom, Latvenergo Tehniskais Centrs, OPTRON, Rigatta, Telecentrs, Telenets, Telekom Baltija, CSC Telecom and Bite Latvija.", "These voice telephony providers provide services for cheaper foreign calls, as well as local calls.", "The telecom regulator SPRK tries to provide a competitive environment so that new operators can compete with Lattelecom which owns most of the last-mile connections." ], [ "Internet", "'''Top-level domain:''' .lv'''Internet users:'''* 1.5 million users, 79,2% of the population, 110th in the world (2015);* 1.1 million users (2007).", "'''Internet hosts:'''* 359,604 hosts, 58th in the world (2012).", "'''Internet Service Providers:''' 150+ ISPs (2007).The Internet in Latvia began to experience significant growth in 1999, as the consolidation of regional Internet providers began to drive down prices for dial-up access.", "By 2000, there were 75,000 Internet users and about a dozen e-commerce shops in Latvia.", "Back then the average salary for a web programmer was 500Ls/month.", "High-speed access costs remained prohibitive; for example, an ADSL service was introduced in July 2000 and planned to charge a monthly fee of 50,00Ls.", "By 2003, however, only 5.4% of Latvians used the Internet at home, and 60% did not use it at all; those who did instead accessed it in public areas or through their place of work, as high subscription prices for home usage remained a barrier.", "By 2008, access prices had fallen to 11,90Ls (€17) per month for the Lattelecom ADSL line.", "By July 2015, 79,2% of the population use internet at home.", "Latvia has the 7th fastest internet in the world.===Internet censorship and surveillance===There is no OpenNet Initiative (ONI) country profile, but Latvia is shown as no evidence of Internet filtering in all areas for which ONI tests (political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools) on the ONI global Internet filtering maps.The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press.", "There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms.", "Individuals and groups engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail.In September 2010 the government's Corruption Prevention and Combating Bureau (KNAB), which enforces campaign laws, removed a satirical film, The Last Bear Slayer, from the on-demand playlist of the partially state-owned cable provider, Lattelecom.", "The KNAB stated that the film might have constituted election advertising.", "Reporters Without Borders charged that the prohibition constituted improper censorship, but noted it was ineffective because the film was widely available on the Internet.On June 1, 2014 new subsection 22 of section 19 of Electronic Communications Law was enforced to enable blocking unlicensed gambling websites.", "Since then, the Lotteries and Gambling Supervisory Inspection of Latvia has been maintaining the list of blocked websites." ], [ "See also", "* Latvian Internet Exchange* Latvia" ], [ "References", "* " ], [ "External links", " Public Utilities Commission* Latvian State Department of Communications* NIC.lv, .lv domain registrar.", "* CERT.lv, the Information Technology Security Incident Response Institution of the Republic of Latvia.", ";Telecommunications operators in Latvia* TelTel* Bite Latvia (GSM)* CSC Telecom* Lattelecom* Latvia Mobile Telephone (GSM)* Optron* Tele2 (GSM)* TELEFANT* Telepele, prefix code 1030 in Lattelecom network.", "* Triatel (CDMA)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Latvia" ], [ "Introduction", "This article provides an overview of the transport infrastructure of Latvia." ], [ "Road system", "A10 near Rīga\|280pxA7 near Iecava\|280pxA9 near Skrunda\|280pxIt is mandatory to keep headlights on while driving, even in daylight; most cars commercially sold in Latvia are equipped to make this automatic.=== Highways === Number E-road Route Length (km) 35px A1 Rīga - Ainaži (EE border)101 35px A2 Rīga - Sigulda - Veclaicene (EE border)196 35px A3 Inčukalns - Valmiera - Valka (EE border)101 35px A4 Rīga ring road (Baltezers - Saulkalne)20 35px A5 Rīga ring road (Salaspils - Babīte)40 35px A6 Rīga - Daugavpils - Krāslava - Pāternieki (BY border)307 35px A7 Rīga - Bauska - Grenctāle (LT border)85 35px A8 Rīga - Jelgava - Meitene (LT border)76 35px A9 Rīga - Skulte - Liepāja199 35px A10 Rīga - Ventspils190 35px A11 Liepāja - Rucava (LT border)57 35px A12 Jēkabpils - Rēzekne - Ludza - Terehova (RU border)166 35px A13 Grebņeva (RU border) - Rēzekne - Daugavpils - Medumi (LT border)163 35px A14 Daugavpils ring road (Tilti - Kalkūne)15 35px A15 Rēzekne ring road7=== Length of the road system ===RoadsPaved, kmUnpaved, kmTotal, kmState-owned roadsHighways (A)1651.1 -1651.1Regional roads (P)4189.91127.55317.4Local roads (V)2616.710533.413150.1Municipality-owned roadsRoads1055.629593.530649.1Streets4588.23446.48034.6Other roadsForest roads -1014210142Private house roads50030003500Total14601.557842.872444.3" ], [ "Railways", "Jelgava railway station RVR ER2T trainsets operated by Pasažieru Vilciens Latvian Railways is the main state-owned railway company in Latvia.", "Its daughter companies both carry out passengers services as well as carry a large quantity of freight cargo, and freight trains operate over the whole current passenger network, and a number of lines currently closed to passenger services.There is also a narrow gauge railway between Gulbene and Aluksne, operated by the Industrial Heritage Trust, using Russian and Polish built heritage rolling stock.", "Three narrow gauge trains a day operate on the 33 km route between the two towns.", "''total:''2,347 km ''Russian gauge:''2,314 km gauge (270 km electrified) ''narrow gauge:''33 km gauge (2002)=== Passenger Train ===Pasažieru vilciens (trade name ''Vivi Latvija'') is a daughter company of Latvian Railways and the only passenger-carrying company in Latvia.Domestic passenger lines with current service are:* Torņakalns – Tukums II Railway* Riga – Jelgava Railway* Jelgava – Liepāja Railway* Riga – Daugavpils Railway* Krustpils – Rēzekne – Zilupe (border of Russia)* Rīga – Sigulda – Cēsis – Valmiera – Valga (border of Estonia)* Zemitāni – Skulte Railway* Pļaviņas – Gulbene=== Rail links with adjacent countries ===* Russia - yes* Lithuania - yes* Belarus - yes* Estonia - yes" ], [ "Airports", "airBaltic Boeing 757−200WL take-off at Riga International Airport Riga International Airport is the only major airport in Latvia, carrying around 5 million passengers annually.", "It is the largest airport in the Baltic states and has direct flights to over 80 destinations in 30 countries.", "It is also the main hub of airBaltic.In the recent years airBaltic also operated from Liepāja International Airport as well as Ventspils International Airport but operations in both of these airports were ceased until 2017, when airBaltic relaunched flights from Riga to Liepaja.Currently there are plans for further development in several regional airports, including Jūrmala Airport, Liepāja, Ventspils as well as Daugavpils International Airport.=== Airfields ===As of 2003, there were a total of 51 airfields in Latvia, with 27 of them having paved runways.", "'''Airports - with paved runways'''''total:''27 ''2,438 to 3,047 m:''7''1,524 to 2,437 m:''2''914 to 1,523 m:''2''under 914 m:''16 (2003)'''Airports - with unpaved runways'''''total:''24''2,438 to 3,047 m:''1''1,523 to 2,438 m:''2''914 to 1,523 m:''1''under 914 m:''20 (2003)" ], [ "Ports and harbors", "Port of Ventspils is the busiest port in the Baltic statesRiga Passenger Terminal Key ports are located in Riga (Freeport of Riga and Riga Passenger Terminal), Ventspils (Free port of Ventspils), and Liepāja (Port of Liepāja).", "Most transit traffic uses these and half the cargo is crude oil and oil products." ], [ "Waterways", "300 km (perennially navigable)" ], [ "Pipelines", "crude oil 412 km; refined products 421 km; natural gas 1,097 km (2003)" ], [ "Merchant marine", "''total:''11 ships (with a volume of or over) totaling / ''note:''includes some foreign-owned ships registered here as a flag of convenience: Germany 1, Greece 1, Ukraine 1 (2002 est.", ")''ships by type:''cargo ship 6, petroleum tanker 1, refrigerated cargo 2, roll-on/roll-off ship 1, short-sea/passenger 1" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* History of railroad construction in Latvia* Ministry of Transport of Republic of Latvia* Transport in Latvia" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Latvian National Armed Forces" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Latvian National Armed Forces''' (), or '''NBS''', are the armed forces of Latvia.", "Latvia's defense concept is based on a mobile professional rapid response force and reserve segment that can be called upon relatively fast for mobilization should the need arise.", "The National Armed Forces consists of Land Forces, Naval Forces, Air Force and National Guard.", "Its main tasks are to protect the territory of the State; participate in international military operations; and to prevent threats to national security." ], [ "Mission", "The mission of the National Armed Forces (NAF) is to defend the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the nation and to defend its population against foreign or domestic armed aggression.", "In order to implement these tasks, the NAF provide for the defence of the nation, its air space and national territorial waters, participate in large scale crisis response operations, perform emergency rescue operations, and participate in international peacekeeping operations.The main mission of the National Armed Forces is to:Provide for the inviolability of all national territory, its waters and air space;Participate in international operations;Participate in national threat elimination;Provide for the training of personnel and military reserves;Ensure modernization and enhancement of professional combat training." ], [ "History", "=== War of Independence, peacetime (1919–1940) ===The Latvian armed forces were first formed soon after the new state was proclaimed in November 1918 after World War I, with the official founding of the '''''' () on July 10, 1919, when the and , which were loyal to the Latvian Provisional Government, were merged.", "Seasoned general Dāvids Sīmansons was appointed as the first Commander-in-Chief.", "At the end of the Latvian War of Independence, the Latvian Army consisted of 69,232 men.", "The North Latvian Brigade in mid-1919In terms of equipment, the Latvian military during its first independence period (1919-1940) was armed mostly with British weapons and gear.", "The average Latvian infantry soldier in the 1930s is believed to have carried 31,4 kg of equipment in the winter months, and around 29,1 kg in the summer.", "The main service rifle was the British Pattern 1914 Enfield, and the amount of standard issue ammunition for an infantry soldier was 45 rounds of .303 (7,7mm) caliber.", "In addition, troops had access to three different types of hand grenades (defense, attack and rifle grenades).", "The Latvian Army had acquired a wide variety of machine guns in different calibers, through various means: trophies acquired from hostile forces during the War of Independence, allied donations and subsequent official state purchases.", "Light machine guns included the French Chauchat, Danish Madsen, and British Lewis gun (which became the main light machine gun of the Latvian Army).", "The main heavy machine gun was the British Vickers machine gun in the .303 (7,7mm) caliber, although the army also kept Russian PM M1910 machine guns in reserve.", "In general, the Latvian Army lacked automatic weapons of all calibers, and the ones it did have were becoming increasingly outdated towards the start of World War II (most of the weapons in service were from World War I).", "In terms of heavy weapons, the Latvian military had acquired a rather large number of different artillery systems in different calibers, around 400 artillery pieces in total (although most of these were outdated and worn out due to heavy use and age).", "The main artillery gun for infantry support was the British Ordnance QF 18-pounder field gun and British QF 4.5-inch howitzer, although there were also several types of French, German and Russian artillery guns in reserve.", "For anti-tank weapons, in 1938 the army received the Austrian 47 mm Cannone da 47/32 anti-tank cannons, which were reasonably effective against early World War II tanks.", "For infantry mortars, a number of 81mm mortars were acquired from Finland some time around the late 1930s, but it is unclear how many were delivered and in service at the start of World War II.", "In terms of individual equipment, the standard helmet were surplus M1916/18 Stahlhelms or Adrian helmets.Latvian soldiers in Liepāja in November 1920In terms of vehicles, the Latvian military was seriously lacking in motorized transport, and thus had to rely mostly on railroads and horse-drawn carriages for most of its logistics needs.", "The military leadership did make an effort to solve this problem at the end of the 1930s by purchasing a small number of cars, trucks, artillery tractors and motorbikes, but at the start of World War II, only a small portion of the Latvian military had access to motorized vehicles.", "In terms of armoured vehicles, the Latvian military had six armoured trains, a Carden Loyd tankette, seven armoured cars and 24 tanks of various designs and combat abilities.", "In terms of air power, at the start of World War II the Latvian Air Force had around 30 fighter planes and 24 scout planes, of which only some were the relatively modern Gloster Gladiator fighters, 24 training and 6 seaplanes.", "Thus, the Latvian military during the interwar era was more or less comparable both in equipment and size to its other Baltic neighbours, such as Estonia, Lithuania and Finland.", "The Armed Forces were also supported by the volunteer Aizsargi Organization.=== World War II and the occupation of the Baltic states (1939–1991) ===Garford-Putilov armored car \"Kurzemnieks\", 1920sHowever, the most crucial problem and flaw for both the Latvian military and other militaries of the Baltic states on the eve of World War II had to do with the failure to organize effective military cooperation between all the Baltic states in case of a new war in the region.", "The Latvian command in the interwar period had given very little attention towards any possible coordination of forces with either the Estonian or Lithuanian armies against a possible enemy, and so the Latvian military planned its actions and doctrine in almost complete isolation, oblivious to whatever its neighbours to the north (Estonia) or south (Lithuania) did.", "This ultimately led to flawed and questionable choices in creating defense plans against both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union (there were separate plans towards both of these possible aggressors), since the Latvian higher command was unsure as to how Latvia's neighbours would react in the event such a conflict started.", "After the Soviet occupation of Latvia in June 1940, during which the armed forces did not intervene following orders, the annihilation of the Latvian Army began.", "The army was first renamed the '''People's Army of Latvia''' (Latvian: ''Latvijas Tautas armija'') and in September–November 1940 – the Red Army's 24th Territorial Rifle Corps.", "The corps comprised the 181st and 183rd Rifle Divisions.", "In September the corps contained 24,416 men but in autumn more than 800 officers and about 10,000 instructors and soldiers were discharged.", "The arrests of soldiers continued in the following months.", "In June 1940, the entire Territorial Corps was sent to Litene camp.", "Before leaving the camp, Latvians drafted in 1939 were demobilised, and replaced by about 4,000 Russian soldiers from the area around Moscow.", "On June 10, the corps' senior officers were sent to Russia where they were arrested and most of them shot.", "On June 14 at least 430 officers were arrested and sent to Gulag camps.", "After the German attack against the Soviet Union, from June 29 to July 1 more than 1980 Latvian soldiers were demobilised, fearing that they might turn their weapons against the Russian commissars and officers.", "Simultaneously, many soldiers and officers deserted and when the corps crossed the Latvian border into the Russian SFSR, only about 3,000 Latvian soldiers remained.", "During and after World War II, many former veterans were a part of the fighters of the anti-Soviet National Partisan resistance movement opposing the continued Soviet occupation.=== After restoration of independence (1991–present) ===Latvian soldiers during the NATO exercise \"Trident Juncture 2015\"The origin of the current Latvian armed forces can be traced to the establishment of the Latvian National Guard or Zemessardze on August 23, 1991, which served as the first organized defence force after the restoration of the independence of Latvia.", "Unlike other Soviet republics, it is one of the military forces in the Baltic states that were not formed from the Baltic Military District.", "From the beginning, the reconstituted defense forces were modeled according to NATO standards with assistance from the United States, the United Kingdom, Sweden etc.", "A notable moment in the history of the armed forces is the accession to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization on 29 March 2004, after Latvia received a Membership Action Plan in 1999 and, ultimately, an invite was extended to it and six other countries during the 2002 Prague summit.", "Previously, Latvia co-founded the North Atlantic Cooperation Council in 1991 and joined the Partnership for Peace program in 1994.Since the 1990s, personnel of the NAF has been deployed to a number of peacekeeping, training and support missions – the NATO Stabilisation Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina (SFOR) from 1996 to 2004; the Kosovo Force (KFOR) from 2000 to 2009; the NATO training mission in Iraq (NTM-I) from 2005 to 2006, the NATO International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) from 2003 to 2015, the Resolute Support Mission from 2015 to 2021 and others.Cap badge of the field uniformIn 2007, Latvia abolished conscription, switching to a professional, volunteer-based service model.", "However, after the start of the Russo-Ukrainian War in 2014, calls for reintroducing mandatory military service reappeared, with the full invasion of Ukraine by Russia in 2022 being a decisive boost to this momentum, despite initial skepticism from the top leadership in the NAF and the Ministry of Defence.", "In July 2022, Defence Minister Artis Pabriks announced a plan for the re-introduction of military service – officially called the National Defense Service (, VAD) – first on a voluntary basis and then in compulsory form at a later date for males aged 18–27, starting from January 2023.The Government of Latvia supported the plan in September, with the next required step being the approval of the Saeima.", "The Cabinet also supported the proposed transitional period from 2023 to 2028, that the length of the service would be 10 months and that service can be postponed until 26 years of age.", "Alternative service options would involve serving in a National Guard unit on a part-time basis for 5 years; civil service for those unfit for military service due to health or special military courses for students." ], [ "Structure", "Structure of the Latvian Armed Forces, 2019The National Armed Forces consist of:30px NAF Joint HeadquartersNAF Commander's Personal Staff30px Land Forces30px Naval Forces30px Air Force30px National Guard30px Special Operations Command30px Military Police30px NAF Staff Battalion30px Training and Doctrine Command30px Support CommandThe Security Service of the Parliament and State President was a part of the National Armed Forces until its merger with the Military Police in 2009." ], [ "Personnel", "Latvian Army Staff Battalion color guard at Bastille Day military parade, 2014Latvian National Armed Forces consist of the Regular Force, National Guard and Reserve.", "On January 1, 2007, conscription was abolished and since then the Regular Force consists of only professional soldiers.", "Recruits must be 18 years of age or older.", "As of June 2018, there were 5500 active duty soldiers, 8000 national guards.", "By the end of 2017, there were 7900 registered reserve soldiers, of whom about 5000 were retired professional soldiers.", "According to the National Defence Concept, the National Armed Forces are to maintain 2500 militarily trained personnel, including 6500 professional soldiers, 8005 National Guards and 3010 (trained) reserve soldiers.", "Reserve training began in 2015.=== Conscription ===On April 5, 2023, Latvia decided to re-introduce compulsory national defense service in response to the ongoing Russian invasion in Ukraine.The first voluntary conscription will begin on July 1, 2023, and volunteers must apply by May 15, 2023.The law foresees two types of service: military and alternative (civil service).", "Males born after January 1, 2004, are subject to mandatory service, while males and females aged 18 to 27 can apply voluntarily.", "The law exempts certain individuals, including those whose health status does not comply with service requirements, sole guardians of children, sole caretakers of dependents, and those who have served in a different country if they have dual citizenship.During the autumn conscription of 2023, as of 14 November, only 170 people volunteered for service, which means that to reach a thousand by 1st of December, it may will be necessary to use the principle of random selection for the autumn draft in order to recruit the required number of people." ], [ "Operations", "=== International cooperation ===Latvian Army 1st 'LATBAT' Battalion soldier in Iraq, 2006Along with providing for national defence, the NAF will also react immediately to threats to other allies and to international crises.Latvia cooperates with Estonia and Lithuania in the infantry battalion BALTBAT and naval squadron BALTRON which are available for peacekeeping operations.Currently, NATO is involved in the patrolling and protection of the Latvian air space as the Latvian military does not have the means to do so.", "For this goal a rotating force of four NATO fighters, which comes from different nations and switches at two or three month intervals, is based in Lithuania to cover all three Baltic states (see Baltic Air Policing).===Current operations=== Deployment Organization Operation Personnel MaliEUEUTM Mali4 MaliUNMINUSMA1 KosovoNATOKFOR RC-E133 SomaliaEUOperation Atalanta2 IraqCJTFOperation Inherent Resolve1" ], [ "Modernization", "After joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Latvia has undertaken obligations to strengthen common defence within the scope of its capabilities.", "For this purpose, every NATO member state delegates its military formations — fast response, well-armed and well-equipped units capable to operate beyond the NATO's borders.After joining NATO, the foundation of the Latvian defence system has shifted from total territorial defence to collective defence.", "Latvia has acquired small but highly professional troop units that have been fully integrated into NATO structures.", "NAF soldiers have participated in international operations since 1996.Specialized units (e.g.", "units of military medics, military police, unexploded ordnance neutralizers, military divers and special forces) have been established in order to facilitate and enhance NAF participation in international operations.", "Special attention has been paid to establishing a unit to deal with the identification and clearance of nuclear pollution." ], [ "List of military equipment", "File:Latvian G36KV.JPG\|Heckler & Koch G36File:Ministru prezidents Valdis Dombrovskis vēro Nacionālo bruņoto spēku vienību militāro parādi 11.novembra krastmalā (8196545744).jpg\|Spike ATGMFile:Patria_6x6_APC.jpg\|Patria 6×6File:18.novembra svinīgie pasākumi (49084582236).jpg\|CVR(T)File:Latvian_soldiers_training_on_Austrian_M109A5O.jpg\|M109 howitzer" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "" ], [ "External links", " National Armed Forces of Latvia Official Website* Unified recruiment platform \"klustikaravirs.lv\"* Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Latvia* Mission of Latvia to NATO* Camopedia (a collection of Latvian camouflage patterns* Sargs.lv (The official news site of the National Armed Forces)* Stefan Marx, \"The Latvian Defence System\", ''Jane's Intelligence Review'', December 1993, pp.", "557–559." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Latvia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Foreign relations of Latvia''' are the primary responsibility of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.", "Today's Republic of Latvia regards itself as a continuation of the 1918–1940 republic.", "After the declaration on the restoration of its full independence on August 21, 1991, Latvia became a member of the United Nations on September 17, 1991, and is a signatory to a number of UN organizations and other international agreements.", "Latvia welcomes further cooperation and integration with NATO, European Union, OECD and other Western organizations.", "It also seeks more active participation in UN peacekeeping efforts worldwide.Council of Europe, CERCO, International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, International Civil Aviation Organization, International Atomic Energy Agency, UNESCO, UNICEF, International Criminal Court, the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development.", "It also is a member of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and of the North Atlantic Coordinating Council.On September 20, 2003, in a nationwide referendum, the Latvians voted to join the European Union and Latvia's EU membership took effect on May 1, 2004.Latvia became a member state of NATO on March 29, 2004.Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Riga" ], [ "Multilateral", " Organization Formal Relations BeganNotes See 2004 enlargement of the European UnionLatvia joined the European Union as a full member on 1 May 2004.Latvia joined NATO as a full member on 29 March 2004.}" ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Latvia maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px# Country Date1 24 August 1991 2 26 August 1991 27 August 1991 27 August 19915 28 August 19916 28 August 19917 29 August 1991 30 August 1991 30 August 199110 30 August 1991 2 September 1991 2 September 1991 3 September 1991 5 September 199115 5 September 1991 5 September 1991 5 September 1991 6 September 1991 10 September 199120 12 September 199121 13 September 19912218 September 199123 24 September 199124 26 September 199125 26 September 1991 26 September 1991 27 30 September 1991 1 October 1991 2 October 1991 4 October 1991 5 October 1991 9 October 1991 9 October 1991 10 October 1991 15 October 1991 22 October 1991 22 October 1991 4 November 199138 27 November 199139 7 December 199140 17 December 199141 18 December 199142 19 December 199143 20 December 199144 20 December 199145 1 January 199246 3 January 1992 6 January 1992 19 January 1992 20 January 1992 23 January 1992 29 January 1992 12 February 1992 12 February 1992 13 February 1992 14 February 1992 19 March 1992 7 April 1992 20 April 1992 23 April 1992 29 April 1992 29 April 1992 3 June 1992 9 June 1992 26 June 1992 6 July 1992 7 July 1992 18 July 1992 22 August 1992 1 September 199270 5 October 199271 21 October 1992 21 October 1992 3 November 1992 26 November 1992 10 December 1992 76 1 January 1993 1 January 1993 14 January 1993 21 January 1993 5 February 1993 5 February 199382 11 March 1993 18 March 1993 19 March 199385 24 May 199386 25 May 19938712 June 1993 25 August 1993 11 January 1994 90 22 March 199491 24 March 19949211 May 1994 20 June 1994 94 20 June 1994 15 July 199496 26 July 1994 97 12 September 1994 27 April 19959919 July 1995 – 15 August 1995 18 September 1995101 22 September 1995 102 14 March 1996103 19 April 1996 23 April 1996 105 23 April 1996 106 29 April 1996 107 4 June 1996 108 23 July 1996 109 27 August 1996110 19 September 1996 31 October 1996112 3 December 1996113 10 December 1996114 17 January 1997 115 27 February 1997 116 19 March 1997117 11 April 1997118 28 November 1997119 16 January 1998 120 12 March 1998 121 29 April 1998 122 10 September 1998 123 7 March 2000124 27 March 2000 125 14 July 2000 126 11 January 2001127 19 January 2001128 30 March 2001129 15 August 2001 130 12 February 2003 131 11 March 2003 132 17 March 2003 133 21 March 2003 15 May 2003 1 July 2003136 8 July 2003 137 15 October 2004 18 January 2005139 20 January 2005 140 3 February 2005 141 16 March 2005142 19 June 2006 143 21 June 2006 144 25 August 2006 14 December 200614616 February 200714710 April 200714827 September 20071497 March 200815011 March 200815115 May 2008–10 June 200815215 October 200815313 November 200815420 May 20091558 June 200915624 February 201015714 January 20111586 April 20111597 July 20111607 July 201116130 March 20121625 April 201216317 April 201216430 May 201216528 June 201216628 June 201216719 September 201216826 September 201216926 September 201317027 September 20131711 October 201317210 February 201417310 April 201417423 September 201417526 September 201417612 December 201417723 January 201517823 January 201517925 February 201518020 March 20151817 April 201518210 April 201518316 April 20151849 May 201818521 May 201818626 September 201818716 November 201818828 October 202018914 July 202119023 September 202119119 September 2022" ], [ "Relations by country", " Country Formal Relations Began Notes1928-02-16, 1992-04-22 Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1928 and were restored in 1992.", "Albania is represented in Latvia by its embassy in Warsaw, Poland.", "Latvia is represented in Albania by its embassy in Rome, Italy and an honorary consulate in Tirana.", "Both countries have a number of bilateral agreements.", "1992-08-22See Armenia–Latvia relations* Armenia is represented in Latvia through its embassy in Warsaw (Poland).", "* Latvia is represented in Armenia through a non-resident ambassador based in Riga (at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) and through an honorary consulate in Yerevan.", "* Latvia has recognized the Armenian genocide in 2021.", "Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Armenia 1994-01-11See Azerbaijan–Latvia relations Azerbaijan has an embassy in Riga.", "* Latvia has an embassy in Baku.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).", "* Both countries were former republics of the Soviet Union.", "* Azerbaijan recognized the independence of Latvia on 30 August 1991.", "* Latvia recognized the independence of Azerbaijan on 8 January 1992.", "* Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Azerbaijan 1922-05-24, 1991-09-10See Bulgaria–Latvia relationsBulgaria is represented in Latvia through its embassy in Warsaw (Poland) and through an honorary consulate in Riga.", "Latvia is represented in Bulgaria through its embassy in Warsaw (Poland) and through an honorary consulate in Sofia.", "Both countries are full members of NATO and of the European Union.", "1921-01-26, 1991-08-26See Canada–Latvia relations* Both countries re-established diplomatic relations on September 3, 1991.", "* Canada has an embassy in Riga.", "* Latvia has an embassy in Ottawa and 2 honorary consulates in Quebec and Toronto.", "* Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and of NATO.", "* China has an embassy in Riga.", "* Latvia has an embassy in Beijing.", "* In June 2020, Latvia openly opposed the Hong Kong national security law 1922-07-08, 1995-07-19Colombia counts with an honorary consulate in Riga.", "Latvia counts with an honorary consulate in Bogotá and is represented by the German embassy in Colombia for consular services only.", "Colombia recognized Latvia as an independent country after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.See Foreign relations of Croatia Croatia is represented in Latvia through its embassy in Budapest (Hungary).", "* Latvia is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Stockholm (Sweden).", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "See Cyprus–Latvia relations * Czech Republic has an embassy in Riga.", "* Latvia has an embassy in Prague.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "See Denmark–Latvia relations Denmark has an embassy in Riga.", "Latvia has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "1919-07-21, 1991-09-06See Estonia–Latvia relations* Both states share a long common history: before 1918, they were both part of the Russian Empire.", "* They were both re-occupied by the USSR between 1945 and 1991.Both countries established diplomatic relations on January 3, 1992.", "* Estonia has an embassy in Riga.", "Latvia has an embassy in Tallinn.", "* The two states share 343 km of common borders.", "See Finland–Latvia relations * Finland has an embassy in Riga.", "* Latvia has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "1921-01-26, 1991-08-30See France–Latvia relations * France has an embassy in Riga.", "* Latvia has an embassy in Paris.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Georgia–Latvia relationsSee Germany–Latvia relations * Germany has an embassy in Riga.", "* Latvia has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Greece-Latvia relationsSee Iceland–Latvia relationsIceland was the first country to recognise the independence of Latvia in August 1991.Both countries re-established diplomatic relations on August 22, 1991.Iceland is represented in Latvia through its embassy in Helsinki (Finland).", "Latvia is represented in Iceland through its embassy in Oslo (Norway) and an honorary consulate in Reykjavik.", "Both countries are full members of the Council of the Baltic Sea States, of NATO, and of the Council of Europe.", "2004-10-15* Iraq recognized the independence of Latvia on January 1, 1992.", "* In 2005, a project entitled Latvian Government's Assistance to Iraq in the Documentation of Architectural and Archaeological Objects with Photogrammetric Methods was implemented.la* Latvia's participation in the Iraq War commenced in May 2003.At their peak the number of Latvian soldiers in Iraq was 126.They were withdrawn on November 8, 2008.", "* Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Latvia: Iraq 1992-01-06See Israel–Latvia relations* Israel recognized Latvia's independence on September 4, 1991.", "* Israel has an embassy in Riga.", "* Latvia has an embassy in Tel Aviv and 2 honorary consulates (in Ashdod and Eilat).", "* There are 9,000 Jews living in Latvia (see History of the Jews in Latvia).", "* Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean.", "1992-12-30See Kazakhstan–Latvia relations* Kazakhstan recognised Latvia's independence on December 23, 1991.", "* Latvia recognised the independence of Kazakhstan on January 8, 1992.", "* Kazakhstan is represented in Latvia through its embassy in Vilnius (Lithuania) and though an honorary consulate in Riga.", "* Latvia has an embassy in Nur-Sultan and an honorary consulate in Almaty.", "* Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with KazakhstanSee Kosovo–Latvia relationsLatvia recognized it on February 20, 2008.Latvian and Kosovan governments established diplomatic relations on June 10, 2008.However, Latvia's involvement in Kosovo date back to 2000 when it first sent peacekeeping troops.1993-03-18Both countries established diplomatic relations on March 18, 1993.", "Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.", "1991-10-05See Latvia–Lithuania relations* Latvia has an embassy in Vilnius.", "* Lithuania has an embassy in Riga.", "* The two states share of common border.", "Both countries are full members of the European Union.", "Luxembourg did not recognise the annexation of the Baltic States by the USSR in 1940–1991 either de jure or de facto.", "Diplomatic relations between the two countries were restored on April 21, 1992.", "Latvia is represented in Luxembourg through its embassy in Brussel (Belgium) and through an honorary consulate in Luxembourg City.", "Luxembourg is represented in Latvia through its embassy in Warsaw (Poland) and through an honorary consulate in Riga.", "Both countries are full members of NATO and of the European Union.Latvia doesn't have any embassy in Malaysia.", "while Malaysian embassy in Helsinki is accredited to Latvia.November 27, 1991See Latvia–Mexico relations* Latvia is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States, and maintains an honorary consulate in Mexico City.", "* Mexico is accredited to Latvia from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden and maintains an honorary consulate in Riga.", "Both countries established diplomatic relations on September 1, 1992.", "Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.", "See Latvia–Montenegro relationsSee Latvia–Netherlands relations * Latvia has an embassy in The Hague.", "* Netherlands has an embassy in Riga.", "* Both nations are members of the European Union and NATO.", "See Latvia–Norway relations 1991-08-30See Latvia–Poland relations* Poland recognised Latvia's independence on January 27, 1921.", "* Latvia has an embassy in Warsaw and 3 honorary consulates (in Katowice, Gdańsk and Łódź).", "* Poland has an embassy in Riga.", "* There are around 57,000 Poles living in Latvia.", "* Both countries are full members of the Council of the Baltic Sea States, of NATO and of the European Union.", "* Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Poland 1922-01-03* Between June 2, 1922 – October 18, 1939, the diplomatic representation of Latvia in Romania was handled by the Latvian legation in Prague, in then neighbouring Czechoslovakia.", "In 1924, Latvia opened 3 honorary consulates in Romania (in Bucharest, Constanţa and Galaţi).", "In May 1929, Romania opened its legation in Riga.", "* On October 18, 1939, Latvia opened its legation in Bucharest.", "* Romania recognized Latvia on August 26, 1991.", "* Both countries re-established diplomatic relations on September 13, 1991.", "* Latvia is represented in Romania through its embassy in Warsaw (Poland).", "* Romania is represented in Latvia through its embassy in Vilnius (Lithuania) and an honorary consulate in Riga.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO, the European Union, and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.", "* Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Romania 1920-10-04 and again 1991-10-04See Latvia–Russia relations* Until 1917, Latvia had been part of the Russian empire.", "Following the Latvian declaration of independence, war broke out between Latvia and the Russian SFSR.", "* Diplomatic relations between the two countries were first established in 1920, following the conclusion of a Soviet-Latvian peace treaty on August 11, 1920.The treaty was ratified by the Latvian Constituent Assembly on September 2, and by the Latvian government on September 25.On the Russian side, it was ratified by the Pan Russian Central Executive Committee on September 9.Ratification letters were exchanged between the two governments in Moscow on October 4, the date on which in entered into effect.", "These relations lasted until the Soviet take over of Latvia in 1940.", "* Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Russian government recognized the independence of Latvia on August 24, 1991.", "* Russia expresses concern for how Latvia's language and naturalization laws effect Latvia's Russian-speaking population.", "Russians comprised 27.6% of the population in 2010.In turn, Latvia is interested in the welfare of ethnic Latvians still residing in Russia.", "The latest Russian census shows about 40,000 still living in Russia, but sources indicate that given the probability of an undercount, Latvians in Russia probably number about 50,000–60,000.2001-01-19* Latvia has a non-resident ambassador in Riga (in the Foreign Ministry).", "* Serbia is represented in Latvia through its embassy in Stockholm (Sweden).", "* Latvia is an EU member and Serbia is an EU candidate.", "* Latvian Foreign Ministry about relations with Serbia* Serbian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Latvia Both countries established direct diplomatic relations on January 1, 1993.Latvia is represented in Slovakia through its embassy in Vienna (Austria).", "Slovakia has an embassy in Riga.", "Both countries are full members of NATO and of the European Union.", "Latvian Foreign Minister Indulis Berzins and his Slovak counterpart Eduard Kukan met in Riga in 2000.1991-10-22See Latvia – South Korea relationsThe establishment of diplomatic relations between the Republic of Korea and Latvijas Republika began on 1991-10-22.", "The two countries have good relations.", "Deputy Minister for Political Affairs Lee Kyung-soo visited to the Latvia in December 2018 and attended a plaque-hanging ceremony of the Republic of Korea embassy in Riga which is the Republic of Korea's first permanent mission in the Baltic region and a reception to celebrate the opening of the embassy.", "* Latvian embassy and an Honorary Consuls in Seoul.", "** South Korean embassy in Latvia.See Latvia–Spain relations See Latvia–Sweden relations * Latvia has an embassy in Stockholm.", "* Sweden has an embassy in Riga.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Council of Europe.", "* Latvia supports Sweden's NATO membership.", "1923See Foreign relations of Taiwan* Both countries had relations from 1923 to 1991.", "* The Republic of China (Taiwan) never recognized the de jure incorporation of Latvia into the Soviet Union.", "1994-05-11Both countries established diplomatic relations on May 11, 1994.", "Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.See Latvia–Turkey relations * Latvia has an embassy in Ankara.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Riga.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.", "1992-02-12See Latvia–Ukraine relations* Latvia has an embassy in Kyiv and 2 honorary consulates (in Lviv and Odesa).", "* Ukraine has an embassy in Riga and an honorary consulate in Ventspils.", "* There are around 92,000 Ethnic Ukrainians living in Latvia.", "* Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Ukraine 1991-09* Britain had strong links with Latvia before the Soviet occupation and annexation in 1940, which the UK never recognised de jure.", "* The UK recognised the restoration of Latvian independence on August 27, 1991.", "* The United Kingdom has an embassy in Riga.", "* Latvia has an embassy in London and 3 honorary consulates (in Manchester, Scotland and Wales).", "* There were 26,000 Latvian people registered as living in the United Kingdom in 2010.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.", "* British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about relations with Latvia* Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with the United Kingdom 1922-07-28See Latvia – United States relations* The U.S. Legation in Riga was officially established on November 13, 1922 and served as the headquarters for U.S. representation in the Baltics during the interwar era.", "The Soviet invasion forced the closure of the legation on September 5, 1940, but Latvian representation in the United States has continued uninterrupted for 85 years.", "* The U.S. Embassy in Latvia is located in Riga.", "" ], [ "See also", " Honorary Consulate of the Republic of Latvia in Lviv* List of diplomatic missions in Latvia* Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Latvia)" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lebanon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lebanon''' ( ; ), officially the '''Republic of Lebanon''', is a country in the Levant region of West Asia.", "It is bordered by Syria to the north and east, by Israel to the south, and by the Mediterranean Sea to the west; Cyprus lies a short distance away from the country's coastline.", "Lebanon's location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian hinterlands has contributed to the country's rich history and shaped a unique cultural identity denoted by religious diversity.", "Located in the Levant region of the Eastern Mediterranean, the country has a population of more than five million people and covers an area of .", "Lebanon's capital and largest city is Beirut, followed by Tripoli and Jounieh.", "While Arabic is the official language, French is also recognized in a formal capacity; Lebanese Arabic is the country's vernacular, though French and English play a relatively significant role in everyday life, with Modern Standard Arabic being limited to news and government matters.The earliest evidence of human civilization in Lebanon dates back to 5000 BCE.", "From 3200 to 539 BC, Lebanon was home to Phoenicia, a maritime empire that stretched the Mediterranean Basin.", "In 64 BC, the Roman Empire conquered the region, and Lebanon soon became a major center for Christianity under the aegis of the Byzantine Empire.", "In the 7th century, the Muslim conquest of the Levant brought the region under the control of the Rashidun Caliphate.", "The 11th century saw the beginning of the Crusades and the establishment of Crusader states, though these later fell to the Ayyubids and the Mamluks, who in turn ceded the territory to the Ottoman Turks in the aftermath of the Ottoman–Mamluk War of 1516–1517.Under Ottoman ruler Abdulmejid I, the first Lebanese proto-state was established in the form of the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate, created in the 19th century as a home for Maronite Christians under the Ottoman \"Tanzimat\" period.After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire around World War I, the five Ottoman provinces constituting modern-day Lebanon came under the Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon, to be administered by France.", "Under the Mandate administration, France established Greater Lebanon as the predecessor state to today's independent Lebanon.", "However, French rule over the region weakened significantly in the aftermath of the German invasion of France in 1940.By 1943, Lebanon had gained independence from Free France and subsequently established a distinct form of confessionalist government, with the state's major religious groups being apportioned specific political powers.", "The new Lebanese state was relatively stable for a short period after independence, but this was ultimately shattered by the outbreak of large-scale fighting in the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990) between various political and sectarian factions.", "Amidst the internal hostilities of this period, Lebanon was also subjugated by two overlapping military occupations: by Syria from 1976 to 2005 and by Israel from 1985 to 2000.Since the end of the conflict, there have been extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure.Lebanon is a developing country, ranked 112th on the Human Development Index.", "It has been classified as an upper-middle-income state.", "However, the Lebanese liquidity crisis, coupled with nationwide corruption and recent disasters such as the 2020 Beirut explosion, have precipitated the collapse of Lebanon's currency and fomented political instability, widespread resource shortages, and high unemployment and poverty.", "The World Bank has defined Lebanon's economic crisis as one of the world's worst since the 19th century.", "Despite the country's small size, Lebanese culture is renowned both in the Arab world and globally, powered primarily by the Lebanese diaspora.", "Lebanon is a founding member of the United Nations and of the Arab League, and is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, the , and the Group of 77, among others." ], [ "Etymology", "The name of Mount Lebanon originates from the Phoenician root '''' (𐤋𐤁𐤍) meaning \"white\", apparently from its snow-capped peaks.Occurrences of the name have been found in different Middle Bronze Age texts from the library of Ebla, and three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh.The name is recorded in Ancient Egyptian as ''Rmnn'' (𓂋𓏠𓈖𓈖𓈉), where ''R'' stood for Canaanite ''L''.The name occurs nearly 70 times in the Hebrew Bible, as .", "''Lebanon'' as the name of an administrative unit (as opposed to the mountain range) that was introduced with the Ottoman reforms of 1861, as the ''Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate'' (; ), continued in the name of the ''State of Greater Lebanon'' ( ''''; ) in 1920, and eventually in the name of the sovereign ''Republic of Lebanon'' ( ) upon its independence in 1943." ], [ "History", "The borders of contemporary Lebanon are a product of the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920.Its territory was in the core of the Bronze Age Canaanite (Phoenician) city-states.", "As part of the Levant, it was part of numerous succeeding empires throughout ancient history, including the Egyptian, Assyrian, Babylonian, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Sasanian and Roman empires.After the 7th-century Muslim conquest of the Levant, it was part of the Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Fatimid and Seljuk empires.", "The crusader state of the County of Tripoli, founded by Raymond IV of Toulouse in 1102, encompassed most of present-day Lebanon, falling to the Mamluk Sultanate in 1289 and finally to the Ottoman Empire in 1516.With the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, Greater Lebanon fell under French mandate in 1920, and gained independence under president Bechara El Khoury in 1943.Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of relative political stability and prosperity based on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade, interspersed with political turmoil and armed conflict (1948 Arab–Israeli War, Lebanese Civil War 1975–1990, 2005 Cedar Revolution, 2006 Lebanon War, 2007 Lebanon conflict, 2006–08 Lebanese protests, 2008 conflict in Lebanon, 2011 Syrian Civil War spillover, and 2019–20 Lebanese protests).===Antiquity===Byblos is believed to have been first occupied between 8800 and 7000 BC and continuously inhabited since 5000 BC, making it among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world.", "It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.Evidence dating back to an early settlement in Lebanon was found in Byblos, considered among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world.", "The evidence dates back to earlier than 5000 BC.", "Archaeologists discovered remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars left by the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago.Lebanon was part of northern Canaan, and consequently became the homeland of Canaanite descendants, the Phoenicians, a seafaring people based in the coastal strip of the northern Levant who spread across the Mediterranean in the first millennium BC.", "The most prominent Phoenician cities were Byblos, Sidon and Tyre.", "According to the Bible, King Hiram of Tyre collaborated closely with Solomon, supplying cedar logs for Solomon's Temple and sending skilled workers.", "The Phoenicians are credited with the invention of the oldest verified alphabet, which subsequently inspired the Greek alphabet and the Latin one thereafter.", "In the 9th century BC, Phoenician colonies, including Carthage in present-day Tunisia and Cádiz in present-day Spain, flourished throughout the Mediterranean.", "Subsequently, foreign powers, starting with the Assyrians, imposed tribute and attacked non-compliant cities.", "Babylonians took control in the 6th century BC.", "In 539 BC, The cities of Phoenicia were incorporated into the Persian Achaemenid Empire by Cyrus the Great.", "The Phoenician city-states were later incorporated into the empire of Alexander the Great following the siege of Tyre in 332 BC.Map of Phoenicia and trade routesIn 64 BC, the Roman general Pompey the Great had the region of Syria annexed into the Roman Republic.", "The region was then split into two Imperial Provinces under the Roman Empire, Coele Syria and Phoenice, the latter which the land of present-day Lebanon was a part of.The region that is now Lebanon, as with the rest of Syria and much of Anatolia, became a major center of Christianity in the Roman Empire during the early spread of the faith.", "During the late 4th and early 5th century, a hermit named Maron established a monastic tradition focused on the importance of monotheism and asceticism, near the Mediterranean mountain range known as Mount Lebanon.", "The monks who followed Maron spread his teachings among Lebanese in the region.", "These Christians came to be known as Maronites and moved into the mountains to avoid religious persecution by Roman authorities.", "During the frequent Roman–Persian Wars that lasted for many centuries, the Sassanid Persians occupied what is now Lebanon from 619 till 629.=== Middle Ages ===During the 7th century, Muslim Arabs conquered Syria from the Byzantines, incorporating the region, including modern-day Lebanon, under the Islamic Caliphate.", "In the era of Uthman's caliphate (644–656), Islam gained significant influence in Damascus, led by Mu'awiya, a relative of Uthman, serving as the governor.", "Mu'awiya sent forces to the coastal region of Lebanon, prompting conversions to Islam among the coastal population.", "However, the mountainous areas retained their Christian or other cultural practices.", "Despite Islam and Arabic becoming officially dominant, the population's conversion from Christianity and Syriac language was gradual.", "The Maronite community, in particular, managed to maintain a large degree of autonomy despite the succession of rulers over Lebanon and Syria.", "The relative (but not complete) isolation of the Lebanese mountains meant the mountains served as a refuge in the times of religious and political crises in the Levant.", "As such, the mountains displayed religious diversity and the existence of several well-established sects and religions, notably, Maronites, Druze, Shiite Muslims, Ismailis, Alawites and Jacobites.After the Islamic conquest, Mediterranean trade declined for three centuries due to conflicts with the Byzantines.", "The ports of Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Tripoli struggled to recover, sustaining small populations under Umayyad and Abbasid rule.", "Christians and Jews were often obligated to pay the ''jizya'', or poll tax levied on non-Muslims.", "During the 980s, the Fatimid Caliphate took control of the Levant, including Mount Lebanon, resulting in the rejuvenation of Mediterranean trade along the Lebanese coast through renewed connections with Byzantium and Italy.", "This resurgence saw Tripoli and Tyre flourishing well into the 11th century, focusing on exports such as textiles, sugar, and glassware.During the 11th century, the Druze religion emerged from a branch of Shia Islam.", "The new religion gained followers in the southern portion of Mount Lebanon.", "The southern portion of Mount Lebanon was ruled by Druze feudal families till the early 14th century.", "The Maronite population increased gradually in Northern Mount Lebanon and the Druze have remained in Southern Mount Lebanon until the modern era.", "Keserwan, Jabal Amel and the Beqaa Valley was ruled by Shia feudal families under the Mamluks and the Ottoman Empire.", "Major cities on the coast, Sidon, Tyre, Acre, Tripoli, Beirut, and others, were directly administered by the Muslim Caliphs and the people became more fully absorbed by the Arab culture.Fall of Tripoli to the Egyptian Mamluks and destruction of the Crusader state, the County of Tripoli, 1289Following the fall of Roman Anatolia to the Muslim Turks, the Byzantines put out a call to the Pope in Rome for assistance in the 11th century.", "The result was a series of wars known as the Crusades launched by the Franks from Western Europe to reclaim the former Byzantine Christian territories in the Eastern Mediterranean, especially Syria and Palestine (the ''Levant'').", "The First Crusade succeeded in temporarily establishing the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the County of Tripoli as Roman Catholic Christian states along the coast.", "These crusader states made a lasting impact on the region, though their control was limited, and the region returned to full Muslim control after two centuries following the conquest by the Mamluks.Among the most lasting effects of the Crusades in this region was the contact between the Franks (i.e., the French) and the Maronites.", "Unlike most other Christian communities in the Eastern Mediterranean, who swore allegiance to Constantinople or other local patriarchs, the Maronites proclaimed allegiance to the Pope in Rome.", "As such the Franks saw them as Roman Catholic brethren.", "These initial contacts led to centuries of support for the Maronites from France and Italy, even after the fall of the Crusader states in the region.===Ottoman rule===In 1516, Lebanon became part of the Ottoman Empire, with governance administered indirectly through local emirs.", "Lebanon's area was organized into provinces: Northern and Southern Mount Lebanon, Tripoli, Baalbek and Beqaa Valley, and Jabal Amil.", "Fakhreddine II Palace, 17th centuryIn 1590, Druze tribal leader Fakhr al-Din II succeeded Korkmaz in southern Mount Lebanon and quickly asserted his authority as the paramount emir of the Druze in the Shouf region.", "Eventually, he was appointed Sanjak-bey, overseeing various Ottoman sub-provinces and tax collection.", "Expanding his influence extensively, he even constructed a fort in Palmyra.", "However, this expansion raised concerns for Ottoman Sultan Murad IV, leading to a punitive expedition in 1633.Fakhr al-Din II was captured, imprisoned for two years, and subsequently executed in April 1635, along with one of his sons.", "Surviving members of his family continued to govern a reduced area under closer Ottoman supervision until the late 17th century.", "On the death of the last Maan emir, various members of the Shihab clan ruled Mount Lebanon until 1830.While the history of Druze-Christian relations in Lebanon has generally been marked by harmony and peaceful coexistence, though there were occasional periods of tension, notably during the 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war, during which around 10,000 Christians were killed by the Druze.", "Shortly afterwards, the Emirate of Mount Lebanon, which lasted about 400 years, was replaced by the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate, as a result of a European-Ottoman treaty called the Règlement Organique.", "The ''Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate'' (1861–1918, ; ) was one of the Ottoman Empire's subdivisions following the Tanzimat reform.", "After 1861 there existed an autonomous Mount Lebanon with a Christian mutasarrıf, which had been created as a homeland for the Maronites under European diplomatic pressure following the 1860 massacres.", "The Maronite Catholics and the Druze founded modern Lebanon in the early eighteenth century, through the ruling and social system known as the \"Maronite-Druze dualism\" in Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate.Beaufort d'Hautpoul, later used as a template for the 1920 borders of Greater Lebanon.\|295x295pxThe Baalbek and Beqaa Valley and Jabal Amel was ruled intermittently by various Shia feudal families, especially the Al Ali Alsagheer in Jabal Amel that remained in power until 1865 when Ottomans took direct ruling of the region.", "Youssef Bey Karam, a Lebanese nationalist played an influential role in Lebanon's independence during this era.Lebanon experienced profound devastation in the First World War when the Ottoman army assumed direct control, disrupting supplies and confiscating animals, ultimately leading to a severe famine.", "During the war, approximately 100,000 people in Beirut and Mount Lebanon died due to starvation.===French Mandate===Amidst the height of the First World War, the Sykes–Picot Agreement of 1916, a secret pact between Britain and France, delineated Lebanon and its surrounding areas as regions open to potential French influence or control.", "After the Allies emerged victorious in the war, the Ottoman Empire ultimately collapsed, losing control over the area.", "Soon after the war, Patriarch Elias Peter Hoayek, representing the Maronite Christians, successfully campaigned for an expanded territory at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, also including areas with significant Muslim and Druze populations in addition to the Christian-dominated Mount Lebanon.In 1920, King Faisal I proclaimed the Arab Kingdom of Syria's independence and asserted control over Lebanon.", "However, following a defeat to the French at the Battle of Maysalun, the kingdom was dissolved.", "Around the same time, at the San Remo Conference, tasked with deciding the fate of former Ottoman territories, it was determined that Syria and Lebanon would fall under French rule; Shortly afterward, the formal division of territories took place in the Treaty of Sèvres, signed a few months later.On September 1, 1920, Greater Lebanon, or ''Grand Liban'', was officially established under French control as a League of Nations Mandate, following the terms outlined in the proposed Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon.", "Greater Lebanon united the regions of Mount Lebanon, North Lebanon, South Lebanon, and the Bekaa, with Beirut as its designated capital.", "These specified boundaries later evolved into the present-day configuration of Lebanon.", "This arrangement was later ratified in July 1922.The Lebanese Republic was officially proclaimed on September 1, 1926, with the adoption of a constitution inspired by the French constitution on May 23 of the same year.", "While a Lebanese government was established, the country continued to be under French control.====Pressure on German-occupied France====French Mandate and the states created in 1920Lebanon gained a measure of independence while France was occupied by Germany.", "General Henri Dentz, the Vichy High commissioner for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of the nation.", "The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces.", "The United Kingdom, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon.After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area.", "Under political pressure from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle recognized the independence of Lebanon.", "On 26 November 1941, General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government.", "Elections were held in 1943 and on 8 November 1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate.", "The French reacted by imprisoning the new government.", "In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on 22 November 1943.The Allies occupied the region until the end of World War II.Martyrs' Square in Beirut during celebrations marking the release by the French of Lebanon's government from Rashayya prison on 22 November 1943===Independence from Free France===Following the end of World War II in Europe the French mandate may be said to have been terminated without any formal action on the part of the League of Nations or its successor the United Nations.", "The mandate was ended by the declaration of the mandatory power, and of the new states themselves, of their independence, followed by a process of piecemeal unconditional recognition by other powers, culminating in formal admission to the United Nations.", "Article 78 of the UN Charter ended the status of tutelage for any member state: \"The trusteeship system shall not apply to territories which have become Members of the United Nations, relationship among which shall be based on respect for the principle of sovereign equality.\"", "So when the UN officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, after ratification of the United Nations Charter by the five permanent members, as both Syria and Lebanon were founding member states, the French mandate for both was legally terminated on that date and full independence attained.", "The last French troops withdrew in December 1946.Lebanon's unwritten National Pact of 1943 required that its president be Maronite Christian, its speaker of the parliament to be a Shia Muslim, its prime minister be Sunni Muslim, and the Deputy Speaker of Parliament and the Deputy Prime Minister be Greek Orthodox.Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade.In May 1948, Lebanon supported neighboring Arab countries in a war against Israel.", "While some irregular forces crossed the border and carried out minor skirmishes against Israel, it was without the support of the Lebanese government, and Lebanese troops did not officially invade.", "Lebanon agreed to support the forces with covering artillery fire, armored cars, volunteers and logistical support.", "On 5–6 June 1948, the Lebanese army – led by the then Minister of National Defense, Emir Majid Arslan – captured Al-Malkiyya.", "This was Lebanon's only success in the war.100,000 Palestinians fled to Lebanon because of the war.", "Israel did not permit their return after the cease-fire.", "As of 2017 between 174,000 and 450,000 Palestinian refugees live in Lebanon with about half in refugee camps (although these are often decades old and resemble neighborhoods).", "Palestinians often cannot obtain Lebanese citizenship or even Lebanese identity cards and are legally barred from owning property or performing certain occupations (including law, medicine, and engineering).", "According to Human Rights Watch, Palestinian refugees in Lebanon live in \"appalling social and economic conditions.", "\"In 1958, during the last months of President Camille Chamoun's term, an insurrection broke out, instigated by Lebanese Muslims who wanted to make Lebanon a member of the United Arab Republic.", "Chamoun requested assistance, and 5,000 United States Marines were briefly dispatched to Beirut on 15 July.", "After the crisis, a new government was formed, led by the popular former general Fouad Chehab.Until the early 1970s, Lebanon was dubbed \"the Switzerland of the Middle East\" for its unique status as both a snow-capped holiday destination and secure banking hub for Gulf Arabs.With the 1970 defeat of the PLO in Jordan, many Palestinian militants relocated to Lebanon, increasing their armed campaign against Israel.", "The relocation of Palestinian bases also led to increasing sectarian tensions between Palestinians versus the Maronites and other Lebanese factions.===Lebanese Civil War ===296x296px==== Syrian occupation (1976–2005) ====In 1975, following increasing sectarian tensions, largely boosted by Palestinian militant relocation into South Lebanon, a full-scale civil war broke out in Lebanon.", "The Lebanese Civil War pitted a coalition of Christian groups against the joint forces of the PLO, left-wing Druze and Muslim militias.", "In June 1976, Lebanese President Élias Sarkis asked for the Syrian Army to intervene on the side of the Christians and help restore peace.", "In October 1976 the Arab League agreed to establish a predominantly Syrian Arab Deterrent Force, which was charged with restoring calm.Green Line that separated west and east Beirut, 1982==== Israeli occupation (1985–2000) ====Rafic Hariri, prime minister of Lebanon in 1996Bachir Gemayel During An International ConferencePLO attacks from Lebanon into Israel in 1977 and 1978 escalated tensions between the countries.", "On 11 March 1978, 11 Fatah fighters landed on a beach in northern Israel and hijacked two buses full of passengers on the Haifa – Tel-Aviv road, shooting at passing vehicles in what became known as the Coastal Road massacre.", "They killed 37 and wounded 76 Israelis before being killed in a firefight with Israeli forces.", "Israel invaded Lebanon four days later in Operation Litani.", "The Israeli Army occupied most of the area south of the Litani River.", "The UN Security Council passed Resolution 425 calling for immediate Israeli withdrawal and creating the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), charged with attempting to establish peace.Blue Line demarcation line between Lebanon and Israel, established by the UN after the Israeli withdrawal from southern Lebanon in 1978Israeli forces withdrew later in 1978, but retained control of the southern region by managing a security zone along the border.", "These positions were held by the South Lebanon Army (SLA), a Christian militia under the leadership of Major Saad Haddad backed by Israel.", "The Israeli Prime Minister, Likud's Menachem Begin, compared the plight of the Christian minority in southern Lebanon (then about 5% of the population in SLA territory) to that of European Jews during World War II.", "The PLO routinely attacked Israel during the period of the cease-fire, with over 270 documented attacks.", "People in Galilee regularly had to leave their homes during these shellings.", "Documents captured in PLO headquarters after the invasion showed they had come from Lebanon.", "Arafat refused to condemn these attacks on the grounds that the cease-fire was only relevant to Lebanon.In April 1980 the presence of UNIFIL soldiers in the buffer zone led to the At Tiri incident.", "On 17 July 1981, Israeli aircraft bombed multi-story apartment buildings in Beirut that contained offices of PLO associated groups.", "The Lebanese delegate to the United Nations Security Council claimed that 300 civilians had been killed and 800 wounded.", "The bombing led to worldwide condemnation, and a temporary embargo on the export of U.S. aircraft to Israel.In August 1981, defense minister Ariel Sharon began to draw up plans to attack PLO military infrastructure in West Beirut, where PLO headquarters and command bunkers were located.Map showing power balance in Lebanon, 1983: In 1982, the PLO attacks from Lebanon on Israel led to an Israeli invasion, aiming to support Lebanese forces in driving out the PLO.", "A multinational force of American, French and Italian contingents (joined in 1983 by a British contingent) were deployed in Beirut after the Israeli siege of the city, to supervise the evacuation of the PLO.", "The civil war re-emerged in September 1982 after the assassination of Lebanese President Bachir Gemayel, an Israeli ally, and subsequent fighting.", "During this time a number of sectarian massacres occurred, such as in Sabra and Shatila, and in several refugee camps.", "The multinational force was withdrawn in the spring of 1984, following a devastating bombing attack during the previous year.During the early 1980s, Hezbollah, a Shiite Islamist militant group and political party, came into existence through the efforts of Shiite clerics who were financially supported and trained by Iran.", "Arising in the aftermath of the 1982 war and drawing inspiration from the Islamic Revolution in Iran, Hezbollah actively engaged in combat against Israel as well as suicide attacks, car bombings and assassinations.", "Their objectives encompassed eliminating Israel, fighting for the Shia cause in the Lebanese civil war, ending Western presence in Lebanon, and establishing a Shiite Khomeinist Islamic state.In the late 1980s, as Amine Gemayel’s second term as president drew to an end, the Lebanese pound collapsed.", "At the end of 1987 US$1 was worth £L500.This meant the legal minimum wage was worth just $17 a month.", "Most goods in shops were priced in dollars and a Save the Children director estimated that 2–300,000 children were need of assistance and were living almost entirely on bread which was subsidized by the government.", "Those that could depended on foreign assistance.", "Hizbullah was receiving about $3–5 million a month from Iran.In September 1988, the Parliament failed to elect a successor to President Gemayel as a result of differences between the Christians, Muslims, and Syrians.", "The Arab League Summit of May 1989 led to the formation of a Saudi–Moroccan–Algerian committee to solve the crisis.", "On 16 September 1989 the committee issued a peace plan which was accepted by all.", "A ceasefire was established, the ports and airports were re-opened and refugees began to return.In the same month, the Lebanese Parliament agreed to the Taif Agreement, which included an outline timetable for Syrian withdrawal from Lebanon and a formula for the de-confessionalization of the Lebanese political system.", "The civil war ended at the end of 1990 after 16 years; it had caused massive loss of human life and property, and devastated the country's economy.", "It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 wounded.", "Nearly a million civilians were displaced by the war, and some never returned.", "Parts of Lebanon were left in ruins.", "The Taif Agreement has still not been implemented in full and Lebanon's political system continues to be divided along sectarian lines.Conflict between Israel and Lebanese militants continued, leading to a series of violent events and clashes including the Qana massacre.", "In May 2000, Israeli forces fully withdrew from Lebanon.", "Since then, 25 May is regarded by the Lebanese as the Liberation Day.==== Withdrawal of Israel and Syria ====The internal political situation in Lebanon significantly changed in the early 2000s.", "After the Israeli withdrawal from southern Lebanon and the death of former president Hafez al-Assad in 2000, the Syrian military presence faced criticism and resistance from the Lebanese population.On 14 February 2005, former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated in a car bomb explosion.", "Leaders of the March 14 Alliance accused Syria of the attack, while Syria and the March 8 Alliance claimed that Israel was behind the assassination.", "The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassinations that resulted in the death of many prominent Lebanese figures.The assassination triggered the Cedar Revolution, a series of demonstrations which demanded the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon and the establishment of an international commission to investigate the assassination.", "Under pressure from the West, Syria began withdrawing, and by 26 April 2005 all Syrian soldiers had returned to Syria.UNSC Resolution 1595 called for an investigation into the assassination.", "The United Nations International Independent Investigation Commission published preliminary findings on 20 October 2005 in the Mehlis report, which cited indications that the assassination was organized by Syrian and Lebanese intelligence services.=== 2006 Hezbollah–Israel War ===On 12 July 2006, Hezbollah launched a series of rocket attacks and raids into Israeli territory, where they killed three Israeli soldiers and captured two others.", "Israel responded with airstrikes and artillery fire on targets in Lebanon, and a ground invasion of southern Lebanon, resulting in the 2006 Lebanon War.", "The conflict was officially ended by the UNSC Resolution 1701 on 14 August 2006, which ordered a ceasefire, the withdrawal of Israeli forces from Lebanon, and the disarmament of Hezbollah.", "Some 1,191 Lebanese and 160 Israelis were killed in the conflict.", "Beirut's southern suburb was heavily damaged by Israeli airstrikes.=== Arab Spring and spillover of the Syrian conflict ===Demonstrations in Lebanon triggered by the assassination of the former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Hariri on 14 February 2005In 2007, the Nahr al-Bared refugee camp became the center of the 2007 Lebanon conflict between the Lebanese Army and Fatah al-Islam.", "At least 169 soldiers, 287 insurgents and 47 civilians were killed in the battle.", "Funds for the reconstruction of the area have been slow to materialize.Between 2006 and 2008, a series of protests led by groups opposed to the pro-Western Prime Minister Fouad Siniora demanded the creation of a national unity government, over which the mostly Shia opposition groups would have veto power.", "When Émile Lahoud's presidential term ended in October 2007, the opposition refused to vote for a successor unless a power-sharing deal was reached, leaving Lebanon without a president.On 9 May 2008, Hezbollah and Amal forces, sparked by a government declaration that Hezbollah's communications network was illegal, seized western Beirut, the most important Sunni center in Lebanon, leading to an intrastate military conflict.", "The Lebanese government denounced the violence as a coup attempt.", "At least 62 people died in the resulting clashes between pro-government and opposition militias.", "On 21 May 2008, the signing of the Doha Agreement ended the fighting.", "As part of the accord, which ended 18 months of political paralysis, Michel Suleiman became president and a national unity government was established, granting a veto to the opposition.", "The agreement was a victory for opposition forces, as the government caved in to all their main demands.Syrian and Palestinian refugees live in the Shatila refugee camp on the outskirts of Beirut.In early January 2011, the national unity government collapsed due to growing tensions stemming from the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, which was expected to indict Hezbollah members for the Hariri assassination.", "The parliament elected Najib Mikati, the candidate for the Hezbollah-led March 8 Alliance, Prime Minister of Lebanon, making him responsible for forming a new government.", "Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah insists that Israel was responsible for the assassination of Hariri.", "A report leaked by the Al-Akhbar newspaper in November 2010 stated that Hezbollah has drafted plans for a takeover of the country in case the Special Tribunal for Lebanon issues an indictment against its members.In 2012, the Syrian civil war threatened to spill over in Lebanon, causing more incidents of sectarian violence and armed clashes between Sunnis and Alawites in Tripoli.", "According to UNHCR, the number of Syrian refugees in Lebanon increased from around 250,000 in early 2013 to 1,000,000 in late 2014.In 2013, The Lebanese Forces Party, the Kataeb Party and the Free Patriotic Movement voiced concerns that the country's sectarian based political system is being undermined by the influx of Syrian refugees.", "On 6 May 2015, UNHCR suspended registration of Syrian refugees at the request of the Lebanese government.", "In February 2016, the Lebanese government signed the Lebanon Compact, granting a minimum of €400 million of support for refugees and vulnerable Lebanese citizens.", "As of October 2016, the government estimates that the country hosts 1.5 million Syrians.==== National crisis (2019–present) ====On 17 October 2019, the first of a series of mass civil demonstrations erupted; they were initially triggered by planned taxes on gasoline, tobacco and online phone calls such as through WhatsApp, but quickly expanded into a country-wide condemnation of sectarian rule, a stagnant economy and liquidity crisis, unemployment, endemic corruption in the public sector, legislation (such as banking secrecy) that is perceived to shield the ruling class from accountability and failures from the government to provide basic services such as electricity, water and sanitation.Women protesters forming a line between riot police and protesters in Riad el Solh, Beirut; 19 November 2019As a result of the protests, Lebanon entered a political crisis, with Prime Minister Saad Hariri tendering his resignation and echoing protestors' demands for a government of independent specialists.", "Other politicians targeted by the protests have remained in power.", "On 19 December 2019, former Minister of Education Hassan Diab was designated the next prime minister and tasked with forming a new cabinet.", "Protests and acts of civil disobedience have since continued, with protesters denouncing and condemning the designation of Diab as prime minister.", "Lebanon is suffering the worst economic crisis in decades.", "Lebanon is the first country in the Middle East and North Africa to see its inflation rate exceed 50% for 30 consecutive days, according to Steve H. Hanke, professor of applied economics at the Johns Hopkins University.On 4 August 2020, an explosion at the port of Beirut, Lebanon's main port, destroyed the surrounding areas, killing over 200 people, and injuring thousands more.", "The cause of the explosion was later determined to be 2,750 tonnes of ammonium nitrate that had been unsafely stored, and accidentally set on fire that Tuesday afternoon.", "Protests resumed within days following the explosion, which resulted in the resignation of Prime Minister Hassan Diab and his cabinet on 10 August 2020, nonetheless continuing to stay in office in a caretaker capacity.", "Demonstrations continued into 2021 with Lebanese blocking the roads with burned tires protesting against the poverty and the economic crisis.On 11 March 2021 the caretaker minister of energy Raymond Ghajar warned that Lebanon was threatened with \"total darkness\" at the end of March if no money was secured to buy fuel for power stations.", "In August 2021, a large fuel explosion in northern Lebanon killed 28 people.", "September saw the formation of a new cabinet led by former prime minister Najib Mikati.", "On 9 October 2021, the entire nation lost power for 24 hours after its two main power stations ran out of power due to the currency and fuel shortage.", "Days later, sectarian violence in Beirut killed a number of people in the deadliest clashes in the country since 2008.By January 2022, BBC News reported that the crisis in Lebanon had deepened further, with the value of the Lebanese pound plummeting and a scheduled general election expected to be delayed indefinitely.", "The postponement of parliamentary elections was said to prolong the political deadlock in the country.", "The European Parliament called Lebanon's present situation a 'man-made disaster caused by a handful of men across the political class'.In May 2022, Lebanon held its first election since a painful economic crisis dragged it to the brink of becoming a failed state.", "Lebanon's crisis has been so severe that more than 80 percent of the population is now considered poor by the United Nations.", "In the election the Shia Muslim Hezbollah movement (and its allies) lost their parliamentary majority.", "Hezbollah did not lose any of its seats, but its allies lost seats.", "Hezbollah's ally, President Michel Aoun's Free Patriotic Movement, was no longer the biggest Christian party after the election.", "A rival Christian party, the Lebanese Forces led by Samir Geagea, became the largest Christian-based party in parliament.", "The Sunni Future Movement, led by former prime minister Saad Hariri, did not participate the election, leaving a political vacuum to other Sunni politicians to fill.The Lebanese crisis became so severe that multiple boats left the coast holding migrants in a desperate run from the country.", "Many proved unsuccessful and fatal.", "In April 2022, 6 people died and around 50 people are rescued after an overloaded boat sinks in Tripoli, Lebanon.", "And on September 22, at least 94 people were killed when a boat carrying migrants from Lebanon capsizes off Syria's coast.", "9 people survived.", "Many were declared missing and some were found either dead or injured.", "Dead bodies were sent to nearby hospitals.", "40 people are still missing as of 24 September.On 1 February 2023, the central bank of Lebanon devalued the Lebanese pound by 90% amid the ongoing financial crisis.", "This was the first time Lebanon had devalued its official exchange rate in 25 years." ], [ "Geography", "Kadisha Valley, a view from Qannoubine MonasteryLebanon is located in West Asia between latitudes 33° and 35° N and longitudes 35° and 37° E. Its land straddles the \"northwest of the Arabian Plate\".The country's surface area is of which is land.", "Lebanon has a coastline and border of on the Mediterranean Sea to the west, a border shared with Syria to the north and east and a long border with Israel to the south.", "The border with the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called Shebaa Farms.Mount Lebanon and eastern Anti-Lebanon mountain rangesLebanon is divided into four distinct physiographic regions: the coastal plain, the Lebanon mountain range, the Beqaa Valley and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains.The narrow and discontinuous coastal plain stretches from the Syrian border in the north where it widens to form the Akkar plain to Ras al-Naqoura at the border with Israel in the south.", "The fertile coastal plain is formed of marine sediments and river deposited alluvium alternating with sandy bays and rocky beaches.", "Lebanon's mountains rise steeply parallel to the Mediterranean coast and form a ridge of limestone and sandstone that runs for most of the country's length.", "The mountain range varies in width between and ; it is carved by narrow and deep gorges.", "The Lebanon mountains peak at above sea level in Qurnat as Sawda' in North Lebanon and gradually slope to the south before rising again to a height of in Mount Sannine.", "The Beqaa valley sits between the Lebanon mountains in the west and the Anti-Lebanon range in the east; it is a part of the Great Rift Valley system.", "The valley is long and wide, its fertile soil is formed by alluvial deposits.", "The Anti-Lebanon range runs parallel to the Lebanon mountains, its highest peak is in Mount Hermon at .The mountains of Lebanon are drained by seasonal torrents and rivers foremost of which is the long Leontes that rises in the Beqaa Valley to the west of Baalbek and empties into the Mediterranean Sea north of Tyre.", "Lebanon has 16 rivers all of which are non-navigable; 13 rivers originate from Mount Lebanon and run through the steep gorges and into the Mediterranean Sea, the other three arise in the Beqaa Valley.===Climate===Lebanon has a moderate Mediterranean climate.", "In coastal areas, winters are generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid.", "In more elevated areas, temperatures usually drop below freezing during the winter with heavy snow cover that remains until early summer on the higher mountaintops.", "Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall, when measured annually in comparison to its arid surroundings, certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receives only little because of the rain shadow created by the high peaks of the western mountain range.===Environment===Lebanon cedar is the national emblem of Lebanon.Csontváry Kosztka Tivadar.In ancient times, Lebanon was covered by large forests of cedar trees, the national emblem of the country.", "Millennia of deforestation have altered the hydrology in Mount Lebanon and changed the regional climate adversely.", "As of 2012, forests covered 13.4% of the Lebanese land area; they are under constant threat from wildfires caused by the long dry summer season.As a result of longstanding exploitation, few old cedar trees remain in pockets of forests in Lebanon, but there is an active program to conserve and regenerate the forests.", "The Lebanese approach has emphasized natural regeneration over planting by creating the right conditions for germination and growth.", "The Lebanese state has created several nature reserves that contain cedars, including the Shouf Biosphere Reserve, the Jaj Cedar Reserve, the Tannourine Reserve, the Ammouaa and Karm Shbat Reserves in the Akkar district, and the Forest of the Cedars of God near Bsharri.", "Lebanon had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 3.76/10, ranking it 141st globally out of 172 countries.In 2010, the Environment Ministry set a 10-year plan to increase the national forest coverage by 20%, which is equivalent to the planting of two million new trees each year.", "The plan, which was funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), and implemented by the U.S. Forest Service (USFS), through the Lebanon Reforestation Initiative (LRI), was inaugurated in 2011 by planting cedar, pine, wild almond, juniper, fir, oak and other seedlings, in ten regions around Lebanon.", "As of 2016, forests covered 13.6% of Lebanon, and other wooded lands represented a further 11%.", "Since 2011, over 600,000 trees, including cedars and other native species, have been planted throughout the country as part of the Lebanon Reforestation Initiative (LRI).Lebanon contains two terrestrial ecoregions: Eastern Mediterranean conifer–sclerophyllous–broadleaf forests and Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests.Beirut and Mount Lebanon have been facing a severe garbage crisis.", "After the closure of the Bourj Hammoud dump in 1997, the al-Naameh dumpsite was opened by the government in 1998.The al-Naameh dumpsite was planned to contain 2 million tons of waste for a limited period of six years at the most.", "It was designed to be a temporary solution, while the government would have devised a long-term plan.", "Sixteen years later al-Naameh was still open and exceeded its capacity by 13 million tons.", "In July 2015 the residents of the area, already protesting in the recent years, forced the closure of the dumpsite.", "The inefficiency of the government, as well as the corruption inside of the waste management company Sukleen in charge of managing the garbage in Lebanon, have resulted in piles of garbage blocking streets in Mount Lebanon and Beirut.Mount Lebanon is a mountain range in Lebanon.", "It averages above 2,500 m (8,200 ft) in elevation.In December 2015, the Lebanese government signed an agreement with Chinook Industrial Mining, part owned by Chinook Sciences, to export over 100,000 tons of untreated waste from Beirut and the surrounding area.", "The waste had accumulated in temporary locations following the government closure of the county's largest land fill site five months earlier.", "The contract was jointly signed with Howa International which has offices in the Netherlands and Germany.", "The contract is reported to cost $212 per ton.", "The waste, which is compacted and infectious, would have to be sorted and was estimated to be enough to fill 2,000 containers.", "Initial reports that the waste was to be exported to Sierra Leone have been denied by diplomats.In February 2016, the government withdrew from negotiations after it was revealed that documents relating to the export of the trash to Russia were forgeries.", "On 19 March 2016, the Cabinet reopened the Naameh landfill for 60 days in line with a plan it passed few days earlier to end the trash crisis.", "The plan also stipulates the establishment of landfills in Bourj Hammoud and Costa Brava, east and south of Beirut respectively.", "Sukleen trucks began removing piled garbage from Karantina and heading to Naameh.", "Environment Minister Mohammad Machnouk announced during a chat with activists that over 8,000 tons of garbage had been collected up to that point in only 24 hours as part of the government's trash plan.", "The plan's execution was ongoing at last report.", "In 2017, Human Rights Watch found that Lebanon's garbage crisis, and open burning of waste in particular, was posing a health risk to residents and violating the state's obligations under international law.In September 2018, Lebanon's parliament passed a law that banned open dumping and burning of waste.", "Despite penalties set in case of violations, Lebanese municipalities have been openly burning the waste, putting the lives of people in danger.", "In October 2018, Human Rights Watch researchers witnessed the open burning of dumps in al-Qantara and Qabrikha.On Sunday 13 October 2019 at night, a series of about 100 forest fires according to Lebanese Civil Defense, broke out and spread over large areas of Lebanon's forests.", "Lebanese Prime Minister Saad Al-Hariri confirmed his contact with a number of countries to send assistance via helicopters and firefighting planes, Cyprus, Jordan, Turkey and Greece participated in firefighting.", "According to press reports on Tuesday (15 October), fire has decreased in different places due to the rains.Lebanon's ongoing economic crisis has precipitated electricity shortages, prompting an increased reliance on diesel generators and subsequently contributing to environmental deterioration and health hazards.", "The scarcity of power has led to a heightened contamination of water sources.", "The compromised infrastructure, marked by sewage infiltrating drinking water, has given rise to significant health concerns, including an increase in cases of Hepatitis A.", "The health service, grappling with workforce shortages due to emigration, struggles amid a growing public health crisis." ], [ "Government and politics", "The Lebanese parliament building at the Place de l'ÉtoileLebanon is a parliamentary democracy that includes confessionalism.", "The National Pact, erected in 1943, laid out a governing arrangement intended to harmonize the interests of the country's major religious groups.", "The President has to be a Maronite Christian, the Prime Minister a Sunni Muslim, the Speaker of the Parliament a Shi’a Muslim, the Deputy Prime Minister and the Deputy Speaker of Parliament Eastern Orthodox.", "This system is intended to deter sectarian conflict and to represent fairly the demographic distribution of the 18 recognized religious groups in government.Until 1975, Freedom House considered Lebanon to be among only two (together with Israel) politically free countries in the Middle East and North Africa region.", "The country lost this status with the outbreak of the Civil War, and has not regained it since.", "Lebanon was rated \"Partly Free\" in 2013.Even so, Freedom House still ranks Lebanon as among the most democratic nations in the Arab world.", "According to the V-Dem Democracy indices Lebanon is 2023 the second most electoral democratic country in the Middle East.", "Until 2005, Palestinians were forbidden to work in over 70 jobs because they did not have Lebanese citizenship.", "After liberalization laws were passed in 2007, the number of banned jobs dropped to around 20.In 2010, Palestinians were granted the same rights to work as other foreigners in the country.Lebanon's national legislature is the unicameral Parliament of Lebanon.", "Its 128 seats are divided equally between Christians and Muslims, proportionately between the 18 different denominations and proportionately between its 26 regions.", "Prior to 1990, the ratio stood at 6:5 in favor of Christians, but the Taif Agreement, which put an end to the 1975–1990 civil war, adjusted the ratio to grant equal representation to followers of the two religions.One of many protests in BeirutThe Parliament is elected for a four-year term by popular vote on the basis of sectarian proportional representation.The executive branch consists of the President, the head of state, and the Prime Minister, the head of government.", "The parliament elects the president for a non-renewable six-year term by a two-thirds majority.", "The president appoints the Prime Minister, following consultations with the parliament.", "The president and the prime minister form a cabinet, which must also adhere to the sectarian distribution set out by confessionalism.In an unprecedented move, the Lebanese parliament has extended its own term twice amid protests, the last being on 5 November 2014, an act which comes in direct contradiction with democracy and article #42 of the Lebanese constitution as no elections have taken place.Lebanon was without a President between May 2014 and October 2016.Nationwide elections were finally scheduled for May 2018.As of August 2019, the Lebanese cabinet included two ministers directly affiliated with Hezbollah, in addition to a close but officially non-member minister.The most recent parliamentary elections were held on 15 May 2022.===Law===There are 18 officially recognized religious groups in Lebanon, each with its own family law legislation and set of religious courts.The Grand Serail in BeirutThe Lebanese legal system is based on the French system, and is a civil law country, with the exception for matters related to personal status (succession, marriage, divorce, adoption, etc.", "), which are governed by a separate set of laws designed for each sectarian community.", "For instance, the Islamic personal status laws are inspired by the Sharia law.", "For Muslims, these tribunals deal with questions of marriage, divorce, custody, and inheritance and wills.", "For non-Muslims, personal status jurisdiction is split: the law of inheritance and wills falls under national civil jurisdiction, while Christian and Jewish religious courts are competent for marriage, divorce, and custody.", "Catholics can additionally appeal before the Vatican Rota court.The most notable set of codified laws is the Code des Obligations et des Contrats promulgated in 1932 and equivalent to the French Civil Code.", "Capital punishment is still de facto used to sanction certain crimes, but no longer enforced.The Lebanese court system consists of three levels: courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation.", "The Constitutional Council rules on constitutionality of laws and electoral frauds.", "There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, with rules on matters such as marriage and inheritance.In 1990 article 95 was amended to provide that the parliament shall take necessary measures to abolish political structure based on religious affiliation, but that until such time only the highest positions in public civil service, including the judiciary, military, security forces, public and mixed institutions, shall be divided equally between Christians and Muslims without regard to the denominational affiliation within each community.===Foreign relations===United Nations Lebanon headquarters in BeirutLebanon concluded negotiations on an association agreement with the European Union in late 2001, and both sides initialed the accord in January 2002.It is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer.", "Lebanon also has bilateral trade agreements with several Arab states and is working toward accession to the World Trade Organization.Lebanon enjoys good relations with virtually all of the other Arab countries (despite historic tensions with Libya and Syria), and hosted an Arab League Summit in March 2002 for the first time in over 35 years.", "Lebanon is a member of the Francophonie countries and hosted the Francophonie Summit in October 2002 as well as the Jeux de la Francophonie in 2009.===Military===Soldiers of the Lebanese army, 2009The Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) has 72,000 active personnel, including 1,100 in the air force, and 1,000 in the navy.", "The LAF is considered less powerful and influential than Hezbollah in Lebanon.", "Hezbollah has 20,000 active fighters and 20,000 in reserves and is supplied with advanced weaponry, including rockets and drones from Iran.The Lebanese Armed Forces' primary missions include defending Lebanon and its citizens against external aggression, maintaining internal stability and security, confronting threats against the country's vital interests, engaging in social development activities, and undertaking relief operations in coordination with public and humanitarian institutions.Lebanon is a major recipient of foreign military aid.", "With over $400 million since 2005, it is the second largest per capita recipient of American military aid behind Israel.===LGBT rights===Male homosexuality is illegal in Lebanon.", "Discrimination against LGBT people in Lebanon is widespread.", "According to 2019 survey by the Pew Research Center, 85% of Lebanese respondents believe that homosexuality should not be accepted by society.A gender and sexuality conference, held annually in Lebanon, since 2013, was moved abroad in 2019 after a religious group on Facebook called for the organizers’ arrest and the cancellation of the conference for \"inciting immorality.\"", "General Security Forces shut down the 2018 conference and indefinitely denied non-Lebanese LGBT activists who attended the conference permission to re-enter the country.===Administrative divisions===Lebanon is divided into nine governorates (''muḥāfaẓāt'', ; singular ''muḥāfaẓah'', ) which are further subdivided into twenty-five districts (, ; singular: ''qadāʾ'' ).", "The districts themselves are also divided into several municipalities, each enclosing a group of cities or villages.", "The governorates and their respective districts are listed below:Corinthian capitals of the Temple of Jupiter in Baalbek* Beirut Governorate** Beirut Governorate comprises the city of Beirut and is not divided into districts.", "* Akkar Governorate** Akkar* Baalbek-Hermel Governorate Baalbek Hermel* Beqaa Governorate Rashaya Western Beqaa (''al-Beqaa al-Gharbi'')** Zahle* Keserwan-Jbeil Governorate Byblos (''Jbeil'') Keserwan* Mount Lebanon Governorate (''Jabal Lubnan''/''Jabal Lebnen'') Aley Baabda Chouf Matn* Nabatieh Governorate (''Jabal Amel'') Bint Jbeil Hasbaya Marjeyoun Nabatieh* North Governorate (''ash-Shamal''/''shmel'') Batroun Bsharri Koura Miniyeh-Danniyeh Tripoli Zgharta* South Governorate (''al-Janoub''/''Jnub'') Jezzine Sidon (''Saida'')** Tyre (''Sur'')" ], [ "Economy", "Lebanon's constitution states that 'the economic system is free and ensures private initiative and the right to private property'.", "Lebanon's economy follows a laissez-faire model.", "Most of the economy is dollarized, and the country has no restrictions on the movement of capital across its borders.", "The Lebanese government's intervention in foreign trade is minimal.", "The Investment Development Authority of Lebanon was established with the aim of promoting investment in Lebanon.", "In 2001, Investment Law No.360 was enacted to reinforce the organisation's mission.Lebanon is now suffering the worst economic crisis in decades.", "As of 2023, the GDP has shrunk by 40% since 2018, and the currency has experienced a significant depreciation of 95%.", "The annual inflation rate exceeds 200%, rendering the minimum wage equivalent to approximately $1 per day.", "This was the first time Lebanon had devalued its official exchange rate in 25 years.", "According to the United Nations, three out of every four Lebanese individuals fall below the poverty line.", "The crisis stems from a long-term Ponzi scheme by the Central Bank of Lebanon, borrowing dollars at high interest rates to sustain deficits and maintain a currency peg.", "By 2019, insufficient new deposits led to an unsustainable situation, resulting in weeks-long bank closures, arbitrary capital controls, and ultimately, the country's default in 2020.Throughout the Ottoman and French mandatory periods and into the 1960s, Lebanon experienced prosperity, serving as a hub for banking, financial services, and a key distribution center for the Middle East.", "The local economy thrived with a foundation in industries related to food processing, clothing, jewelry, and carpets.", "This prosperity was later marred by four decades of conflict.", "Following the end of the civil war, Lebanon has developed a service-based economy centered around finance, real estate, and tourism.", "Nearly 65% of the Lebanese workforce attain employment in the services sector.", "The GDP contribution, accordingly, amounts to roughly 67.3% of the annual Lebanese GDP.", "However, dependence on the tourism and banking sectors leaves the economy vulnerable to political instability.The urban population in Lebanon is noted for its commercial enterprise.", "Emigration has yielded Lebanese \"commercial networks\" throughout the world.", "In 2008, Remittances from Lebanese abroad totalled $8.2 billion and account for one-fifth of the country's economy.", "In 2005, Lebanon had the largest proportion of skilled labor among Arab States.The agricultural sector in Lebanon employs 20-25% of the total workforce, and contributed 3.1% to the country's GDP, as of 2020.Lebanon has the highest proportion of cultivable land in the Arab world.", "Major crops include apples, peaches, oranges, and lemons.", "A significant portion of the country's factories, approximately one-third, is dedicated to producing packaged food items, ranging from poultry to pickles.", "However, despite favorable conditions for farming and diverse microclimates, the country depends on food imports, constituting 80% of its consumption.", "This is mainly attributed to the small scale of many farms, preventing the benefits of economies of scale.", "The ongoing economic crisis and devaluation of the Lebanese pound have also negatively impacted the agricultural sector, particularly through elevated costs for essential imports such as seeds and fertilizers.", "This economic strain compounds existing burdens for farmers, including escalating debts and inefficient agricultural practices.", "Consequently, farmers are observing a decline in revenues and encountering difficulties in meeting loan repayment obligations.Beirut Central DistrictThe commodities market in Lebanon includes substantial gold coin production, however according to International Air Transport Association (IATA) standards, they must be declared upon exportation to any foreign country.Industry in Lebanon is mainly limited to small businesses that reassemble and package imported parts.", "In 2004, industry ranked second in workforce, with 26% of the Lebanese working population, and second in GDP contribution, with 21% of Lebanon's GDP.Oil has recently been discovered inland and in the seabed between Lebanon, Cyprus, Israel and Egypt and talks are underway between Cyprus and Egypt to reach an agreement regarding the exploration of these resources.", "The seabed separating Lebanon and Cyprus is believed to hold significant quantities of crude oil and natural gas.", "On 10 May 2013, the Lebanese minister of energy and water clarified that seismic images of the Lebanese sea bed are undergoing detailed explanation of their contents and that up till now, approximately 10% have been covered.", "Preliminary inspection of the results showed, with over 50% probability, that 10% of Lebanon's exclusive economic zone held up to 660 million barrels of oil and up to 30×1012 cu ft of gas.Lebanon has a significant drug industry, including both production and trade.", "Western intelligence estimate an annual production of over 4 million pounds of hashish and 20,000 pounds of heroin, generating profits exceeding $4 billion.", "In recent decades, Hezbollah has intensified its engagement in the drug economy, with narcotics serving as a significant revenue stream for the group.", "Despite some of the harvest being retained for local use, a significant amount is smuggled worldwide.", "Despite ongoing efforts, the government's inability to control the drug-producing Beqaa Valley and address illicit Captagon factories allows for the persistent occurrence of drug trades, impacting Lebanon's economy and regional stability.===Development===In the 1950s, GDP growth was the second highest in the world.", "Despite having no oil reserves, Lebanon, as the Arab world's banking center and among its trading center, had a high national income.Lebanese real GDP 1970–2017The 1975–1990 civil war heavily damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure, cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a West Asian entrepôt and banking hub.", "The subsequent period of relative peace enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities.", "Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange.Port of BeirutUntil July 2006, Lebanon enjoyed considerable stability, Beirut's reconstruction was almost complete, and increasing numbers of tourists poured into the nation's resorts.", "The economy witnessed growth, with bank assets reaching over 75 billion US dollars, Market capitalization was also at an all-time high, estimated at $10.9 billion at the end of the second quarter of 2006.The month-long 2006 war severely damaged Lebanon's fragile economy, especially the tourism sector.", "According to a preliminary report published by the Lebanese Ministry of Finance on 30 August 2006, a major economic decline was expected as a result of the fighting.Over the course of 2008 Lebanon rebuilt its infrastructure mainly in the real estate and tourism sectors, resulting in a comparatively robust post war economy.", "Major contributors to the reconstruction of Lebanon include Saudi Arabia (with US$1.5 billion pledged), the European Union (with about $1 billion) and a few other Persian Gulf countries with contributions of up to $800 million.=== Tourism ===Beirut is the tourism hub of the countryThe tourism industry accounts for about 10% of GDP.", "Lebanon attracted around 1,333,000 tourists in 2008, thus placing it as 79th out of 191 countries.", "In 2009, ''The New York Times'' ranked Beirut the No.", "1 travel destination worldwide due to its nightlife and hospitality.", "In January 2010, the Ministry of Tourism announced that 1,851,081 tourists had visited Lebanon in 2009, a 39% increase from 2008.In 2009, Lebanon hosted the largest number of tourists to date, eclipsing the previous record set before the Lebanese Civil War.", "Tourist arrivals reached two million in 2010, but fell by 37% for the first 10 months of 2012, a decline caused by the war in neighbouring Syria.In 2011, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, and Japan were the three most popular origin countries of foreign tourists to Lebanon.", "In summer, a considerable number of visitors to Lebanon consists of Lebanese expatriates coming to visit their hometowns.", "In 2012, it was reported that an influx of Japanese tourists had caused a rise in popularity of Japanese cuisine in Lebanon." ], [ "Infrastructure", "=== Education ===Haigazian University in Beirut.According to surveys from the World Economic Forum's 2013 Global Information Technology Report, Lebanon has been ranked globally as the fourth best country for math and science education, and as the tenth best overall for quality of education.", "In quality of management schools, the country was ranked 13th worldwide.", "The United Nations assigned Lebanon an education index of 0.871 in 2008.The index, which is determined by the adult literacy rate and the combined primary, secondary, and tertiary gross enrollment ratio, ranked the country 88th out of the 177 countries participating.All Lebanese schools are required to follow a prescribed curriculum designed by the Ministry of Education.", "Some of the 1400 private schools offer IB programs, and may also add more courses to their curriculum with approval from the Ministry of Education.", "The first eight years of education are, by law, compulsory.Saint Joseph University of Beirut on Damascus Street.Lebanon has forty-one nationally accredited universities, several of which are internationally recognized.", "The American University of Beirut (AUB) and the Saint Joseph University of Beirut (USJ) were the first Anglophone and the first Francophone universities to open in Lebanon, respectively.", "Universities in Lebanon, both public and private, largely operate in French or English.The top-ranking universities in the country are the American University of Beirut (#2 in the Middle East as of 2022 and #226 worldwide), University of Balamand (#17 in the region and #802-850 worldwide), Lebanese American University (#17 in the region and #501 worldwide), Université Saint Joseph de Beyrouth (#2 in Lebanon and #631-640 worldwide), Université Libanaise (#577 worldwide) and Holy Spirit University of Kaslik (#600s worldwide as of 2020).", "Notre Dame University-Louaize (NDU) (#701 as of 2021).=== Health ===In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 7.03% of the country's GDP.", "In 2009, there were 31.29 physicians and 19.71 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.", "The life expectancy at birth was 72.59 years in 2011, or 70.48 years for males and 74.80 years for females.By the end of the civil war, only one-third of the country's public hospitals were operational, each with an average of 20 beds.", "By 2009, the country had 28 public hospitals, with a total of 2,550 beds.", "At public hospitals, hospitalized uninsured patients pay 5% of the bill, in comparison with 15% in private hospitals, with the Ministry of Public Health reimbursing the remainder.", "The Ministry of Public Health contracts with 138 private hospitals and 25 public hospitals.In 2011, there were 236,643 subsidized admissions to hospitals; 164,244 in private hospitals, and 72,399 in public hospitals.", "More patients visit private hospitals than public hospitals, because the private beds supply is higher.According to the Ministry of Public Health in Lebanon, the top 10 leading causes of reported hospital deaths in 2017 were: malignant neoplasm of bronchus or lung (4.6%), Acute myocardial infarction (3%), pneumonia (2.2%), exposure to unspecified factor, unspecified place (2.1%), acute kidney injury (1.4%), intra-cerebral hemorrhage (1.2%), malignant neoplasm of colon (1.2%), malignant neoplasm of pancreas (1.1%), malignant neoplasm of prostate (1.1%), malignant neoplasm of bladder (0.8%).Recently, there has been an increase in foodborne illnesses in Lebanon.", "This has raised public awareness on the importance of food safety, including in the realms of food storage, preservation, and preparation.", "More restaurants are seeking information and compliance with International Organization for Standardization." ], [ "Demographics", "The population of Lebanon was estimated to be in , with the number of Lebanese nationals estimated to be 4,680,212 (July 2018 est.", "); however, no official census has been conducted since 1932 due to the sensitive confessional political balance between Lebanon's various religious groups.", "Identifying all Lebanese as ethnically Arab is a widely employed example of panethnicity, as the Lebanese \"are descended from many different peoples who are either indigenous, or have occupied, invaded, or settled this corner of the world\", making Lebanon, \"a mosaic of closely interrelated cultures\".The fertility rate fell from 5.00 in 1971 to 1.75 in 2004.Fertility rates vary considerably among the different religious groups: in 2004, it was 2.10 for Shiites, 1.76 for Sunnis and 1.61 for Maronites.Beirut located on the Mediterranean Sea is the most populous city in Lebanon.Lebanon has witnessed a series of migration waves: over 1,800,000 people emigrated from the country in the 1975–2011 period.", "Millions of people of Lebanese descent are spread throughout the world, especially in Latin America.", "Brazil and Argentina have large expatriate population.", "''(See Lebanese people)''.", "Large numbers of Lebanese migrated to West Africa, particularly to the Ivory Coast (home to over 100,000 Lebanese) and Senegal (roughly 30,000 Lebanese).", "Australia is home to over 270,000 Lebanese (1999 est.).", "In Canada, there is also a large Lebanese diaspora of approximately 250,000–700,000 people having Lebanese descent.", "(see Lebanese Canadians).", "United States also has one the largest Lebanesepopulation, at around 2,000,000.Another region with a significant diaspora are Gulf Countries, where the countries of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar (around 25,000 people), Saudi Arabia and UAE act as host countries to many Lebanese.", "269,000 Lebanese citizens currently reside in Saudi Arabia.", "Around a third of the Lebanese workforce, about 350,000, live in Gulf countries according to some sources.", "Over 50% of the Lebanese diaspora are Christian, partly due to the large period of Christian emigration before 1943., Lebanon was host to over 1,600,000 refugees and asylum seekers: 449,957 from Palestine, 100,000 from Iraq, over 1,100,000 from Syria, and at least 4,000 from Sudan.", "According to the Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia of the United Nations, among the Syrian refugees, 71% live in poverty.", "A 2013 estimate by the United Nations put the number of Syrian refugees at over 1,250,000.In the last three decades, lengthy and destructive armed conflicts have ravaged the country.", "The majority of Lebanese have been affected by armed conflict; those with direct personal experience include 75% of the population, and most others report suffering a range of hardships.", "In total, almost the entire population (96%) has been affected insome way – either personally or because of the wider consequences of armed conflict.=== Religion ===Saint George Maronite Cathedral and the Mohammad Al-Amin Mosque, Beirut.Distribution of main religious groups of Lebanon according to 2009 municipal election data.Lebanon is the most religiously diverse country in West Asia and the Mediterranean.", "Because the relative sizes of different religions and religious sects remains a sensitive issue, a national census has not been conducted since 1932.There are 18 state-recognized religious sects – four Muslim, 12 Christian, one Druze, and one Jewish.", "The Lebanese government counts its Druze citizens as part of its Muslim population, although most Druze today do not identify as Muslims.It is believed that there has been a decline in the ratio of Christians to Muslims over the past 60 years, due to higher emigration rates of Christians, and a higher birth rate in the Muslim population.", "When the last census was held in 1932, Christians made up 53% of Lebanon's population.", "In 1956, it was estimated that the population was 54% Christian and 44% Muslim.A demographic study conducted by the research firm Statistics Lebanon found that approximately 27% of the population was Sunni, 27% Shia, 21% Maronite, 8% Greek Orthodox, 5% Druze, 5% Melkite, and 1% Protestant, with the remaining 6% mostly belonging to smaller non-native to Lebanon Christian denominations.", "The CIA World Factbook estimates (2020) the following (data does not include Lebanon's sizable Syrian and Palestinian refugee populations): Muslim 67.8% (31.9% Sunni, 31.2% Shia, smaller percentages of Alawites and Ismailis), Christian 32.4% (Maronite Catholics are the largest Christian group), Druze 4.5%, and very small numbers of Jews, Baha'is, Buddhists, and Hindus.", "Other sources like Euronews or the Madrid-based diary ''La Razón'' estimate the percentage of Christians to be around 53%.", "A study based on voter registration numbers shows that by 2011, the Christian population was stable compared to that of previous years, making up 34.35% of the population; Muslims, the Druze included, were 65.47% of the population.", "The World Values Survey of 2014 put the percentage of atheists in Lebanon at 3.3%.", "Survey data indicates a decrease in religious faith within Lebanon, especially noticeable among young people.The Sunni residents primarily live in Western Beirut, the Southern coast of Lebanon, and Northern Lebanon.", "The Shi'a residents primarily live in Southern Beirut, the Beqaa Valley, and Southern Lebanon.", "The Maronite Catholic residents primarily live in Eastern Beirut and around Mount Lebanon.", "The Greek Orthodox residents primarily live in the Koura region, Akkar, Metn, and Beirut (Achrafieh).", "The Melkite Catholic residents live mainly in Beirut, on the eastern slopes of the Lebanon mountains, and in Zahlé which is predominantly Greek Catholic.", "The Druze residents are concentrated in the rural, mountainous areas east and south of Beirut.===Language===Article 11 of Lebanon's Constitution states that \"Arabic is the official national language.", "A law determines the cases in which the French language is to be used\".", "The majority of Lebanese people speak Lebanese Arabic, which is grouped in a larger category called Levantine Arabic, while Modern Standard Arabic is mostly used in magazines, newspapers, and formal broadcast media.", "Lebanese Sign Language is the language of the Deaf community.There is also significant presence of French, and of English.Almost 40% of Lebanese are considered francophone, and another 15% \"partial francophone\", and 70% of Lebanon's secondary schools use French as a second language of instruction.", "By comparison, English is used as a secondary language in 30% of Lebanon's secondary schools.", "The use of French is a legacy of France's historic ties to the region, including its League of Nations mandate over Lebanon following World War I; , some 20% of the population used French on a daily basis.", "The use of Arabic by Lebanon's educated youth is declining, as they usually prefer to speak in French and, to a lesser extent, English, which are seen as more fashionable.English is increasingly used in science and business interactions.", "Lebanese citizens of Armenian, Greek, or Assyrian descent often speak their ancestral languages with varying degrees of fluency.", ", there were around 150,000 Armenians in Lebanon, or around 5% of the population." ], [ "Culture", "Temple of Bacchus is considered among the best preserved Roman temples in the world, The culture of Lebanon reflects the legacy of various civilizations spanning thousands of years.", "Originally home to the Canaanite-Phoenicians, and then subsequently conquered and occupied by the Assyrians, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Arabs, the Crusaders, the Ottoman Turks and most recently the French, Lebanese culture has over the millennia evolved by borrowing from all of these groups.", "Lebanon's diverse population, composed of different ethnic and religious groups, has further contributed to the country's festivals, musical styles and literature as well as cuisine.", "Despite the ethnic, linguistic, religious and denominational diversity of the Lebanese, they \"share an almost common culture\".", "Lebanese Arabic is universally spoken while food, music, and literature are deep-rooted \"in wider Mediterranean and Levantine norms\".===Arts===In visual arts, Moustafa Farroukh was among Lebanon's most prominent painters of the 20th century.", "Formally trained in Rome and Paris, he exhibited in venues from Paris to New York to Beirut over his career.", "Many more contemporary artists are active, such as Walid Raad, a contemporary media artist residing in New York.", "In the field of photography, the Arab Image Foundation has a collection of over 400,000 photographs from Lebanon and the Middle East.", "The photographs can be viewed in a research center and various events and publications have been produced in Lebanon and worldwide to promote the collection.Sursock Museum in Beirut===Literature===In literature, Kahlil Gibran is the third best-selling poet of all time, behind Shakespeare and Laozi.", "He is particularly known for his book ''The Prophet'' (1923), which has been translated into over twenty different languages.", "Ameen Rihani was a major figure in the mahjar literary movement developed by Arab emigrants in North America, and an early theorist of Arab nationalism.", "Mikhail Naimy is widely recognized as among the most important figures in modern Arabic letters and among the most important spiritual writers of the 20th century.", "Several contemporary Lebanese writers have also achieved international success; including Elias Khoury, Amin Maalouf, Hanan al-Shaykh, and Georges Schéhadé.===Music===251x251pxWhile traditional folk music remains popular in Lebanon, modern music reconciling Western and traditional Arabic styles, pop, and fusion are rapidly advancing in popularity.", "Lebanese artists like Fairuz, Majida El Roumi, Wadih El Safi, Sabah, Julia Boutros or Najwa Karam are widely known and appreciated in Lebanon and in the Arab world.", "Radio stations feature a variety of music, including traditional Lebanese, classical Arabic, Armenian and modern French, English, American, and Latin tunes.===Media and cinema===Sabah and Salah Zulfikar in ''Paris and Love'' (1972)The cinema of Lebanon, according to film critic and historian, Roy Armes, was the only cinema in the Arabic-speaking region, besides the dominant Egyptian cinema, that could amount to a national cinema.", "Cinema in Lebanon has been in existence since the 1920s, and the country has produced over 500 films with many films including Egyptian filmmakers and film stars.", "The media of Lebanon is not only a regional center of production but also the most liberal and free in the Arab world.", "According to Press freedom's Reporters Without Borders, \"the media have more freedom in Lebanon than in any other Arab country\".", "Despite its small population and geographic size, Lebanon plays an influential role in the production of information in the Arab world and is \"at the core of a regional media network with global implications\".===Holidays and festivals===Lebanon celebrates national and both Christian and Muslim holidays.", "Christian holidays are celebrated following both the Gregorian calendar and Julian calendar.", "Greek Orthodox (with the exception of Easter), Catholics, Protestants, and Melkite Christians follow the Gregorian Calendar and thus celebrate Christmas on 25 December.", "Armenian Apostolic Christians celebrate Christmas on 6 January, as they follow the Julian Calendar.", "Muslim holidays are followed based on the Islamic lunar calendar.", "Muslim holidays that are celebrated include Eid al-Fitr (the three-day feast at the end of the Ramadan month), Eid al-Adha (The Feast of the Sacrifice) which is celebrated during the annual pilgrimage to Mecca and also celebrates Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his son to God, the Birth of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and Ashura (the Shiite Day of Mourning).", "Lebanon's National Holidays include Workers Day, Independence day, and Martyrs Day.", "Music festivals, often hosted at historical sites, are a customary element of Lebanese culture.", "Among the most famous are Baalbeck International Festival, Byblos International Festival, Beiteddine International Festival, Jounieh International Festival, Broumana Festival, Batroun International Festival, Ehmej Festival, Dhour Chwer Festival and Tyr Festival.", "These festivals are promoted by Lebanon's Ministry of Tourism.", "Lebanon hosts about 15 concerts from international performers each year, ranking 1st for nightlife in the Middle East, and 6th worldwide.===Cuisine===Lebanese cuisine is similar to those of many countries in the Eastern Mediterranean, such as Syria, Turkey, Greece, and Cyprus.", "The Lebanese national dishes are the kibbe, a meat pie made from finely minced lamb and burghul (cracked wheat), and the tabbouleh, a salad made from parsley, tomatoes, and burghul wheat.", "Lebanese restaurant meals begin with a wide array of mezze - small savoury dishes, such as dips, salads, and pastries.", "The mezze are typically followed by a selection of grilled meat or fish.", "In general, meals are finished with Arabic coffee and fresh fruit, though sometimes a selection of traditional sweets will be offered as well.===Sports===Camille Chamoun Sports City Stadium in BeirutLebanon has six ski resorts.", "Because of Lebanon's unique geography, it is possible to go skiing in the morning and swimming in the Mediterranean Sea in the afternoon.", "At the competitive level, basketball and football are among Lebanon's most popular sports.", "Canoeing, cycling, rafting, climbing, swimming, sailing and caving are among the other common leisure sports in Lebanon.", "The Beirut Marathon is held every fall, drawing top runners from Lebanon and abroad.Rugby league is a relatively new but growing sport in Lebanon.", "The Lebanon national rugby league team participated in the 2000 Rugby League World Cup, and narrowly missed qualification for the 2008 and 2013 tournaments.", "Lebanon also took part in the 2009 European Cup where, after narrowly failing to qualify for the final, the team defeated Ireland to finish 3rd in the tournament.", "Hazem El Masri, who was born in Tripoli, is considered to be the greatest Lebanese to ever play the game.", "He immigrated to Sydney, Australia from Lebanon in 1988.He became the greatest point-scorer in National Rugby League history in 2009 by scoring himself 2418 points while playing for Australian club, Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs where he also holds the record for most first grade appearances for the club with 317 games and most tries for the club with 159 tries.", "At international level, He also hold the records as top-try scorer with 12 tries and top-point scorer with 136 points for the Lebanese national team.Al Ansar FC in BeirutLebanon participates in basketball.", "The Lebanese National Team qualified for the FIBA World Championship 3 times in a row.", "Dominant basketball teams in Lebanon are Sporting Al Riyadi Beirut, who are the Arab and Asian champions, Club Sagesse who were able to earn the Asian and Arab championships before.", "Fadi El Khatib is the most decorated player in the Lebanese National Basketball League.Football is also among the more popular sports in the country.", "The top football league is the Lebanese Premier League, whose most successful clubs are Al Ansar FC and Nejmeh SC.", "Lebanon's most notable players include Roda Antar, Youssef Mohamad, and Hassan Maatouk.In recent years, Lebanon has hosted the AFC Asian Cup and the Pan Arab Games.", "Lebanon hosted the 2009 Jeux de la Francophonie, and have participated in every Olympic Games since its independence, winning a total of four medals.Prominent Lebanese bodybuilders include Samir Bannout, Mohammad Bannout and Ahmad Haidar.Water sports have also shown to be very active in the past years, in Lebanon.", "Since 2012 and with the emergence of the Lebanon Water Festival NGO, more emphasis has been placed on those sports, and Lebanon has been pushed forward as a water sport destination internationally.", "They host different contests and water show sports that encourage their fans to participate and win big.=== Science and technology ===Saint Joseph University of Beirut's Campus of Innovation and Sports on Damascus Street, BeirutLebanon was ranked 92nd in the Global Innovation Index in 2023, down from 88th in 2019.Notable scientists from Lebanon include Hassan Kamel Al-Sabbah, Rammal Rammal, and Edgar Choueiri.In 1960, a science club from a university in Beirut started a Lebanese space program called \"the Lebanese Rocket Society\".", "They achieved great success until 1966 where the program was stopped because of both war and external pressure." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of Lebanon" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Works cited===* * ===General references===* Arkadiusz, Plonka.", "''L’idée de langue libanaise d’après Sa‘īd ‘Aql'', Paris, Geuthner, 2004 (French) * Firzli, Nicola Y.", "''Al-Baath wa-Lubnân'' Arabic only (\"The Baath and Lebanon\").", "Beirut: Dar-al-Tali'a Books, 1973* Fisk, Robert.", "''Pity the Nation: The Abduction of Lebanon''.", "New York: Nation Books, 2002.", "* Glass, Charles, \"Tribes with Flags: A Dangerous Passage Through the Chaos of the Middle East\", Atlantic Monthly Press (New York) and Picador (London), 1990 * Gorton, TJ and Feghali Gorton, AG.", "''Lebanon: through Writers' Eyes''.", "London: Eland Books, 2009.", "* Hitti Philip K. ''History of Syria Including Lebanon and Palestine, Vol.", "2'' (2002) ()* Norton, Augustus R. ''Amal and the Shi'a: Struggle for the Soul of Lebanon''.", "Austin and London: University of Texas Press, 1987.", "* Sobelman, Daniel.", "New Rules of the Game: Israel and Hizbollah After the Withdrawal From Lebanon, Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies, Tel-Aviv University, 2004.", "* Riley-Smith, Jonathan.", "''The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades''.", "New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.", "* Salibi, Kamal.", "''A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.", "* Schlicht, Alfred.", "The role of Foreign Powers in the History of Syria and Lebanon 1799–1861 in: Journal of Asian History 14 (1982)* Georges Corm, Le Liban contemporain.", "Histoire et société (La découverte, 2003 et 2005)" ], [ "External links", "* Official Government of Lebanon information site (archived 11 April 2011)* Lebanon.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Lebanon" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''history of Lebanon''' covers the history of the modern Republic of Lebanon and the earlier emergence of Greater Lebanon under the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon, as well as the previous history of the region, covered by the modern state.The modern State of Lebanon has existed within its current borders since 1920, when Greater Lebanon was created under French and British mandate, resulting from the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I.", "Before this date, the designation “Lebanon” concerned a territory with vaguely defined borders, encompassing the mountain range of Mount Lebanon and its outskirts (mainly the Mediterranean coast and the plains of Bekaa and Akkar).", "The idea of an independent Lebanon, however, emerged during the end of the Mount Lebanon Emirate where Maronite clerics vowed for an independent nation." ], [ "Prehistory", "Ksar Akil, northeast of Beirut, is a large rock shelter below a steep limestone cliff where excavations have shown occupational deposits reaching down to a depth of with one of the longest sequences of Paleolithic flint archaeological industry is a very well tained Upper Levalloiso-Mousterian remains with long and triangular Lithic flakes.", "The level above this showed industries accounting for all six stages of the Upper Paleolithic.", "An Emireh point was found at the first stage of this level (XXIV), at around below datum with a complete skeleton of an eight-year-old Homo sapiens (called Egbert, now in the National Museum of Beirut after being studied in America) was discovered at , cemented into breccia.", "A fragment of a Neanderthal maxilla was also discovered in material from level XXVI or XXV, at around .", "Studies by Hooijer showed Capra and Dama were dominant in the fauna along with Stephanorhinus in later Levalloiso-Mousterian levels.It is believed to be one of the earliest known sites containing Upper Paleolithic technologies.", "Artifacts recovered from the site include Ksar Akil flakes, the main type of tool found at the site, along with shells with holes and chipped edge modifications that are suggested to have been used as pendants or beads.", "These indicate that the inhabitants were among the first in Western Eurasia to use personal ornaments.", "Results from radiocarbon dating indicate that the early humans may have lived at the site approximately 45,000 years ago or earlier.", "The presence of personal ornaments at Ksar Akil is suggestive of modern human behavior.", "The findings of ornaments at the site are contemporaneous with ornaments found at Late Stone Age sites such as Enkapune Ya Muto." ], [ "Ancient Near East", "The earliest prehistoric cultures of Lebanon, such as the Qaraoun culture gave rise to the civilization of the Canaanite period, when the region was populated by ancient peoples, cultivating land and living in sophisticated societies during the 2nd millennium BC.", "Northern Canaanites are mentioned in the Bible as well as in other Semitic records from that period.Canaanites were the creators of the oldest known 24-letter alphabet, a shortening of earlier 30-letter alphabets such as Proto-Sinaitic and Ugaritic.", "The Canaanite alphabet later developed into the Phoenician one (with sister alphabets of Hebrew, Aramaic and Moabite), influencing the entire Mediterranean region.Approximate territory of \"Phoenicia\" (northern Canaan, Syro-Phoenicia) in the Late Bronze Age, before Phoenician colonisation in the MediterraneanThe coastal plain of Lebanon is the historic home of a string of coastal trading cities of Semitic culture, which the Greeks termed Phoenicia, whose maritime culture flourished there for more than 1,000 years.", "Ancient ruins in Byblos, Berytus (Beirut), Sidon, Sarepta (Sarafand), and Tyre show a civilized nation, with urban centres and sophisticated arts.Phoenicia was a cosmopolitan centre for many nations and cultures.", "Phoenician art, customs and religion reveal considerable Mesopotamian and Egyptian influence.", "The sarcophagi of Sidonian kings Eshmunazzar II and Tabnit reveal that Phoenician royalty adopted Egyptian burial customs.Phoenician traders exported spices from Arabia, such as cinnamon and frankincense, to the Greeks.", "This trade likely led to the transmission of the Phoenician alphabet to Greece.", "Herodotus attests that the Phoenicians \"introduced into Greece upon their arrival a great variety of arts, among the rest that of writing, whereof the Greeks till then had, as I think, been ignorant.", "\"According to legend however, it is Cadmus, Prince of Tyre, who brought the alphabet with him to Greece in his search for his abducted sister Europa.", "Cadmus ultimately settles in Greece and founds the city of Thebes.", "Ancient Greek history accepts the Phoenician origin of the Greek alphabet.", "According to Herodotus, \"the Greeks originally they shaped their letters exactly like all the other Phoenicians, but afterwards, in course of time, they changed by degrees their language, and together with it the form likewise of their characters.", "\"Herodotus attests the persistence of traces of the Phoenician alphabet in Greece on tripods in Delphi in what is now known as the 5th century BC.The Phoenicians were equally reputed for their seafaring skills.", "They were allegedly the first to circumnavigate the African continent.", "Herodotus writes that Egyptian Pharaoh Necos, \"... sent to sea a number of ships manned by Phoenicians, with orders to make for the Pillars of Hercules the Strait of Gibraltar, and return to Egypt through them, and by the Mediterranean.", "The Phoenicians took their departure from Egypt by way of the Erythraean sea the Red Sea, and so sailed into the southern ocean.When autumn came, they went ashore, wherever they might happen to be, and having sown a tract of land with corn, waited until the grain was fit to cut.", "Having reaped it, they again set sail; and thus it came to pass that two whole years went by, and it was not till the third year that they doubled the Pillars of Hercules, and made good their voyage home.", "On their return, they declared - I for my part do not believe them, but perhaps others may - that in sailing round Libya i.e., Africa they had the sun upon their right hand.", "In this way was the extent of Libya first discovered.", "\"The last phrase is usually regarded by modern historians as lending credibility to the Phoencian narrative, as they could not have otherwise known that the sun would be on their right hand side as they sailed southwards below the Equator line.The Phoenicians founded various colonies in the Mediterranean.", "The most famous of them were Carthage in today's Tunisia and Cadiz in today's Spain.Phoenicia maintained an uneasy tributary relationship with the neo-Assyrian and neo-Babylonian empires during the 9th to 6th centuries BC." ], [ "Classical Antiquity", "After the gradual decline of their strength, the Phoenician city-states on the Lebanese coast were conquered outright in 539 BCE by Achaemenid Persia under Cyrus the Great.", "Under Darius I, the area comprising Phoenicia, Palestine, Syria, and Cyprus was administered in a single satrapy and paid a yearly tribute of three hundred and fifty talents.", "By comparison, Egypt and Libya paid seven hundred talents.", "Many Phoenician colonies continued their independent existence—most notably Carthage.", "The Persians forced some of the population to migrate to Carthage, which remained a powerful nation until the Second Punic War.The Phoenicians of Tyre showed greater solidarity with their former colony Carthage than loyalty towards Persian king Cambyses, by refusing to sail against the former when ordered.The Phoenicians furnished the bulk of the Persian fleet during the Greco-Persian Wars.", "Herodotus considers them as \"the best sailors\" in the Persian fleet.", "Phoenicians under Xerxes I were equally commended for their ingenuity in building the Xerxes Canal.", "Nevertheless, they were harshly punished by the Persian king following the Battle of Salamis, which culminated in a defeat for the Achaemenid Empire.In 350 or 345 BC, a rebellion in Sidon led by Tennes was crushed by Artaxerxes III.", "Its destruction was described by Diodorus Siculus.After two centuries of Persian rule, the Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great, during his war against Persia, attacked and burned Tyre, the most prominent Phoenician city.", "He conquered what is now Lebanon and other nearby regions in 332 BCE.", "After Alexander's death the region was absorbed into the Seleucid Empire and became known as Coele-Syria.In 64 BC, the region was conquered by a Roman army under general Pompey and became a part of the Roman state.", "Christianity was introduced to the coastal plain of Lebanon from neighboring Galilee, already in the 1st century.", "The region, as with the rest of Syria and much of Anatolia, became a major center of Christianity.", "Mount Lebanon and its coastal plain became part of the Diocese of the East, divided to provinces of Phoenice Paralia and Phoenice Libanensis (which also extended over large parts of modern Syria).During the late 4th and early 5th centuries in Lebanon, a hermit named Maron established a monastic tradition, focused on the importance of monotheism and asceticism, near the mountain range of Mount Lebanon.", "The monks who followed Maron spread his teachings among the native Lebanese Christians and remaining pagans in the mountains and coast of Lebanon.", "These Lebanese Christians came to be known as Maronites, and moved into the mountains to avoid religious persecution by Roman authorities.", "During the frequent Roman–Persian Wars that lasted for many centuries, the Sassanid Persians occupied what is now Lebanon from 619 to 629." ], [ "Middle Ages", "===Islamic rule===During the 7th century AD the Muslim Arabs conquered Syria soon after the death of Muhammad, establishing a new regime to replace the Romans (or Byzantines as the Eastern Romans are sometimes called).", "Though Islam and the Arabic language were officially dominant under this new regime, the general populace still took time to convert from Christianity and the Syriac language.", "In particular, the Maronite community clung to its faith and managed to maintain a large degree of autonomy despite the succession of rulers over Syria.", "Muslim influence increased greatly in the seventh century, when the nearby city Damascus, in modern-day Syria, was set as the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate.During the reign of Uthman, who ruled the Rashidun Caliphate between 644–656, Islam gained prominence in Damascus, primarily due to Mu'awiya, a relative of Uthman who served as the governor.", "Mu'awiya deployed forces to Lebanon's coastal region, where he expanded Islamic influence, resulting in conversions to Islam among the coastal residents.", "However, in the mountainous areas, the local population retained their Christian or other cultural traditions.", "Moreover, both Christians and Jews were obliged to pay the ''jizya'', or poll tax, to Islamic rulers.", "The collection of this tax from mountain Christians saw inconsistent enforcement until the First Crusade, where it ceased under Latin rule.", "A revival occurred under the Mamluks, concluding with its abolition through an Ottoman edict in 1856.After the Islamic conquest, Mediterranean trade faced a prolonged decline lasting three centuries, attributed to maritime conflicts between the Islamic caliphate and the Byzantines.", "The partially damaged ports, vital as naval strongholds for the caliphate, struggled to regain prosperity.", "Despite attempts involving military presence and new settlers, the cities of Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Tripoli likely sustained populations of only a few thousand each during the Umayyad and Abbasid periods.By 758, the Abassid Caliph al-Mansur tasked the Arab Tanukhids with the defense of the hills around Beirut.", "the Tanukhids of Mount Lebanon later evolved to become the first Druze Lords.", "In 845, tensions flared as Tanukhs clashed with Christians in Kisrawan.In the 980s, the Fatimid Caliphate gained dominance over Mount Lebanon.", "Under Fatimid rule, the region experienced a renaissance in Mediterranean trade along the Lebanese coast, stimulated by commercial connections with Byzantium and Italy.", "Consequently, Tripoli and Tyre thrived well into the 11th century, specializing in the export of products like cotton and silk textiles, sugar, and glassware.In the 1020s, the Druze sect began to diverge from Isma’ili Shia Islam.", "Tanukhid chiefs embraced the \"Call,\" acknowledging Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah as divine, thereby establishing the foundation of the sect in Mount Lebanon.", "The new faith gained followers in the southern portion of Lebanon.", "The Maronites and the Druze divided Lebanon until the modern era.", "The major cities on the coast, Acre, Beirut, and others, were directly administered by Muslim Caliphs.", "As a result, the people became increasingly absorbed by Arabic culture.===Crusader kingdoms===Following the fall of Roman/Christian Anatolia to the Muslim Turks of the Seljuk Empire in the 11th century, the Romans in Constantinople appealed to the Pope in Rome for assistance.", "There resulted a series of wars known as the Crusades, launched by Latin Christians (of mainly French origin) in Western Europe to reclaim the former Roman territories in the Eastern Mediterranean, especially Syria and Palestine (the ''Levant'').", "Lebanon stood in the main path of the First Crusade's advance on Jerusalem from Anatolia.", "Frankish nobles occupied areas within present-day Lebanon as part of the southeastern Crusader States.", "The southern half of present-day Lebanon formed the northern march of the Kingdom of Jerusalem (founded in 1099); the northern half became the heartland of the County of Tripoli (founded in 1109).", "Although Saladin eliminated Christian control of the Holy Land around 1190, the Crusader states in Lebanon and Syria were better defended.A map of Mount Lebanon c. AD 1180One of the most lasting effects of the Crusades in this region was the contact between the crusaders (mainly French) and the Maronites.", "Unlike most other Christian communities in the region, who swore allegiance to Constantinople or other local patriarchs, the Maronites proclaimed allegiance to the Pope in Rome.", "As such the Franks saw them as Roman Catholic brethren.", "These initial contacts led to centuries of support for the Maronites from France and Italy, even after the later fall of the Crusader states in the region.===Mamluk rule===Muslim control of Lebanon was reestablished in the late 13th century under the Mamluk sultans of Egypt, who reinstated Sunni Islamic dominance.", "Initially sacking Crusader towns and punishing perceived infidels and heretics in the mountains, the Mamluks later became more discerning in their actions.", "They demolished less fortified ports south of Sidon, and reconstructed Sidon, Beirut, and Tripoli.", "This resulted in the decline of Tyre while propelling Tripoli to prominence as the region's foremost port town.", "Now a provincial capital, Tripoli evolved into a center for Sunni religious education and became the primary hub for long-distance trade in Syria.", "The Mamluks also invested in Baalbek as an inland center.Despite facing the devastating impact of the Black Death in 1348–1349, which reduced the population by a third and curtailed economic activity for over two centuries, the Mamluks contributed to the enduring architectural legacy of the region, including the restoration of the Crusader Citadel of Tripoli and the construction of stone buildings and mosques." ], [ "Ottoman rule", "Starting from the 13th century, the Ottoman Turks formed an empire which came to encompass the Balkans, Middle East and North Africa.", "The Ottoman sultan Selim I (1516–20), after defeating the Persians, conquered the Mamluks.", "His troops, invading Syria, destroyed Mamluk resistance in 1516 at Marj Dabiq, north of Aleppo.Ottoman control was uncontested during the early modern period, but the Lebanese coast became important for its contacts and trades with the maritime republics of Venice, Genoa other Italian city-states.", "(''See also Levantines'')The mountainous territory of Mount Lebanon has long been a shelter for minority and persecuted groups, including its historic Maronite Christian majority and Druze communities.", "It was an autonomous region of the Ottoman Empire.During the conflict between the Mamluks and the Ottomans, the amirs of Lebanon linked their fate to that of Ghazali, governor (pasha) of Damascus.", "He won the confidence of the Ottomans by fighting on their side at Marj Dabiq and, apparently pleased with the behavior of the Lebanese amirs, introduced them to Salim I when he entered Damascus.", "Salim I decided to grant the Lebanese amirs a semiautonomous status.", "The Ottomans, through the two main feudal families, the Maans who were Druze and the Chehabs who were Sunni Muslim Arab converts to Maronite Christianity, ruled Lebanon until the middle of the nineteenth century.", "During Ottoman rule the term Syria was used to designate the approximate area including present-day Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Israel/Palestine.===The Maans, 1517–1697===The Maans came to Lebanon in 1120.They were a tribe and dynasty of Qahtani Arabs who settled on the southwestern slopes of the Lebanon Mountains and soon adopted the Druze religion.", "Their authority began to rise with Fakhr ad-Din I, who was permitted by Ottoman authorities to organize his own army, and reached its peak with Fakhr ad-Din II (1570–1635).", "(The existence of \"Fakhr ad-Din I\" has been questioned by some scholars.", ")==== Fakhreddine II ====Fakhreddine IIFakhr al-Din II was born in Baakline to a Druze family, his father died when he was 13, and his mother entrusted her son to another princely family, probably the Khazens (al-Khazin).In 1608, Fakhr-al-Din forged an alliance with the Italian Grand Duchy of Tuscany.", "The alliance contained both a public economic section and a secret military one.Fakhr-al-Din's ambitions, popularity and unauthorized foreign contacts alarmed the Ottomans who authorized Hafiz Ahmed Pasha, Muhafiz of Damascus, to mount an attack on Lebanon in 1613 in order to reduce Fakhr-al-Din's growing power.", "Professor Abu-Husayn has made the Ottoman archives relevant to the emir's career available.Faced with Hafiz's army of 50,000 men, Fakhr-al-Din chose exile in Tuscany, leaving affairs in the hands of his brother Emir Yunis and his son Emir Ali Beg.", "They succeeded in mainlining most of the forts such as Banias (Subayba) and Niha which were a mainstay of Fakhr ad-Din's power.", "Before leaving, Fakhr ad-Din paid his standing army of soqbans (mercenaries) two years wages in order to secure their loyalty.Hosted in Tuscany by the Medici Family, Fakhr-al-Din was welcomed by the grand duke Cosimo II, who was his host and sponsor for the two years he spent at the court of the Medici.", "He spent a further three years as guest of the Spanish Viceroy of Sicily and then Naples, the Duke Osuna.", "Fakhr-al-Din had wished to enlist Tuscan or other European assistance in a \"Crusade\" to free his homeland from Ottoman domination, but was met with a refusal as Tuscany was unable to afford such an expedition.", "The prince eventually gave up the idea, realizing that Europe was more interested in trade with the Ottomans than in taking back the Holy Land.", "His stay nevertheless allowed him to witness Europe's cultural revival in the 17th century, and bring back some Renaissance ideas and architectural features.By 1618, political changes in the Ottoman sultanate had resulted in the removal of many of Fakhr-al-Din's enemies from power, allowing Fahkr-al-Din's return to Lebanon, whereupon he was able quickly to reunite all the lands of Lebanon beyond the boundaries of its mountains; and having revenge from Emir Yusuf Pasha ibn Siyfa, attacking his stronghold in Akkar, destroying his palaces and taking control of his lands, and regaining the territories he had to give up in 1613 in Sidon, Tripoli, Bekaa among others.", "Under his rule, printing presses were introduced and Jesuit priests and Catholic nuns encouraged to open schools throughout the land.In 1623, the prince angered the Ottomans by refusing to allow an army on its way back from the Persian front to winter in the Bekaa.", "This (and instigation by the powerful Janissary garrison in Damascus) led Mustafa Pasha, Governor of Damascus, to launch an attack against him, resulting in the battle at Majdel Anjar where Fakhr-al-Din's forces although outnumbered managed to capture the Pasha and secure the Lebanese prince and his allies a much needed military victory.", "The best source (in Arabic) for Fakhr ad-Din's career up to this point is a memoir signed by al-Khalidi as-Safadi, who was not with the Emir in Europe but had access to someone who was, possibly Fakhr ad-Din himself.However, as time passed, the Ottomans grew increasingly uncomfortable with the prince's increasing powers and extended relations with Europe.", "In 1632, Kuchuk Ahmed Pasha was named Muhafiz of Damascus, being a rival of Fakhr-al-Din and a friend of Sultan Murad IV, who ordered Kuchuk Ahmed Pasha and the sultanate's navy to attack Lebanon and depose Fakhr-al-Din.This time, the prince had decided to remain in Lebanon and resist the offensive, but the death of his son Emir Ali Beik in Wadi el-Taym was the beginning of his defeat.", "He later took refuge in Jezzine's grotto, closely followed by Kuchuk Ahmed Pasha.", "He surrendered to the Ottoman general Jaafar Pasha, whom he knew well, under circumstances that are not clear.Fakhr-al-Din was taken to Constantinople and kept in the Yedikule (Seven Towers) prison for two years.", "He was then summoned before the sultan.", "Fakhr-al-Din, and one or two of his sons, were accused of treason and executed there on 13 April 1635.There are unsubstantiated rumors that the younger of the two boys was spared and raised in the harem, later becoming Ottoman ambassador to India.Although Fakhr ad-Din II's aspirations toward complete independence for Lebanon ended tragically, he greatly enhanced Lebanon's military and economic development.", "Noted for religious tolerance, the Druze prince attempted to merge the country's different religious groups into one Lebanese community.", "In an effort to attain complete independence for Lebanon, he concluded a secret agreement with Ferdinand I, grand duke of Tuscany.Following his return from Tuscany, Fakhr ad-Din II, realizing the need for a strong and disciplined armed force, channeled his financial resources into building a regular army.", "This army proved itself in 1623, when Mustafa Pasha, the new governor of Damascus, underestimating the capabilities of the Lebanese army, engaged it in battle and was decisively defeated at Anjar in the Biqa Valley.Portrait of Fakhreddine while he was in Tuscany, stating \"Faccardino grand emir dei Drusi\" translated as \"Fakhreddine: great emir of the Druze\"In addition to building up the army, Fakhr ad-Din II, who became acquainted with Italian culture during his stay in Tuscany, initiated measures to modernize the country.", "After forming close ties and establishing diplomatic relations with Tuscany, he brought in architects, irrigation engineers, and agricultural experts from Italy in an effort to promote prosperity in the country.", "He also strengthened Lebanon's strategic position by expanding its territory, building forts as far away as Palmyra in Syria, and gaining control of Palestine.", "Finally, the Ottoman sultan Murad IV of Istanbul, wanting to thwart Lebanon's progress toward complete independence, ordered Kutshuk, then governor of Damascus, to attack the Lebanese ruler.", "This time Fakhr ad-Din was defeated, and he was executed in Istanbul in 1635.No significant Maan rulers succeeded Fakhr ad-Din II.Fakhreddine is regarded by the Lebanese as the best leader and prince the country has ever seen.", "The Druze prince treated all the religions equally and was the one who formed Lebanon.", "Lebanon has achieved during Fakhreddine's reign enormous heights that the country had and would never witness again.Fakhreddine II Palace in Deir el Qamar===The Shihabs, 1697–1842===The Shihabs succeeded the Maans in 1697 after the Battle of Ain Dara, a battle that changed the face of Lebanon when a clash between two Druze clans, the Qaysis and the Yemenis, broke out.", "The Druze Qaysis, then led by Ahmad Shihab, won, and expelled the Yemenis from Lebanon to Syria.", "This has led to an enormous decrease to the Druze population in Mount-Lebanon, who were a majority at the time and helped the Christians overcome the Druze demographically.", "This Qaysi \"victory\" gave the Shihab, who were Qaysis themselves and the allies of Lebanon, the rule over Mount-Lebanon.", "The Druze overlords voted for the Shihabs to rule Mount Lebanon and the Chouf by the threat of the Ottoman Empire who wanted the Sunnis to rule Lebanon.", "The Shihabs originally lived in the Hawran region of southwestern Syria and settled in Wadi al-Taym in southern Lebanon.During the Russo-Turkish War of 1768 to 1774, responding to Admiral Alexei Orlov's Russian naval First Archipelago Expedition operating in the Mediterranean, local Lebanese authorities briefly attempted to place themselves under Russian protection.The most prominent Shihab, Bashir Shihab II, ruled as Emir of Mount Lebanon from 1789 to 1840.The events of 1799 tested his ability as a statesman when Napoleon besieged Acre, a well-fortified coastal city in Palestine, about forty kilometers south of Tyre.", "Both Napoleon and Al Jazzar, the governor of Acre, requested assistance from the Shihab leader; Bashir, however, remained neutral, declining to assist either combatant.", "Unable to conquer Acre, Napoleon returned to Egypt, and the death of Al Jazzar in 1804 removed Bashir's principal opponent in the area.The Shihabs were originally a Sunni Muslim family, but converted to Christianity in the late-18th century.===Emir Bashir II===Bashir Shihab IIIn 1788 Bashir Shihab II (sometimes spelled Bachir in French sources) would rise to become the Emir.", "Born into poverty, he was elected emir upon the abdication of his predecessor, and would rule under Ottoman suzerainty, being appointed ''wali'' or governor of Mt Lebanon, the Biqa valley and Jabal Amil.", "Together this is about two thirds of modern-day Lebanon.", "He would reform taxes and attempt to break the feudal system, in order to undercut rivals, the most important of which was also named Bashir: Bashir Jumblatt, whose wealth and feudal backers equaled or exceeded Bashir II—and who had increasing support in the Druze community.", "In 1822 the Ottoman wali of Damascus went to war with Acre, which was allied with Muhammad Ali, the pasha of Egypt.", "As part of this conflict one of the most remembered massacres of Maronite Christians by Druze forces occurred, forces that were aligned with the wali of Damascus.", "Jumblatt represented the increasingly disaffected Druze, who were both shut out from official power and angered at the growing ties with the Maronites by Bashir II, who was himself a Maronite Christian.Bashir II was overthrown as wali when he backed Acre, and fled to Egypt, later to return and organize an army.", "Jumblatt gathered the Druze factions together, and the war became sectarian in character: the Maronites backing Bashir II, the Druze backing Bashir Jumblatt.", "Jumblatt declared a rebellion, and between 1821 and 1825 there were massacres and battles, with the Maronites attempting to gain control of the Mt.", "Lebanon district, and the Druze gaining control over the Biqa valley.", "In 1825 Bashir II, helped by the Ottomans and the Jezzar, defeated his rival in the Battle of Simqanieh.", "Bashir Jumblatt died in Acre at the order of the Jezzar.", "Bashir II was not a forgiving man and repressed the Druze rebellion, particularly in and around Beirut.", "This made Bashir Chehab the only leader of Mount Lebanon.", "However, Bashir Chehab was depicted as a nasty leader because Bashir Jumblatt was his all-time friend and has saved his life when the Keserwan peasants tried to kill the prince, by sending 1000 of his men to save him.", "Also, days before the Battle of Simqania, Bashir Jumblatt had the chance to kill Bashir II when he was returning from Acre when he reportedly kissed the Jezzar's feet in order to help him against Jumblatt, but Bashir II reminded him of their friendship and told Jumblatt to \"pardon when you can\".", "The high morals of Jumblatt led him to pardon Bashir II, a decision he should have regretted.Bashir II, who had come to power through local politics and nearly fallen from power because of his increasing detachment from them, reached out for allies, allies who looked on the entire area as \"the Orient\" and who could provide trade, weapons and money, without requiring fealty and without, it seemed, being drawn into endless internal squabbles.", "He disarmed the Druze and allied with France, governing in the name of the Egyptian Pasha Muhammad Ali, who entered Lebanon and formally took overlordship in 1832.For the remaining 8 years, the sectarian and feudal rifts of the 1821–1825 conflict were heightened by the increasing economic isolation of the Druze, and the increasing wealth of the Maronites.During the nineteenth century the town of Beirut became the most important port of the region, supplanting Acre further to the south.", "This was mostly because Mount Lebanon became a centre of silk production for export to Europe.", "This industry made the region wealthy, but also dependent on links to Europe.", "Since most of the silk went to Marseille, the French began to have a great impact in the region.===Sectarian conflict: European Powers begin to intervene===Christian Church and Druze Khalwa in Shuf Mountains: Historically; the Druzes and the Christians in the Shuf Mountains lived in complete harmony.", "The discontent grew to open rebellion, fed by both Ottoman and British money and support: Bashir II fled, the Ottoman Empire reasserted control and Mehmed Hüsrev Pasha, whose sole term as Grand Vizier ran from 1839 to 1841, appointed another member of the Shihab family, who styled himself Bashir III.", "Bashir III, coming on the heels of a man who by guile, force and diplomacy had dominated Mt Lebanon and the Biqa for 52 years, did not last long.", "In 1841 conflicts between the impoverished Druze and the Maronite Christians exploded: There was a massacre of Christians by the Druze at Deir al Qamar, and the fleeing survivors were slaughtered by Ottoman regulars.", "The Ottomans attempted to create peace by dividing Mt Lebanon into a Christian district and a Druze district, but this would merely create geographic powerbases for the warring parties, and it plunged the region back into civil conflict which included not only the sectarian warfare but a Maronite revolt against the Feudal class, which ended in 1858 with the overthrow of the old feudal system of taxes and levies.", "The situation was unstable: the Maronites lived in the large towns, but these were often surrounded by Druze villages living as ''perioikoi''.1860 strife between Druze and Maronites in LebanonThe relationship between the Druze and Christians has been characterized by harmony and peaceful coexistence, with amicable relations between the two groups prevailing throughout history, with the exception of some periods, including 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war.", "In 1860, this would boil back into full scale sectarian war, when the Maronites began openly opposing the power of the Ottoman Empire.", "Another destabilizing factor was France's support for the Maronite Christians against the Druze which in turn led the British to back the Druze, exacerbating religious and economic tensions between the two communities.", "The Druze took advantage of this and began burning Maronite villages.", "The Druze had grown increasingly resentful of the favoring of the Maronites by Bashir II, and were backed by the Ottoman Empire and the wali of Damascus in an attempt to gain greater control over Lebanon; the Maronites were backed by the French, out of both economic and political expediency.", "The Druze began a military campaign that included the burning of villages and massacres, while Maronite irregulars retaliated with attacks of their own.", "However, the Maronites were gradually pushed into a few strongholds and were on the verge of military defeat when the Concert of Europe intervened and established a commission to determine the outcome.", "The French forces deployed there were then used to enforce the final decision.", "The French accepted the Druze as having established control and the Maronites were reduced to a semi-autonomous region around Mt Lebanon, without even direct control over Beirut itself.", "The Province of Lebanon that would be controlled by the Maronites, but the entire area was placed under direct rule of the governor of Damascus, and carefully watched by the Ottoman Empire.The long siege of Deir al Qamar found a Maronite garrison holding out against Druze forces backed by Ottoman soldiers; the area in every direction was despoiled by the besiegers.", "In July 1860, with European intervention threatening, the Turkish government tried to quiet the strife, but Napoleon III of France sent 7,000 troops to Beirut and helped impose a partition: The Druze control of the territory was recognized as the fact on the ground, and the Maronites were forced into an enclave, arrangements ratified by the Concert of Europe in 1861.They were confined to a mountainous district, cut off from both the Biqa and Beirut, and faced with the prospect of ever-growing poverty.", "Resentments and fears would brood, ones which would resurface in the coming decades.Youssef Bey Karam, a Lebanese nationalist played an influential role in Lebanon's independence during this era.Lebanese soldiers, 1861–1914===Al-Saghir Dynasty/ El Assaad Rule===El-Assaad dynasty that ruled most of South Lebanon for three centuries and whose lineage defended fellow denizens of history's Jabal Amel (Mount Amel) principality – today southern Lebanon – for 36 generations, throughout the Arab caliphate by Sheikh al Mashayekh (Chief of Chiefs) Nasif Al-Nassar ibn Al-Waeli, Ottoman conquest under Shbib Pasha El Assaad, Ali Bek El Assaad ruler of Belad Bechara (Part of Jabal Amel), Ali Nassrat Bek.", "Advisor of the Court and a Superior in the Ministry of Foreign affairs in the Ottoman Empire, Moustafa Nassar Bek El Assaad Supreme Court President of Lebanon and colonial French administration by Hassib Bek—also supreme court Judge and grand speaker at halls across the Levant.", "El-Assaads are considered now \"Bakaweit\" (title of nobility plural of \"Bek\" granted to a few wealthy families in Lebanon in the early eighteenth century), and previously considered Princes, however titles have changed over time.During the El-Assaad era, they, as provincial governors by consent, were given Khuwwa (brotherly voluntary crop-sharing) by local clans to finance protecting their co-operative trade from outside occupation, peacefully upholding the autonomy of a laborious few in the midst of one massive imperial taxation hegemony after another.", "This continued until contemporary domestic ideological belligerence, foreign interferences, and emergence of corruption led to rapid depredation of the El-Assaads’ ability to maintain control.When the 1858 Ottoman Land reforms led to the accumulated ownership of large tracts of land by a few families upon the expense of the peasants, the El-Assaad descendants of the rural Ali al-Saghir dynasty expanded their fief holdings as the provincial leaders in Jabal Amel.In December 1831 Tyre fell under the rule of Mehmet Ali Pasha of Egypt, after an army led by his son Ibrahim Pasha had entered Jaffa and Haifa without resistance.", "Two years later, Shiite forces under Hamad al-Mahmud from the Ali Al-Saghir dynasty rebelled against the occupation.", "They were supported by the British Empire and Austria-Hungary: Tyre was captured on 24 September 1839 after allied naval bombardments.For their fight against the Egyptian invaders, Al-Mahmud and his successor Ali El-Assaad – a relative – were rewarded by the Ottoman rulers with the restoration of Shiite autonomy in Jabal Amel.", "However, in Tyre it was the Mamlouk family that gained a dominant position.", "Its head Jussuf Aga Ibn Mamluk was reportedly a son of the Anti-Shiite Jazzar Pasha.===Late 19th century===Lebanese dress from the late 19th century.The Maronite Catholics and the Druze founded modern Lebanon in the early eighteenth century, through the ruling and social system known as the \"Maronite-Druze dualism\" in Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate.", "The remainder of the 19th century saw a relative period of stability, as Muslim, Druze and Maronite groups focused on economic and cultural development which saw the founding of the American University of Beirut and a flowering of literary and political activity associated with the attempts to liberalize the Ottoman Empire.", "Late in the century there was a short Druze uprising over the extremely harsh government and high taxation rates, but there was far less of the violence that had scalded the area earlier in the century.===Early 20th century and World War I===In the approach to World War I, Beirut became a center of various reforming movements, and would send delegates to the Arab Syrian conference and Franco-Syrian conference held in Paris.", "There was a complex array of solutions, from pan-Arab nationalism, to separatism for Beirut, and several status quo movements that sought stability and reform within the context of Ottoman government.", "The Young Turk revolution brought these movements to the front, hoping that the reform of Ottoman Empire would lead to broader reforms.", "The outbreak of hostilities changed this, as Lebanon was to feel the weight of the conflict in the Middle East more heavily than most other areas occupied by the Syrians.====Great famine in Lebanon, 1915–1918====About half the population of the Mount Lebanon subdivision, overwhelmingly Maronites, starved to death (200,000 killed out of 400,000 of the total populace) throughout the years of 1915–1918 during what is now known as the Great Famine of Mount Lebanon, as a consequence of a mixed combination of crop failure, punitive governance practices, naval blockade of the coast by the Allies, and an Ottoman military ban on exports from Syria into Lebanon, during World War I.", "Dead bodies were piled in the streets and starving Lebanese civilians were reported to be eating street animals while some even resorted to cannibalism." ], [ "League of Nations Mandate (1920-1939)", "Greater Lebanon (green) in the Mandate of SyriaFollowing the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, the League of Nations mandated the five provinces that make up present-day Lebanon to the direct control of France.", "Initially the division of the Arabic-speaking areas of the Ottoman Empire were to be divided by the Sykes–Picot Agreement; however, the final disposition was at the San Remo conference of 1920, whose determinations on the mandates, their boundaries, purposes and organization was ratified by the League in 1921 and put into effect in 1922.Flag of Greater Lebanon during the French mandate (1920–1943)According to the agreements reached at San Remo, France had its control over what was termed Syria recognised, the French having taken Damascus in 1920.Like all formerly Ottoman areas, Syria was a Class A Mandate, deemed to \"... have reached a stage of development where their existence as independent nations can be provisionally recognized subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a Mandatory until such time as they are able to stand alone.", "The wishes of these communities must be a principal consideration in the selection of the Mandatory.\"", "The entire French mandate area was termed \"Syria\" at the time, including the administrative districts along the Mediterranean coast.", "Wanting to maximize the area under its direct control, contain an Arab Syria centered on Damascus, and ensure a defensible border, France moved the Lebanon-Syrian border to the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, east of the Beqaa Valley, territory which had historically belonged to the province of Damascus for hundreds of years, and was far more attached to Damascus than Beirut by culture and influence.", "This doubled the territory under the control of Beirut, at the expense of what would become the state of Syria.On October 27, 1919, the Lebanese delegation led by Maronite Patriarch Elias Peter Hoayek presented the Lebanese aspirations in a memorandum to the Paris Peace Conference.", "This included a significant extension of the frontiers of the Lebanon Mutasarrifate, arguing that the additional areas constituted natural parts of Lebanon, despite the fact that the Christian community would not be a clear majority in such an enlarged state.", "The quest for the annexation of agricultural lands in the Bekaa and Akkar was fueled by existential fears following the death of nearly half of the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate population in the Great Famine; the Maronite church and the secular leaders sought a state that could better provide for its people.", "The areas to be added to the Mutasarrifate included the coastal towns of Beirut, Tripoli, Sidon and Tyre and their respective hinterlands, all of which belonged to the Beirut Vilayet, together with four Kazas of the Syria Vilayet (Baalbek, the Bekaa, Rashaya and Hasbaya).As a consequence of this also, the demographics of Lebanon were profoundly altered, as the added territory contained people who were predominantly Muslim or Druze: Lebanese Christians, of which the Maronites were the largest subgrouping, now constituted barely more than 50% of the population, while Sunni Muslims in Lebanon saw their numbers increase eightfold, and the Shi'ite Muslims fourfold.", "The Modern Lebanon's constitution, drawn up in 1926, specified a balance of power between the various religious groups, but France designed it to guarantee the political dominance of its Christian allies.", "The president was required to be a Christian (in practice, a Maronite), the prime minister a Sunni Muslim.", "On the basis of the 1932 census, parliament seats were divided according to a six-to-five Christian/Muslim ratio.", "The constitution gave the president veto power over any legislation approved by parliament, virtually ensuring that the 6:5 ratio would not be revised in case the population distribution changed.", "By 1960, Muslims were thought to constitute a majority of the population, which contributed to Muslim unrest regarding the political system." ], [ "World War II and independence", "During World War II when the Vichy government assumed power over French territory in 1940, General Henri Fernand Dentz was appointed as high commissioner of Lebanon.", "This new turning point led to the resignation of Lebanese president Émile Eddé on April 4, 1941.After five days, Dentz appointed Alfred Naqqache for a presidency period that lasted only three months.", "The Vichy authorities allowed Nazi Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces.", "Britain, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon.After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area.", "Under various political pressures from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle decided to recognize the independence of Lebanon.", "On November 26, 1941, General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government.", "Flag as drawn and approved by the members of the Lebanese parliament during the declaration of independence in 1943Elections were held in 1943 and on November 8, 1943, the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate.", "The French reacted by throwing the new government into prison.", "In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on November 22, 1943, and accepted the independence of Lebanon." ], [ "Republic of Lebanon", "===Independence and following years===The allies kept the region under control until the end of World War II.", "The last French troops withdrew in 1946.Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a freely trading regional center for finance and trade.", "Beirut became a prime location for institutions of international commerce and finance, as well as wealthy tourists, and enjoyed a reputation as the \"Paris of the Middle East\" until the outbreak of the Lebanese Civil War.In the aftermath of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Lebanon became home to more than 110,000 Palestinian refugees.Beirut in 1950===Economic prosperity and growing tensions===In 1958, during the last months of President Camille Chamoun's term, an insurrection broke out, and 5,000 United States Marines were briefly dispatched to Beirut on July 15 in response to an appeal by the government.", "After the crisis, a new government was formed, led by the popular former general Fuad Chehab.During the 1960s, Lebanon enjoyed a period of relative calm, with Beirut-focused tourism and banking sector-driven prosperity.", "Lebanon reached the peak of its economic success in the mid-1960s—the country was seen as a bastion of economic strength by the oil-rich Persian Gulf Arab states, whose funds made Lebanon one of the world's fastest growing economies.", "This period of economic stability and prosperity was brought to an abrupt halt with the collapse of Yousef Beidas' Intra Bank, the country's largest bank and financial backbone, in 1966.Additional Palestinian refugees arrived after the 1967 Arab–Israeli War.", "Following their defeat in the Jordanian civil war, thousands of Palestinian militiamen regrouped in Lebanon, led by Yasser Arafat's Palestine Liberation Organization, with the intention of replicating the modus operandi of attacking Israel from a politically and militarily weak neighbour.", "Starting in 1968, Palestinian militants of various affiliations began to use southern Lebanon as a launching pad for attacks on Israel.", "Two of these attacks led to a watershed event in Lebanon's inchoate civil war.", "In July 1968, a faction of George Habash's Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) hijacked an Israeli El Al civilian plane en route to Algiers; in December, two PFLP gunmen shot at an El Al plane in Athens, resulting in the death of an Israeli.As a result, two days later, an Israeli commando flew into Beirut's international airport and destroyed more than a dozen civilian airliners belonging to various Arab carriers.", "Israel defended its actions by informing the Lebanese government that it was responsible for encouraging the PFLP.", "The retaliation, which was intended to encourage a Lebanese government crackdown on Palestinian militants, instead polarized Lebanese society on the Palestinian question, deepening the divide between pro- and anti-Palestinian factions, with the Muslims leading the former grouping and Maronites primarily constituting the latter.", "This dispute reflected increasing tensions between Christian and Muslim communities over the distribution of political power, and would ultimately foment the outbreak of civil war in 1975.In the interim, while armed Lebanese forces under the Maronite-controlled government sparred with Palestinian fighters, Egyptian leader Gamal Abd al-Nasser helped to negotiate the 1969 \"Cairo Agreement\" between Arafat and the Lebanese government, which granted the PLO autonomy over Palestinian refugee camps and access routes to northern Israel in return for PLO recognition of Lebanese sovereignty.", "The agreement incited Maronite frustration over what were perceived as excessive concessions to the Palestinians, and pro-Maronite paramilitary groups were subsequently formed to fill the vacuum left by government forces, which were now required to leave the Palestinians alone.", "Notably, the Phalange, a Maronite militia, rose to prominence around this time, led by members of the Gemayel family.In September 1970 Suleiman Franjieh, who had left the country briefly for Latakia in the 1950s after being accused of killing hundreds of people including other Maronites, was elected president by a very narrow vote in parliament.", "In November, his personal friend Hafiz al-Assad, who had received him during his exile, seized power in Syria.", "Later, in 1976, Franjieh would invite the Syrians into Lebanon.For its part, the PLO used its new privileges to establish an effective \"mini-state\" in southern Lebanon, and to ramp up its attacks on settlements in northern Israel.", "Compounding matters, Lebanon received an influx of armed Palestinian militants, including Arafat and his Fatah movement, fleeing the 1970 Jordanian crackdown.", "The PLO's \"vicious terrorist attacks in Israel\" dating from this period were countered by Israeli bombing raids in southern Lebanon, where \"150 or more towns and villages...have been repeatedly savaged by the Israeli armed forces since 1968,\" of which the village of Khiyam is probably the best-known example.", "Palestinian attacks claimed 106 lives in northern Israel from 1967, according to official IDF statistics, while the Lebanese army had recorded \"1.4 Israeli violations of Lebanese territory per day from 1968–74\" Where Lebanon had no conflict with Israel during the period 1949–1968, after 1968 Lebanon's southern border began to experience an escalating cycle of attack and retaliation, leading to the chaos of the civil war, foreign invasions and international intervention.", "The consequences of the PLO's arrival in Lebanon continue to this day.In 1974, the Amal Movement, a Shi’ite political party and former militia was founded by Musa al-Sadr and Hussein el-Husseini.", "Its goals were geared towards improving the social and political conditions of Lebanon's poor population.", "Although its primary focus was on the Shi'ite community, the movement operated as a secular entity and enjoyed the support of other communities.===The Lebanese Civil War: 1975–1990===Maronite groups;Light Green – controlled by Palestinian militiasThe Lebanese Civil War had its origin in the conflicts and political compromises of Lebanon's post-Ottoman period and was exacerbated by the nation's changing demographic trends, inter-religious strife, and proximity to Syria, the Palestine Liberation Organization, and Israel.", "By 1975, Lebanon was a religiously and ethnically diverse country with most dominant groups of Maronite Christians, Eastern Orthodox Christians, Sunni Muslims and Shia Muslims; with significant minorities of Druze, Kurds, Armenians, and Palestinian refugees and their descendants.Events and political movements that contributed to Lebanon's violent implosion include, among others, the emergence of Arab nationalism, Arab socialism in the context of the Cold War, the Arab–Israeli conflict, Ba'athism, the Iranian Revolution, Palestinian militants, Black September in Jordan, Islamic fundamentalism, and the Iran–Iraq War.In all, it is estimated that more than 100,000 were killed, and another 100,000 handicapped by injuries, during Lebanon's 16-year war.", "Up to one-fifth of the pre-war resident population, or about 900,000 people, were displaced from their homes, of whom perhaps a quarter of a million emigrated permanently.", "Thousands of people lost limbs during many stages of planting of land-mines.The War can be divided broadly into several periods: The initial outbreak in the mid-1970s, the Syrian and then Israeli intervention of the late 1970s, escalation of the PLO-Israeli conflict in the early 1980s, the 1982 Israeli invasion, a brief period of multinational involvement, and finally resolution which took the form of Syrian occupation.Constitutionally guaranteed Christian control of the government had come under increasing fire from Muslims and leftists, leading them to join forces as the National Movement in 1969, which called for the taking of a new census and the subsequent drafting of a new governmental structure that would reflect the census results.", "Political tension became military conflict, with full-scale civil war in April 1975.The leadership called for Syrian intervention in 1976, leading to the presence of Syrian troops in Lebanon, and an Arab summit in 1976 was called to stop the crisis.In the south, military exchanges between Israel and the PLO led Israel to support Saad Haddad's South Lebanon Army (SLA) in an effort to establish a security belt along Israel's northern border, an effort which intensified in 1977 with the election of new Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin.", "Israel invaded Lebanon in response to Fatah attacks in Israel in March 1978, occupying most of the area south of the Litani River, and resulting in the evacuation of at least 100,000 Lebanese, as well as approximately 2,000 deaths.Map showing power balance in Lebanon, 1983: Green – controlled by Syria, purple – controlled by Christian groups, yellow – controlled by Israel, blue – controlled by the United NationsThe UN Security Council passed Resolution 425 calling for an immediate Israeli withdrawal and creating the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), charged with maintaining peace.", "Israeli forces withdrew later in 1978, leaving an SLA-controlled border strip as a protective buffer against PLO cross-border attacks.In addition to the fighting between religious groups, there was rivalry between Maronite groups.", "In June 1978 one of Suleiman Franjieh's sons, Tony, was killed along with his wife and infant daughter in a nighttime attack on their town, reportedly by Bashir Gemayel, Samir Geagea, and their Phalangist forces.Concurrently, tension between Syria and Phalange increased Israeli support for the Maronite group and led to direct Israeli-Syrian exchanges in April 1981, leading to American diplomatic intervention.", "Philip Habib was dispatched to the region to head off further escalation, which he successfully did via an agreement concluded in May.Intra-Palestinian fighting and PLO-Israeli conflict continued, and July 24, 1981, Habib brokered a cease-fire agreement with the PLO and Israel: the two sides agreed to cease hostilities in Lebanon proper and along the Israeli border with Lebanon.After continued PLO-Israeli exchanges, Israel invaded Lebanon on June 6 in Operation Peace for Galilee.", "By June 15, Israeli units were entrenched outside Beirut and Yassir Arafat attempted through negotiations to evacuate the PLO.", "It is estimated that during the entire campaign, approximately 20,000 were killed on all sides, including many civilians.", "A multinational force composed of U.S. Marines and French and Italian units arrived to ensure the departure of the PLO and protect civilians.", "Nearly 15,000 Palestinian militants were evacuated by September 1.Green Line that separated West and East Beirut, 1982Although Bashir Gemayel did not cooperate with the Israelis publicly, his long history of tactical collaboration with Israel counted against him in the eyes of many Lebanese, especially Muslims.", "Although the only announced candidate for the presidency of the republic, the National Assembly elected him by the second-narrowest margin in Lebanese history (57 votes out of 92) on August 23, 1982; most Muslim members of the Assembly boycotted the vote.", "Nine days before he was due to take office, Gemayel was assassinated along with twenty-five others in an explosion at the Kataeb party headquarters in Beirut's Christian neighborhood of Achrafieh on September 14, 1982.Bachir Gemayel with Philipe HabibPhalangists entered Palestinian camps on September 16 at 6:00 PM and remained until the morning of September 19, massacring 700–800 Palestinians, according to official Israeli statistics, \"none apparently members of any PLO unit\".", "These are known as the Sabra and Shatila massacre.", "It is believed that the Phalangists considered it retaliation for Gemayel's assassination and for the Damour massacre which PLO fighters had committed earlier in a Christian town.Bachir Gemayel was succeeded as president by his older brother Amine Gemayel, who served from 1982 to 1988.Rather different in temperament, Amine Gemayel was widely regarded as lacking the charisma and decisiveness of his brother, and many of the latter's followers were dissatisfied.Amine Gemayel focused on securing the withdrawal of Israeli and Syrian forces.", "A May 17, 1983, agreement among Lebanon, Israel, and the United States arranged an Israeli withdrawal conditional on the departure of Syrian troops.", "Syria opposed the agreement and declined to discuss the withdrawal of its troops, effectively stalemating further progress.In 1983 the IDF withdrew southward and left the Chouf, and would remain only in the \"security zone\" until the year 2000.That led to the Mountain War between the Druze Progressive Socialist Party and the Maronite Lebanese Forces.", "The PSP won the decisive battle that occurred in the Chouf and Aley District and inflected heavy losses to the LF.", "The result was the expulsion of the Christians from the Southern Mount Lebanon.Explosion at the Marine barracks seen from afarIntense attacks against U.S. and Western interests, including two truck bombings of the US Embassy in 1983 and 1984 and the landmark attacks on the U.S. Marine and French parachute regiment barracks on October 23, 1983, led to an American withdrawal.The virtual collapse of the Lebanese Army in the 6 February 1984 Intifada in Beirut, led by the PSP and Amal, the two main allies, was a major blow to the government.", "On March 5, as a result of the Intifada and the Mountain War, the Lebanese Government canceled the 17 May 1983 agreement.", "The US Marines departed a few weeks later.Between 1985 and 1989, heavy fighting took place in the \"War of the Camps\".", "The Shi'a Muslim Amal militia sought to rout the Palestinians from Lebanese strongholds.Combat returned to Beirut in 1987, with Palestinians, leftists and Druze fighters allied against Amal.", "After winning the battle, the PSP controlled West Beirut.", "The Syrians then entered Beirut.", "This combat was fueled by the Syrians in order to take control of Beirut by taking as a pretext of stopping the fights between the brothers, the PSP and Amal.", "Violent confrontation flared up again in Beirut in 1988 between Amal and Hezbollah.Meanwhile, on the political front, Prime Minister Rashid Karami, head of a government of national unity set up after the failed peace efforts of 1984, was assassinated on June 1, 1987.President Gemayel's term of office expired in September 1988.Before stepping down, he appointed another Maronite Christian, Lebanese Armed Forces Commanding General Michel Aoun, as acting Prime Minister, as was his right under the Lebanese constitution of 1943.This action was highly controversial.Muslim groups rejected the move and pledged support to Selim al-Hoss, a Sunni who had succeeded Karami.", "Lebanon was thus divided between a Christian government in East Beirut and a Muslim government in West Beirut, with no President.In February 1989, General Aoun launched the \"War of liberation\", a war against the Syrian Armed Forces in Lebanon.", "His campaign was partially supported by a few foreign nations but the method and approach was disputed within the Christian community.", "This led to the Lebanese forces to abstain from the Syrian attack against Aoun.", "In October 1990, the Syrian air force, backed by the US and pro-Syrian Lebanese groups (including Hariri, Joumblatt, Berri, Geagea and Lahoud) attacked the Presidential Palace at B'abda and forced Aoun to take refuge in the French embassy in Beirut and later go into exile in Paris.", "October 13, 1990, is regarded as the date the civil war ended, and Syria is widely recognized as playing a critical role in its end.The Taif Agreement of 1989 marked the beginning of the end of the war, and was ratified on November 4.President Rene Mouawad was elected the following day, but was assassinated in a car bombing in Beirut on November 22 as his motorcade returned from Lebanese independence day ceremonies.", "He was succeeded by Elias Hrawi, who remained in office until 1998.In August 1990, the parliament and the new president agreed on constitutional amendments embodying some of the political reforms envisioned at Taif.", "The National Assembly expanded to 128 seats and was divided equally between Christians and Muslims.", "In March 1991, parliament passed an amnesty law that pardoned most political crimes prior to its enactment, excepting crimes perpetrated against foreign diplomats or certain crimes referred by the cabinet to the Higher Judicial Council.In May 1991, the militias (with the important exception of Hizballah) were dissolved, and the Lebanese Armed Forces began to slowly rebuild themselves as Lebanon's only major non-sectarian institution.Some violence still occurred.", "In late December 1991 a car bomb (estimated to carry of TNT) exploded in the Muslim neighborhood of Basta.", "At least thirty people were killed, and 120 wounded, including former Prime Minister Shafik Wazzan, who was riding in a bulletproof car.", "It was the deadliest car bombing in Lebanon since June 18, 1985, when an explosion in the northern Lebanese port of Tripoli killed sixty people and wounded 110.The last of the Westerners kidnapped by Hezbollah during the mid-1980s were released in May 1992." ], [ "Second Lebanese Republic", "Since the end of the war, the Lebanese have conducted several elections, most of the militias have been weakened or disbanded, and the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) have extended central government authority over about two-thirds of the country.", "Only Hezbollah retained its weapons, and was supported by the Lebanese parliament in doing so, as they had defended Lebanon against the Israeli occupation.", "Syria on the other hand kept its military presence in most of Lebanon, also holding various government institutions in the country, strengthening its occupation.", "The Israeli forces finally withdrew from south of Lebanon in May 2000, though the Syrian occupation of most Lebanon still continued.By early November 1992, a new parliament had been elected, and Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri had formed a cabinet, retaining for himself the finance portfolio.", "The formation of a government headed by a successful billionaire businessman was widely seen as a sign that Lebanon would make a priority of rebuilding the country and reviving the economy.", "Solidere, a private real estate company set up to rebuild downtown Beirut, was a symbol of Hariri's strategy to link economic recovery to private sector investment.", "After the election of then-commander of the Lebanese Armed Forces Émile Lahoud as president in 1998 following Hrawi's extended term as president, Salim al-Hoss again served as Prime Minister.", "Hariri returned to office as Prime Minister in November 2000.Although problems with basic infrastructure and government services persist, and Lebanon is now highly indebted, much of the civil war damage has been repaired throughout the country, and many foreign investors and tourists have returned.Postwar social and political instability, fueled by economic uncertainty and the collapse of the Lebanese currency, led to the resignation of Prime Minister Omar Karami, also in May 1992, after less than 2 years in office.", "He was replaced by former Prime Minister Rachid Solh, who was widely viewed as a caretaker to oversee Lebanon's first parliamentary elections in 20 years.If Lebanon has in part recovered over the past decade from the catastrophic damage to infrastructure of its long civil war, the social and political divisions that gave rise to and sustained that conflict remain largely unresolved.", "Parliamentary and more recently municipal elections have been held with fewer irregularities and more popular participation than in the immediate aftermath of the conflict, and Lebanese civil society generally enjoys significantly more freedoms than elsewhere in the Arab world.", "However, there are continuing sectarian tensions and unease about Syrian and other external influences.Portrait of Elie HobeikaIn the late 1990s, the government took action against Sunni Muslim extremists in the north who had attacked its soldiers, and it continues to move against groups such as Asbat al-Ansar, which has been accused of being partnered with Osama bin Laden's al-Qaida network.", "On January 24, 2002, Elie Hobeika, another former Lebanese Forces figure associated with the Sabra and Shatilla massacres who later served in three cabinets and the parliament, was assassinated in a car bombing in Beirut.During Lebanon's civil war, Syria's troop deployment in Lebanon was legitimized by the Lebanese Parliament in the Taif Agreement, supported by the Arab League, and is given a major share of the credit for finally bringing the civil war to an end in October 1990.In the ensuing fifteen years, Damascus and Beirut justified Syria's continued military presence in Lebanon by citing the continued weakness of a Lebanese armed forces faced with both internal and external security threats, and the agreement with the Lebanese Government to implement all of the constitutional reforms in the Taif Agreement.", "Under Taif, the Hezbollah militia was eventually to be dismantled, and the LAF allowed to deploy along the border with Israel.", "Lebanon was called on to deploy along its southern border by UN Security Council Resolution 1391, urged to do so by UN Resolution UN Security Council Resolution 1496, and deployment was demanded by UN Security Council Resolution 1559.The Syrian military and intelligence presence in Lebanon was criticised by some on Lebanon's right-wing inside and outside of the country, others believed it helped to prevent renewed civil war and discourage Israeli aggression, and others believed its presence and influence was helpful for Lebanese stability and peace but should be scaled back.", "Major powers United States and France rejected Syrian reasoning that they were in Lebanon by the consent of the Lebanese government.", "They insist that the latter had been co-opted and that in fact Lebanon's Government was a Syrian puppet.Up to 2005, 14–15,000 Syrian troops (down from 35,000) remained in position in many areas of Lebanon, although the Taif called for an agreement between the Syrian and Lebanese Governments by September 1992 on their redeployment to Lebanon's Bekaa Valley.", "Syria's refusal to exit Lebanon following Israel's 2000 withdrawal from south Lebanon first raised criticism among the Lebanese Maronite Christians and Druze, who were later joined by many of Lebanon's Sunni Muslims.", "Lebanon's Shiites, on the other hand, have long supported the Syrian presence, as has the Hezbollah militia group and political party.The U.S. began applying pressure on Syria to end its occupation and cease interfering with internal Lebanese matters.", "In 2004, many believe Syria pressured Lebanese MPs to back a constitutional amendment to revise term limitations and allow Lebanon's two term pro-Syrian president Émile Lahoud to run for a third time.", "France, Germany and the United Kingdom, along with many Lebanese politicians joined the U.S. in denouncing alleged Syrian interference.On September 2, 2004, the UN Security Council adopted UN Security Council Resolution 1559, authored by France and the U.S. in an uncommon show of cooperation.", "The resolution called \"upon all remaining foreign forces to withdraw from Lebanon\" and \"for the disbanding and disarmament of all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias\".Map of the Shebaa farmsOn May 25, 2000, Israel completed its withdrawal from the south of Lebanon in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 425.A 50-square-kilometre piece of mountain terrain, commonly referred to as the Shebaa farms, remains under the control of Israel.", "The UN has certified Israel's pullout, and regards the Shebaa Farms as occupied Syrian territory, while Lebanon and Syria have stated they regard the area as Lebanese territory.", "The January 20, 2005, UN Secretary-General's report on Lebanon stated: \"The continually asserted position of the Government of Lebanon that the Blue Line is not valid in the Shab'a farms area is not compatible with Security Council resolutions.", "The Council has recognized the Blue Line as valid for purposes of confirming Israel's withdrawal pursuant to resolution 425 (1978).", "The Government of Lebanon should heed the Council's repeated calls for the parties to respect the Blue Line in its entirety.", "\"In Resolution 425, the UN had set a goal of assisting the Lebanese government in a \"return of its effective authority in the area\", which would require an official Lebanese army presence there.", "Further, UN Security Council Resolution 1559 requires the dismantling of the Hezbollah militia.", "Yet, Hezbollah remains deployed along the Blue Line.", "Both Hezbollah and Israel have violated the Blue Line more than once, according to the UN.", "The most common pattern of violence have been border incursions by the Hezbollah into the Shebaa Farms area, and then Israeli air strikes into southern Lebanon.", "The UN Secretary-General has urged \"all governments that have influence on Hezbollah to deter it from any further actions which could increase the tension in the area\".", "Staffan de Misura, Personal Representative of the Secretary-General for Southern Lebanon stated that he was \"deeply concerned that air violations by Israel across the Blue Line during altercations with Hezbollah are continuing to take place\", calling \"upon the Israeli authorities to cease such violations and to fully respect the Blue Line\".", "In 2001 de Misura similarly expressed his concern to Lebanon's prime minister for allowing Hezbollah to violate the Blue Line, saying it was a \"clear infringement\" of UN Resolution 425, under which the UN certified Israel's withdrawal from south Lebanon as complete.", "On January 28, 2005, UN Security Council Resolution 1583 called upon the Government of Lebanon to fully extend and exercise its sole and effective authority throughout the south, including through the deployment of sufficient numbers of Lebanese armed and security forces, to ensure a calm environment throughout the area, including along the Blue Line, and to exert control over the use of force on its territory and from it.On January 23, 2006, The UN Security Council called on the Government of Lebanon to make more progress in controlling its territory and disbanding militias, while also calling on Syria to cooperate with those efforts.", "In a statement read out by its January President, Augustine Mahiga of Tanzania, the council also called on Syria to take measures to stop movements of arms and personnel into Lebanon.On September 3, 2004, the National Assembly voted 96–29 to amend the constitution to allow the pro-Syrian president, Émile Lahoud, three more years in office by extending a statute of limitations to nine years.", "Many regarded this as a second time Syria had pressured Lebanon's Parliament to amend the constitution in a way that favored Lahoud (the first allowing for his election in 1998 immediately after he had resigned as commander-in-chief of the LAF.)", "Three cabinet ministers were absent from the vote and later resigned.", "The USA charged that Syria exercised pressure against the National Assembly to amend the constitution, and many of the Lebanese rejected it, saying that it was considered as contradictive to the constitution and its principles.", "Including these is the Maronite Patriarch Mar Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir—the most eminent religious figure for Maronites—and the Druze leader Walid Jumblatt.To the surprise of many, Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri, who had vehemently opposed this amendment, appeared to have finally accepted it, and so did most of his party.", "However, he ended up resigning in protest against the amendment.", "He was assassinated soon afterwards (see below), triggering the Cedar Revolution.", "This amendment comes in discordance with the UN Security Council Resolution 1559, which called for a new presidential election in Lebanon.On October 1, 2004, one of the main dissenting voices to Émile Lahoud's term extension, the newly resigned Druze ex-minister Marwan Hamadeh was the target of a car bomb attack as his vehicle slowed to enter his Beirut home.", "Mr. Hamadeh and his bodyguard were wounded and his driver killed in the attack.", "Druze leader Walid Jumblatt appealed for calm, but said the car bomb was a clear message for the opposition.", "UN Secretary General Kofi Annan expressed his serious concern over the attack.On October 7, 2004, UN Secretary General Kofi Annan reported to the Security Council that Syria had failed to withdraw its forces from Lebanon.", "Mr. Annan concluded his report saying that \"It is time, 14 years after the end of hostilities and four years after the Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon, for all parties concerned to set aside the remaining vestiges of the past.", "The withdrawal of foreign forces and the disbandment and disarmament of militias would, with finality, end that sad chapter of Lebanese history.\".", "On October 19, 2004, following the UN Secretary General's report, the UN Security Council voted unanimously (meaning that it received the backing of Algeria, the only Arab member of the Security Council) to put out a statement calling on Syria to pull its troops out of Lebanon, in accordance with Resolution 1559.On October 20, 2004, Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri resigned; the next day former Prime Minister and loyal supporter of Syria Omar Karami was appointed Prime Minister.On February 14, 2005, former Prime Minister Hariri was assassinated in a car-bomb attack which killed 21 and wounded 100.On February 21, 2005, tens of thousand Lebanese protestors held a rally at the site of the assassination calling for the withdrawal of Syria's peacekeeping forces and blaming Syria and the pro-Syrian president Lahoud for the murder.Hariri's murder triggered increased international pressure on Syria.", "In a joint statement U.S. President Bush and French president Chirac condemned the killing and called for full implementation of UNSCR 1559.UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan announced that he was sending a team led by Ireland's deputy police commissioner, Peter FitzGerald, to investigate the assassination.", "And while Arab League head Amr Moussa declared that Syrian president Assad promised him a phased withdrawal over a two-year period, the Syrian Information Minister Mahdi Dakhlallah said Mr Moussa had misunderstood the Syrian leader.", "Mr Dakhlallah said that Syria will merely move its troops to eastern Lebanon.", "Russia, Germany, and Saudi Arabia all called for Syrian troops to leave.Local Lebanese pressure mounted as well.", "As daily protests against the Syrian occupation grew to 25,000, a series of dramatic events occurred.", "Massive protests such as these had been quite uncommon in the Arab world, and while in the 90s most anti-Syrian demonstrators were predominantly Christian, the new demonstrations were Christian and Sunni.", "On February 28 the government of pro-Syrian Prime Minister Omar Karami resigned, calling for a new election to take place.", "Mr Karami said in his announcement: \"I am keen the government will not be a hurdle in front of those who want the good for this country.\"", "The tens of thousands gathered at Beirut's Martyrs' Square cheered the announcement, then chanted \"Karami has fallen, your turn will come, Lahoud, and yours, Bashar\".", "Opposition MPs were also not satisfied with Karami's resignation, and kept pressing for full Syrian withdrawal.", "Former minister and MP Marwan Hamadeh, who survived a similar car bomb attack on October 1, 2004, said \"I accuse this government of incitement, negligence and shortcomings at the least, and of covering up its planning at the most... if not executing\".", "Two days later Syrian leader Bashar Assad announced that his troops will leave Lebanon completely \"in the next few months\".", "Responding to the announcement, opposition leader Walid Jumblatt said that he wanted to hear more specifics from Damascus about any withdrawal: \"It's a nice gesture but 'next few months' is quite vague—we need a clear-cut timetable\".On March 5 Syrian leader Assad declared in a televised speech that Syria would withdraw its forces to the Bekaa Valley in eastern Lebanon, and then to the border between Syria and Lebanon.", "Assad did not provide a timetable for a complete withdrawal of Syrian forces from Lebanon—14,000 soldiers and intelligence agents.", "Meanwhile, Hezbollah leader Nasrallah called for a \"massive popular gathering\" on Tuesday against UN Resolution 1559 saying \"The resistance will not give up its arms ... because Lebanon needs the resistance to defend it\", and added \"all the articles of UN resolution give free services to the Israeli enemy who should have been made accountable for his crimes and now finds that he is being rewarded for his crimes and achieves all its demands\".In opposition to Nasrallah's call, Monday, March 7 saw at least 70,000 people—with some estimates putting the number at twice as high—gathered at central Martyrs' Square to demand that Syria leave completely.The following day a pro-Syrian demonstration set a new record when Hezbollah amassed 400–500 thousand protestors at Riad Solh square in Beirut, most of them bussed in from the heavily Shi'ite south Lebanon and eastern Beka'a valley.", "The show of power demonstrated Hezbollah's influence, wealth and organization as the sole Lebanese party allowed to hold a militia by Syria.", "In his speech Nasrallah blasted UN Security-Council Resolution 1559, which calls for Hezbollah's militia to be disbanded, as foreign intervention.", "Nasrallah also reiterated his earlier calls for the destruction of Israel saying \"To this enemy we say again: There is no place for you here and there is no life for you among us.", "Death to Israel!\".", "Though Hezbollah organized a very successful rally, opposition leaders were quick to point out that Hezbollah had active support from Lebanon's government and Syria.", "While the pro-democracy rallies had to deal with road blocks forcing protestors to either turn back or march long distances to Martyr's Square, Hezbollah was able to bus people directly to Riad Solh square.", "Dory Chamoun, an opposition leader, pointed out that \"the difference is that in our demonstrations, people arrive voluntarily and on foot, not in buses\".", "Another opposition member said the pro-Syrian government pressured people to turn out and some reports said Syria had bused in people from across the border.", "But on a mountain road leading to Beirut, only one bus with a Syrian license plate was spotted in a convoy of pro-Syrian supporters heading to the capital and Hezbollah officials denied the charges.Opposition MP Akram Chehayeb said \"That is where the difference between us and them lies: They asked these people to come and they brought them here, whereas the opposition's supporters come here on their own.", "Our protests are spontaneous.", "We have a cause.", "What is theirs?", "\".Anti-Syrian protesters heading to Martyrs' Square in Beirut on foot and in vehicles, 13 March 2005One month after Hariri's murder, an enormous anti-Syrian rally gathered at Martyr's Square in Beirut.", "Multiple news agencies estimated the crowd at between 800,000 and 1 million—a show of force for the Sunni Muslim, Christian and Druze communities.", "The rally was double the size of the mostly Shi'ite pro-Syrian one organized by Hezbollah the previous week.", "When Hariri's sister took a pro-Syrian line saying that Lebanon should \"stand by Syria until its land is liberated and it regains its sovereignty on the occupied Golan Heights\" the crowd jeered her.", "This sentiment was prevalent among the rally participants who opposed Hezbollah's refusal to disarm based on the claim that Lebanese and Syrian interests are linked.===Cedar Revolution and 2006 War (2005–06)===Jamil Al Sayyed, a Syrian ally in the Lebanese security forces, resigned on 25 April, just a day before the final Syrian troops pulled out of Lebanon.On 26 April 2005, the last 250 Syrian troops left Lebanon.", "During the departure ceremonies, Ali Habib, Syria's chief of staff, said that Syria's president had decided to recall his troops after the Lebanese army had been \"rebuilt on sound national foundations and became capable of protecting the state.", "\"UN forces led by Senegalese Mouhamadou Kandji and guided by Lebanese Imad Anka were sent to Lebanon to verify the military withdrawal which was mandated by Security Council resolution 1559.Following the Syrian withdrawal a series of assassinations of Lebanese politicians and journalists with the anti-Syrian camp had begun.", "Many bombings have occurred to date and have triggered condemnations from the UN Security Council and UN Secretary General.Eight months after Syria withdrew from Lebanon under intense domestic and international outrage over the assassination of Lebanese prime minister Rafiq Hariri the UN investigation has yet to be completed.", "While UN investigator Detlev Mehlis has pointed the finger at Syria's intelligence apparatus in Lebanon he has yet to be allowed full access to Syrian officials who are suspected by the United Nations International Independent Investigation Commission (UNIIIC) as being behind the assassination.", "In its latest report UNIIIC said it had \"credible information\" that Syrian officials had arrested and threatened close relatives of a witness who recanted testimony he had previously given the commission, and that two Syrian suspects it questioned indicated that all Syrian intelligence documents on Lebanon had been burned.A campaign of bomb attacks against politicians, journalists and even civilian neighborhoods associated with the anti-Syrian camp has provoked much negative attention for Syria in the UN and elsewhere.On December 15, 2005, the UN Security Council extended the mandate of the UNIIIC.On December 30, 2005, Syria's former vice-president, Abdul Halim Khaddam, said that \"Hariri received many threats\" from Syria's President Bashar Al-Assad.", "Prior to Syria's withdrawal from Lebanon Mr Khaddam was in charge of Syria's Lebanon policy and mainly responsible for Syria's abuse of Lebanon's resources.", "Many believe that Khaddam seized the opportunity to clear his history of corruption and blackmail.Parliament voted for the release of the former Lebanese Forces warlord Samir Geagea in the first session since election were held in the spring of 2005.Geagea was the only leader during the civil war to be charged with crimes related to that conflict.", "With the return of Michel Aoun, the climate was right to try to heal wounds to help unite the country after former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated on 14 February 2005.Geagea was released on 26 July 2005 and left immediately for an undisclosed European nation to undergo medical examinations and convalesce.During the Cedar Revolution Hezbollah organized a series of pro-Syrian rallies.", "Hezbollah became a part of the Lebanese government following the 2005 elections but is at a crossroads regarding the UNSCR 1559 call for its militia to be dismantled.", "On 21 November 2005, Hezbollah launched an attack along the entire border with Israel, the heaviest in the five and a half years since Israel's withdrawal.", "The barrage was supposed to provide tactical cover for an attempt by a squad of Hezbollah special forces to abduct Israeli troops in the Israeli side of the village of Al-Ghajar.", "The attack failed when an ambush by the IDF Paratroopers killed 4 Hezbollah members and scattered the rest.", "The UN Security Council accused Hezbollah of initiating the hostilities.A building in Ghazieh, near Sidon, bombed by the Israeli Air Force (IAF), 20 July 2006On 27 December 2005, Katyusha rockets fired from Hezbollah territory smashed into houses in the Israeli village of Kiryat Shmona wounding three people.", "UN Secretary General Kofi Annan called on the Lebanese Government \"to extend its control over all its territory, to exert its monopoly on the use of force, and to put an end to all such attacks\".", "Lebanese Prime Minister Fuad Saniora denounced the attack as \"aimed at destabilizing security and diverting attention from efforts exerted to solve the internal issues prevailing in the country\".", "On December 30, 2005, the Lebanese army dismantled two other Katyusha rockets found in the border town of Naqoura, an action suggesting increased vigilance following PM Saniora's angry remarks.", "In a new statement Saniora also rejected claims by Al-Qaeda that it was responsible for the attack and insisted again that it was a domestic action challenging his government's authority.The 2006 Lebanon War was a 34-day military conflict in Lebanon and northern Israel.", "The principal parties were Hezbollah paramilitary forces and the Israeli military.", "The conflict started on 12 July 2006, and continued until a United Nations-brokered ceasefire went into effect in the morning on 14 August 2006, though it formally ended on 8 September 2006 when Israel lifted its naval blockade of Lebanon.===Instability and Syrian War spillover===In 2007, the Nahr al-Bared refugee camp became the center of the 2007 Lebanon conflict between the Lebanese Army and Fatah al-Islam.", "At least 169 soldiers, 287 insurgents and 47 civilians were killed in the battle.", "Funds for the reconstruction of the area have been slow to materialize.Between 2006 and 2008, a series of protests led by groups opposed to the pro-Western Prime Minister Fouad Siniora demanded the creation of a national unity government, over which the mostly Shia opposition groups would have veto power.", "When Émile Lahoud's presidential term ended in October 2007, the opposition refused to vote for a successor unless a power-sharing deal was reached, leaving Lebanon without a president.On 9 May 2008, Hezbollah and Amal forces, sparked by a government declaration that Hezbollah's communications network was illegal, seized western Beirut, leading to the 2008 conflict in Lebanon.", "The Lebanese government denounced the violence as a coup attempt.", "At least 62 people died in the resulting clashes between pro-government and opposition militias.", "On 21 May 2008, the signing of the Doha Agreement ended the fighting.", "As part of the accord, which ended 18 months of political paralysis, Michel Suleiman became president and a national unity government was established, granting a veto to the opposition.", "The agreement was a victory for opposition forces, as the government caved in to all their main demands.In early January 2011, the national unity government collapsed due to growing tensions stemming from the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, which was expected to indict Hezbollah members for the Hariri assassination.", "The parliament elected Najib Mikati, the candidate for the Hezbollah-led March 8 Alliance, Prime Minister of Lebanon, making him responsible for forming a new government.", "Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah insists that Israel was responsible for the assassination of Hariri.", "A report leaked by the Al-Akhbar newspaper in November 2010 stated that Hezbollah has drafted plans for a takeover of the country if the Special Tribunal for Lebanon issues an indictment against its members.In 2012, the Syrian Civil War threatened to spill over in Lebanon, causing more incidents of sectarian violence and armed clashes between Sunnis and Alawites in Tripoli.", "As of 6 August 2013, more than 677,702 Syrian refugees are in Lebanon.", "As the number of Syrian refugees increases, the Lebanese Forces Party, the Kataeb Party, and the Free Patriotic Movement fear the country's sectarian based political system is being undermined.===2019 Protests due to Liquidity Crisis===Protesters in Beirut.", "Mohammad Al-Amin Mosque, 20 October 2019In October 2019 a series of country-wide protests began in response to many of the government's failures and malfeasances.", "In the months leading up to the protests there was an ever deepening foreign reserves liquidity crisis.", "Days before protests broke out, a series of about 100 major wildfires in Chouf, Khroub and other Lebanese areas displaced hundreds of people and caused enormous damage to Lebanese wildlife.", "The Lebanese government failed to deploy its firefighting equipment due to lack of maintenance and misappropriation of funds.", "Lebanon had to rely on aid from neighboring Cyprus, Jordan, Turkey and Greece.", "In November 2019, commercial banks responded to the liquidity crises by imposing illegal capital controls to protect themselves, despite there being no official law by the BDL regarding banking controls.The protests created a political crisis in Lebanon, with Prime Minister Saad Hariri tendering his resignation and echoing protesters' demands for a government of independent specialists.", "A cabinet headed by Hassan Diab was formed in 2020.===2020 meltdown of central bank===Concurrently with the COVID-19 pandemic, the Banque du Liban (BdL) in March 2020 defaulted on $90 billion of sovereign debt obligations, triggering a collapse in the value of the Lebanese pound.", "The decision was taken unanimously at a cabinet meeting under the chairmanship of Hassan Diab on 7 March.", "That in turn caused the complex and opaque financial engineering with which the BdL maintained the nation's tenuous stability to crash and burn.", "Simultaneously, commercial banks imposed \"informal capital controls limiting the amount of dollars depositors can withdraw as well as transfers abroad.\"", "Capital controls were expected to remain in place until at least 2025.It was remarked at the time that Lebanon, whose population is under 7 million, \"produces little and imports about 80 percent of the goods it consumes.\"", "Debt servicing had consumed 30 percent of recent budgets.On 25 June the IMF estimated the losses at $49 billion, equivalent \"to 91 per cent of Lebanon’s total economic output in 2019, according to World Bank figures... almost equal to the total of value of the deposits held by the Banque du Liban from the country’s commercial banks.\"", "The government of Lebanon concurred with the IMF estimates.", "The value of the pound, which had been artificially pegged at £L1,507.5 per U.S. dollar by the BdL, traded on the informal market in June 2020 at £L5,000 to the dollar, and concurrently the BdL welcomed in an official publication the involvement of the IMF.It came to light in an audit of 2018 BdL finances whose results were revealed on 23 July that the governor of the BdL, Riad Salameh, had fictionalized assets, used creative accounting and cooked the books.", "Two days earlier the government had announced its contract with New York-based Alvarez & Marsal to conduct \"a forensic audit\" of BdL finances.===Beirut port explosion and state of emergency===Aftermath of the 4 August 2020 Beirut explosionOn 4 August 2020, the Beirut explosion occurred in the port sector of the city, destroying hectares of buildings and killing over 200 people.", "It was felt throughout the country.", "4 days later on 8 August, a peaceful protest was organized starting from the port of Beirut and destined for the parliament building.", "The demonstrators were faced with brutal, deadly, and extreme excessive force including the use of live-ammunition by the security apparatus to oppress and subdue demonstrators.", "728 demonstrators were injured during the 8 August protests and at least 153 injuries were severe enough to be treated in surrounding hospitals.", "Amid much popular unrest, the entire cabinet of Hassan Diab resigned on 10 August, and a state of emergency, which gave \"the army broad powers to prevent gatherings, censor media and arrest anyone deemed to be a security threat\", was declared on 13 August by the caretaker government.", "On 14 August, Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah \"referred to the possibility of civil war\" were the anti-government protestors to force an early election.", "Meanwhile, Iranian foreign minister Javad Zarif complained about the presence of \"French and British warships that were deployed to assist in the delivery of medical assistance and other aid.\"", "Also on 14 August, the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA) launched a $565 million appeal for donors of aid to victims of the explosion.", "The UN effort was to focus on: meals, first aid, shelters, and repair of schools.Following the resignation of Prime Minister Hassan Diab in August 2020, both Mustafa Adib and Saad Hariri failed to form a government.", "Najib Mikati was designated to fill the role on 26 July 2021.He received 72 votes out of 128 MPs.", "On September 10, 2021, Mikati was able to form a government.", "He announced that he wanted to ask for help from Arab countries to try to get Lebanon out of the crisis it is going through.On 14 October 2021, clashes erupted in Beirut between the Christian militia Lebanese Forces and Hezbollah fighters supported by the Amal Movement.=== 2022 elections ===In May 2022, Lebanon held its first election since a painful economic crisis dragged it to the brink of becoming a failed state.", "Lebanon's crisis has been so severe that more than 80 percent of the population is now considered poor by the United Nations.", "In the election Iran-backed Shia Muslim Hezbollah movement and its allies lost their parliamentary majority.", "Hezbollah did not lose any of its seats, but its allies lost seats.", "Hezbollah’s ally, President Michel Aoun's Free Patriotic Movement, was no longer the biggest Christian party after the election.", "A rival Christian party, led by Samir Geagea, with close ties to Saudi Arabia, the Lebanese Forces (LF), made gains.", "Sunni Future Movement, led by former prime minister Saad Hariri, did not participate the election, leaving a political vacuum to other Sunni politicians to fill." ], [ "See also", "Archaeology of LebanonConstitution of LebanonForeign relations of LebanonHistory of the Middle EastHistory of IsraelHistory of SyriaLebanese Civil WarLebanese diasporaPolitics of LebanonTimeline of Lebanese history" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Lebanon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lebanon''' is a small country in the Eastern Mediterranean, located at approximately 34˚N, 35˚E.", "It stretches along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and its length is almost three times its width.", "From north to south, the width of its terrain becomes narrower.", "Lebanon's mountainous terrain, proximity to the sea, and strategic location at a crossroads of the world were decisive factors in shaping its history.The country's role in the region, as indeed in the world at large, was shaped by trade.", "It serves as a link between the Mediterranean world and India and East Asia.", "The merchants of the region exported oil, grain, textiles, metal work, and pottery through the port cities to Western markets." ], [ "Physical geography and regions", "The area of Lebanon is .", "The country is roughly rectangular in shape, becoming narrower toward the south and the farthest north.", "Its widest point is , and its narrowest is ; the average width is about .", "Because Lebanon straddles the northwest of the Arabian Plate, it is sometimes geopolitically grouped together with nations with adjacent tectonic proximations such as Syria, Yemen, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, the Egyptian Sinai, Palestine, Israel and the UAE.The physical geography of Lebanon is influenced by natural systems that extend outside the country.", "Thus, the Beqaa Valley is part of the Great Rift system, which stretches from southern Turkey to Mozambique in Africa.", "Like any mountainous country, Lebanon's physical geography is complex.", "Land forms, climate, soils, and vegetation differ markedly within short distances.", "There are also sharp changes in other elements of the environment, from good to poor soils, as one moves through the Lebanese mountains.A major feature of Lebanese topography is the alternation of lowland and highland that runs generally parallel with a north-to-south orientation.", "There are four such longitudinal strips between the Mediterranean Sea and Syria: the coastal strip (or the maritime plain), western Lebanon, the central plateau, and eastern Lebanon.The extremely narrow coastal strip stretches along the shore of the eastern Mediterranean.", "Hemmed in between sea and mountain, the sahil, as it is called in Lebanon, is widest in the north near Tripoli, where it is only wide.", "A few kilometers south at Juniyah the approximately 1.5-kilometer-wide plain is succeeded by foothills that rise steeply to within from the sea.", "For the most part, the coast is abrupt and rocky.", "The shoreline is regular with no deep estuary, gulf, or natural harbor.", "The maritime plain is especially productive of fruits and vegetables.The western range, the second major region, is the Lebanon Mountains, sometimes called Mount Lebanon, or Lebanon proper before 1920.Since Roman days the term Mount Lebanon has encompassed this area.", "Antilibanos (Anti-Lebanon) was used to designate the eastern range.", "Geologists believe that the twin mountains once formed one range.", "The Lebanon Mountains are the highest, most rugged, and most imposing of the whole maritime range of mountains and plateaus that start with the Nur Mountains in northern Syria and end with the towering massif of Sinai.", "The mountain structure forms the first barrier to communication between the Mediterranean and Lebanon's eastern hinterland.", "The mountain range is a clearly defined unit having natural boundaries on all four sides.", "On the north it is separated from the Al-Ansariyah mountains of Syria by Nahr al-Kabir (\"the great river\"); on the south it is bounded by Al Qasimiyah River, giving it a length of 169 kilometers.", "Its width varies from about near Tripoli to on the southern end.", "It rises to alpine heights southeast of Tripoli.", "Qurnat as Sawda' (\"the black nook\") reaches and is the highest mountain of Lebanon.", "Of the other peaks that rise east of Beirut, Mount Sannine () is the highest.", "Ahl al Jabal (\"people of the mountain\"), or simply jabaliyyun, has referred traditionally to the inhabitants of western Lebanon.", "Near its southern end, the Lebanon Mountains branch off to the west to form the Shuf Mountains.The third geographical region is the Beqaa Valley.", "This central highland between the Lebanon Mountains and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains is about in length and 9.6 to 16 kilometers wide and has an average elevation of .", "Its middle section spreads out more than its two extremities.", "Geologically, the Beqaa is the medial part of a depression that extends north to the western bend of the Orontes River in Syria and south to Jordan through Arabah to Aqaba, the eastern arm of the Red Sea.", "The Beqaa is the country's chief agricultural area and served as a granary of Roman Syria.", "Beqaa is the Arabic plural of buqaah, meaning a place with stagnant water.Emerging from a base south of Homs in Syria, the eastern mountain range, or Anti-Lebanon (Lubnan ash Sharqi), is almost equal in length and height to the Lebanon Mountains.", "This fourth geographical region falls swiftly from Mount Hermon to the Hawran Plateau, whence it continues through Jordan south to the Dead Sea.", "The Barada Gorge divides Anti-Lebanon.", "In the northern section, few villages are on the western slopes, but in the southern section, featuring Mount Hermon (2860 meters), the western slopes have many villages.", "Anti-Lebanon is more arid, especially in its northern parts, than Mount Lebanon and is consequently less productive and more thinly populated.File:Jayroun, Lebanon - panoramio.jpg\|JayrounFile:White mule in the Dunnieh Mountains, North Lebanon.jpg\|White mule in the Dunnieh MountainsFile:Jabal Moussa Biosphere Reserve 03.jpg\|Jabal Moussa Biosphere RerserveFile:View of the Kadisha Valley, Lebanon.jpg\|Kadisha valleyFile:Lebanese coastline, Oct 2012.jpg\|Lebanese coastlineFile:Bteghrine from Haret Ali.JPG\|Mount LebanonFile:Mount Sannine.jpg\|Mount Sannine" ], [ "Climate", "A Köppen climate classification map of LebanonLebanon has a Mediterranean climate characterized by a long, hot, and dry summer, and a cool, rainy winter.", "Fall is a transitional season with a lowering of temperature and little rain; spring occurs when the winter rains cause the vegetation to revive.", "Topographical variation creates local modifications of the basic climatic pattern.", "Along the coast, summers are warm and humid, with little or no rain.", "Heavy dews form, which are beneficial to agriculture.", "The daily range of temperature is not wide.", "A west wind provides relief during the afternoon and evening; at night the wind direction is reversed, blowing from the land out to sea.Winter is the rainy season, with major precipitation falling after December.", "Rainfall is generous but is concentrated during only a few days of the rainy season, falling in heavy cloudbursts.", "The amount of rainfall varies greatly from one year to another.", "A hot wind blowing from the Egyptian desert called the khamsin (Arabic for \"fifty\"), may provide a warming trend during the fall but more often occurs during the spring.", "Bitterly cold winds may come from Southern Europe.", "Along the coast the proximity to the sea provides a moderating influence on the climate, making the range of temperatures narrower than it is inland, but the temperatures are cooler in the northern parts of the coast where there is also more rain.In the Lebanon Mountains the gradual increase in altitudes produces extremely cold winters with more precipitation and snow.", "The summers have a wider daily range of temperatures and less humidity.", "In the winter, frosts are frequent and snows heavy; in fact, snow covers the highest peaks for much of the year.", "In the summer, temperatures may rise as high during the daytime as they do along the coast, but they fall far lower at night.", "Inhabitants of the coastal cities, as well as visitors, seek refuge from the oppressive humidity of the coast by spending much of the summer in the mountains, where numerous summer resorts are located.", "The influence of the Mediterranean Sea is abated by the altitude and, although the precipitation is even higher than it is along the coast, the range of temperatures is wider and the winters are more severe.The Beqaa Valley and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains are shielded from the influence of the sea by the Lebanon Mountains.", "The result is considerably less precipitation and humidity and a wider variation in daily and yearly temperatures.", "The khamsin does not occur in the Beqaa Valley, but the north winter wind is so severe that the inhabitants say it can \"break nails\".", "Despite the relatively low altitude of the Beqa aValley (the highest point of which, near Baalbek, is only ) more snow falls there than at comparable altitudes west of the Lebanon Mountains.Because of their altitudes, the Anti-Lebanon Mountains receive more precipitation than the Beqaa Valley, despite their remoteness from maritime influences.", "Much of this precipitation appears as snow, and the peaks of the Anti-Lebanon, like those of the Lebanon Mountains, are snow-covered for much of the year.", "Temperatures are cooler than in the Beqaa Valley.The Beqaa Valley is watered by two rivers that rise in the watershed near Baalbek: the Orontes flowing north (in Arabic it is called Nahr al-Asi, \"the Rebel River\", because this direction is unusual), and the Litani flowing south into the hill region of the southern Biqa Valley, where it makes an abrupt turn to the west in southern Lebanon and is thereafter called the Al Qasmiyah River.", "The Orontes continues to flow north into Syria and eventually reaches the Mediterranean in Turkey.", "Its waters, for much of its course, flow through a channel considerably lower than the surface of the ground.", "The Nahr Barada, which waters Damascus, has as its source a spring in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains.Smaller springs and streams serve as tributaries to the principal rivers.", "Because the rivers and streams have such steep gradients and are so fast moving, they are erosive instead of depository in nature.", "This process is aided by the soft character of the limestone that composes much of the mountains, the steep slopes of the mountains, and the heavy rainstorms.", "The only permanent lake is Lake Qaraoun, about ten kilometers east of Jezzine.", "There is one seasonal lake, fed by springs, on the eastern slopes of the Lebanon Mountains near Yammunah, about southeast of Tripoli.Temperatures are rising in Lebanon as a part of global warming.", "Lebanon is considered to be part of the Fertile Crescent, yet in the meantime with the severe climate changes, it might lose fertility.Image:Danniyeh.jpg\|Snow-covered karstic formations in the Danniyeh mountains.Image:Satellite image of Lebanon in March 2002.jpg\|Lebanon from space.", "Snow cover can be seen on the western and eastern mountain ranges.Image:March 2011 Snow in Lebanon.jpg\|Snow in Lebanon's two mountain ranges, Jebel Liban and Jabal ash Sharqi in March 2011.+Beirut mean sea temperatureJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDec" ], [ "Area and boundaries", "rightAreaTotal: Land: Water: '''Land boundaries:'''''Total:'' ''Border countries:''Israel , Syria '''Coastline:''' '''Maritime claims:'''''Territorial sea:'' ''Exclusive Economic Zone:'' '''Elevation extremes:'''''Lowest point:'' Mediterranean Sea (sea level)''Highest point:'' Qurnat as Sawda'" ], [ "Resources and land use", "Limestone, iron ore, salt, water-surplus state in a water-deficit region, arable land'''Land use:'''''arable land:'' 10.72%''permanent crops:'' 12.06%''other:'' 77.22% (2011)'''Irrigated land:''' (2011)'''Total renewable water resources:''' (2011)===Water in Lebanon===Main rivers of LebanonWater is becoming a scarce resource in Lebanon due to climate change, which leads to different rainfall patterns as well as to inefficient methods of distribution within the country.", "Most of Lebanon's rainfall is in the four months of winter, but over the last 45 years, the Ministry of Environment (Lebanon) estimates that rainfall has decreased overall between 5 and 20 percent.", "The coastal strip of Lebanon gets approximately 2,000 mm of rain per year, while the Beqaa Valley to the east gets only one-tenth as much.", "In 2004, only about 21% of households across Lebanon had constant access to water in the summer months, with most of those households concentrated in or near Beirut.", "It is predicted that in future years, there will be higher temperatures, lower rainfall, and longer droughts, leading to even less access to water.", "According to the Ministry of Environment, several factors that are putting stress on Lebanon's water resources are unsustainable water management practices, increasing water demand from all sectors, water pollution, and ineffective water governance.", "Lebanon has struggled with inadequate water and sanitation services for many years.", "The factors with the greatest effect on quality and quantity of water resources in Lebanon are population growth, urbanization (88% of the population now lives in urban areas), economic growth, and climate change.", "In recent years, population growth has been increased rapidly with the addition of many Syrian refugees.", "Some new projects have been proposed to restructure the water sector.", "Currently, over 48 percent of water supplied by the public system is lost through seepage and wastewater networks are extremely poor, or even non-existent in some areas.", "One project that is currently being implemented by the Ministry of Environment in collaboration with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) focusses on harvesting rainwater from agricultural greenhouse tops in order to increase water harvesting and reduce the pressure on pumping groundwater.", "This project is expected to increase water availability during the especially critical months of late summer and early autumn when there is less precipitation, which would help to reduce the risk of salinity in both soil and water, and to increase the resilience of crops faced with prolonged drought.", "There are also proposed projects that suggest the agricultural sector use recycled waste water to allow for more fresh and potable water for consumption.", "This would be a huge improvement, as solid-wast treatment facilities are in short supply, and over 92 percent of Lebanon's sewage runs untreated directly into water-courses and the sea.", "If Lebanon does not reform its water sector, it is likely that there will be chronic and critical water shortages by 2020, which would create needs the Ministry of Energy and Water (MEW) would be unable to meet.", "Water is becoming a scarce resource and if Lebanon instates reformed practices, the progression forward into future water scarcity can be slowed." ], [ "Environmental concerns", "Natural hazards include dust storms.Current environmental degradation concerns include deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, air pollution in Beirut from vehicular traffic and the burning of industrial wastes, and pollution of coastal waters from raw sewage and oil spills.Lebanon's rugged terrain historically helped isolate, protect, and develop numerous factional groups based on religion, clan, and ethnicity.===Air quality in Lebanon===EU-funded air monitoring in BeirutAs a result of increasingly hot summers and its location within the Mediterranean region, which is often cited for having long episodes of pollution, Lebanon, Beirut in particular, is at high risk for air pollution.", "Approximately 93 percent of Beirut's population is exposed to high levels of air pollution, which can most often be attributed to vehicle-induced emissions, whether it be long-range travel or short commuting traffic.", "The cost of air pollution to health may exceed ten million dollars a year.", "The levels of air pollution in Beirut are increasing annually, and were already above acceptable WHO (World Health Organization) standards by 2011.The most noted pollution in Beirut is particulate matter (street dust), chemicals in the air, and vehicle exhaust.", "Air pollution is exacerbated by city structure and inadequate urban management as indicated by high buildings on narrow streets, which contain air pollutants.", "Some recommendations for improvement of air quality include encouragement of carpooling and citywide biking, alternative fuels for vehicles, and a widened public transit sector.The question of air quality has received considerable attention and funding by Lebanon's foreign partners.", "Between 2013 and 2017, the Lebanese ministry of environment was granted a donation of over 10 million Euros by Greece and the European Union to establish a national air monitoring network, which included at its peak 25 stations.", "This network was launched in October 2017 at a major event bringing together 26 different institutions; it was to serve as the cornerstone of Lebanon's National Strategy for Air Quality Management, which was released at the end of the same year.", "By mid-2019, however, the ministry of environment ceased to maintain and operate this network, involving budgetary restrictions.", "Stations were subsequently looted, even in central Beirut.===Land pollution in Lebanon===Sukleen, Lebanon's largest waste disposal company has a waste management process that goes through several stages, including clean-up and collection, sorting and composting, and burial.", "However, many argue that Lebanon needs a much better system for disposal of waste to reduce pollution and environmental degradation.", "The Litani River is Lebanon's largest river and many farms use the river's water to irrigate land and crops.", "Because of Lebanon's poor waste management system, a lot of waste and pollution ends up in the Litani and contaminates the crops, in turn endangering the health of consumers and farmers alike, contributing to environmental degradation, as well as hurting the agricultural reputation and economy.=== Trash protests of January 2014 ===In January 2014, protests in the town of Naameh began to arise, effectively blocking disposal of garbage at the landfill for three days.", "The protests were instated in response to the continued use of the landfill in Naameh beyond the date it was originally meant to close.", "The landfill began as a six-year project in 1997, but has remained open for seventeen years as of 2015, and without a sufficient alternative location for garbage disposal, it is likely that it will remain open for the foreseeable future.", "In 1997, Naameh became the country's primary landfill and was initially supposed to hold two million tons of waste.", "The landfill currently holds ten million tons of trash, and is still in use.", "Residents of the area in 2014 did not want to extend the landfill agreement, and staged the protests to prevent future plans.The company in charge of the majority of the area's collection and cleanup of trash is called Sukleen.", "It serves 364 towns and municipalities within Beirut and Mount Lebanon.", "The total waste collected by the company rose from 1,140 tons daily in 1994, to 3,100 tons in 2014.Sukleen is the largest government-contracted private waste management company in Lebanon.", "In response to the protests, which were asking the government for more efficient waste management systems along with the closure of the landfill in Naameh, Sukleen responded to environmentalists by halting service to Beirut and Mount Lebanon for three days.", "Because the Naameh landfills were closed and Sukleen was out of service, trash began to pile up in the streets of the city, affecting everyone citywide and drawing attention to the issue of city/region waste-management issues." ], [ "See also", "* List of mountains in Lebanon* List of rivers of Lebanon" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Lebanon" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Demographics of Lebanon''' 30px Indicator Rank Measure Economy GDP (PPP) per capita 66th $19,500 Unemployment rate ↓ 21st 20.89%* CO2 emissions 78th 3.05t† Electricity consumption 77th 49.72GWh Economic Freedom 95th 2.98 Politics Human Development Index 80th 0.757 Political freedom Partly 4 Corruption (A higher score means less (perceived) corruption.)", "↓ 134th 2.5 Press freedom 45th 74.00 Society Literacy Rate 43rd 96.7% Number of Internet users 59th 4,545,007 users E-readiness 14th 7.16± Ease of Doing Business 24th Unknown Health Life Expectancy 59th 77.0 Birth rate 113th 15.6‡ Fertility rate 157th 1.77†† Infant mortality 127th 14.39‡‡ Death rate 157th 7.5‡ HIV/AIDS rate 127th 0.10% Notes * including several non-sovereign entities ↓ indicates rank is in reverse order (e.g.", "1st is lowest)† per capita ± score out of 10‡ per 1000 people†† per woman‡‡ per 1000 live birthsThis is a demography of the population of Lebanon including population density, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.About 95% of the population of Lebanon is either Muslim or Christian, split across various sects and denominations.", "Because the matter of religious balance is a sensitive political issue, a national census has not been conducted since 1932, before the founding of the modern Lebanese state.", "Consequently, there is an absence of accurate data on the relative percentages of the population of the major religions and groups.The absence of data and comprehensive statistics also concerns all other demographic studies unrelated to religious balance, due to the all but total inactivity of the concerned public agencies.", "The only recent (post-war) statistics available are estimates based on studies made by private organizations.The biggest study made after the independence on the Lebanese Population was made by the Central Administration of Statistics (in French: \"Administration Centrale de la Statistique\") under the direction of Robert Kasparian and Grégoire Haddad's Social Movement: \"L'enquête par sondage sur la population active au Liban en 1970\" (in English: \"The survey on the active population in Lebanon in 1970\").", "It was conducted on a sample of 130,000 individuals.There are over 4 million Lebanese and descendants of Lebanese worldwide, mostly Christians, compared with the internal population of Lebanon of around 4.6 million citizens, in 2020." ], [ "Ethnic groups", "Ethnic background is an important factor in Lebanon.", "The country encompasses a great mix of indigenous and non-indigenous cultural, religious, and ethnic groups such as Arabs, Armenians, Kurds, Turks, amongst others.", "Muslims from the Arabian Peninsula conquered and settled Lebanon in the 7th century AD.", "In the time since then, Arabic has become the lingua franca of the area and much of the population of Lebanon (especially Muslims) have come to identify as Arab.", "Ethnic identity has come to revolve increasingly around aspects of cultural self-identification more than descent.", "To an extent, religious affiliation has also become a substitute in some respects for ethnic affiliation.Generally, the cultural and linguistic heritage of the People of Lebanon is a blend of both indigenous elements and the foreign cultures that have come to rule the land and its people over the course of thousands of years.", "Moreover, in a 2013 interview, the lead investigator, Pierre Zalloua, pointed out that genetic variation preceded religious variation and divisions: \"Lebanon already had well-differentiated communities with their own genetic peculiarities, but not significant differences, and religions came as layers of paint on top.", "There is no distinct pattern that shows that one community carries significantly more Phoenician than another\"." ], [ "Religious groups", "Three Lebanese women in 1873.The Lebanese Christians are some of the oldest Christians in the world, preceded only by Armenian Christians, Georgians, Ethiopian and Eritrean Christians, the Copts of Egypt and Sudan, and the Saint Thomas Christians of India.", "The Maronite Christians belong to the West Syriac Rite.", "Their Liturgical language is the Syriac-Aramaic language.", "The Melkite Greek Catholics and the Eastern Orthodox, tend to focus more on the Greco-Hellenistic heritage of the region from the days of the Byzantine Empire and Alexander the Great, along with the fact that Greek was maintained as a liturgical language until very recently.", "Some Lebanese even claim partial descent from Crusader knights who ruled Lebanon for a couple of centuries during the Middle Ages, also backed by recent genetic studies which confirmed this among Lebanese people, especially in the north of the country that was under the Crusader County of Tripoli.", "This identification with non-Arab civilizations also exists in other religious communities, albeit not to the same extent.===The sectarian system===Lebanon's religious divisions are extremely complicated, and the country is made up by a multitude of religious groupings.", "The ecclesiastical and demographic patterns of the sects and denominations are complex.", "Divisions and rivalries between groups date back as far as 15 centuries, and still are a factor today.", "The pattern of settlement has changed little since the 7th century, but instances of civil strife and ethnic cleansing, most recently during the Lebanese Civil War, has brought some important changes to the religious map of the country.", "(See also History of Lebanon.", ")Lebanon has by far the largest proportion of Christians of any Middle Eastern country, but both Christians and Muslims are sub-divided into many splinter sects and denominations.", "Population statistics are highly controversial.", "The various denominations and sects each have vested interests in inflating their own numbers.", "Shias, Sunnis, Maronites and Eastern Orthodox (the four largest denominations) all often claim that their particular religious affiliation holds a majority in the country, adding up to over 150% of the total population, even before counting the other denominations.", "One of the rare things that most Lebanese religious leaders will agree on is to avoid a new general census, for fear that it could trigger a new round of denominational conflict.", "The last official census was performed in 1932.Religion has traditionally been of overriding importance in defining the Lebanese population.", "Dividing state power between the religious denominations and sects, and granting religious authorities judicial power, dates back to Ottoman times (the millet system).", "The practice was reinforced during French mandate, when Christian groups were granted privileges.", "This system of government, while partly intended as a compromise between sectarian demands, has caused tensions that still dominate Lebanese politics to this day.The Christian population majority is believed to have ended in the early 1970s, but government leaders would agree to no change in the political power balance.", "This led to Muslim demands for increased representation, and the constant sectarian tension slid into violent conflict in 1958 (prompting U.S. intervention) and again in the grueling Lebanese Civil War, in 1975–90.Natural Growth Rate in Lebanon throughout yearsThe balance of power has been slightly adjusted in the 1943 National Pact, an informal agreement struck at independence, in which positions of power were divided according to the 1932 census.", "The Sunni elite was then accorded more power, but Maronites continued to dominate the system.", "The sectarian balance was again adjusted towards the Muslim side but simultaneously further reinforced and legitimized.", "Shia Muslims (by now the second largest sect) then gained additional representation in the state apparatus, and the obligatory Christian-Muslim representation in Parliament was downgraded from a 6:5 to a 1:1 ratio.", "Christians of various denominations were then generally thought to constitute about 40% of the population, although often Muslim leaders would cite lower numbers, and some Christians would claim that they still held a majority of the population.====18 recognized religious groups====An estimate of the area distribution of Lebanon's main religious groupsDistribution of Lebanon's religious groups according to 2009 municipal election dataThe present Lebanese Constitution officially acknowledges 18 religious groups (see below).", "These have the right to handle family law according to their courts and traditions, and they are the basic players in Lebanon's complex sectarian politics.", "* Alawite* Armenian Catholic* Armenian Orthodox* Assyrian Church of the East* Chaldean Catholic* Copts* Druze* Greek Orthodox* Isma'ili* Jewish* Latin Catholic* Maronite Catholic* Melkite Greek Catholic* Protestant* Sunni* Shia* Syriac Catholic Church* Syriac Orthodox Church===Religious population statistics===''Note: stateless Palestinians and Syrians are not included in the statistics below since they do not hold Lebanese citizenship.", "The numbers only include the present population of Lebanon, and not the Lebanese diaspora.", "''The 1932 census stated that Christians made up 50% of the resident population.", "Maronites, the largest among the Christian denomination and then largely in control of the state apparatus, accounted for 29% of the total resident population.The total population of Lebanon was reported to be 1,411,000 in 1956.The largest communities were Maronites (424,000), Sunni Muslims (286,000), Shiite Muslims (250,000), Greek Orthodox (149,000), Greek Catholics (91,000), Druzes (88,000), Armenian Orthodox (64,000), Armenian Catholics (15,000), Protestants (14,000), Jews (7,000), Syriac Catholics (6,000), Syriac Orthodox (5,000), Latins (4,000) and Nestorian Chaldeans (1,000).A 2010 study conducted by Statistics Lebanon, a Beirut-based research firm, cited by the United States Department of State found that Lebanon's population of approximately 4.3 million was estimated to be:* '''45%''' '''Christian''' (Maronite, Eastern Orthodox, Melkite Catholic, Protestant, other Christian denominations non-native to Lebanon like Armenian Orthodox, Armenian Catholic, Syriac Orthodox, Syriac Catholic, Roman Catholic, Chaldean, Assyrian, and Copt)* '''48%''' '''Islam''' (Shia and Sunni)* '''5.2%''' '''Druze''' (included within the Muslim group in the Lebanese Constitution.", ")There is also a very small number of other religious minorities such as, Baháʼís, Buddhists, Hindus and Mormons.In 2022, the ''CIA World Factbook'' specified that of the citizen population (data do not include Lebanon's sizable Syrian and Palestinian refugee populations), 67.8% are Muslims (31.9% Sunni, 31.2% Shia, with smaller percentages of Alawites and Ismailis), 32.4% are Christians (mostly Maronites, Eastern Orthodox, Melkite Catholics, Protestant, Armenian Apostolic, Assyrian Church of the East, Syriac Orthodox, Chaldean Catholic, Syriac Catholic), 4.5% are Druze, and there are \"very small numbers of Jews, Baha'is, Buddhists, and Hindus\".====Census of 1932====ResidentsEmigrants before 30/08/1924Emigrants after 30/08/1924paying taxesdoes not paypaying taxesdoes not paySunni178,1002,6539,8401,0893,623Shi'i155,0352,9774,5431,7702,220Druze53,3342,0673,2051,1832,295Maronite227,80031,69758,45711,43421,809Greek Catholic46,7097,19016,5441,8554,038Greek Orthodox77,31212,54731,5213,9229,041Protestant6,8696071,575174575Armenian Orthodox26,1021601911,718Armenian Catholic5,89095020375Syriac Orthodox2,723634354Syriac Catholic2,80391966101Jews3,58862147188Chaldean Orthodox1900000Chaldean Catholic54806019Miscellaneous6,39321275859234Total793,39659,981127,00321,71346,290Foreigners61.297source====Muslims====A map of religious and ethnic communities of Syria and Lebanon (1935)According to the CIA World Factbook, in 2021 the Muslim population was estimated at 60% within Lebanese territory and 20% of the over 4 million Lebanese diaspora population.", "In 2012 a more detailed breakdown of the size of each Muslim sect in Lebanon was made:* Shia Muslim are around 31.2% of the total population.", "The Speaker of Parliament is always a Shia Muslim, as it is the only high post that Shias are eligible for.", "Shiites are largely concentrated in the Beqaa Valley, Southern Lebanon and in Dahieh (Greater Beirut).", "* Sunni Muslims constitute about 31.9% of the total population.", "Sunnis are the only sect eligible for the post of Prime Minister Sunnis are mainly concentrated in West Beirut, North Lebanon, Sidon, Central and Western Beqaa, and Akkar in the north.", "* Other Muslim sects have a small presence, with the Isma'ilis and Alawites combined comprising less than 1% of the population and are included among Lebanese Shia Muslims.", "Alawites are eligible for two seats in the Lebanese parliament, representing Alawites of Akkar and Tripoli.====Christians====Religion map of Lebanon by municipality according to municipal elections data.According to the CIA World Factbook, in 2021, the Christian population in Lebanon was estimated at 35%.", "In 2012 a more detailed breakdown of the size of each Christian sect in Lebanon was made:* Maronite Christians are the largest of the Christian groups who in total account for about 32.4% of the total population of Lebanon.", "They have had a long and continuous association with the Roman Catholic Church, but have their own patriarch, liturgy, and customs.", "Traditionally they had good relations with the Western world, especially France and the Vatican.", "After 1920 they traditionally dominated the Lebanese government and civil positions, although their influence significantly diminished following the Lebanese Civil War and Taif Agreement.", "Today the Maronites are believed to compose about 26% of the population, concentrated mainly in the province of Mount Lebanon and Eastern Beirut (Greater Beirut).", "* The second largest Christian group is the Eastern Orthodox that constitute at least 9% of the population.", "The Orthodox church is existent in other parts of the Arab world, especially in Syria and among Palestinian Christians.", "Orthodox Christians were often noted for their Pan-Arab and Pan-Syrian leanings, and have close relations with Eastern Orthodox European countries like Greece, Cyprus, Russia, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Serbia and Romania.The Deputy Speaker of Parliament and the deputy Prime Minister are reserved for Eastern Orthodox Christians.", "* The Melkite Catholics are thought to constitute about 6% of the population.", "* The Protestants are thought to constitute about 1% of the population.", "* The remaining Christian churches are thought to constitute another 5% of the population (Roman Catholics, Armenian Apostolic, Armenian Catholic, Syriac Orthodox, Syriac Catholic, and Assyrians.", ")====Druze====The Druze constitute 5% of the population and are almost entirely concentrated in Aley and Chouf in southern Mount Lebanon, and in the Hasbaya and Rashaya districts.", "Even though the faith originally developed out of Isma'ili Shia Islam, most Druze do not identify as Muslims, and do not accept the five pillars of Islam.====Other religions====Other religions account for only an estimated 0.3% of the population mainly foreign temporary workers, according to the CIA World Factbook.", "There was a large and vibrant Jewish population, traditionally centered in Beirut who fled to Israel in the 1940s and 1950s." ], [ "Diaspora", "Apart from the four and a half million citizens of Lebanon proper, there is a sizeable Lebanese diaspora.", "There are more Lebanese people living outside of Lebanon (over 4 million), than within (4.6 million citizens plus 1.5 million refugees).", "The majority of the diaspora population consists of Lebanese Christians; however, there are some who are Muslim.", "They trace their origin to several waves of Christian emigration, starting with the exodus that followed the 1860 Lebanon conflict in Ottoman Syria.Under the current Lebanese nationality law, diaspora Lebanese do not have an automatic right of return to Lebanon.", "Due to varying degrees of assimilation and high degree of interethnic marriages, most diaspora Lebanese have not passed on the Arabic language to their children, while still maintaining a Lebanese ethnic identity.Many Lebanese families are economically and politically prominent in several Latin American countries (in 2007 Mexican Carlos Slim Helú, son of Lebanese immigrants, was determined to be the wealthiest man in the World by Fortune Magazine), and make up a substantial portion of the Lebanese American community in the United States.", "The largest Lebanese diaspora is located in Brazil, where about 6–7 million people have Lebanese descent (see Lebanese Brazilian).", "In Argentina, there is also a large Lebanese diaspora of approximately 1.5 million people having Lebanese descent.", "(see Lebanese Argentine).", "In Canada, there is also a large Lebanese diaspora of approximately 250,000-500,000 people having Lebanese descent.", "(see Lebanese Canadians).There are also sizable populations in West Africa, particularly Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone and Senegal.The large size of Lebanon's diaspora may be partly explained by the historical and cultural tradition of seafaring and traveling, which stretches back to Lebanon's ancient Phoenician origins and its role as a \"gateway\" of relations between Europe and the Middle East.", "It has been commonplace for Lebanese citizens to emigrate in search of economic prosperity.", "Furthermore, on several occasions in the last two centuries the Lebanese population has endured periods of ethnic cleansing and displacement (for example, 1840–60 and 1975–90).", "These factors have contributed to the geographical mobility of the Lebanese people.While under Syrian occupation, Beirut passed legislation which prevented second-generation Lebanese of the diaspora from automatically obtaining Lebanese citizenship.", "This has reinforced the émigré status of many diaspora Lebanese.", "There is currently a campaign by those Lebanese of the diaspora who already have Lebanese citizenship to attain the vote from abroad, which has been successfully passed in the Lebanese parliament and will be effective as of 2013 which is the next parliamentary elections.", "If suffrage was to be extended to these 1.2 million Lebanese émigré citizens, it would have a significant political effect, since as many as 80% of them are believed to be Christian.===Lebanese Civil War refugees and displaced persons===With no official figures available, it is estimated that 600,000–900,000 persons fled the country during the Lebanese Civil War (1975–90).", "Although some have since returned, this permanently disturbed Lebanese population growth and greatly complicated demographic statistics.Another result of the war was a large number of internally displaced persons.", "This especially affected the southern Shia community, as Israeli invasion of southern Lebanon in 1978, 1982, and 1996 prompted waves of mass emigration, in addition to the continual strain of occupation and fighting between Israel and Hezbollah (mainly 1982 to 2000).Many Shias from Southern Lebanon resettled in the suburbs south of Beirut.", "After the war, the pace of Christian emigration accelerated, as many Christians felt discriminated against in a Lebanon under increasingly oppressive Syrian occupation.According to a UNDP study, as much as 10% of the Lebanese had a disability in 1990.Other studies have pointed to the fact that this portion of society is highly marginalized due to the lack of educational and governmental support of their advancement." ], [ "Languages", "Modern Standard Arabic is the official language of the country, but the Lebanese dialect of Levantine Arabic is used in conversations.", "French and English are taught in many schools from a young age.", "Among the Armenian ethnic minority in Lebanon, the Armenian language is taught and spoken within the Armenian community." ], [ "CIA World Factbook demographic statistics", "US Census StatisticsPopulation, fertility rate and net reproduction rate, United Nations estimatesThe following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.", "* '''Population:''':'''Total population:''' 6,100,075 (July 2018 est.", "):Lebanese nationals: 4,680,212 (July 2018 est.", "):Syrian refugees: 944,613 (April 2019 est.)", "registered at the UNHCR (down from 1,077,000 in June 2014):Palestinian refugees: 175,555 (2018 est.", "):Iraqi refugees: 5,695 (2017 est.", ")'''Age structure:''''''0–14 years:''' 23.32% (male 728,025/female 694,453) '''15–24 years:''' 16.04% (male 500,592/female 477,784) '''25–54 years:''' 45.27% (male 1,398,087/female 1,363,386) '''55–64 years:''' 8.34% (male 241,206/female 267,747) '''65 years and over:''' 7.03% (male 185,780/female 243,015) (2018 est.", ") '''Median age:''':'''Total:''' 31.3 years:'''Male:''' 30.7 years:'''Female:''' 31.9 years (2018 est.", ")* '''Population growth rate:''':1.04% (2005 est.", "):0.96% (2011 est.", "):−3.13% (2018 est.", ")* '''Net migration rate:''':−4.43 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2011 est.", "):−40.3 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2018 est.", ")Life expectancy at birth in Lebanon* '''Sex ratio: ''':'''at birth:''' 1.05 male(s)/female:'''under 15 years:''' 1.04 male(s)/female:'''15–64 years:''' 0.92 male(s)/female:'''65 years and over:''' 0.83 male(s)/female:'''total population:''' 0.94 male(s)/female (2005 est.", ")* '''Life expectancy at birth:''':'''total population:''' 77.9 years:'''male:''' 76.6 years:'''female:''' 79.3 years (2018 est.)" ], [ "Vital statistics", "===UN estimates===The website Our World in Data prepared the following estimates based on statistics from the Population Department of the United Nations.Mid-year population (thousands)Live births (thousands)Deaths (thousands)Natural change (thousands)Crude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Total fertility rate (TFR)Infant mortality (per 1000 live births)Life expectancy (in years)19501 350 55 17 3840.812.628.25.8175.061.041951 1 388 57 17 3940.812.628.25.8073.861.371952 1 428 58 18 4140.712.328.45.8071.461.731953 1 469 60 18 4240.612.028.65.8069.162.231954 1 512 61 18 4440.511.728.85.8167.162.651955 1 556 63 18 4540.311.728.65.8167.462.421956 1 602 64 18 4640.111.029.05.8163.263.381957 1 649 66 18 4839.810.729.25.8161.463.901958 1 697 67 19 4839.511.328.25.8159.862.081959 1 747 69 18 5139.210.129.25.8258.264.611960 1 798 70 18 5238.89.829.05.8256.764.841961 1 853 71 18 5338.39.528.85.8155.465.291962 1 912 72 18 5537.99.328.55.8054.365.401963 1 972 74 18 5637.49.128.35.7853.065.671964 2 030 74 18 5736.78.827.85.7251.965.951965 2 087 75 18 5735.98.627.35.6550.966.071966 2 146 76 18 5735.28.526.85.5750.066.161967 2 203 76 18 5834.78.226.45.4949.266.521968 2 262 77 18 5934.18.126.05.3848.666.611969 2 324 78 19 6033.78.025.75.2848.066.701970 2 382 79 19 6133.37.925.55.1747.566.761971 2 442 80 19 6133.07.825.25.0447.066.821972 2 506 82 19 6332.87.725.14.9346.566.911973 2 570 83 19 6432.47.525.04.8145.967.231974 2 633 85 20 6532.27.424.84.6945.367.291975 2 692 86 30 5631.911.120.84.5645.258.131976 3 070 8785 231.831.20.64.42102.933.741977 3 458 110 37 7331.710.721.04.3152.859.281978 3 183 111 37 7431.510.620.94.2051.759.381979 2 902 91 31 6131.410.520.94.0950.659.471980 2 964 93 31 6231.410.421.04.0349.459.671981 3 027 95 31 6431.510.221.33.9848.2g59.921982 3 070 96 60 3631.219.411.83.8970.145.131983 3 107 96 31 6530.89.920.93.7939.959.961984 3 164 96 31 6530.49.820.73.7038.660.301985 3 227 96 31 6529.89.720.13.5937.460.491986 3 308 96 31 6529.39.419.83.5035.860.971987 3 391 98 31 6628.89.319.63.4340.161.431988 3 457 99 32 6828.79.119.53.4038.761.721989 3 526 101 28 7328.68.020.73.3927.864.161990 3 594 100 28 7227.87.820.03.3026.764.481991 3 667 99 19 8026.95.221.73.1925.771.181992 3 745 97 20 7825.95.220.73.0824.871.191993 3 819 95 20 7524.95.219.72.9723.771.381994 3 888 93 20 7323.95.118.92.8722.571.681995 3 960 92 20 7223.15.018.22.7821.572.041996 4 034 91 20 7222.74.917.72.7420.672.291997 4 108 90 20 7122.04.817.22.6619.672.781998 4 179 90 20 7021.44.816.62.6018.772.941999 4 250 89 20 6921.04.616.32.5517.973.492000 4 321 89 20 6920.54.615.92.5017.073.932001 4 389 89 20 6920.24.515.72.4615.974.372002 4 447 88 19 6919.74.315.42.4114.975.062003 4 505 86 19 6719.24.215.02.3513.975.592004 4 575 85 19 6618.64.214.42.2713.075.982005 4 643 84 19 6418.04.213.92.2012.076.272006 4 720 83 20 6317.74.313.42.1611.276.082007 4 810 83 20 6417.34.113.22.1110.477.082008 4 888 84 20 6417.114.013.12.089.777.582009 4 951 85 20 6517.24.013.22.099.277.892010 4 996 88 20 6817.64.113.52.138.778.162011 5 045 90 21 6917.94.113.82.168.478.402012 5 178 92 21 7017.94.113.82.178.078.632013 5 679 95 22 7317.94.213.72.177.878.772014 6 274 110 26 8417.94.213.72.187.578.972015 6 399 116 288817.84.213.52.187.279.232016 6 259 111 28 8317.44.313.12.186.879.512017 6 109 105 28 7716.94.512.42.176.679.652018 5 951 99 29 7016.34.711.62.156.479.732019 5 782 93 31 6315.85.210.62.136.279.242020 5 663 88 36 5215.36.39.12.106.077.802021 5 593 84 47 3814.98.36.72.095.875.05=== Registered births and deaths ===Average populationLive birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Total fertility rate (TFR)1990 70,903 13,263 57,6401991 82,742 15,773 66,9691992 94,607 18,042 76,5651993 90,947 24,223 66,7241994 90,712 18,421 72,2911995 91,196 19,230 71,9661996 86,997 19,962 67,0351997 85,018 19,884 65,1341998 84,250 20,097 64,1531999 85,955 19,813 66,1422000 87,795 19,435 68,3602001 83,693 17,568 66,1252002 76,405 17,294 59,1112003 71,702 17,187 54,5152004 73,900 17,774 56,126 1.752005 73,973 18,012 55,9612006 72,790 18,787 54,003 2007 3,759,137 80,896 21,092 59,804 21.5 5.6 15.92008 84,823 21,048 63,775 22.3 5.5 16.82009 90,388 22,260 68,128 23.4 5.8 17.62010 95,218 22,926 72,292 23.2 5.4 17.82011 98,491 24,731 73,760 25.4 6.0 19.6 1.602012 94,826 25,731 69,095 23.3 5.8 17.52013 96,178 24,351 71,827 23.2 6.1 17.12014 104,851 25,625 79,226 23.0 6.5 16.52015 98,164 25,468 72,696 22.3 6.6 15.72016 97,372 25,600 71,772 23.1 6.4 16.7 2017 103,931 26,953 76,978 23.5 6.7 16.9 1.82018 3,864,000 115,229 26,829 88,400 23.2 6.5 16.72019 3,910,000 120,839 30,355 90,484 22.0 6.4 15.6 2020 3,944,000 93,520 29,097 64,423 18.9 6.8 12.12021 3,966,000 86,613 35,621 50,9922022 3,989,000 80,616 30,062 50,554" ], [ "Immigrants and ethnic groups", "There are substantial numbers of immigrants from other Arab countries (mainly Palestine, Syria, Iraq) and non-Arab-speaking Muslim countries.", "Also, recent years have seen an influx of people from Ethiopia and South East Asian countries such as Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, as well as smaller numbers of other immigrant minorities, Colombians and Brazilians (of Lebanese descent themselves).", "Most of these are employed as guest workers in the same fashion as Syrians and Palestinians, and entered the country to search for employment in the post-war reconstruction of Lebanon.", "Apart from the Palestinians, there are approximately 180,000 stateless persons in Lebanon.===Armenians, Jews and Iranians===Armenian Church in north BeirutLebanese Armenians, Jews and Iranians form more distinct ethnic minorities, all of them in possession of a separate languages (Armenian, Hebrew, Persian) and a national home area (Armenia, Israel, Iran) outside of Lebanon.", "However, they combined total 5% of the population.===French and Italians===During the French Mandate of Lebanon, there was a fairly large French minority and a tiny Italian minority.", "Most of the French and Italian settlers left after Lebanese independence in 1943 and only 22,000 French Lebanese and 4,300 Italian Lebanese continue to live in Lebanon.", "The most important legacy of the French Mandate is the frequent use and knowledge of the French language by most of the educated Lebanese people, and Beirut is still known as the \"Paris of the Middle East\".===Palestinians===Around 175,555 Palestinian refugees were registered in Lebanon with the UNRWA in 2014, who are refugees or descendants of refugees from the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.", "Some 53% live in 12 Palestine refugee camps, who \"suffer from serious problems\" such as poverty and overcrowding.", "Some of these may have emigrated during the civil war, but there are no reliable figures available.", "There are also a number of Palestinians who are not registered as UNRWA refugees, because they left earlier than 1948 or were not in need of material assistance.", "The exact number of Palestinians remain a subject of great dispute and the Lebanese government will not provide an estimate.", "A figure of 400,000 Palestinian refugees would mean that Palestinians constitute less than 7% of the resident population of Lebanon.Palestinians living in Lebanon are considered foreigners and are under the same restrictions on employment applied to other foreigners.", "Prior to 2010, they were under even more restrictive employment rules which permitted, other than work for the U.N., only the most menial employment.", "Palestinian refugees, who constitute nearly 6.6% of the country's population, have long been denied basic rights in Lebanon.", "They are not allowed to attend public schools, own property or pass on inheritances, measures Lebanon says it has adopted to preserve their right to return to their property in what constitutes Israel now.Their presence is controversial, and resisted by large segments of the Christian population, who argue that the primarily Sunni Muslim Palestinians dilute Christian numbers.", "Many Shia Muslims also look unfavorably upon the Palestinian presence since the refugee camps have tended to be concentrated in their home areas.", "The Lebanese Sunnis, however, would be happy to see these Palestinians given the Lebanese nationality, thus increasing the Lebanese Sunni population by well over 10% and tipping the fragile electoral balance much in favor of the Sunnis.", "Late prime minister Rafiq Hariri —himself a Sunni— had hinted on more than one occasion on the inevitability of granting these refugees Lebanese citizenship.", "Thus far the refugees lack Lebanese citizenship as well as many rights enjoyed by the rest of the population, and are confined to severely overcrowded refugee camps, in which construction rights are severely constricted.Palestinians may not work in a large number of professions, such as lawyers and doctors.", "However, after negotiations between Lebanese authorities and ministers from the Palestinian National Authority some professions for Palestinians were allowed (such as taxi driver and construction worker).", "The material situation of the Palestinian refugees in Lebanon is difficult, and they are believed to constitute the poorest community in Lebanon, as well as the poorest Palestinian community with the possible exception of Gaza Strip refugees.", "Their primary sources of income are UNRWA aid and menial labor sought in competition with Syrian guest workers.The Palestinians are majority Sunni Muslims with a Christian minority, though at some point Christians counted as high as 40% with Muslims at 60%.", "The numbers of Palestinian Christians has diminished in later years, as many have managed to leave Lebanon.60,000 Palestinians have received Lebanese citizenship.===Syrians===In 1976, the then Syrian president Hafez al-Assad sent troops into Lebanon to fight PLO forces on behalf of Christian militias.", "This led to escalated fighting until a cease-fire agreement later that year that allowed for the stationing of Syrian troops within Lebanon.", "The Syrian presence in Lebanon quickly changed sides; soon after they entered Lebanon they had flip-flopped and began to fight the Christian nationalists in Lebanon they allegedly entered the country to protect.", "The Kateab Party and the Lebanese Forces under Bachir Gemayel strongly resisted the Syrians in Lebanon.", "In 1989, 40,000 Syrian troops remained in central and eastern Lebanon under the supervision of the Syrian government.", "Although, the Taif Accord, established in the same year, called for the removal of Syrian troops and transfer of arms to the Lebanese army, the Syrian Army remained in Lebanon until the Lebanese Cedar Revolution in 2005 ended the Syrian occupation of Lebanon.In 1994, the Lebanese government under the pressure of the Syrian government, gave Lebanese passports to thousands of Syrians.There are nearly 1.08 million registered Syrian refugees in Lebanon but is estimated that Lebanon hosts 1.5 million.===Assyrians===There are an estimated 40,000 to 80,000 Iraqi Assyrian refugees in Lebanon.", "The vast majority of them are undocumented, with a large number having been deported or put in prison.", "They belong to various denominations, including the Assyrian Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic Church, and Syriac Catholic Church.===Iraqis===Due to the US-led invasion of Iraq, Lebanon received a mass influx of Iraqi refugees numbering at around 100,000.The vast majority of them are undocumented, with a large number having been deported or put in prison.===Kurds===There are an estimated 60,000 to 100,000 Kurdish refugees from Turkey and Syria within Lebanese territory.", "Many of them are undocumented.", "As of 2012, around 40% of all Kurds in Lebanon do not have Lebanese citizenship.===Turks===The Turkish people began to migrate to Lebanon once the Ottoman sultan Selim I conquered the region in 1516.Turks were encouraged to stay in Lebanon by being rewarded with land and money.", "Today the Turkish minority numbers approximately 80,000.Moreover, since the Syrian Civil War, approximately 125,000 to 150,000 Syrian Turkmen refugees arrived in Lebanon, and hence they now outnumber the long established Turkish minority who settled since the Ottoman era.===Circassians===The Circassians migrated to the Ottoman Empire including Lebanon and neighboring countries in the 18th and 19th century.", "However, they are mostly located in Akkar Governorate, in which they have come to Berkail since 1754.Today the Circassian minority numbers approximately 100,000." ], [ "See also", "Demographics of the Middle EastMigrant domestic workers in Lebanon" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Lebanon" ], [ "Introduction", "Lebanon is a parliamentary democratic republic within the overall framework of confessionalism, a form of consociationalism in which the highest offices are proportionately reserved for representatives from certain religious communities.", "The constitution of Lebanon grants the people the right to change their government.", "However, from the mid-1970s until the parliamentary elections in 1992, the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990) precluded the exercise of political rights.According to the constitution, direct elections must be held for the parliament every four years, however after the parliamentary election in 2009 another election was not held until 2018.The Parliament, in turn, elects a president every six years to a single term.", "The president is not eligible for re-election.", "The last presidential election was in 2016.The president and parliament choose the prime minister.", "Political parties may be formed; most are based on sectarian interests.", "2008 saw a new twist to Lebanese politics when the Doha Agreement set a new trend where the opposition is allowed a veto power in the Council of Ministers and confirmed religious confessionalism in the distribution of political power.", "The Economist Intelligence Unit classified Lebanon as a \"hybrid regime\" in 2016." ], [ "Overview", "The Maronite Catholics and the Druze founded modern Lebanon in the early eighteenth century, through the ruling and social system known as the \"Maronite-Druze dualism\" in Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate.", "Since the emergence of the post-1943 state and after the destruction of the Ottoman Caliphate, national policy has been determined largely by a relatively restricted group of traditional regional and sectarian leaders.", "The 1943 National Pact, an unwritten agreement that established the political foundations of modern Lebanon, allocated political power on an essentially confessional system based on the 1932 census.", "Seats in parliament were divided on a 6-to-5 ratio of Christians to Muslims, until 1990 when the ratio changed to half and half.", "Positions in the government bureaucracy are allocated on a similar basis.", "The pact also by custom allocated public offices along religious lines, with the top three positions in the ruling \"troika\" distributed as follows: the president, a Maronite Christian; the speaker of the Parliament, a Shi'a Muslim; and the prime minister, a Sunni Muslim.Efforts to alter or abolish the confessional system of allocating power have been at the centre of Lebanese politics for decades.", "Those religious groups most favoured by the 1943 formula sought to preserve it, while those who saw themselves at a disadvantage sought either to revise it after updating key demographic data or to abolish it entirely.", "Nonetheless, many of the provisions of the national pact were codified in the 1989 Taif Agreement, perpetuating sectarianism as a key element of Lebanese political life.Although moderated somewhat under Ta'if, the Constitution gives the president a strong and influential position.", "The president has the authority to promulgate laws passed by the Parliament, form the government to issue supplementary regulations to ensure the execution of laws, and to negotiate and ratify treaties.The Parliament is elected by adult suffrage (majority age for election is 21) based on a system of majority or \"winner-take-all\" for the various confessional groups.", "There has been a recent effort to switch to proportional representation which many argue will provide a more accurate assessment of the size of political groups and allow minorities to be heard.", "Most deputies do not represent political parties as they are known in the West, and rarely form Western-style groups in the assembly.", "Political blocs are usually based on confessional and local interests or on personal/family allegiance rather than on political affinities.The parliament traditionally has played a significant role in financial affairs, since it has the responsibility for levying taxes and passing the budget.", "It also exercises political control over the cabinet through formal questioning of ministers on policy issues and by requesting a confidence debate.Lebanon's judicial system is based on the Napoleonic Code.", "Juries are not used in trials.", "The Lebanese court system has three levels—courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation.", "There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, e.g., rules on such matters as marriage, divorce, and inheritance.Lebanese political institutions often play a secondary role to highly confessionalized personality-based politics.", "Powerful families also still play an independent role in mobilizing votes for both local and parliamentary elections.", "Nonetheless, a lively panoply of domestic political parties, some even predating independence, exists.", "The largest are all confessional based.", "The Free Patriotic Movement, The Kataeb Party, also known as the Phalange Party, the National Bloc, National Liberal Party, Lebanese Forces and the Guardians of the Cedars (now outlawed) each have their own base among Christians.", "Amal and Hezbollah are the main rivals for the organized Shi'a vote, and the PSP (Progressive Socialist Party) is the leading Druze party.", "While Shi'a and Druze parties command fierce loyalty to their leaderships, there is more factional infighting among many of the Christian parties.", "Sunni parties have not been the standard vehicle for launching political candidates, and tend to focus across Lebanon's borders on issues that are important to the community at large.", "Lebanon's Sunni parties include Hizb ut-Tahrir, Future Movement, Independent Nasserist Organization (INO), the Al-Tawhid, and Ahbash.", "Besides the traditional confessional parties above, new secular parties have emerged amongst which Sabaa and the Party of Lebanon representing a new trend in Lebanese politics towards secularism and a truly democratic society.", "In addition to domestic parties, there are branches of pan-Arab secular parties (Ba'ath parties, socialist and communist parties) that were active in the 1960s and throughout the period of civil war.There are differences both between and among Muslim and Christian parties regarding the role of religion in state affairs.", "There is a very high degree of political activism among religious leaders across the sectarian spectrum.", "The interplay for position and power among the religious, political, and party leaders and groups produces a political tapestry of extraordinary complexity.In the past, the system worked to produce a viable democracy.", "Events over the last decade and long-term demographic trends, however, have upset the delicate Muslim–Christian–Druze balance and resulted in greater segregation across the social spectrum.", "Whether in political parties, places of residence, schools, media outlets, even workplaces, there is a lack of regular interaction across sectarian lines to facilitate the exchange of views and promote understanding.", "All factions have called for a reform of the political system.Some Christians favor political and administrative decentralization of the government, with separate Muslim and Christian sectors operating within the framework of a confederation.", "Muslims, for the most part, prefer a unified, central government with an enhanced share of power commensurate with their larger share of the population.", "The reforms of the Ta'if agreement moved in this direction but have not been fully realized.Palestinian refugees, predominantly Sunni Muslims, whose numbers are estimated at between 160,000 and 225,000, are not active on the domestic political scene.On 3 September 2004, the Lebanese Parliament voted 96–29 to amend the constitution to extend President Émile Lahoud's six-year term (which was about to expire) by another three years.", "The move was supported by Syria, which maintained a large military presence in Lebanon.Former prime minister Rafic Hariri was assassinated in February 2005.Following the withdrawal of Syrian troops in April 2005, Lebanon held parliamentary elections in four rounds, from 29 May to 19 June.", "The elections, the first for 33 years without the presence of Syrian military forces, were won by the Quadripartite alliance, which was part the Rafik Hariri Martyr List, a coalition of several parties and organizations newly opposed to Syrian domination of Lebanese politics.In January 2015, the Economist Intelligence Unit released a report stating that Lebanon ranked the second in Middle East and 98th out of 167 countries worldwide for Democracy Index 2014.The index ranks countries according to election processes, pluralism, government functions, political participation, political cultures and fundamental freedoms.From October 2019, there have been mass protests against the government.", "In August 2020, a large explosion in Beirut killed at least 204 people and caused at least US$3 billion in property damage.", "Following the explosion and protests against the government, the prime minister and his cabinet resigned.In May 2022, Lebanon held its first election since a painful economic crisis dragged it to the brink of becoming a failed state.", "Lebanon's crisis has been so severe that more than 80 percent of the population is now considered poor by the United Nations.", "In the election Iran-backed Shia Muslim Hezbollah movement and its allies lost their parliamentary majority.", "Hezbollah did not lose any of its seats, but its allies lost seats.", "Hezbollah’s ally, President Michel Aoun's Free Patriotic Movement, was no longer the biggest Christian party after the election.", "A rival Christian party, led by Samir Geagea, with close ties to Saudi Arabia, the Lebanese Forces (LF), made gains.", "Sunni Future Movement, led by former prime minister Saad Hariri, did not participate the election, leaving a political vacuum to other Sunni politicians to fill." ], [ "Executive branch", "The Grand Serail also known as the Government Palace is the headquarters of the prime minister of LebanonPresident''vacant''N/A31 October 2022Prime Minister''vacant'' (Najib Mikati caretaker)Azm Movement14 May 2022Speaker of the ParliamentNabih BerriAmal Movement20 October 1992The president is elected by the Parliament for a six-year term and cannot be reelected again until six years have passed from the end of the first term.", "The prime minister and deputy prime minister are appointed by the president in consultation with the Parliament; the president is required to be a Maronite, the prime minister a Sunni, and the speaker of the Parliament a Shi'a.", "(See list of the ministers and their political affiliation for a list of ministers.", ")This confessional system is based on 1932 census data which showed the Maronite Christians as having a substantial majority of the population.", "The Government of Lebanon continues to refuse to undertake a new census.=== The president ===Lebanon operates under a strong semi-presidential system.", "This system is unique in that it grants the president wide unilateral discretion, does not make him accountable to Parliament (unless for treason), yet is elected by the Parliament.", "The president has the sole power to appoint the prime minister, and may dismiss them at any point (without input from the Chamber of Deputies, which can also force the president to resign).", "In addition, the president has the sole authority to form a government (which must then receive a vote-of-confidence from Parliament) and dismiss it when they wish.", "This thus makes Lebanon a president-parliamentary system rather than a premier-presidential system (such as France), as the president does not have to cohabitate with a prime minister he dislikes.", "The historical reason for the broad powers of the president are that their powers were merged with those of the French high commissioner of Greater Lebanon, thus creating an exceptionally powerful presidency for semi-presidential systems.Following the end of the Lebanese Civil War, the president lost some powers to the Council of Ministers through the Taif Agreement; being the sole person who appoints it, however, they ''de facto'' still retain all (or most) of their pre-Taif powers." ], [ "Legislative branch", "alt=Lebanon's national legislature is called the Assembly of Representatives (''Majlis al-Nuwab'' in Arabic).", "Since the elections of 1992 (the first since the reforms of the Taif Agreement of 1989 removed the built-in majority previously enjoyed by Christians and distributed the seats equally between Christians and Muslims), the Parliament has had 128 seats.", "The term was four years, but has recently been extended to five.Seats in the Parliament are ''confessionally distributed'' but elected by ''universal suffrage.''", "Each religious community has an allotted number of seats in the Parliament.", "They do not represent only their co-religionists, however; all candidates in a particular constituency, regardless of religious affiliation, must receive a plurality of the total vote, which includes followers of all confessions.", "The system was designed to minimize inter-sectarian competition and maximize cross-confessional cooperation: candidates are opposed only by co-religionists, but must seek support from outside of their own faith in order to be elected.The opposition Qornet Shehwan Gathering, a group opposed to the former pro-Syrian government, has claimed that constituency boundaries have been drawn so as to allow many Shi'a Muslims to be elected from Shi'a-majority constituencies (where the Hezbollah Party is strong), while allocating many Christian members to Muslim-majority constituencies, forcing Christian politicians to represent Muslim interests.", "(Similar charges, but in reverse, were made against the Chamoun administration in the 1950s).The following table sets out the confessional allocation of seats in the Parliament before and after the Taif Agreement.===Current parliament===Lebanon Parliament 2018'''March 8 Alliance (60)'''* Strong Lebanon Bloc (20) FPM (17) ARF (3)* Development and Liberation Bloc (15) Amal Movement (14) Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party (1)* Loyalty to the Resistance Bloc (15) Hezbollah (13) Independents (2)* March 8 Affiliates (10) Independents (4) Marada Movement (2) Al-Ahbash (2) PNO (1)** Union Party (1)'''March 14 Alliance (38)'''* Strong Republic Bloc (22) LF (19) Rifi Bloc (2)** NLP (1)* Ex-Future Movement (8)* Kataeb Party (5)* Independence Movement (2)* Islamic Group (1)'''Other Opposition (30)'''* Civil Society (13) Independent (4) Taqaddum (2) Tahalof Watani (1) LCP (1) ReLebanon (1) Beirut Tuqawem (1) Khatt Ahmar (1) Lana (1)** Osos Lebanon (1)* Democratic Gathering Bloc (9) PSP (8) Independents (1)* Independents (8)" ], [ "Judicial branch", "Lebanon is a civil law country.Its judicial branch is composed of:Ordinary Courts:One Court of Cassation composed of nine chambers Courts of Appeal (in the centre of every governorate) Courts of First Instance Special Courts:The Constitutional Council (called for in the Taif Agreement) rules on constitutionality of lawsThe Supreme Council hears charges against the president and prime minister as needed.", "*A system of military courts that also has jurisdiction over civilians for the crimes of espionage, treason, and other crimes that are considered to be security-related." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "Lebanon has numerous political parties, but they play a much less significant role in Lebanese politics than they do in most parliamentary democracies.", "Many of the \"parties\" are simply lists of candidates endorsed by a prominent national or local figure.", "Loose coalitions, usually organized locally, are formed for electoral purposes by negotiation among clan leaders and candidates representing various religious communities; such coalitions usually exist only for the election, and rarely form a cohesive block in the Parliament after the election.", "No single party has ever won more than 12.5 percent of the seats in the Parliament, and no coalition of parties has won more than 35 percent.Especially outside of the major cities, elections tend to focus more on local than national issues, and it is not unusual for a party to join an electoral ticket in one constituency while aligned with a rival party – even an ideologically opposite party – in another constituency.It is not uncommon for election times to be accompanied by outbreaks of violence, especially in polling areas where there are people of conflicting political and religious backgrounds.", "Sectarianism is so ingrained into Lebanese politics and society that citizens supporting their political parties will kill or be killed defending them." ], [ "International participation", "Lebanon participates in the international community through both international organizations and enacting international policy practices, such as the Sustainable development goals and the Paris Agreement.=== Member organizations ===ABEDA, ACCT, AFESD, AL, AMF, EBU, ESCWA, FAO, G24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, ITUC, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OAS (observer), OIC, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNRWA, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO.=== Sustainable development goals ===" ], [ "See also", "Foreign relations of LebanonEnvironmental policy of LebanonHistory of LebanonLebanese diasporaLebanese identity cardLebanese passport" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Lebanon ''official government portal''** The Lebanese Politics Podcast" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Lebanon" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Lebanon''' has been experiencing a large-scale multi-dimensional crisis since 2019, including a banking collapse, a liquidity crisis and a sovereign default.", "It is classified as a developing, lower-middle-income economy.", "The nominal GDP was estimated at $19 billion in 2020, with a per capita GDP amounting to $2,500.In 2018 government spending amounted to $15.9 billion, or 23% of GDP.The Lebanese economy went through a significant expansion after the war of 2006, with growth averaging 9.1% between 2007 and 2010.After 2011 the local economy was affected by the Syrian civil war, growing by a yearly average of 1.7% on the 2011–2016 period and by 1.5% in 2017.In 2018, the size of the GDP was estimated to be $54.1 billion.", "Between 2019 and 2021, the economy shrank by 53.4%, the highest contraction in a list of 193 countries.", "Since 2020 the International Monetary Fund no longer publish data on the Lebanese economy.Lebanon is the third-highest indebted country in the world in terms of debt-to-GDP ratio.", "As a consequence, interest payments consumed 48% of domestic government revenues in 2016, thus limiting the government's ability to make needed investments in infrastructure and other public goods.The Lebanese economy is service-oriented.", "Lebanon has a strong tradition of ''laissez-faire'', with the country's constitution stating that \"the economic system is free and ensures private initiative and the right to private property\".", "The major economic sectors include metal products, banking, agriculture, chemicals, and transport equipment.", "The main growth sectors include banking and tourism.", "There are no restrictions on foreign exchange or capital movement." ], [ "History", "+GDP per capita in international dollars, 1980–2012 Year Lebanon MENA avg 1972 5,322 3,346 1981 5,897 3,581 1982 3,970 3,681 1983 5,064 3,781 1984 7,592 3,903 1985 9,613 3,980 1986 9,025 3,873 1987 10,722 3,869 1988 7,875 3,826 1989 4,674 4,001 1990 4,158 4,191 1991 5,649 4,472 1992 5,925 4,570 1993 6,352 4,658 1994 6,868 4,764 1995 7,320 4,860 1996 7,606 5,138 1997 7,892 5,352 1998 8,031 5,512 1999 7,928 5,585 2000 8,077 5,876 2001 8,478 6,063 2002 8,792 6,261 2003 9,144 6,711 2004 9,959 7,175 2005 10,367 7,360 2006 10,751 7,882 2007 11,893 8,354 2008 13,116 8,735 2009 14,197 10,862 2010 15,168 10,920 2011 15,523 11,896 2012 15,985 13,088A pedestrian-only street in Beirut's central district.The 1975–1990 Lebanese Civil War seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure, cut national output by half, and had major consequences for Lebanon's position as a Middle Eastern entrepot and banking hub.", "After the war, the central government regained its ability to collect taxes and control key port and government facilities.", "As a result, GDP per capita expanded 353% in the 1990s.Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange.", "Lebanon's economy has made impressive gains since the launch of \"Horizon 2000,\" the government's $20 billion reconstruction program in 1993.Real GDP grew 8% in 1994 and 7% in 1995 before Israel's Operation Grapes of Wrath in April 1996 stunted economic activity.", "Real GDP grew at an average annual rate of less than 3% per year for 1997 and 1998 and only 1% in 1999.During 1992–98, annual inflation fell from more than 100% to 5%, and foreign exchange reserves jumped to more than $6 billion from $1.4 billion.", "Burgeoning capital inflows have generated foreign payments surpluses, and the Lebanese pound has remained relatively stable.", "Progress also has been made in rebuilding Lebanon's war-torn physical and financial infrastructure.", "Solidere, a $2-billion firm, is managing the reconstruction of Beirut's central business district; the stock market reopened in January 1996, and international banks and insurance companies are returning.", "The government nonetheless faces serious challenges in the economic arena.", "It has had to fund reconstruction by tapping foreign exchange reserves and boosting borrowing.", "Reducing the government budget deficit is a major goal of the current government.", "The gap between rich and poor grew in the 1990s, resulting in popular dissatisfaction over the skewed distribution of the reconstruction's benefits and leading the government to shift its focus from rebuilding infrastructure to improving living conditions.After the end of the civil war, Lebanon enjoyed considerable stability, Beirut's reconstruction was almost complete, and increasing numbers of tourists poured into the nation's resorts.", "The economy witnessed growth, with bank assets reaching over US$75 billion, Market capitalization was also at an all-time high, estimated at $10.9 billion at the end of the second quarter of 2006.The month-long 2006 war severely damaged Lebanon's economy, especially the tourism sector.", "Over the course of 2008 Lebanon rebuilt its infrastructure mainly in the real estate and tourism sectors, resulting in a comparatively robust post war economy.", "Major contributors to the reconstruction of Lebanon include Saudi Arabia (with US$1.5 billion pledged), the European Union (with about $1 billion) and a few other Persian Gulf countries with contributions of up to $800 million.Given the frequent security turmoil it has faced, the Lebanese banking system has adopted a conservative approach, with strict regulations imposed by the central bank to protect the economy from political instability.", "These regulations have generally left Lebanese banks unscathed by the financial crisis of 2007–2008.Lebanese banks remain, under the current circumstances, high on liquidity and reputed for their security.", "In late 2008, Moody's shifted Lebanon's sovereign rankings from stable to positive, acknowledging its financial security.", "Moreover, with an increase of 51% in the Beirut stock market, the index provider MSCI ranked Lebanon the world's best performer in 2008.Lebanon is one of the only seven countries in the world in which the value of the stock market increased in 2008.The Lebanese economy experienced continued resilience, growing 8.5 percent in 2008, 7 percent in 2009 and 8.8% in 2010.However, Lebanon's debt to GDP ratio remained one of the highest in the world.The Syrian crisis has significantly affected Lebanese economic and financial situation.", "The demographic pressure imposed by the Syrian refugees now living in Lebanon has led to competition in the labour market.", "As a direct consequence unemployment has doubled in three years, reaching 20% in 2014.A loss of 14% of wages regarding the salary of less-skilled workers has also been registered.", "The financial constraints were also felt: the poverty rate increased with 170,000 Lebanese falling under the poverty threshold.", "In the period between 2012 and 2014, the public spending increased by $1 billion and losses amounted to $7.5 billion.", "Expenditures related only to the Syrian refugees were estimated by the Central Bank of Lebanon as $4.5 billion every year.The International Monetary Fund issued a second report on Lebanon in October 2015, where its expectations of the economic growth rate were lowered to 2%, compared to the 2.5% growth rate of the first report, released in April 2015.In October 2019, Lebanon witnessed nationwide protests that erupted over the country's deteriorating economic conditions.", "Thousands of demonstrations took to the streets of downtown Beirut, calling for the government of Prime Minister Saad al-Hariri to quit over \"its utter failure to stop the deterioration of the economic and living conditions in the country\".", "The protests began after the government announced to charge 20 cents per day for voice over internet protocol (VOIP) use over social media apps, including WhatsApp, Facebook, and other applications.Lebanon has a very high level of public debt and large external financing needs.", "The 2010 public debt exceeded 150.7% of GDP, ranking fourth highest in the world as a percentage of GDP, though down from 154.8% in 2009.At the end 2008, finance minister Mohamad Chatah stated that the debt was going to reach $47 billion in that year and would increase to $49 billion if privatization of two telecoms companies did not occur.", "The Daily Star wrote that exorbitant debt levels have \"slowed down the economy and reduced the government's spending on essential development projects\".During the early part of 2020, the central bank (BdL) defaulted on $90 sovereign debt obligations and the government needed recourse to the IMF for a shortfall of $50 billion.On 4 August 2020, the explosion of 2,750 tons ammonium nitrate in a Beirut port warehouse caused the destruction of the \"only large grain silo\" in the country, in addition to more than 200 people killed and several square kilometres of pulverised buildings in the downtown core of the city.", "By 9 August, President of France Emmanuel Macron had counted over €250 million of global contributions to the relief effort.", "On 10 August, the government of Hassan Diab resigned.", "The day before, IMF director Kristalina Georgieva had laid down four conditions for the co-operation of her organization:restoring the financial solvency of the state,cutting losses at state-owned companies,passing a law to regulate capital outflows andsetting up a social safety net.On 14 August, the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA) launched a $565 million appeal for donors of aid to victims of the explosions.", "The UN effort was to focus on: meals, first aid, shelters, and repair of schools.", "Some of the money that Macron collected would be used by the UNOCHA.=== 2019–present economic crisis ===According to a World Bank report, Lebanon's economy which was structurally strained before the Syrian shock suffered a real blow as an aftermath of the Syrian crisis which brought around 1.5 million Syrian refugees into Lebanon.", "The GDP growth rate declined to around 1 percent in 2018.In August 2019, the USD parallel exchange rate started changing from the official exchange rate; the official exchange rate for the USD had been £L1,507.5 since 1997, while the parallel exchange rate was £L1,600 in the fall of 2019 and would increase to around £L4,200 in May 2020.The USD parallel exchange rate is increasing because of the dollar shortage in Lebanon.", "In a bid to lower the dollar price, the central bank made an agreement with the licensed exchangers to make the official rates on offer at £L3,860/3,910.However, despite the central bank's efforts, on 23 June 2020, the black market dollar reached a staggering rate of £L 6,075 devaluing the Lebanese pound by 75%.", "This dollar shortage also caused 785 restaurants and cafes to close between September 2019 and February 2020 and caused 25,000 employees to lose their jobs.", "This economic crisis made Lebanon's gross domestic product fall to about $44 billion, which was about $55 billion the year before.", "The crisis became worse when the COVID-19 pandemic affected the Lebanese economy.", "In 2020, the country defaulted for the first time on $30 billion in bonds and tried to seek help from the IMF but the negotiations never reached fruition.The liquidity crisis also lead to a restriction on the withdrawals from US dollar bank accounts.", "Depositors needed to preserve the value of their savings, especially following press reports about possible haircuts and restructuring of the banking sector.", "They therefore turned to buying real estate.", "For example, revenues from land sales of the major real estate developer, Solidere company, soared from nearly $1.3 million to $234.5 million.", "Also, these depositors turned to buying shares in Solidere company, which lead to a rise of 500% in its price between the start of the liquidity crisis and April 2021.The already battered economy of Lebanon suffered fresh blow with the port blast on 4 August 2020.Economists have claimed that the blasts could result in the contraction of Beirut's GDP by around 20–25% for the year.", "The current figure surpasses IMF's last forecast of 12% crash in GDP because of the ongoing and increasing economic and political crisis in Lebanon.In March 2021, Lebanon approved an emergency assistance package from the World Bank worth $246 million in order to support struggling families and strengthen the social safety and try to face the economic crisis.On March 16, as the Lebanese pound jumped on the black market from £L13,000 to £L15,000 against the US dollar, protesters took to the streets, grocery stores closed and bakeries threatened to close.After the meeting of the President Aoun and Prime Minister-designate Saad Hariri on March 18, the Lebanese pound dropped from £L15,000 against the dollar on the black market to £L12,500.==== Causes ========= External debt =====After the civil war, the Lebanese government resorted to massive borrowing to finance its post-war restructuring.", "The yearly growth of gross debt between 1993 and 1995 was 123 percent and between 1995 and 2000 was 171 percent.", "Between 2005 and 2018, the yearly growth of debt has averaged around 22 percent and in comparison, the GDP growth rate for the same period has been in single digits with an exception of 2009.This high debt has caused Lebanon to spend a big chunk of its revenues in debt servicing, on an average, close to 45 percent is spent by the government as interest payments.", "In 1996, interest payments made up almost 68 percent of that year's budget deficit.", "With debt piling up and growth being minuscule, Lebanon's debt to GDP ratio reached 178 percent by the end of 2019, which makes it the third most indebted country after Greece and Japan.", "In 2020, Beirut defaulted on a $1.2 billion external bond, the first sovereign default since in its history.", "The nation is currently in discussions with a group of creditors about a possible restructuring of a defaulted Eurobond.", "A successful restructuring would allow the country to again access external credit markets.===== Currency crisis ===== Lebanon's national currency, the Lebanese pound is pegged to the US dollar at £L15,000 to US$1.This fixed rate has been unstable due to the depreciating value of the pound in the black market.", "According to reports, the pound was trading at £L8,100 to US$1 in 2019 on the black market.", "The causes of the pound's depreciation can be traced back to the economy's dependence on imports.", "Lebanon in 2018 imported US$20 bn worth of goods and exported goods worth only US$3 bn.", "This trade deficit also widened as the remittances share, which was around 24 percent in 2008 declined to nearly 12 percent in 2018.This coupled with geopolitical tensions of the region, caused the Pound-Dollar peg rate to wither.", "As a response, the central bank resorted to more borrowing and also issued a directive that required all money transfer offices to cash out transfers in the local currency, further exacerbating the dollar crunch.===== Corruption and political instability =====After a devastating explosion in Beirut on 4 August 2020 that killed at least 200 people, the government, headed by Prime Minister Hassan Diab, announced that his government was stepping down.", "In his speech, Mr. Diab said that corruption cases were widespread in the country's political and administrative landscape; other calamities hiding in many minds and warehouses, and which pose a great threat, are protected by the class that controls the fate of the country.According to reports, the financial troubles and political inaction had caused growing anger and frustration among people who began protesting in October last year.", "Protesters demanded an end to corruption and the resignation of political leaders including the then Prime Minister Saad al-Hariri.", "This year, the newly formed government under Diab faced the same accusations of corruption.", "In November 2019, The central bank of Lebanon was accused of running a Ponzi scheme as it relied on fresh borrowing to service its debt.", "The bank denied the allegations stating that its action was in par with the 1963 Code of Money and Credit.", "Amidst the failing banking system, banks resorted to putting informal curbs on dollar withdrawals and international transfers, stirring mass protests and police violence.", "The pandemic brought the protests to a halt for some time but the port explosion in Beirut once again brought people to the streets, who, as reports state, have lost faith in the political elite.", "Some estimates state that half of Lebanon's population is living near or below the poverty line and thousands of people have lost their jobs.", "There have been incessant power cuts and some residents have been calling the blackouts worse than those witnessed in the 1975–1990 civil war." ], [ "Trade", "Lebanese exports in 2006External trade (USD, million)Lebanon's trade balance is structurally negative.", "In 2017, the trade deficit reached $20.3 billion.", "The country imported $23.1 billion worth of goods and services, and exported $2.8 billion.Lebanon has a competitive and free market regime and a strong laissez-faire commercial tradition.", "The Lebanese economy is service-oriented; main growth sectors include banking and tourism.", "There are no restrictions on foreign exchange or capital movement.=== Food security ===Food accounted for 18% of the dollar value of the imports to Lebanon in 2018, according to World Bank statistics.", "Wheat and livestock are two foodstuffs for which Lebanon is import-dependent.", "Around 90 percent of imported wheat is sourced from Ukraine and Russia.", "The wheat reserves of Lebanon are kept in silos at the Port of Beirut and cover about three months of consumption.", "In 2019, domestic wheat production measured 130,000 tons, while wheat imports measured 570,000 tons.The food security of Lebanon is a subject of debate.", "On the one hand, administrators of the UNESCWA used the World Food Programme in May 2016 to sell the story that the country imports up to 80% of its needs.", "On the other hand, domestic audiences are told that the country is almost self-sufficient in food:" ], [ "Corruption", "According to NGO Transparency International Lebanon ranks 138th out of 180 countries surveyed on the corruption perception index.", "A poll conducted by Transparency International in 2016 indicated that 92% of Lebanese thought that corruption had increased that year.", "Moreover 67% of the respondents indicated that they believed that the majority of the political and economical elites were corrupted, and 76% indicated that the government was doing poorly when it came to fighting corruption.As of July 2020, Riad Salamé, Governor of Banque du Liban (the country's central bank) since 1993, has had his assets frozen, and is facing an October hearing accused of the embezzlement of central bank assets, and the mismanagement of public funds.The already suffering country was struck by a huge explosion on 4 August 2020.The explosion devastated the Port of Beirut and destroyed many houses, leaving almost 300,000 people homeless.", "This explosion has led to the demolition of the country's main harbor that was used to import food." ], [ "Inequality", "The top 1% richest adults receive approximately a quarter of the total national income, placing Lebanon among the most unequal countries in the world.", "The bottom 50% of the population is left with 10% of total national income.Lebanon is characterized by a dual social structure, with an extremely rich group at the top, whose income levels are comparable to their counterparts in high-income countries, and a much poorer mass of the population, as in many developing countries.", "This polarized structure reflects the absence of a broad \"middle class\": While the middle 40% receives more than the share accruing to the top 10% in Western Europe, and a bit less in the US, it is left with far less income than the top 10% in Lebanon (between 20 and 30 p.p less).", "The richest captured most of the income growth since 2005: The top 10% saw its income increase by 5 to 15%, while the bottom 50% saw it decrease by 15% and the poorest 10% by a quarter.Lebanese billionaires' wealth represents on average, between 2005 and 2016, 20% of national income as opposed to 2% in China, 5% in France, and 10% in the US." ], [ "Fiscal haven", "In 2018 Lebanon ranked 11th on the Financial Secrecy Index.", "Lebanon has a strong history of banking secrecy but has taken steps to fight money laundering and tax evasion in recent years.", "As of January 2019, banking secrecy applies to Lebanese nationals living in Lebanon but is not applicable to US citizens and US fiscal residents since the FATCA agreement was introduced.", "Lebanon is part of the Global Forum on Transparency and Exchange of Information for Tax Purposes and has signed an agreement to exchange fiscal data with other countries, but as of January 2019, it is not compliant with certain provisions of the treaty.Ali Hassan Khalil, Finance Minister, confirmed that 2019's draft budget showed a deficit of less than 9% of GDP compared to 11.2% in 2018.Khalil also claimed that the economic growth forecast of 1.5 percent could go up to 2% in 2019." ], [ "Foreign investment", "There are few restrictions on foreign investment, barring Israeli citizens and entities.", "There are no country-wide U.S. trade sanctions against Lebanon, although Hezbollah and individuals associated with it have been targeted by the American government.", "Foreign ownership of real estate is legal under certain conditions.According to a report by ''The Wall Street Journal'', \"Lebanon has one of the world's highest public debt-to-gross domestic product ratios, rising to over 150% as it takes on more debt to plug budget holes.\"", "In January 2019, in a move to boost the economy of Lebanon and help the country overcome its debts, Qatar pledged to buy $500 million's worth of government bonds.", "In June 2019, Bloomberg reported that Qatar had bought some of the bonds and planned to complete the rest of the investment soon.=== Remittances ===Lebanon benefits from its large, cohesive, and entrepreneurial diaspora.", "Over the course of time, emigration has yielded Lebanese \"commercial networks\" throughout the world.", "As a result, remittances from Lebanese abroad to family members within the country total $8.2 billion and account for one fifth of the country's economy.", "Nassib Ghobril, the head of research and analysis for Byblos Bank, calculates that Lebanese abroad supply Lebanon with about $1,400 per capita every year." ], [ "Investment", "The stock market capitalization of listed companies in Lebanon was valued at $9.6 billion in January 2019, down from $11.5 billion in January 2018Lebanon was unable to attract significant foreign aid to help it rebuild from both the long civil war (1975–89) and the Israeli occupation of the south (1978–2000).", "In addition, the delicate social balance and the near- dissolution of central government institutions during the civil war handicapped the state as it sought to capture revenues to fund the recovery effort.", "Thus it accumulated significant debt, which by 2001 had reached $28 billion, or nearly 150% of GDP.", "Economic performance was sluggish in 2000 and 2001 (zero growth in 2000, and estimates between 1.0 and 1.4% in 2001, largely attributed to slight increases in tourism, banking, industry, and construction).", "Unemployment is estimated at 14% for 2000 and 29% among the 15-24-year age group, with preliminary estimates of further increases in 2001.However, many Lebanese expatriates have been able to return to the country due to the negative financial situations they are facing abroad, due to the global economic crisis.", "Also, more job opportunities are attracting more Lebanese youths for a chance to return and work in Lebanon, and also a benefit for the Lebanese living in the country, graduating from universities." ], [ "Reforms", "Lebanon's current program of reforms focuses on three main pillars:190x190px* Economic revival and sustainable growth, with the private sector as the engine of growth;* Fiscal consolidation and structural improvement in public sector finances; and* Monetary, financial, and price stability.The government also has maintained a firm commitment to the Lebanese pound, which has been pegged to the dollar since September 1999.In late 2000, the government substantially reduced customs duties, adopted export promotion schemes for agriculture, decreased social security fees and restrictions on investment in real estate by foreigners, and adopted an open-skies policy, with positive effects on trade in 1991.Nonetheless, the relative appreciation of the Lebanese currency has undermined competitiveness, with merchandise exports falling from 23% of GDP in 1989 to 4% in 2000.In 2001, the government turned its focus to fiscal measures, Increasing gasoline taxes, reducing expenditures, and approving a value-added-tax that became effective in February 2002.Slow money growth and dollarization of deposits have hampered the ability of commercial banks to finance the government, leaving more of the burden to the central bank.", "This monetization of the fiscal deficit has put enormous pressure on central bank reserves, mitigated only slightly with the issuance of new Eurobonds over the past 2 years.", "The central bank has maintained a stable currency by intervening directly in the market, as well as low inflation, and succeeded in maintaining investors' confidence in debt.", "It has done so at a cost, however, as international reserves declined by $2.4 billion in 2000 and by $1.6 billion in the first half of 2001.For 2002, the government has put primary emphasis on privatization, initially in the telecom sector and electricity, with continued planning for sales of the state airline, Beirut port, and water utilities.", "The government has pledged to apply the proceeds of sales to reducing the public debt and the budget deficit.", "In addition, it projects that privatization will bring new savings as government payrolls are pared, interest rates decline, and private sector growth and foreign investment are stimulated.", "The government also is tackling the daunting task of administrative reform, aiming to bring in qualified technocrats to address ambitious economic programs, and reviewing further savings that can be realized through reforms of the income tax system.", "The Lebanese Government faces major challenges in order to meet the requirements of a fiscal adjustment program focusing on tax reforms and modernization, expenditure rationalization, privatization, and improved debt management.Faraya in Mount Lebanon Governorate.", "The Lebanese economy depends on its tourism sector throughout all seasons of the year.", "Tourists from Europe, GCC, and Arab countries visit Lebanon for various reasons.The U.S. enjoys a strong exporter position with Lebanon, generally ranking as Lebanon's fourth-largest source of imported goods.", "More than 160 offices representing U.S. businesses currently operate in Lebanon.", "Since the lifting of the passport restriction in 1997 (see below), a number of large U.S. companies have opened branches or regional offices, including Microsoft, American Airlines, Coca-Cola, FedEx, UPS, General Electric, Parsons Brinckerhoff, Cisco Systems, Eli Lilly, Computer Associates and Pepsi Cola.", "Mexico has also many enterprises run by ethnic Lebanese, such as Carlos Slim's Telmex.Solidere shares are the most actively traded in the Beirut Stock Exchange.", "Its share price in the Beirut Stock Exchange has risen sharply in the last year from around US$5.00 in early 2004 to close at US$17.50 on Friday, 23 December 2005." ], [ "Salaries of Lebanese", "Marina Towers, BeirutOn 15 October 2011, after various unions, including the teacher's union, the general worker's union and others threatened to strike, the minimum wage was raised by 40% (£L200,000 - $133) to £L700,000 ($466).", "Most unions went ahead with the strike except the general worker's union.", "* Wages between minimal wage and £L1,200,000 ($800) were increased by £L200,000 ($133) to become £L700,000 (minimal wage) and £L1,400,000 ($933) respectively.", "* Wages more than £L1,200,000 up to £L1,700,000 ($1,133) were increased by £L300,000 ($200) to become £L1,500,000 ($1,000) and £L2,000,000 ($1,333).", "* Wages above £L1,800,000 ($1,200) were not increased.The increase in wages was welcomed by most Lebanese but it also sparked criticism by some worker's unions, saying that the increases were not up to expectations, especially that employees earning more than $1200 were not entitled to raises.", "Others criticized the raises altogether citing that it would burden small business that might end up closing altogether; those critics were mainly opposition politicians.As of 2013 World Bank analysis of Quality Life Index, it was estimated that:* 15% of the Lebanese people lives below the poverty line ($2,500)* 54% of the Lebanese people lives in the moderate middle class ($9,000) annually.", "12% from 1998* 32% of the Lebanese people lives in the upper middle class ($15,000–27,000) annually.", "19% from 1998* 7% of the Lebanese people lives in the highest upper class ($30,000 and above) annually 1% from 1998" ], [ "Macro-economic trend", "The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1986–2020.Inflation below 5% is in green.", "The annual unemployment rate is extracted from the World Bank, although the International Monetary Fund find them unreliable.YearGDP(in Bil.", "US$PPP)GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in Bil.", "US$nominal)GDP per capita(in US$ nominal)GDP growth(real)Inflation rate(in Percent)Unemployment(in Percent)Government debt(in % of GDP)198016.46,344.94.01,552.31.5%23.9%n/an/a198118.16,968.93.81,480.70.6%19.3%n/an/a198212.14,656.02.61,005.3-36.8%18.6%n/an/a198315.55,901.13.61,376.822.7%7.2%n/an/a198423.28,780.04.31,617.744.5%17.6%n/an/a198529.711,199.53.61,344.124.3%69.4%n/an/a198628.210,615.62.81,044.3-6.8%95.4%n/an/a198733.812,664.33.31,219.416.7%487.2%n/an/a198825.19,353.83.31,217.4-28.2%155.0%n/an/a198915.15,532.92.7983.3-42.2%72.2%n/an/a199013.54,833.82.8998.9-13.4%68.9%n/an/a199119.46,625.74.41,502.938.2%50.1%8.4%n/a199220.76,725.85.51,778.34.5%99.8%8.4%n/a199322.76,981.37.42,289.67.0%24.7%8.4%n/a199425.07,347.19.02,640.28.0%8.2%8.5%n/a199527.27,705.211.03,108.26.5%10.3%8.5%n/a199628.87,977.112.83,550.64.0%8.9%8.5%n/a199732.38,824.815.54,245.110.2%7.7%8.6%n/a199833.99,184.117.14,617.23.9%4.5%8.5%n/a199934.19,105.217.24,580.9-0.8%0.2%8.4%n/a200035.39,181.217.04,427.21.1%-0.4%8.3%148.1%200137.59,391.917.44,348.53.9%-0.4%8.2%163.1%200239.49,411.718.84,502.73.4%1.8%8.1%163.2%200340.89,302.019.54,438.91.7%1.3%8.0%171.4%200445.19,861.421.24,629.27.5%1.7%7.8%169.6%200546.89,959.821.54,575.10.7%-1.4%8.3%178.9%200649.010,292.622.04,626.81.5%4.1%8.7%183.3%200755.011,536.724.85,207.89.3%4.1%9.0%169.3%200861.112,831.029.16,111.49.1%10.7%7.7%161.5%200967.814,092.035.47,355.010.2%0.8%6.3%144.5%201074.114,963.238.47,761.68.0%4.0%6.8%136.8%201176.314,669.439.97,675.30.9%5.0%7.4%134.4%201282.114,819.544.07,952.12.5%6.6%7.8%131.0%201388.614,976.846.97,933.33.8%4.8%8.3%135.3%201494.115,029.348.17,687.72.5%1.8%8.8%138.3%201598.715,105.950.17,663.90.6%-3.7%9.3%140.5%2016104.315,535.451.47,653.71.6%-0.8%9.8%145.7%2017109.416,043.053.37,819.60.8%4.5%10.3%149.2%2018110.216,059.255.38,058.5-1.7%4.6%10.8%154.0%2019104.015,164.052.47,639.1-7.3%2.9%11.4%171.1%202078.911,561.119.02,784.8-25.0%84.9%13.3%150.4%" ], [ "See also", "* Agriculture in Lebanon* Beirut Stock Exchange* Banque de Syrie et du Liban* Banque du Liban (Central Bank)* Lebanese pound* Solidere* Tourism in Lebanon* List of banks in Lebanon" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BSE trade sky high despite tensions – ''The Daily Star''* Embassy of Lebanon, Washington D.C. - Country Profile, The Economy* Lebanon Tax Rates - iCalculator* * Tariffs applied by Lebanon as provided by ITC's Market Access Map, an online database of customs tariffs and market requirements." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Posts and telecommunications in Lebanon" ], [ "Introduction", "Posts and telecommunications have long played an essential role in Lebanon, a small country with an expansive diaspora, a vivid media landscape, and an economy geared toward trade and banking.", "The sector's history has nonetheless been chaotic, marked by conflict but also, and perhaps most importantly, a deeply rooted legacy of state control, weak competition, and intense politicization.", "A combination of poor services and high prices culminated in popular protests against the government's attempt, in October 2019, to tax the widely used messaging service WhatsApp.", "The anger this measure triggered captured a more general sense of dissatisfaction, and contributed to tipping the country into a protracted crisis.", "Civil unrest coincided with Lebanon's default on its ballooning debt; in the ensuing economic collapse, telecommunications have been among the infrastructure most affected." ], [ "Postal services", "An Austrian stamp used in 1908 in TripoliFrance first established a post office (or \"bureau de recette\") in the port of Beirut in November 1845.It would use French stamps and was designed primarily to facilitate French trade absent an effective Ottoman postal service.", "Indeed, although Lebanon was an integral part of the Ottoman Empire, the latter was in a state of growing disarray.", "Its overland postal services were notoriously slow and unreliable; moreover, the Ottoman Empire lacked any steamship capacity in the Mediterranean, and was thus incapable of effectively connecting coastal cities in its own empire, not to mention beyond.By contrast, French postal services could rely on the private shipping company Paquebots de la Mediterrannee, which ran a steamship line between Marseille, Alexandria, and Beirut three times a month.", "On 4 October 1851, the French government allocated the concession to a state-run company, which was incorporated the following year as the Compagnie des Services Maritimes des Messageries Nationales.", "The latter changed names on various occasions over the years, but retains a presence in Lebanon to this day: What was known as of 1853 as the Compagnie des Messageries Imperiales was renamed in 1871 Compagnie des Messageries Maritimes, which ultimately would become, in 1996, part of CMA-CGM, which is still the main shipping operator in the port of Beirut.The Ottoman Empire's technological disadvantage created space for empires other than France.", "Back in 1845, Austria may in fact have set up the first foreign post office in Beirut, although the exact date is unconfirmed.", "Russia inaugurated its own in 1857, Britain in 1873, and Germany in 1900.Although imperial attention focused on Beirut, France opened in Tripoli a second post office in September 1852, followed by Austria and Russia.", "Ottoman authorities repeatedly petitioned against this encroachment on its sovereignty, and attempted to improve their own postal services to compete, but to no avail.", "On the contrary, foreign networks continued to expand their coverage and range of services, notably through money transfers.", "In the late 19th century, French post offices liaised between Lebanon's expanding diaspora in the Americas and the homeland, going as far as to collect and deliver mail directly in villages as of 1906.Such activities came to halt in 1914, when all foreign posts were closed in the context of the world war.The Hotel des Postes et Telegraphes in 2022French posts resumed in 1918, first as a military service before being extended to civilians.", "France, as a mandatory power, formed on 1 January 1921 an \"Inspection Generale des Postes et Telegraphes\" covering both Lebanon and Syria, before the two countries enjoyed their own separate postal administrations in 1924.Lebanon continued to use French stamps, overprinted \"Grand Liban\" and soon \"Republique Libanaise\".", "Arabic was introduced in 1928.As of 1929, a weekly airmail service connected Beirut to France's Mediterranean city of Marseille, via Greece and Italy.With Lebanon's independence in 1943, telecommunications fell under a ministry of posts and telegraphs (which in the 1950s would become the ministry of posts, telegraphs, and telephones, and in 1980 the ministry of posts and telecommunications).", "The now independent Lebanon joined the Universal Postal Union in 1945.In 1946, an architectural competition was held to design a spectacular \"Hôtel des Postes et Télégraphes\", which remains a highlight of downtown Beirut.During the civil war that consumed Lebanon from 1975 to 1990, various factions established their own postal services, notably the Christian Phalanges as soon as 1975.In 1983, Israeli forces did as much in occupied Saida, setting up postal services for the benefit of their troops, but which were also accessible to Lebanese citizens.", "In a sense, these developments echoed the country's not-so-distant history.Beirut main post office, which was heavily damaged during the fighting, was renovated in 1996.The Lebanese government then privatized its postal services through a \"build-operate-transfer\" scheme, or BOT.", "The bid, launched in October 1998, was won by the Canadian investment company SNC-Lavalin, which in partnership with Canada Post operated Lebanese postal services through the company registered as LibanPost.", "In 2001, arguing that they were losing money, its Canadian investors sold LibanPost to Lebanon Invest (which later merged with the Audi investment bank).", "It belongs since 2011 or 2012 to the groups M1, co-founded by Lebanese prime minister Najib Mikati, and Saradar, which enjoys close ties to Audi." ], [ "Telegraph", "Beirut's first telegraphic lines connected it to Damascus in 1861 and to Istanbul two years later.Lebanon's first submarine, telegraphic cable was laid in 1938 by France, as it prepared for war, and connected Beirut to Nabeul in Tunisia.", "After the war, it was operated by Radio-Orient (see below).Teleprinters, which could turn telegraphic communications into text, started operating in May 1954." ], [ "Telephone", "The first mention of a telephone network in Lebanon (then known as Syria) dates from 1910 and, surprisingly, concerns the secondary town of Zahle in Mount Lebanon, which was also applying at the time for a concession to set up an electric plant—another first in this part of the region.", "Writing in 1914, the Daily Consular and Trade Reports of the U.S. Department of Commerce and Labor announced that the government of Lebanon was making plans to connect its seat in Baabda, above Beirut, to major cities across the country, thanks to a 150 miles of cables on metal posts.", "In December 1921, the French mandate authorities granted the concession for radio-electric communication to the Compagnie Générale de Télégraphie sans Fil (CSF), authorized to build in Khalde a radio-electric transmission station connected to Radio France.", "The following year, in December 1922, the CSF established Radio-Orient to run said concession in Lebanon and Syria.", "Lebanon became a member state of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in 1924, as France proceeded to separate the two countries from one another.=== The prewar boom ===Starting in the 1950s, an economically affluent Lebanon started investing in developing its telephone network by installing automatic exchanges, not least in partnership with Ericsson, which assumed a key role in the following decades.", "(Ericsson had long been a pioneer in telecommunications in the Arab world, setting up the first telephone lines in Istanbul and Cairo in the 1890s.)", "In May 1954, the telephone system was modernized with the introduction of the automatic dialing system.", "Around that time, Lebanon counted just over 27,000 telephones, massively concentrated in its capital city, Beirut.", "By 1957, demand for telephone services outpaced supply, as seen in the contracts signed with Ericsson, to expand the network with 25,000 new lines in the country's main cities, and with Siemens, to build a state-of-the-art radio transmission station.", "At the end of the 1960s, Lebanon was planning to extend the telephone network to all rural regions across the country.", "Meanwhile, Lebanon pioneered the Telex system in the Arab world, introducing it in 1962.In 1969, Lebanon set up in Arbaniyeh its first satellite earth station, capable of handling voice conversations as well as television channels.", "It thus joined the global, American-led Intelsat network.", "This sign of progress was celebrated by the creation of a dedicated stamp issued on 25 March 1971.Lebanon's first submarine coaxial cable, to France's Marseille, was inaugurated in 1970.Its operation and maintenance was handed over to Sodetel, a company specifically established in 1968 for the purpose of managing this cable, and co-owned by the Lebanese government (50%), France Câbles et Radio (40%) and Italcable (10%).", "In May 1971, a contract was awarded to connect Beirut to Egypt's Alexandria, via another submarine coaxial cable, and to Damascus via land cable and microwave transmission.", "The satellite earth station in Jouret el BalloutAn interesting player during these years is the French company Radio-Orient, which continued to assume a central position in the telephone sector even after Lebanon's independence.", "It hosted the first international telephone services in Lebanon, in 1952, and the first Telex services, ten years later.", "Most importantly, the firm retained its exclusive concession over radio-electric communications with Europe and North-America.", "Lebanon's attempt to tax the company in 1956 led the French government to initiate a lawsuit in its defense at the International Court of Justice.", "It was only nationalized belatedly, in 1972: The new public entity, the Organisme de Gestion et d'Exploitation de Radio Orient, which would later be known as Ogero, then inherited Radio-Orient's de facto monopoly.Intense investments, during this era, did not go without suspicions of foul-play, coming from Lebanese who were dissatisfied with the pace at which the country's telephone network was developing.", "One notable target for criticism was Tony Frangieh, who in the early 1970s was appointed Minister of Posts and Telecommunications in a government presided by his own father Suleiman.=== The civil war's legacy ===Layers of telephone cables in BeirutThe civil war that lasted from 1975 to 1990 saw a back-and-forth movement between further progress and regression.", "In 1976, Lebanon was a founding member of Arabsat, an intergovernmental organization delivering satellite connections to Arab states.", "The 1982 Israeli invasion in itself caused destruction, but also set back a U.S.-funded, $325 million plan to repair earlier damage.", "The two Intelsat stations Lebanon was running in Arbaniyeh were destroyed on 7 May 1983, and remained out of commission in following years.", "The U.S. and South Korea financed the rehabilitation of some telephone lines in 1983 and 1984.A second Intelsat satellite earth station was set up in Jouret El-Ballout in 1987, although it also seems to have been destroyed.", "By the end of the war, Lebanon had only an estimated 150,000 telephone lines (down from 450,000), which were unreliable.The conflict had also ushered in a plethora of informal providers who set up telephone networks using local and international lines illegally.", "They became so much part of the local landscape that they acquired the nickname of \"centrales\", which served Lebanese citizens as public payphones.", "Clandestine satellite terminals also flourished; future prime minister Najib Mikati was renowned to be particularly active in this field.", "Meanwhile, many subscribers to the official network stopped paying their bills, in a splintering country where centralized administrations could hardly chase users anyway.=== The postwar boom ===After the war ended, the telephone system was rebuilt and revamped.", "Investcom, a subsidiary of the Mikati Group, launched in 1991 the first Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS).", "The same year, Sodetel acquired a monopoly on switching within the network, through its subsidiary Libanpac.", "Rehabilitating, expanding, and modernizing the infrastructure befell well-established foreign companies, namely Ericsson and Siemens, along with Alcatel, each of which was allotted a certain part of the country.", "The contract, tendered in 1993 and signed in March 1994, cost Lebanon $430 million and enabled the country to upgrade its telephone switching systems from an aging analogue technology to digital.In parallel, the government moved fast to introduce the Global System for Mobile communications (GSM): Indeed, cellular phones were seen as an appealing alternative to cabled telephone.", "A tender for two mobile operators was launched in 1993, and the contracts awarded in June 1994, for a period of ten years (extendable by two years).", "The market was thus organized around a duopoly: Cellis, on one hand, was owned by France Telecom (67%) and the Mikati family's Investcom (33%); LibanCell, on the other, was somewhat less transparent about its shareholders, split between Telecom Finland International, also known as Sonera (14%), the Saudi Almabani (20%), and more anonymous Lebanese entities and investors (66%).", "Foremost among the latter stood Nizar Dalloul, son of the sitting minister of defense Mohsen Dalloul and a close relative of then prime minister Rafic Hariri.LibanCell claims to have placed the very first GSM call in Lebanon, on 23 December 1994, from the Alexandre Hotel in Beirut.", "The World Telecommunication Development Report estimated that, by 1996, Lebanon had 200,000 cellular users already, more than any other Arab state.", "Two years later, they were more than 350,000.Fixed line telecommunications services remained a monopoly in the hands of OGERO, which continued to operate all aspects of the network on behalf of the Ministry of Telecommunications, even after the 2002 telecommunications law provided for a transfer to a joint-stock company to be named Liban Telecom.By 2009, there were 1,816,262 landlines along with 4,890,534 mobile telephones in use in Lebanon, a relatively high penetration rate for both fixed lines and mobiles." ], [ "Radio broadcasting", "Radio mast in Mont LebanonRadio-Orient, which started broadcasting in 1938, was the second radio to do so in the Arab world, after Cairo.", "In April 1946, three years after Lebanon's independence, it became Radio Libanaise: Attached to the Ministry of News and Tourism, it was the country's first radio channel, later known as Radio Liban.", "In January 1958, it moved from the government's seat, at the Serail, to a new building in Senayeh, fitted with seven state-of-the-art studios built by Siemens.", "Radio Liban remains deeply associated, in Lebanon, with this economically prosperous yet politically tense era, not least for introducing the still lively tradition of broadcasting Feyrouz every morning, to lighten the atmosphere after the daily news.The sector was, at the time, tightly controlled by the state, notably through decree 74 of 1953, which made licensing difficult to achieve and prohibitively expensive.", "By 1969, there were two licensed radio stations in Beirut, one broadcasting in Arabic and the other in French.Voix du Liban or Voice of Lebanon, which stakes a claim to being the first commercial radio in the country, was founded in 1958 by the Christian party Phalanges, in the context of a brief spell of domestic strife.", "In the 1950s and 1960s, other political factions set up their own clandestine radio stations.", "Although the government successfully shut them down, it chose not to confiscate their equipment, paving the way to an explosion of illegal broadcasts in the more favorable context shaped by the civil war.", "Voix du Liban indeed resumed its activities with the start of hostilities in 1975.The same year, the Sunni faction Mourabitoun launched the Voice of Arab Lebanon.", "Radio Libre Liban followed in 1978, at the initiative of former president Bachir Gemayel.", "By 1984, each political organ had acquired a household name: radio Bachir, radio Phalanges, radio Etat (for Radio Liban), radio Walid (in reference to Druze leader Walid Jumblatt), radio Suleiman (Frangieh), etc.", "At the end of the war, in 1990, some 180 stations were emitting illegally in various parts of the country.The government made a half-hearted attempt to regulate the sector, through the audiovisual media law of 1994.However, authorities implemented its regulations only partially and selectively, in ways that favored religious groups, dominant factions, and affluent businessmen.", "Many clandestine studios, which in any event were struggling financially, could purchase expensive licenses and chose to shut down.", "Others continued illegally; tellingly, in September 2002, the government took measures to close 26 unlicensed radios.Radio remained an essential media until the arrival of internet and even beyond.", "In 1998 Lebanon's radio penetration rate was 906 radios per 1000 people.", "According to Media Landscape, there were still 2.85 million radios is Lebanon around 2016.An estimated 35 radio stations were active in 2018, of which 20 focused on politics while the others, such as Mix FM, offered entertainment only.Radio Liban continued to run one FM station, which shifted between French, English, and Armenian, and the sole AM radio station, broadcasting solely in Arabic.", "Radio Lebanon also relays Radio France International at 13:00 (UTC) daily.Among the casualties of Lebanon's post-2019 economic breakdown features Radio One, one of the most popular entertainment channels." ], [ "Television broadcasting", "Television broadcasting kicked off in Lebanon as a commercial enterprise from the start, initiated by businessmen Wissam Ezzedine and Joe Arida.", "On 9 April 1956, they signed an agreement with the government to establish the Compagnie Libanaise de Télévision (CLT).", "Board members included scions of some of the country's most prominent families, notably Naji Pharaon and Gaby Jabre.", "Capital came mostly from Syrian investors, namely Jamil Mardam-Bey and Rafik Said.", "The latter was the Middle-East representative for the French Compagnie Générale de Télégraphie sans Fil (CSF), which provided the equipment.", "The station's first stone was laid in November 1957 in Tallet al-Khayyat, on a plot of land sold by the French embassy.", "Its first programs were launched on 28 May 1959.Competition came in the form of Tele-Orient, incorporated in 1960 as the Compagnie de Télévision du Liban et du Proche-Orient.", "Its shareholders were Lebanese bankers: Emile Boustany (Banque de l'Industrie et du Travail), Jean and Elie Abou Jaoud (Banque Libanaise pour le Commerce), and Toufic Assaf (Banque de Beyrouth et des Pays Arabes).", "Its official launch took place on 6 May 1962.Both firms were granted licenses valid until 1977, and broadcast in Arabic, French, and English.", "By 1967, the number of television sets across the country was estimated at 170,000.As the civil war set in, the government took the initiative to nationalize and merge CLT and Tele-Orient: In 1977, it formed Tele-Liban, a semi-public company half-owned by the state, and granted a 25-year monopoly on television broadcasting.", "The war also provided the country's political factions with a suitably chaotic environment in which to start their own televisions, in the absence of any mechanism to officially license more stations.", "The Lebanese Forces, a Christian militia, pioneered this trend in 1985, with the Lebanese Broadcasting Corporation (LBC), which soon spurred emulation from others.Between 1988 and 1994, Tele-Liban's shares were traded by various parties, notably Rafic Hariri, who in the early 1990s bought all privately owned shares.", "In 1994, the Audio-Visual Media Information Law brought to an end Tele-Liban's official monopoly, while disbanding the more than 40 unlicensed and technically illegal television stations that had mushroomed during the war.", "The law also established the National Media Council, an advisory body in charge of overseeing the sector and monitoring content.", "In 1996, the state fully nationalized Tele-Liban, by buying the shares held by its private owner Rafic Hariri, who at the time was also prime minister, minister of finance, and minister of posts and telecommunications.", "The transaction reportedly cost $12 million.", "By the end of February 2001, Tele-Liban, which for years had been on the brink of bankruptcy, was shut down.There were 37 television broadcast stations in Lebanon in 2018, although the application of the audiovisual law has caused the closure of a number of TV stations.", "Some of the most important television networks are the LBC, Murr TV, Al Jadeed, Future TV, Orange TV (OTV), Al-Manar, NBN, and Télé Lumière.", "These channels are backed by prominent families and the country's diverse political factions, without which they would struggle to survive; advertising revenues indeed would prove insufficient to support even ten of them.Lebanon also has a cabled television market, which functions in unconventional ways.", "Licensed providers have dwindled over the years.", "CityTV, founded in 2004, seems to have gone off air around 2018.Digitek likewise appears to have disappears.", "In 2019, CableVision absorbed Econet, creating a monopoly on legal cable television.", "CableVision was rumored to be owned by GroupMed, the Hariri family holding, although it is part of the portfolio of GlobalCom Holding, one of the dominant players regarding the internet.", "However, the sector remains largely informal, with a plethora of unlicensed providers dominating the market." ], [ "Internet services", "The development and growth of the internet infrastructure has been relatively slow in Lebanon, alternating between quick adoption of new technologies and almost surreal delays.", "On 1 February 2019.Lebanon ranked 161 on Net Index, which rated internet speeds worldwide and has since been replaced by Speedtest.", "On 23 November 2021, Speedtest ranked Lebanon 160 for broadband and 82 for mobile services.The country has shown a high internet penetration rate nonetheless.", "The number of Internet users was reported at 78.2% as of January 2021.Actual data, however, is patchy at best: The graph below shows the rare years since 2000 for which Lebanese authorities provided figures to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), which is the relevant agency of the UN.", "Characteristically, these numbers conflict with other sources, making them difficult to validate.+Internet users (% of population)Year%Source20016.8Lebanese Broadcasting International200718.7Ministry of Telecommunications200822.5Ministry of Telecommunications201152.0Presidency of the Council of Ministers202178.2Data ReportalInternet services are administered in Lebanon by the Ministry of Telecommunications and the state-owned company Ogero.", "The easiest way to understand the country's internet is start at the source, which in Lebanon is primarily submarine cables, and move outward toward end users, which have accessed the internet through increasingly efficient technologies.=== Submarine cables and international bandwidth ===Lebanon is connected to the internet through three submarine fiber-optic cables, which provide the bulk of its \"international bandwidth\", meaning the maximum quantity of data it can transmit to or receive from the rest of the world.", "The three main landing points of these cables, called international exchanges or gateways, are all operated by Ogero.", "They are in Ras Beirut, Jdeideh, and Tripoli.", "Lebanon's international fiber-optic cables form two parallel systems.", "* CADMOS, which started operating in September 1995, is a 230 km cable connecting landing points in Ras Beirut and Jdeideh to Pentaskhinos in Cyprus, and owned by a consortium including the Lebanese Ministry of Telecommunications.", "It reportedly had a capacity as low as 622Mbit/s.", "It is interlinked with BERYTAR, which started operating in April 1997.This 134 km cable connects Lebanese landing points (in Saida, Ras Beirut, and Tripoli) with Tartous in Syria.", "It is owned jointly by the Lebanese Ministry of Telecommunications and the Syrian Establishment for Telecommunications, and officially had a capacity of 5Gbit/s, although in 2010 Lebanon's international bandwidth was reported to be less than half of that.", "The Tartous landing point then connects to Pentaskhinos via the UGARIT cable (1995) and to Egypt's Alexandria via the Aletar cable (1997), which has now been replaced by Alexandros (2013).", "* CADMOS, BERYTAR, AND I-ME-WEI-ME-WE, which started operating in December 2010, is a 12,000 km cable with an overall capacity approaching 4Tbit/s, and connecting Southern Asia with Southern Europe via the Red Sea.", "It is owned by a large consortium including the Lebanese operator Ogero.", "Its landing point in Lebanon is Tripoli, which links via I-ME-WE to Alexandria, Catania in the Italian island of Sicily, and Marseille on the French coast.", "When the project was launched, Lebanon was expecting to derive from it around 40Gbit/s, multiplying its international capacity by 20.In 2011, Global Information Society Watch estimated in its annual country report that Lebanon had access to 120Gbit/s via I-ME-WE.Lebanon's heavy dependence on I-ME-WE was on display in July 2012, when the country witnessed complete internet blackouts due to maintenance work on the cable which Ogero reportedly failed to announce.This dependence is all the more acute that the other system is aging, a problem that Lebanese authorities have long been aware of.", "In 2011, an official at the Lebanese Ministry of Telecommunications confirmed that CADMOS would be replaced with a new cable dubbed EUROPA, which would bridge to Alexandros.", "This project involved a partnership with the Cyprus Telecommunications Authority (CYTA), with which an MoU was signed in 2013.EUROPA was still imminent as the decade came to a close: In June 2019, the Ministry of Telecommunications again announced plans for a new Internet submarine cable to link the country to Europe, to boost the Internet service locally, and to turn Lebanon into a hub for Internet distribution to countries in the region.Lebanon's efforts to increase its international bandwidth are reflected in the figures local authorities have reported over the years to the International Telecommunication Union or ITU.", "The leap in capacity enabled by I-ME-WE in 2011 appears clearly in the data.", "However, the claims made in subsequent years are sufficiently inconsistent to warrant verification.", "Indeed, the Ministry of Telecommunications has published data in its official documents that contradicts the information it submitted in parallel to the ITU.", "For example, in its \"Daring progress\" vision of 2015, the Ministry put the country's international bandwidth in 2012 and 2013 at 12.2 and 26.8 Gbit/s respectively.", "+International bandwidth (Gbps)YearBandwidthSource20070.93Ministry of Postal Services and Telecommunications20091.82Ministry of Telecommunications20102.5Telecommunications Regulatory Authority201112.5Ministry of Telecommunications201252.5Ministry of Telecommunications201352.5Ministry of Telecommunications201489Ogero2015153Ministry of Telecommunications201685Ministry of Telecommunications2017130Ministry of Telecommunications2018190Ministry of Telecommunications2019220Ministry of Telecommunications2020320Ministry of TelecommunicationsEven as officially reported, Lebanon's increase in international bandwidth has not helped the country significantly improve its ranking on a global scale, despite the government's repeated pledges to \"catch up\" with the rest of the world.=== Lebanon's internet backbone ===Through its network of central offices, the state-owned company Ogero provides the \"backbone\" telecommunication infrastructure which distributes internet capacity throughout the country.", "The actual distribution occurs via Data Service Providers (DSPs) and Internet Service Providers (ISPs).", "Ogero also doubles up as an ISP.In 1996, as postwar reconstruction was still in full swing.", "Lebanon started laying into the ground its core fiber-optic network, starting in Beirut.", "In 2001, Ericsson laid approximately 2000 km of fiber-optic cables to create a high-speed backbone network.", "Up to 2010, Lebanon's backbone relied mainly, however, on fixed lines in a traditional \"public switched telephone network\" (PSTN).", "Only in 2010 did the Ministry of Telecommunications start setting up a fiber-optic transmission network connecting central stations around the country, at a cost of $166 million.", "Its design included two super-rings and 30 sub-rings representing 4,400 km of cables.", "The need for a more robust backbone had been made more salient by disruptions incurred during the 2006 war with Israel.", "The up-haul was officially completed in April 2013.However, two years later, in April 2015, only one sub-ring had actually been turned on.", "By 2017, fiber-optic cables finally connected approximately 300 central offices, from which the internet could reach end-users over traditional copper cables.=== Dial-up internet ===The very first internet services were pioneered by the American University in Beirut, which started in 1991 to set up the first internet node in the country.", "What was known as AUBnet became active in 1993.The network was then expanded to encompass other institutions, within the Lebanese Academic and Research Network (LARN), built around AUBnet as its main node.", "By 1995, Lebanon was officially connected to the internet, at which point dial-up internet was introduced as a commercial service.", "The first firm on the market, Compuserve, would charge subscribers $60 per hour.", "In 1996, 14kbit/s dial-up services cost around $75 a month for a 15-hour plan.", "Despite high prices, by 1998 Lebanon already had 40,000 subscribers to internet services, representing almost half of all internet users throughout the Arab world.=== Ethernet internet ===In 2001, in collaboration with Ericsson, Ogero rolled out the first Ethernet metropolitan area network, making internet accessible through dedicated cables.", "By 2005, it claimed to cover 95% of the country, an assertion that seemed wildly exaggerated.=== DSL internet ===Although Lebanon had been the first Arab state to introduce the internet, it was among the last, in 2006, to provide Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL), which enable users to transmit digital data over regular telephone lines.", "Faster technologies followed suit: Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Lines (ADSL) were offered for the first time in April 2007, and were partially upgraded High-bit-rate Digital Subscriber Lines (HDSL) in 2009.When it finally materialized, the launch of ADSL had been \"imminent\" for over five years.", "The roll-out also was sluggish: By October 2009, Ogero had installed ADSL only in 86 of its central offices, out of a goal of 210.Two years later, the number had only crawled up to 98.Ogero central offices have long suffered from a weak capacity to provide satisfying internet services to end-users.", "For example, in 2015, only 78 such centrals were equipped with Very-high-speed Digital Subscriber Lines (VDSL).Another break on internet access was poor cooperation between providers.", "In the absence of a law clearing organizing how infrastructure (notably ducts) should be shared, each internet service provider had to build their own, redundant, local networks to connect the backbone to end users.", "Poorer or remote areas were inevitably at a disadvantage, and enticed to resort to illegal providers.", "Even where the law did spell things out, enforcement was lax.", "For instance, service providers were compelled, per the 2002 law, to establish interconnections to speed up the exchange of data between users on their respective networks.", "But when the Beirut Internet Exchange was created in this spirit, setting a positive precedent, Ogero refused to join.Popular adoption of DSL technologies was nonetheless almost instantaneous: There were, as of July 2011, 1,284,361 subscribers.", "Prices for ADSL varied slightly depending on provider, but typically cost from $16 per month (4Mbit/s) to $65 per month (open speed) on unlimited data plans.", "Decree 6297 of September 2011 decreased ADSL prices.=== Broadband wireless internet ===Just as cellular phones were introduced in the 1990s to make up for a degraded cable network, wireless internet services were offered for the first time in 2005 to palliate for an absent DSL infrastructure.", "The microwave WiMAX technology was launched in 2007.Wireless ISP fees revolved around $45 per month.", "Download rates ranged between 2 and 9Mbit/s depending on the chosen plan.The country's two mobile phone operators launched 3G services in November 2011.Starting in May 2013, Alfa and MTC Touch also introduced 4G data services in mostly dense urban regions.", "Such progress was followed by repeated, unfulfilled pledges to cover Lebanon's territory entirely.", "As part of the Lebanon Broadband 2020 plan, full 4G coverage was expected by 2018.By the time Lebanon's economy crashed, in 2019, public Wi-Fi and 5G internet were commercially available only across Beirut International Airport terminals.", "The initial plan of installing Wi-Fi in public parks thus never materialized.=== Fiber-optic internet ===In March 2007, Solidere, the Lebanese company for the development and reconstruction of the Beirut Central District, deployed a Broadband Network in partnership with Orange Business Services.", "Orange operates this IP network using a fiber-optic backbone with dual connection to each building in the city center.", "Under its unified communication network, Solidere provides IPTV services to all its residents operated and monitored from the network main operation center.The Beirut Digital District (BDD) was launched in September 2012 as a government-facilitated project with broadband internet and telephone infrastructure facilities.", "The BBD was designed to become a hub for creative companies and talents.", "The project aimed to improve the digital industry in Lebanon by providing, at competitive rates, state-of-the-art infrastructure, superior support services for businesses, and a living environment suited to a young and dynamic workforce.In 2013, the Minister of Telecommunications Nicolas Sehnaoui claimed that 4,700 km of fiber optic network were being deployed across Lebanon, linking 300 fixed central offices with thousands of Active Cabinets being installed with the last mile using copper connections, allowing subscribers to reach a connection speed of 4 Mbit/s and more at home.", "The backbone FO network consist of 13 rings and was reportedly almost complete.", "At the time, experts said that Lebanon should have much faster Internet thanks to the international capacity cables, only a small fraction of which was being used in Lebanon.On 1 July 2015, the Ministry of Telecommunications, then under Boutrous Harb, launched a five-year plan called \"2020 Digital Telecom Vision\".", "The plan aimed both to ramp up the country's 4G capacity and to replace Lebanon's aging copper network with fiber-optic cables.", "By 2020, it was expected to present users with VDSL2+ plans capable of offering speeds reaching 150Mbit/s, and ensure that the majority of Lebanese population would have access to a full range of services (FTTH, IPTV, video conferencing).The Fiber to the Home/Fiber to the Office scheme is being deployed in a phased approach in Lebanon under the management of the Ministry of Telecommunications and Ogero (the fixed network owner & maintainer).", "The four FTTx- phases are as follows:– 2015–2017: FTTO Organizations SME/SM– 2015–2020: FTTC (+VDSL) cabinets (& Houses)– 2016–2020: FTTH1 (Houses)– 2019–2022: FTTH2 (Houses)In February 2018, Ogero attributed three contracts worth $283 million to three local companies (out of four bidders) to distribute fiber optics from central stations to end users: SERTA Channels, BMB, and Powertech, respectively paired with international equipment vendors Huawei, Calix, and Nokia.Upgraded Central Offices with fibre optics GPON or P2P access technology & FTTx deployment phasing can be found on Ogero's website.", "Also updates are found on the Fibre Optics Lebanon Forum.=== Internet providers ===The first providers were licensed in 1995, namely Data Management, Terranet, Cyberia, and Libanpac.There is an extraordinary wide range of ISPs (Internet Services Providers) and DSPs (Data Service Providers) operating in Lebanon.", "Per the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority, which theoretically grants licenses, there were 24 ISPs in 2009.By 2020, they were 114, although the vast majority of them did not even sport a functioning website.", "Lebanon does not publish data on the various ISPs' and DSPs' market shares, which makes it difficult to rank them.", "On second looks, however, the market appears dominated by a relatively small cluster of operators.", "* Ogero distributes internet to all providers, while acting as the dominant ISP itself.", "* Sodetel was founded in 1968 as the Société de Développement des Télécommunications du Liban, and is now jointly owned by the Lebanese government and the French telecom company Orange.", "Sodetel entered the ISP market in 1996.It is also present on the market through Libanpac, a subsidiary it launched in 1991.", "* GlobalCom, a holding founded in 1998 and itself a subsidiary of Holcom, founded in 1967, owns a variety of brands.", "These include Cyberia and IDM, two of the leading ISPs.", "Cyberia, founded in 1996, bought the ISP Transmog and was acquired by Rafic Hariri's Oger Telecom in 1999.IDM was born in 2002 from the merger of IncoNet and Data Management, which were among the three first ISPs in Lebanon, along with Terranet.", "Data Management was founded in 1984, and in 1995 was one of the first companies to provide commercial internet services.", "IncoNet was founded in 1995.A related trademark is GlobalCom Data Services, founded in 1992 as a DSP.", "GlobalCom originally came from a merger between ATG Group and the Mikati Group.", "* Cable One is a DST and a sister company of TerraNet, one the leading ISPs, founded in 1998.Both were long run by the same CEO.", "Cable One is owned by the Comium Group, founded in 1994 by Nizar Dalloul, the main shareholder of LibanCell.", "Cable One started operating in Lebanon in 1997 and was licensed in 1999.", "* Cedarcom, a DSP founded in 1997, was acquired in 2003 by MEA Telecom.", "It owns Mobi and Lynx, two ISPs founded in 1999.I also owns Broadband Plus and Python Telecom, established respectively in 2006 and 2009.MEA Telecom also bought DST New Com and its sister ISP Fiberlink Networks, which entered the market in 1999.", "* Pesco Telecom, founded in 1993, is owned by the Debbane Saikali group and operates as a DSP.", "It stands behind Moscanet, founded in 1997, and which also runs the trademark Wise.", "* Mada, a telecommunications provider established in 2004, bought in 2009 the DSP Waves.", "It launched the ISP Connexions in 2013, and also owns the ISP Connect.Other notable players include:Data Consult, founded in 1991Keblon, founded in 2004Lebanon OnlineMasco Group, founded in 2007SatMENA, a previously unknown company that became the first ISP licensed to provide satellite internet, hosted alongside government infrastructure at Jouret El-Ballout and via OGEROSME, founded in 2018Solidere, founded in 1994Tri Network Consultants, established in 2000 as TRINEC, and which has since become Capital Outsourcing*Virtual-ISP (VISP), founded in 2004 as a joint-stock companyNot only most service providers fail to maintain a website, even those that do rarely update it.", "Worse, they do not publish terms of service or privacy policies, clarifying what they do with the internet usage data they collect on their clients.", "OGERO is no exception." ], [ "The post-2019 breakdown", "Since its inception, Lebanon's telecommunications systems have serviced certain areas far better than others.", "The notion of universal service, which stands for equal access to telecommunications, was introduced conceptually in 2008 but never followed through.", "In 2016, when residents in the capital could start dreaming of lightning-speed, fiber-optic connections, 300 villages in Keserwan, Batroun, Nabatiyeh, and the Bekaa had no access to the internet whatsoever, due to the absence of a fixed telephone network.", "Mobile phone outages were frequent in remote areas, not least due to power cuts.The outbreak of Lebanon's economic crisis, in 2019, only reinforced the sector's preexisting traits.", "Telecommunication services soon started fraying in peripheral areas.", "By mid-2020, disruptions were sufficiently frequent and widespread for a local NGO, SMEX, to attempt to map them systematically.", "January 2021 saw major outages in Nabatiyeh and Aley.", "The even extended to central neighborhoods of Beirut, although this appeared to be at least in part a negotiations tactic of Ogero, in negotiating more resources from the government." ], [ "Timeline", "'''1959-6-12''': Decrees 126 and 127 establish the General Directorate of Posts and Telegram and the General Directorate of Telephone.", "Most importantly, they organize and formalize the state's monopoly over all telecommunication infrastructure.", "'''1980-5-17''': Law 11 changes the name of the Ministry of Posts and Telegram and Telephone to Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications.", "'''1983-9-15''': Decree 100 establishes a publicly-owned company to manage the telecommunication sector.", "It is not implemented, allegedly due to the war.", "'''1992''': The Lebanese Council for Development and Reconstruction (CDR) publishes a plan for rebuilding and modernizing the telecom infrastructure in Lebanon, which is presented as one of the government's key priorities.", "'''1993-5-13''': Lebanon issues law 218 authorizing the Lebanese government to launch a tender to introduce GSM services to the country.", "'''1993-5-13''': The mobile phone company LibanCell is established by Lebanese businessman Nizar Dalloul and Telecom Finland International, \"with the vision of bringing GSM communications to every Lebanese household\".", "'''1994-8-14''': The mobile phone company Cellis is formed as a joint venture between France Telecom Mobile International and the Mikati Group.", "It is then known as France Telecom Mobile Liban (FTML) or Mobile Interim Company 1 (MIC1).", "MIC1 was taken over by Orascom in 2009.", "'''1998-10:''' Lebanon's postal services are privatized and handed over to LibanPost, company established on 25 August 1998.Ce decision sparked some controversy.", "'''1999-12-27''': Law 140, also known at the Telecommunication Interception Act, creates a legal framework for the interception by government agencies of private communications, setting a precedent in the Arab world.", "The government, however, did not formally adopt the law until a decade later, in 2009.", "'''2000-5''': The Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications published the Telecommunications Act, which lay the groundwork for reorganizing the sector.", "'''2000-10''': The five-year plan \"Program for the rehabilitation of the telecommunication network in Lebanon and its development\" is published, with a budget of $786 million.", "'''2002-7-23''': Lebanon issues law 431, creating the governance framework needed to organize the telecommunications sector.", "In particular, the law established the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority (TRA), meant to liberalize the sector and oversee a more competitive environment.", "The TRA only started its work five years later, when its board members were finally appointed in February 2007.Law 431 also established OGERO as an entity independent from the Ministry of Telecommunications, and reporting directly to the cabinet of ministers.", "'''2004-12-2''': The Lebanese cabinet approves the decrees enabling the creation of the TRA, along with the creation of Liban Telecom, a joint stock company meant to initiative the privatization of Ogero.", "'''2007-12''': The Beirut Internet Exchange is launched, and is the first Internet Exchange Point (IXP) in the country.", "An IXP enables ISPs to carry each other's packets to their destination, to improve the overall quality of service.", "The Beirut Internet Exchange was joined on inception by ten Lebanese ISPs, although not the main provider, namely Ogero.", "'''2009-4''': The so-called Barouk affair exposes the practice among ISPs of illegally acquiring international bandwidth, in this case through micro-wave transmission from Cyprus and Israel.", "This illegal station reportedly also relied on equipment smuggled in from Israel.", "'''2011-3''': The uprisings spreading across the Arab world trigger in Lebanon a wave of activism documenting and denouncing the country's laggard internet services.", "The most notable groups involved were Flip the Switch, Lebanese Want Fast Internet, and Ontornet, which translates as \"in-waiting-net\".", "'''2011-8-23''': The cabinet of ministers passes a decree to set the minimum speed acceptable for Internet services to 2 Mbit/s, in addition to lowering the prices.", "'''2018-3-26''': The Ministry of Telecommunications emits three new licenses to three operators, namely Connect, GlobalCom Data Services, and TriSat, to provide fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) services.", "'''2020-10-1''': The Lebanese government officially requests that a private individual continue to manage, as a temporary solution, the .lb extension also known as a country code top-level domain.", "Virtually all government websites depend on this domain, which has been managed through \"temporary\" arrangements since its registration in 1993." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Lebanon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Transportation in Lebanon''' varies greatly in quality from the ultramodern Beirut International Airport to poor road conditions in many parts of the country.", "The Lebanese civil war between 1975 and 1990 and the 2006 Lebanon War with Israel severely damaged the country's infrastructure." ], [ "Roads", "Lebanon has over 8,000 km of roads throughout the country, generally in good conditions, though it varies.", "Many highways are part of the Arab Mashreq International Road Network.", "The main roads in the country are:Beirut - Byblos - Tripoli - AaridaBeirut - Sidon - Tyre - NaqouraBeirut - Bhamdoun Al Mhatta - Chtaura - MasnaaChtaura - Zahlé - Baalbek - QaaChtaura - Qab Elias - Machgara - NabatiehTripoli - Bsharri - Baalbek===Motorways===Part of the main road network have been updated to dual carriageway, four-lane motorways, which are the following:Beirut - Tripoli.", "Length: 81 km.", "Beirut - Kfar Badde.", "Length: 65 km.", "Beirut - Mdeyrej.", "Length: 33 km.", "Tripoli - Khane.", "Length: 20 km." ], [ "Buses", "An overland trans-desert bus service between Beirut, Haifa, Damascus and Baghdad was established by the ''Nairn Transport Company'' of Damascus in 1923.Beirut has frequent bus connections to other cities in Lebanon and major cities in Syria.", "The Lebanese Commuting Company, or LCC in short, is just one of a handful brands of public transportations all over Lebanon.", "On the other hand, the publicly owned buses are managed by le Office des Chemins de Fer et des Transports en Commun (OCFTC), or the \"''Railway and Public Transportation Authority''\" in English.", "Buses for northern destinations and Syria leave from Charles Helou Station.Buses are popular and inexpensive and can be stopped anywhere along the way simply by hailing." ], [ "Ferries", "Apart from the international airport, the Port of Beirut is another port of entry.", "As a final destination, anyone can also reach Lebanon by ferry from Cyprus, or Greece or by road from Damascus, etc.", "The Port of Tripoli (Lebanon) is also a port of entry and ferries usually come from Taşucu, Turkey." ], [ "Taxis and services", "In order to get from one place to another, people can either use a service or taxis.", "A \"service\" is a lot cheaper than a \"taxi\" as the passenger would be sharing the cab in the first place unlike the latter, where he would have the cab to himself.Cabs can be recognized by their red license plates (indicating that it is licensed for public transportation).", "The driver would pull aside for if the person hails while seeing him.", "He will then ask for his destination and then will decide whether he will drive the passenger with the regular fare, an extra, or not at all.===Types of taxis in Lebanon==='''Service-taxis'''One has to specify one's destination and enter the taxi only if one's destination corresponds to the itinerary of the Service-taxi.", "The driver stops to pick up additional passengers anywhere on the streets and drop them off generally in main squares and main streets.", "It remains advantageous with very low fares.", "''Service-Taxi Taxi'' Local*£L2,000 ($1.33) per person or £L4,000 ($2.66) per person depending on how close/far the destination is.", "Prices within Beirut could vary depending on traffic and distance but overall should not exceed £L4,000 per person (Maximum of £L5,000 for Beirut outskirts).", "However, the driver could ask for more if the passenger intends to go to an area with high traffic like Hamra Street.", "Long Distance*Starts from £L5,000 ($3.33) and goes up from there.", "For example, from Beirut to Sidon, the drivers usually charge in between £L50,000 ($33.33) and £L75,000 ($50).", "'''Traditional Taxis'''The driver must not pick up additional passengers.", "Most of these taxis are not equipped with meters, so it is important to negotiate the fare before embarking.", "The regular taxi fare starts at £L10,000 ($6.66).", "'''Online services'''Uber and Careem are both available in Lebanon as online services which are ordered online through the app and can be paid either online or by cash.", "These alternatives are sometimes cheaper than traditional taxis in Lebanon.", "'''On-call taxis'''Pick up people who have pre-booked by phone.", "They don't respond to hails in the street.", "They don't have a meter so passengers should ask the operator the price when they are booking the taxi, and double check with the driver at the end of the journey.===Carpooling===Carpolo App (https://www.carpolo.co/download-app) is an alternative mode of transportation in Lebanon.", "Upon downloading the app, users post their un-used seats and the app connects them with people who have matching rides.", "It is free for users on the public community and has private communities that can be accessed by invitation only.", "Carpolo uses gamification to incentivize drivers to list their empty car seats and offers incentives for carpoolers." ], [ "Port infrastructure", "===Airport===The Beirut Rafic Hariri International Airport, BeirutThe main national airport is the Beirut Rafic Hariri International Airport and is located in the southern suburbs.", "The Travel and Tourism Competitiveness report ranked the country 51st in terms of air transport infrastructure.In 2017, a delegation from Lebanon's Civil Aviation Authority inspected the Rene Mouawad Air Base in order to assess the needs and requirements of reconstructing the air base." ], [ "Cable Car", "A cable car, Téléphérique de Jounieh, operates in the Mount Lebanon Governorate between the coast of Jounieh and Harissa.", "The cable car has been active since 1965 and is 1.5 km long reaching 650 m of altitude at the top." ], [ "Rail transport", "The Lebanese rail system is not currently in use, with services having ceased due to the country's political difficulties.", "* For more information, check: Rail transport in Lebanon" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lebanese Armed Forces" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Lebanese Armed Forces''' ('''LAF'''; ), also known as the '''Lebanese Army''' (), is the military of the Lebanese Republic.", "It consists of three branches, the ground forces, the air force, and the navy.", "The motto of the Lebanese Armed Forces is \"Honor, Sacrifice, Loyalty\" (Arabic: \"شرف · تضحية · وفاء\" - ''Sharaf.Tadhia.Wafa''')." ], [ "Emblem", "The Lebanese Armed Forces emblem consists of a Lebanon cedar tree surrounded by two laurel leaves, positioned above the symbols of the three branches: the ground forces represented by the two bayonets, the navy represented by an anchor, and the air force represented by two wings." ], [ "General overview", "The Lebanese Armed Forces' primary missions include defending Lebanon and its citizens against external aggression, maintaining internal stability and security, confronting threats against the country's vital interests, engaging in social development activities and undertaking relief operations in coordination with public and humanitarian institutions.The armed forces consist of 84,200 active personnel with the ground force consisting of approximately 80,000 troops, the air force 2,500 personnel and 1,700 in the naval force.", "The remaining personnel are commanders, advisors, engineers and members of the special forces.", "The LAF is an all-volunteer force.", "All three branches are operated and coordinated by the LAF Commander; a position customarily held by a Maronite Catholic Christian, from the ministry of defence which is located in Yarzeh, east of Lebanon's capital, Beirut.", "The current commander in chief of the Lebanese Armed Forces is General Joseph Aoun.", "Currently, the LAF is ranked sixth in the world in terms of growth, with the number of military personnel doubling over the period between 1985 and 2000.The country has six military colleges and schools.", "Lebanese officers are sent to other countries such as the United States, Russia or other parts of Europe to receive additional training.The equipment of the LAF is outdated due to lack of funds, political bickering and until the 2000s, the presence of foreign forces.", "The Lebanese government is working with its partners to improve the armed forces' capabilities.", "After the conclusion of the Lebanese Civil War, the LAF decided to repair as much of its equipment as it could, while being aided by modest donations from other states.", "The United States remains a key partner for Lebanon in this improvement process.", "About 85% of the LAF's equipment is US-made, with the remaining being UK, French, and Soviet-made." ], [ "History", "Lebanese soldiers during the mutasarrif periodDuring the period of semi-autonomous province of Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate between 1861 and 1914, the province reportedly had its own army of volunteer militias which gained the attention of a traveler in 1914, contending: \"the free independent bearing of these mountaineers was in striking contrast to that of the underpaid, underfed and poorly clothed conscripts of the regular Ottoman army\".The beginnings of the modern Lebanese Army arose during 1916, when the French government established the \"Legion of the Orient\", which included Lebanese soldiers.", "After a post World War I League of Nations mandate was established over Lebanon in April 1920, France formed the Army of the Levant, which was later reorganized to include the locally recruited ''Troupes Spéciales du Levant'' (Special Troops of the Levant).", "These indigenous troops were diverse units composed of Lebanese, Syrian, Circassian and Kurdish enlisted personnel; all commanded predominantly by French officers.", "By 1938, the ''Troupes Speciales'' numbered 10,000 with 306 officers, of whom only 88 were French.", "In addition to the locally engaged ''Troupes Speciales''; North African, Senegalese and French military units served in Syria and the Lebanon.Later in 1926, the Lebanese First Sharp Shooters Unit was created out of the Special Troops of the Levant; it is considered to be a direct precursor to the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF).During World War II, Lebanese troops fought in Lebanon with the Vichy French forces against Free French and British forces.", "After the Vichy forces in the Middle East surrendered in July 1941, volunteers from the ''Troupes Spéciales du Levant'' enlisted in the Free French forces and participated in combat in Italy, North Africa, and southern France.", "In 1943, prior to the declaration of Lebanese independence, all the military units were combined in one brigade, the Fifth Brigade, under the command of General Fouad Chehab.", "On the day Lebanon declared independence, the Lebanese Third Sharp Shooters ''(tirailleurs)'' Regiment was placed at the disposal of the Lebanese government in order to maintain security.", "In June of the same year, the French reconstituted units of the ''Troupes Spéciales du Levant'', which were then attached to the British forces in the Middle East.", "The majority of the Lebanese Armed Forces remained a part of the French Army in Lebanon.===Post-independence===After Lebanon gained independence in 1943, the Lebanese government formed an official delegation in 1944 to negotiate with the French the terms related to handing over the LAF.", "After nearly three weeks of talks, the joint French-British Command decreed that responsibility for armed units under French control were to be handed over to the Independent Government of Lebanon.", "These units were part of the Troupes Spéciales du Levant and totaled about 3,000 men.", "On August 1, 1945, at 00:00 hours, the LAF was placed under full authority of the Lebanese National Government; this day is commemorated annually as Lebanese Army Day.The Lebanese Army first flag under Independent LebanonAfter establishing authority over the LAF in 1945, the Lebanese government intentionally kept its armed forces small and weak due to the country's unique internal politics.", "Christian politicians feared that Muslims might use the armed forces as a vehicle for seizing power in a military coup.", "They also appeared unwilling to incur the cost of maintaining a large well equipped army.", "Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, Lebanon never spent more than 4% of its GNP on the military budget.", "Many Christian Lebanese also feared that a large army would inevitably force Lebanon into the Arab–Israeli conflict.", "However, Muslim politicians were also worried that a strong army could be used against Muslim interests because it would be commanded by Christians.", "At the same time they tended to feel that the military should be strong enough to play a part in the Arab-Israeli struggle.", "In addition to the two major conflicting views, prominent Lebanese politicians of the myriad of religious denominations in Lebanon have also tended to be feudal warlords commanding their own private militias and feared that a strong army would endanger their personal power.On 6 June 1948, the 3rd battalion of the Lebanese Army, backed by Arab Liberation Army, fought Israeli forces occupying the Lebanese villages of Qadas and Malkieh and captured them, subsequently handing them over to the ALA and withdrawing by 8 July.", "This was the first major combat operation for the Lebanese Armed Forces under the Independent Lebanese Government." ], [ "Branches", "===Armed Forces Command===The LAF Command is headquartered at Yarzeh.", "The organizational structure of the LAF Command includes:* The Commander-in-Chief* The Chief of staff* Deputy Chiefs of Staff* Various Directorates===Lebanese Ground Forces===The Lebanese Ground Forces () are by far the largest of the three branches of the military.The Lebanese Ground Forces consist of:* '''5 Regional Commands''' Beirut Region Bekaa Region Mount Lebanon Region North Region** South Region* '''11 Brigades''' 5 Heavy (Mechanised) Brigades* 1st Infantry Brigade* 2nd Infantry Brigade* 3rd Infantry Brigade* 5th Infantry Brigade* 6th Infantry Brigade 6 Light Brigades* 7th Infantry Brigade* 8th Infantry Brigade* 9th Infantry Brigade* 10th Infantry Brigade* 11th Infantry Brigade*** 12th Infantry Brigade* 1st Artillery Regiment* 2nd Artillery Regiment* Signals Regiment * Lebanese Commando Regiment** Includes the '''Mountain Combat''' Company.", "* Lebanese Airborne Regiment* Counter-Sabotage Regiment (Moukafaha)* 1st Intervention Force Regiment* 2nd Intervention Force Regiment* 3rd Intervention Force Regiment* 4th Intervention Force Regiment* 5th Intervention Force Regiment* 6th Intervention Force Regiment* Republican Guard Brigade* Medical Brigade* Support Brigade* Logistics Brigade* Military Police* Army Band* Independent Construction Regiment* 1st Armored Regiment* 1st Land Border Regiment* 2nd Land Border Regiment* 3rd Land Border Regiment* 4th Land Border RegimentThe Fourth Brigade was previously active but was disbanded in 1984===Lebanese Air Force===The Lebanese Air Force () currently has a number of helicopters including the Bell UH-1H Huey, Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma, Gazelle, Cessna Caravan, Hawker Hunters, and various others.", "The air force is currently in the process of restoring its jet capabilities and considering the purchase of a small number of fighters or jet trainers.===Lebanese Naval Forces===The Lebanese Navy, officially the '''Lebanese Naval Forces''' () is responsible for protecting Lebanon's territorial waters, ports, and fighting illegal smuggling of goods.", "At the head of the naval hierarchy is the Navy Command, then it branches off into the quarter-general of the Navy, the Department of Naval Equipment Stores, the Naval School, Beirut Naval Base and the Jounieh Naval Base.The navy, which currently lacks a suitable amount of equipment, has approximately 50 vessels of various sizes and roles; however, it is trying to modernize itself and increase its size.===Lebanese Special Forces===The Lebanese Special Forces are the elite of the Lebanese Armed Forces.", "Those who enroll are subjected to rigorous training regimes and must be in peak physical and mental condition prior to their ascension to such a highly desired position.", "Each branch of the Armed Forces maintains its own form of Special Forces or Commandos.", "These include:* Commando Regiment (Also known as the Maghaweer)* Lebanese Airborne Regiment - Moujawkal* Marine Commandos* Lebanese counter-terrorism and sabotage unit (Moukafaha)* Panthers (part of the Internal Security Force, i.e.", "police)To ensure the effectiveness of such an elite force, many Commandos are sent overseas to nations such as the US, UK and France to receive extra training in specialized areas that the Lebanese Armed Forces are unable to provide, due to a lack of resources.", "While training in Lebanon, each Commando is instructed in the art of urban and guerrilla warfare.", "So rigorous is their domestic training regime that each commando is subjected to a training timetable consisting of 20 hours per day for 3 months, which is divided into different stages.", "Each stage consists of a specialized form of warfare and its associated tactics.", "Such tactics include: sabotage, sniping, extraction and covert operations.", "The Lebanese Special Forces are also well known for killing and eating snakes with their bare hands at graduation ceremonies.In 2008, the Lebanese Armed Forces started establishing the Lebanese Special Operations Command in order to group the LAF's elite units.", "These special operations forces will include the Airborne Regiment, the Rangers Regiment, the Navy Commandos Regiment, and the Counter-Sabotage Regiment of the Military Intelligence.", "The initial size of the force will be less than two brigades, around 5,000 troops, but the plan is to enlarge it up to three brigades.===Colleges and schools===The Lebanese Armed Forces has six official military colleges and schools that serve a wide variety of functions from officer training to overseeing national youth conscription programs.", "The recent emphasis on the First Flag Service Center is designed to help overcome the diverse nature of the population.", "The schools and colleges are:* Fouad Shehab Command and Staff College* High Center for Military Sport* Lebanese Army Military Academy* Skiing and Mountain Fighting School* Teaching Institute* Air Force Aviation School* Naval Academy* Lebanese Special Forces SchoolThe Staff and Command College, Military Academy, and Mountain Skiing Fighting School are training centers for Lebanese soldiers designed to upgrade the quality of their skills while the High Center for Military Sport is designed to keep them in peak physical shape (it also organizes sports groups and teams for international competition as well).", "The Training Institute is designed to help soldiers specialize in certain aspects of the military, such as artillery and defense." ], [ "Equipment", "The Lebanese Army still uses equipment mostly received through donations or friendly prices.", "Its work horse is the M113 which is commonly used by every regiment and brigade.", "A collection of Western and Soviet made weaponry and equipment exists ranging from rifles to tanks.", "However, the Lebanese Army is trying to re-arm and modernize itself through new aid and purchases from different countries such as the United States, Belgium, Russia, and The Netherlands.", "A list of awaiting-for-delivery armaments is constantly growing and includes M60 Patton tanks, M198 Howitzers, etc.", "A recent Russian promise to supply Lebanon with T-90 tanks has been in discussion since the Lebanese Defense Minister's last visit to Russia on December 16, 2008.Throughout history the Lebanese Army employed different weapons and equipment which, at the time, were considered state of the art.", "Most of these arms have either been phased out of service or sold to other countries.", "Among the major equipment that is not currently active are AMX-13, Saladin, Panhard M3, and Staghound vehicles." ], [ "Military ranks", "The military ranks are as follows:" ], [ "Uniforms", "Image 110px 110px 100px 100px 100px 100pxName Operational Camouflage Pattern UCP MARPAT desert pattern MARPAT Woodland Lizard Camouflage Black CamouflageUsers All units since 21 November 2017 Marine Commandos Airborne Regiment Commando Regiment Moukafaha Marine Commandos" ], [ "Training", "Training of new conscripts takes place in the First Flag Service Center (FFSC).", "After a week of enlisting, they submit to two training courses, the common military training basic course and the specific course.", "All these courses are organized in details according to a program determining hours of training taking into consideration the conscript rank.", "The first course consists of 240 hours equivalent to 9 weeks and the training program is composed of:* Military rules and regulations* Technical and tactical education* Weapons* Physical fitness* Orientation and moral preparationThe second course consists of 84 hours equivalent to three weeks.", "The infantry course is composed of:* Physical fitness* Drill* Infantry weapons, which are available in the Lebanese army and its tactics." ], [ "Combat history", "===1975–1990 Lebanese Civil War===As the civil war escalated, Lebanese militias grew stronger and soon surpassed the regular army.", "This rapidly undermined the authority of the central government.", "The government's ability to maintain order was also handicapped by the nature of the Lebanese Army.", "One of the smallest in the Middle East, it was composed based on a fixed ratio of religions.", "As members defected to sectarian militias, the army would eventually prove unable to contain the militant groups, rein in the PLO or monitor foreign infiltration.", "Since the government was Christian-dominated, especially the officers' ranks, trust among Muslims for central institutions, including the army, was low.", "The disintegration of the Lebanese Army was eventually initiated by Muslim deserters declaring that they would no longer take orders from the Maronite generals.===1991 Taif Agreement===On 4 July 1991, following the failure of disarmament negotiations, as required by the Taif Agreement, the Lebanese Army attacked Palestinian positions in Southern Lebanon.", "The offensive, involving 10,000 troops against an estimated 5,000 militia, lasted 3 days and ended with the Army taking all the Palestinian positions around Sidon.", "In the agreement that followed all heavy weapons were surrendered and infantry weapons only allowed in the two refugee camps, Ain al-Hilweh and Mieh Mieh.", "73 people were killed in the fighting, and 200 wounded, mostly Palestinian.===1999–2000 Dinnieh fighting===During December 1999–January 2000 an Islamic group launched a failed uprising against the Lebanese authorities in the Dinnieh district.", "In a period of 8 days of fighting in the snow-blanketed mountains east of the northern port of Tripoli, 14 soldiers and 25 rebels were killed.===2006 Lebanon War===In the 2006 Lebanon War the LAF did not engage in a direct conflict with the Israeli Army, despite its threat of retaliation if the IDF pushed too far northward into Lebanon.", "However, Israel did bomb several Lebanese military bases.", "While providing aid to civilians, Lebanese troops helped to uphold order in city streets, directed refugees to safer areas, and assisted with overlooking damage done by Israeli attacks.", "On several occasions, Lebanese troops fired anti-air weapons at Israeli aircraft, but no damage was documented.", "Overall, 49 Lebanese soldiers were killed.After the 2006 Lebanon War the LAF deployed south of the Litani River for the first time since 1968 to enforce Security Council Resolution 1701.The LAF says it will not, and cannot, disarm Hezbollah by force.", "On August 3, 2010, the Lebanese army fired at Israeli soldiers whom crane lifted a soldier across the border, to remove a tree off the fence; Israeli troops returned fire.", "3 LAF soldiers, one Israeli officer and 1 Lebanese journalist were killed in the incident (After Israeli Artillery & aircraft bombing).", "According to UN reports, the border fence in the area is actually inside Israel's international border.", "The UNIFIL force stationed in the south described the shootout as a \"serious incident\".===2007 North Lebanon conflict===Location of eventsThe 2007 Lebanon conflict began when fighting broke out between Fatah al-Islam, an Islamic terrorist organization, and the Lebanese Armed Forces on May 20, 2007, in Nahr al-Bared, a Palestinian refugee camp near Tripoli.", "It has been the most severe internal fighting since Lebanon's 1975–90 civil war.", "The primary theater of conflict was the Siege of Nahr el-Bared.", "There was heavy use of the Lebanese artillery in that area to eliminate snipers posted around the cities.", "The conflict finally ended on September 2, 2007, with the Lebanese Army taking control of the camp after more than three months of heavy fights and a death toll of 155 Commandos and Infantrymen.", "The LAF Engineering Corps achieved what was seen as a feat of ingenuity during the conflict where they converted a number of UH-1 helicopters into bombers, arming them with 250 kg and 400 kg conventional bombs from old Hunter and Mirage III fighter jets.", "Some helicopters were also fitted with French Matra rocket pods.", "This was, according to observers, a decisive step that considerably shortened the conflict.===2008 Clashes in Lebanon===A Lebanese M113 APC in Beirut, during the unrest of May 9, 2008.During the week-long clashes that occurred at the beginning of May 2008 in Beirut and other regions of the country, the army was unable to prevent rival Lebanese groups from fighting each other.", "This was because the army, along with the government, had thought it would have been better if rival groups would eventually end the violence and sort out the dispute between them, alone, other than involving the national army which may have led to great divisions between the soldiers, just like in the civil war.", "It would have also caused an out cry to the soldiers that could have died, leading to even greater divisions and blame to the political forces.", "However, whenever ceasefire was brought into action in a specific area or district in Beirut or elsewhere in the country, the LAF would straight away enforce peace.", "On May 13, the national army had announced that if the clashes would not end as soon as possible, it would have to intervene and use force if necessary to stop them.===2011–2017 Syrian Civil War spillover in Lebanon===Since the outbreak of conflict in Syria, the Lebanese Army has been deployed to prevent clashes from taking place in the city of Tripoli, as well as in other hot zones such as Beirut and Arsal on the eastern borders.", "In 2014, ISIS and Al-Nusra Front terrorist groups established small bases and fortifications in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, where they operated against Hezbollah and the Lebanese Army.On June 23, 2013, intense clashes in Sidon took place between followers of Salafist Sunni preacher Ahmad Al-Assir and Lebanese troops.", "Following these clashes, the Lebanese Army was sent in to capture Sheikh Assir's headquarters at Abra and apprehend him.", "Lebanese Army units fought against pro-Assir militants for two days in a battle that led to the deaths of at least 16 Lebanese soldiers, and the wounding of at least 50 men.", "Although the LAF managed to secure his complex, Assir was able to escape and was only captured on August 16, 2015, while trying to flee the country on a false passport.On August 2, 2014, following the arrest of an Al-Nusra Front Commander Abu Ahmad Jumaa; Terrorists from Al-Nusra and ISIS launched an assault on the Lebanese Armed Forces in the town of Arsal and seized control of the town.", "By August 7, a fragile truce was established as ISIS and Al Nusra forces also retreated from the town and redeployed along the border with Syria.", "Their hideouts there were subsequently bombed by the Syrian Air Force.", "Two days later, the Lebanese Army entered Arsal in full force and re-established control over checkpoints that the militants had previously seized.On July 21, 2017, Hezbollah, Syrian Armed Forces and the Lebanese Army launched a military operation against ISIS and Tahrir al-Sham positions on the Lebanon–Syria border.", "The Lebanese army committed the 5th Infantry Brigade and 7th Infantry Brigade to the battle, and heavily shelled ISIS and HTS positions.", "By August 28, most of the ~2,100 militants surrendered to Hezbollah and the Syrian Army." ], [ "See also", "* Internal Security Forces* General Security Directorate (Lebanon)* Rangers of the Lebanese Army Sports Event* Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (Lebanon)* United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon* Hezbollah armed strength" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) Official Website* Lebanon Military Guide from GlobalSecurity.org* CIA - The World Factbook - Lebanon* Army Recognition Index of Lebanese Military Equipment* Global Fire Power - Lebanon Military Strength* Lebanon army trying to rearm and modernize itself* Lebanese Military Wish List 2008/2009 - New York Times* Lebanese army Twitter account" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Lebanon" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''foreign policy of Lebanon''' reflects its geographic location, the composition of its population, and its reliance on commerce and trade.", "Until 2005, Lebanon's foreign policy had been heavily influenced by Syria, however beginning with the formation of Hezbollah in 1982, Iran had gradually grown to heavily influence Lebanon.The framework for relations was first codified in May 1991, when Lebanon and Syria signed a treaty of mutual cooperation.", "This treaty came out of the Taif Agreement, which stipulated that \"Lebanon is linked to Syria by distinctive ties deriving strength from kinship, history, and common interests.\"", "The Lebanese-Syria treaty calls for \"coordination and cooperation between the two countries\" that would serve the \"interests of the two countries within the framework of sovereignty and independence of each.\"", "Numerous agreements on political, economic, and security.", "After Syria's military withdrawal in 2005, Lebanon's foreign policy charted a more independent course." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Lebanon maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate127 March 1942224 February 194439 April 194441 August 194453 August 1944621 September 1944716 November 1944825 November 1944925 November 19441030 November 19441112 June 19451228 June 19451325 October 19451413 November 19451522 November 19451627 February 1946178 March 19461830 April 19461918 May 19462010 July 19462121 September 1946221 October 1946232420 November 1946—17 March 19472517 June 1947267 February 1946275 March 19482810 August 194829August 19483015 September 19483115 September 19483215 September 19483329 October 19483428 May 19493531 July 1949361949373812 May 19503912 October 19504021 November 1950411 January 19514216 January 1951436 December 19514429 July 19524520 May 1953466 October 19534719534821 June 19544926 August 195450November 1954—1955511955521956531956541957553 February 19585630 March 19595721 May 1959583 June 19605915 June 19606020 September 196061628 January 1961 6322 April 19616427 April 19616527 September 1961664 October 1961676 October 1961689 October 19616911 March 1962707 June 19627127 June 19627218 December 1962731962741962751962767 May 19637715 July 19637816 July 19637918 August 1963801963811963826 January 19658324 May 19658430 November 19658519 September 1966861966873 February 1967885 February 19678916 August 1967903 May 19699110 June 1971929 November 1971938 January 19729411 April 19729529 May 197296June 1972972 January 19739828 March 19739928 March 197310028 May 197410112 December 19741021 July 197510325 November 198010412 February 198110512 February 198110612 February 198110711 March 198110825 February 198810931 January 19901104 March 199211128 September 199211214 December 19921131 January 199311418 March 19931151 April 199311620 April 19931176 May 199311829 July 19931193 September 199312018 May 19941218 June 19941225 December 19941232 March 199512426 April 199512522 June 199512618 November 199512721 March 199612821 June 19961293 July 19961307 May 199713116 January 19981325 February 199813320 April 199813422 October 199813524 March 19991369 June 200013712 April 200113829 June 20011393 September 2001140April 20051411 September 200514224 August 200714325 September 200714415 October 200814521 November 20081464 December 200814710 October 2010—17 August 20111485 November 201214915021 April 2017151April 20171525 May 201715329 June 201715418 October 20171551565 March 201915725 September 201915826 September 201915920 October 202016020 May 202116129 March 2022" ], [ "Bilateral relations", "===Africa=== Country Formal Relations Began Notes18 December 1962Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 December 1962 when has been accredited first Ambassador of Lebanon to Algeria Mr Hussein El Jissr.", "* Algeria has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Algiers.27 June 1962Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 June 1962 when first ambassador of Lebanon to Dahomey presented his credentials to President Hubert Maga.1962Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1962 when has been accredited Ambassador of Lebanon to Cameroon with residence in Dakar M. Mohamed Ali Hamade.1966Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1966 when has been accredited Ambassador of Lebanon to Central African Republic (resident in Accra) M. Khalil Itani.4 October 1961Approximately 100,000 people of Lebanese origin reside in Côte d'Ivoire.21 April 1961 established Embassy of Lebanon in Abidjan* Côte d'Ivoire has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Abidjan.", "* See Lebanese people in Ivory CoastJune 1972* Lebanon has an embassy in Kinshasa.", "* The Democratic Republic of Congo has a consulate in Beirut.11 March 1981Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 March 1981 when first Ambassador of Lebanon to Djibouti (resident in Khartoum) Mr. Ibrahim Marouche presented his credentials to President M. Hassan Gouled Aptidon.30 November 1944Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 November 1944 when was opened Legation of Lebanon in Cairo.Severed diplomatic relations 26 April 1979, restored 28 June 1989.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Cairo and a consulate-general in Alexandria.31 July 194931 July 1949 was accredited first Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Ethiopia to Lebanon Mr. Fitaorari Tafesse Habte Mikael* Ethiopia has a consulate-general in Beirut.1962Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1962 when Ambassador of Lebanon to Gabon M. Mohamed Ali Hamade presented his credentials to President Leon Mba.24 May 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 May 196530 March 1959Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 March 1959.", "* Ghana is accredited to Lebanon from its embassy in Cairo, Egypt.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Accra.3 June 1960Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 June 1960 when Lebanese Government appointed its Minister to Liberia to be Minister to Guinea as well.", "* Guinea is accredited to Lebanon from its embassy in Cairo, Egypt.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Conakry.20 October 2020Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 October 2020 when Ambassador of Lebanon to Guinea-Bissau Mr. Fadi Zein has presented his credentials to President Ùmaro El Mokhtar Sissoco Embaló.1 January 1951Both countries established diplomatic relations when Liberian and Lebanese Governments to raise their Consulates General to the status of Legations, and a proclamation was issued announcing that the change would take effect from 1 January 1951.In 1957 both countries raise their Legations to status of Embassies1955* Lebanon has an embassy in Tripoli.", "* Libya is accredited to Lebanon from its embassy in Cairo.18 October 2017Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 October 2017 when ambassador of Malawi Mrs. Caroline Bwanali Mussa, has presented his credentials to President of Lebanon Michel Aoun.9 October 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 October 1961 when first Lebanese Ambassador to Mali (resident in Accra) Dr. Karim Azqul presented his credentials to President Modibo Keita.10 June 1971Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 June 1971 * Lebanon has an embassy in Rabat.", "* Morocco has an embassy in Beirut.11 March 1962Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 March 1962, when the first Lebanese Ambassador to Niger, Jean Hadji Thomas, presented his credentials to President Hamani Diori8 January 19618 January 1961 Lebanese Consulate in Lagos was raised to level Embassy.", "Nigeria opened its Embassy in Beirut in 1982* Lebanon has an embassy in Abuja.", "* Nigeria has an embassy in Beirut.21 April 2017Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 April 201722 April 1961Approximately 30,000 people of Lebanese origin reside in Senegal.22 April 1961 Lebanese Consulate General in Dakar was raised to level Embassy* Lebanon has an embassy in Dakar.", "* See Lebanese people in Senegal27 April 1961Approximately 30,000 people of Lebanese origin reside in Sierra Leone.27 April 1961 Lebanese Consulate General in Freetown was raised to status Embassy* Lebanon has an embassy in Freetown.", "* See Lebanese people in Sierra Leone6 October 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 October 196118 November 1995Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 November 1995* Lebanon has an embassy in Pretoria.", "* South Africa is accredited to Lebanon from its embassy in Damascus, Syria.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Khartoum.", "* Sudan has an embassy in Beirut.7 June 1962Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 June 1962 when first Ambassador of Lebanon to Togo (resident in Dakar) Mr. Mohammed Ali Hamade presented his credentials.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Tunis.", "* Tunisia has an embassy in Beirut.===Americas=== Country Formal Relations Began Notes22 November 1945See Argentina–Lebanon relations* Argentina has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Buenos Aires.", "* See also Lebanese Argentines.28 May 1949Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 May 1949 when has been accredited Charge d'Affaires of Lebanon to Bolivia (resident in Bogota) Mr. Nazih Lahoud.13 November 1945See Brazil–Lebanon relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 13 November 1945* Brazil has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Brasília and consulates-general in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.", "* See also Lebanese Brazilians.26 August 1954 See Canada–Lebanon relationsCanada established diplomatic relations with Lebanon in 1954, when Canada deployed \"Envoy Extraordinaire\" to Beirut.", "In 1958, Canada sent its first Ambassador.", "The Embassy was closed in 1985 and reopened in January 1995.Lebanon opened a consulate in Canada in 1946.A Consulate-General replaced the Consulate in 1949, and an embassy was opened in Ottawa in 1958.", "* Canada has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Ottawa and a consulate-general in Montreal.", "* See also Lebanese Canadians28 June 1945See Chile–Lebanon relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 28 June 1945.", "* Chile has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Santiago.", "* See Lebanese Chileans29 October 1948Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 October 1948.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Bogotá.", "* See Lebanese Colombians29 July 1952Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 July 1952, but was broke off in May 1984, re-established on 24 August 200715 June 1960Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 June 1960.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Havana.15 September 1948Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 September 1948 when has been accredited Mr. Nazih Lahoud as Minister of Lebanon to Ecuador (Resident in Bogota).29 July 1952 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 July 1952, but broke off diplomatic relations 10 May 1984, re-established 25 September 2007* El Salvador is accredited to Lebanon from its Permanent Mission to the United Nations in New York City.", "* Lebanon is accredited to El Salvador from its embassy in Mexico City.16 January 1951Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 January 1951 when in official note approval was granted for Mr. Joseph Aboukater to serve as Extraordinary Envoy and Minister Plenipotentiary of Lebanon to the Government of Honduras, with residence in Mexico.12 June 1945See Lebanon–Mexico relations* Mexico was among the first nations to recognize Lebanon's independence in 1943.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Mexico City.", "* Mexico has an embassy in Beirut.", "* The Centro Libanés and \"Club Deportivo Libanés\" in Mexico City are important symbols representing the historically cultural and social ties between both countries.", "* See also Lebanese Mexicans.30 April 1946* Panama has a consulate-general in Beirut.12 May 1950Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 May 1950.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Asunción.", "* Paraguay has an embassy in Beirut.", "* See Lebanese Paraguayans1963Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1963 when has been accredited Ambassador of Lebanon to Trinidad and Tobago (resident in Caracas) M. Halim Shebaya.16 November 1944See Lebanon–United States relationsThe United States' interaction with Lebanon extends back to events such as the 1958 Lebanon crisis, which it sent in troops to fortify the government's position.", "Lebanon's southern neighbor, Israel, has also sent troops on several occasions, and attacked into Lebanon in response to Hezbollah kidnapping two Israeli soldiers.", "A possible source of friction between the U.S. and Lebanon is that most of Israel's weaponry is US-made, arguing possible US complicity in Israel's attacks.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Washington, D.C. and consulates-general in Detroit, Los Angeles and New York City.", "* United States has an embassy in Beirut.", "* See also Lebanese Americans25 October 1945See Lebanon–Uruguay relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 25 October 1945* Uruguay recognized Lebanon's independence on November 22, 1943.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Montevideo.", "* Uruguay has an embassy in Beirut.", "* See also Lebanese Uruguayans10 July 1946* Lebanon has an embassy in Caracas.", "* Venezuela has an embassy in Beirut.", "* See Lebanese Venezuelans===Asia=== Country Formal Relations Began NotesAugust 1948Both countries established diplomatic relations in August 1948 when has been accredited Minister of Afghanistan to Lebanon (Resident in Bagdad) Mr. Ghulam Yahya Tarzi.4 March 1992See Armenia–Lebanon relationsThe Embassy of Armenia to Lebanon was opened in June 1994.The Embassy of Lebanon was opened in Yerevan in September 1997.Lebanon is host to the eighth largest Armenian population in the world.", "During the 2006 Lebanon War, Armenia announced that it would send humanitarian aid to Lebanon.", "According to the Armenian government, an unspecified amount of medicines, tents and fire-fighting equipment was allocated to Lebanese authorities on July 27, 2006.On May 11, 2000, the Lebanese parliament voted to recognize the Armenian genocide.", "Lebanon is the first Arab country and one of the few countries of the world to have done so.", "* Armenia has embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Yerevan.18 September 1992See Azerbaijan–Lebanon relations* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Beirut.29 May 1972* Bahrain has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Manama.28 March 1973Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 March 19739 November 1971See China–Lebanon relationsChina and Lebanon established diplomatic relations on November 1, 1954 and the embassy in Taipei opened in 1957.Lebanon shifted recognition from the Taipei-based Republic to the People's Republic on 9 November 1971.", "* China has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Beijing.In June 2020, Lebanon was one of 53 countries that backed the Hong Kong national security law at the United Nations.China opened the first Confucius Institute in the Middle East in Lebanon in 2006.15 September 1948See India-Lebanon relations* India has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in New Delhi.", "See Indonesia–Lebanon relations* Indonesia has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Jakarta.21 September 1944See Iran–Lebanon relations and Iranian influence in LebanonBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 21 September 1944.", "* Iran has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Tehran.24 February 1944See Iraq–Lebanon relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relatiobns on 24 February 1944 when first Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Iraq to Lebanon Mr. Tahsin Kadri presented his credentials as first foreign diplomatic representatives, who presented his letters of credentials to President Lebanon Mr.Bechara Khoury.Lebanon and Iraq share the same language and mutual support for each other in conflicts, Lebanon's relations with Iraq have at most times been cold.", "Issues include the Lebanese Government's strong material and political assistance of Hezbollah and ongoing clashes in Iraq between the Sunnis and Shias.", "* Iraq has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Baghdad.", "See Israel–Lebanon relationsNovember 1954In 1954 Legation of Japan opened in Lebanon, in 1957 Legation of Lebanon opened in Tokyo.", "In 1959 both Legations was upgrades to Embassies* Japan has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Tokyo.1 October 1946See Jordan–Lebanon relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 1 October 1946 when has been accredited Minister of Transjordan to Lebanon Mr. Mohamed Ali Ajlouni.", "* Jordan has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Amman.20 April 1993* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Nur-Sultan.27 September 1961* Kuwait has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Kuwait City.16 July 1963See Lebanon–Malaysia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 16 July 1963* Lebanon has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur.", "* Malaysia has an embassy in Beirut.15 September 1948 See Lebanon–Pakistan relations* Pakistan does not recognize Israel, which has hostile relations with Lebanon, as a legitimate country.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Islamabad.", "* Pakistan has an embassy in Beirut.17 August 2011 Lebanon and State of Palestine established diplomatic relations on 17 August 2011 when Palestinian diplomatic representation was raised to level an embassy and opened the Embassy of the State of Palestine to the Republic of Lebanon.", "* Palestine has an embassy in Beirut.11 April 1972* Lebanon has an embassy in Doha.", "* Qatar has an embassy in Beirut.9 April 1944See Lebanon–Saudi Arabia relations* Lebanon has an embassy in Riyadh and a consulate-general in Jeddah.", "* Saudi Arabia has an embassy in Beirut.12 February 1981* Lebanon has an embassy in Seoul.", "* South Korea has an embassy in Beirut.15 October 2008See Lebanon–Syria relations 15 October 2008 opened Embassies in both countriesThe relationship between these two neighboring countries in Western Asia is complex: Syria has had troops stationed in Lebanon and has exerted political influence in the nation for many years.", "However, Syria has only officially recognised Lebanon's sovereignty recently.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Damascus.", "* Syria has an embassy in Beirut.8 March 1946See Lebanon–Turkey relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 8 March 1946.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Ankara and a consulate-general in Istanbul.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Beirut.8 January 1972See Lebanon–United Arab Emirates relations* Lebanon has an embassy in Abu Dhabi and a consulate-general in Dubai.", "* United Arab Emirates has an embassy in Beirut.1953Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1953 when has been accredited Minister of Yemen Embassy in Lebanon Dr. Adnan Tarcici.===Europe===Lebanon concluded negotiations on an association agreement with the European Union in late 2001, and both sides initialed the accord in January 2002, the accord becoming known as the EU-Lebanon Association Agreement.", "The EU-Lebanon Action Plan from January 19, 2007, gave a new impetus to bilateral relations in the framework of the European Neighborhood Policy.Lebanon is one of the main Mediterranean beneficiaries of community assistance and the EU through its various instruments is Lebanon's leading donor.", "Starting from 2007 financial support is channeled through the European Neighborhood Policy Instrument.", "A Lebanon Country Strategy Paper 2007–2013 and a National Indicative Program 2007–2010 have been adopted by the EU.", "The assistance provided was refocused after the Second Lebanon War to engage in real help for the government and the society in reconstruction and reform of the country.", "Country Formal Relations Began Notes6 December 1951Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 December 1951 when has been accredited Minister of Austria to Lebanon (resident in Cairo) M. Robert Friedinger-Pranter.25 November 1944Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 November 1944 when established Lebanese Legation (Embassy) in Belgium.19 September 1966* Since May 1967, Bulgaria has had an embassy in Beirut.", "* Since July 1983, Lebanon has had an embassy in Sofia.", "* Both countries are full members of the Francophonie and of the Union for the Mediterranean.6 October 1953Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 October 1953 when was accredited first Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Denmark to Lebanon (resident in Cairo) Mr. G. L. Host* Denmark has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon is accredited to Denmark from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.21 June 1954Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 June 195425 November 1944See France–Lebanon relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 25 November 1944 when has been appointed Mr. Ahmad Daouk as Minister Plenipotentiary of Lebanon to France.", "And 25 December 1944 has been opened Lebanese Legation (Embassy) in Paris.In 2007, French President Nicolas Sarkozy ordered ties with Syria to be suspended until proof Damascus was not interfering in the Lebanese political crisis was established.", "A week after Sarkozy's statement in Cairo, Syrian Foreign Minister Walid al Muallem announced Syria was ceasing their ties with France.", "\"Syria has decided to cease cooperation with France on the Lebanese crisis\" said Mouallem.", "In July 2008, France and Syria decided to open embassies in each other's countries.", "In April 2009, French and Lebanese officials approved the framework of a security agreement that besides improving bilateral relations include drugs and arms trafficking, illegal immigration and cyber-crime.", "* France has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon as an embassy in Paris and a consulate-general in Marseille.20 May 1953See Germany–Lebanon relations* Germany has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Berlin.17 June 1947See Greece–Lebanon relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 17 June 1947, when first Minister of Greece to Lebanon with residence in Cairo M. Georges Triantaphyllidis presented his credentialsThe relation between both people dates back to early antiquity, with the early trading activities between the ancient Greeks and the Phoenicians.", "In modern times, Greek-Lebanese bilateral relations are very good at all levels.", "Greece has an embassy in Beirut and Lebanon has an embassy in Athens.", "Both countries are members of the Union for the Mediterranean and the Francophonie.", "* Greece has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Athens.17 March 1947See Holy See–Lebanon relationsThe Holy See has played a major role in the peace negotiations of Lebanon.", "It has sought to unify Christian factions that were separated after the Lebanese civil war.", "At the same time, it sought to reduce Christian-Muslim tensions and to preserve Christian communities that have been declining in many parts of Lebanon and elsewhere in the Middle East.", "* Holy See has a nunciature in Harissa.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Rome accredited to the Holy See.30 November 1965* Hungary opened its Embassy in Beirut in 1970.", "* Lebanon opened Embassy in Budapest in 1994.12 December 1974* Ireland is accredited to Lebanon from its embassy in Cairo, Egypt.", "* Lebanon is accredited to Ireland from its embassy in London, UK.20 November 1946See Italy–Lebanon relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 20 November 1946 when has been accredited first Charge d'Affaires of Italy to Lebanon Mr. Adolfo Alessandrini.Lebanon opened a legation in 1946, which was transformed into an embassy in 1955.Both countries signed a Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Navigation in 1949.Rome supported the reconstruction of Lebanon after the Taef Agreement.", "Also, Italian companies, from almost all sectors, operate in Lebanon.", "* Italy has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Rome.9 June 2000Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 June 2000 when accredited first Ambassador of Lebanon to Liechtenstein (resident in Berne) Mr. Samir Hobeica12 October 1950Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 October 1950* Lebanon has an embassy in The Hague.", "* Netherlands has an embassy in Beirut.20 October 19561 August 1944 Lebanon established diplomatic relations with Polish Government in exile in London.", "On October 20, 1956, the government of Lebanon accepted the initiative of the government of the Polish People's Republic regarding the establishment of diplomatic relations at the level of the deputies, which meant simultaneous withdrawal of the recognition of the Polish government in exile.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Warsaw.", "* Poland has an embassy in Beirut.", "6 January 1965 See Lebanon–Romania relations* Lebanon has an embassy in Bucharest and an honorary consulate in Constanța.", "* Romania has an embassy in Beirut an honorary consulate in Tripoli.", "* Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean and of the Francophonie3 August 1944See Lebanon–Russia relations* Lebanon has an embassy in Moscow.", "* Russia has an embassy in Beirut.5 March 1948See Lebanon–Spain relations* Lebanon has an embassy in Madrid.", "* Spain has an embassy in Beirut.7 February 1946* Lebanon has an Embassy in Stockholm* Sweden has an Embassy in Beirut27 February 1946Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 February 194614 December 1992Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 December 1992* Embassy of Ukraine in Beirut was opened in August 1995* Embassy of Lebanon was opened in Kyiv until February 2022.27 March 1942Both countries established full diplomatic relations on 27 March 1942, when General Sir Edward Spears of the United Kingdom presented letters of credence to President Naccache of Lebanon* Lebanon has an embassy in London.", "* United Kingdom has an embassy in Beirut.===Oceania=== Country Formal Relations Began Notes5 February 196720 February 1967 opened Australian Embassy in Beirut.", "It was closed in 1984 because of the security situation in Beirut.", "The Embassy was formally re-opened on 18 July 199574,000 Lebanese-born people live in Australia, mainly in Sydney, and there are more people of Lebanese descent including Marie Bashir, Steve Bracks and Hazem El Masri.", "Australia has a modest trade relationship with Lebanon and has also given foreign aid in the aftermath of the Lebanese civil war of 1975–1990.", "* Australia has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Canberra and consulates-general in Melbourne and Sydney.", "* See also Lebanese Australians.26 September 2019Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 September 201925 November 198025 November 1980 first Lebanese Ambassador to New Zealand with residence in Canberra Mr. Raymond Heneine presented his letters of credentials to Governor General of New Zealand.", "* Lebanon is accredited to New Zealand from its embassy in Canberra, Australia.", "* New Zealand is accredited to Lebanon from its embassy in Cairo, Egypt." ], [ "See also", "Constitution of LebanonLebanese diasporaLebanese identity cardLebanese nationality lawLebanese passportList of diplomatic missions in LebanonList of diplomatic missions of LebanonPolitics of LebanonVisa policy of LebanonVisa requirements for Lebanese citizens" ], [ "References and footnotes", "**" ], [ "External links", " 1983 Israel-Lebanon agreement* Embassy of Lebanon in Washington DC* Amb.", "Farid Abboud profile The Washington Diplomat serves the diplomatic community with columns focusing on international news and events.", "* EU Neighbourhood Info Centre: Country profile of Jordan '''Representations of foreign nations in Lebanon''' * Delegation of the European Commission in Lebanon* United States Embassy in Beirut, Lebanon* Farid Abboud: Lebanese Ambassador to Tunisia" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lesotho" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Lesotho''' ( , ), formally the '''Kingdom of Lesotho''', is a landlocked country in Southern Africa.", "As an enclave of South Africa, with which it shares a 1,106 km border, it is the only sovereign enclave in the world outside of the Italian Peninsula.", "It is situated in the Maloti Mountains and contains the highest peak in Southern Africa.", "It has an area of over and has a population of about million.", "Its capital and largest city is Maseru.The Sotho ethnic group (also known as Basotho), from which the country derives its name, composes 99.7% of the country's population, making it one of the most ethnically homogenous in the world.", "Their native language, Sesotho, is the official language along with English.", "The name ''Lesotho'' translates to \"land of the Sesotho speakers\".Lesotho was formed in 1822 by King Moshoeshoe I.", "Continuous encroachments by Dutch settlers made the King enter into an agreement with the British Empire to become a protectorate in 1868 and, in 1884, a crown colony.", "In 1966 it achieved independence, and was subsequently ruled by the Basotho National Party (BNP) for two decades.", "Constitutional government was restored in 1993 after seven years of military rule.", "King Moshoeshoe II was exiled in 1990 but returned in 1992 and was reinstated in 1995.One year later, Moshoeshoe II died and his son Letsie III took the throne, which he still holds.Lesotho is considered a lower middle income country with significant socioeconomic challenges.", "Almost half of its population is below the poverty line, and the country's HIV/AIDS prevalence rate is the second-highest in the world.", "However, it also targets a high rate of universal primary education and has one of the highest rates of literacy in Africa (81.02% as of 2021).", "Lesotho is a member of the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Commonwealth of Nations, the African Union, and the Southern African Development Community.", "According to 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices Lesotho is ranked 64th electoral democracy worldwide and 7th electoral democracy in Africa." ], [ "History", "=== Basutoland ===King Moshoeshoe I with his ministersBasutoland emerged as a single polity under King Moshoeshoe I in 1822.Moshoeshoe, a son of Mokhachane, a minor chief of the Bakoteli lineage, formed his own clan and became a chief around 1804.Between 1820 and 1823, he and his followers settled at the Butha-Buthe Mountain, joining with former adversaries in resistance against the Lifaqane associated with the reign of Shaka Zulu from 1818 to 1828.Further evolution of the state emerged from conflicts between British and Dutch colonists leaving the Cape Colony following its seizure from the French-allied Dutch by the British in 1795, and also from the Orange River Sovereignty and subsequent Orange Free State.", "Missionaries Thomas Arbousset, Eugène Casalis and Constant Gosselin from the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society, invited by Moshoeshoe I, were placed at Morija, developing Sesotho orthography and printed works in the Sesotho language between 1837 and 1855.Casalis, acting as translator and providing advice on foreign affairs, helped set up diplomatic channels and acquire guns for use against the encroaching Europeans and the Griqua people.Trekboers from Cape Colony arrived on the western borders of Basutoland and claimed rights to its land, the first of which being Jan de Winnaar who settled in the Matlakeng area in 1838.Incoming Boers attempted to colonise the land between the two rivers and north of the Caledon, claiming that it had been abandoned by the Sotho people.", "Moshoeshoe subsequently signed a treaty with the British Governor of the Cape Colony, Sir George Thomas Napier, that annexed the Orange River Sovereignty where Boers had settled.", "These outraged Boers were suppressed in a skirmish in 1848.In 1851, a British force was defeated by the Basotho army at Kolonyama.", "After repelling another British attack in 1852, Moshoeshoe sent an appeal to the British commander that settled the dispute diplomatically, and then defeated the Batlokoa in 1853.In 1854, the British pulled out of the region, and in 1858, Moshoeshoe fought a series of wars with the Boers in what is known as the Free State–Basotho War.", "As a result, Moshoeshoe lost a portion of the western lowlands.", "The last war with the Boers ended in 1867 when Moshoeshoe appealed to Queen Victoria who agreed to make Basutoland a British protectorate in 1868.1959 stamps for the Basutoland National CouncilIn 1869, the British signed a treaty at Aliwal North with the Boers that defined the boundaries of Basutoland.", "This treaty reduced Moshoeshoe's kingdom to half its previous size by ceding the western territories.", "Then, the British transferred functions from Moshoeshoe's capital in Thaba Bosiu to a police camp on the northwest border, Maseru, until eventually the administration of Basutoland was transferred to the Cape Colony in 1871.Moshoeshoe died on 11 March 1870, marking the beginning of the colonial era of Basutoland.", "In the Cape Colony period between 1871 and 1884, Basutoland was treated similarly to other territories that had been forcibly annexed, much to the humiliation of the Basotho, leading to the Basuto Gun War in 1880–1881.In 1884, the territory became a Crown colony by the name of Basutoland, with Maseru as its capital.", "It remained under direct rule by a governor, while effective internal power was wielded by tribal chiefs.", "In 1905, a railway line was built to connect Maseru to the railway network of South Africa.=== Independence ===Basutoland gained its independence from the United Kingdom and became the Kingdom of Lesotho in 1966.The Basotho National Party (BNP) ruled from 1966 until January 1970.What later ensued was a de facto government led by Leabua Jonathan.In January 1970, the ruling BNP lost the first post-independence general elections, with 23 seats to the Basotho Congress Party's (BCP) 36.Prime Minister Jonathan refused to cede power to BCP, instead declaring himself prime minister and imprisoning the BCP leadership.", "BCP began a rebellion and then received training in Libya for its Lesotho Liberation Army (LLA) under the pretense of being Azanian People's Liberation Army soldiers of the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC).", "Deprived of arms and supplies by the David Sibeko faction of PAC in 1978, the 178-strong LLA was rescued from their Tanzanian base by the financial assistance of a Maoist PAC officer and launched a guerrilla war.", "A force was defeated in northern Lesotho, and later guerrillas launched more sporadic attacks.", "The campaign was compromised when BCP's leader, Ntsu Mokhehle, went to Pretoria.", "In the 1980s, some Basotho who sympathised with the exiled BCP were threatened with death and attacked by the government of Leabua Jonathan.", "On 4 September 1981, the family of Benjamin Masilo was attacked.", "In the attack his 3-year-old grandson died.", "Four days later, Edgar Mahlomola Motuba, the editor of the newspaper ''Leselinyana la Lesotho'', was abducted from his home, together with two friends, and murdered.Lesotho mountain villageAfter Jonathan was sacked in a 1986 coup, the Transitional Military Council that came to power granted executive powers to King Moshoeshoe II, who was until then a ceremonial monarch.", "In 1987 the king was forced into exile after coming up with a 6-page memorandum on how he wanted the Lesotho's constitution to be, which would have given him more executive powers than the military government had originally agreed to.", "His son was installed as King Letsie III in his place.The chairman of the military junta, Major General Justin Metsing Lekhanya, was ousted in 1991 and replaced by Major General Elias Phisoana Ramaema who handed over power to a democratically elected government of BCP in 1993.Moshoeshoe II returned from exile in 1992 as an ordinary citizen.", "After the return to democratic government, King Letsie III tried unsuccessfully to persuade the BCP government to reinstate his father (Moshoeshoe II) as head of state.", "In August 1994, Letsie III staged a military-backed coup that deposed the BCP government, after the BCP government refused to reinstate his father, Moshoeshoe II, according to Lesotho's constitution.", "Member states of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) engaged in negotiations to reinstate the BCP government.", "One of the conditions Letsie III put forward for this was that his father should be re-installed as head of state.", "After protracted negotiations, the BCP government was reinstated and Letsie III abdicated in favour of his father in 1995, and ascended the throne again when Moshoeshoe II died at the age of 57 in a supposed road accident when his car plunged off a mountain road on 15 January 1996.According to a government statement, Moshoeshoe had set out at 1 am to visit his cattle at Matsieng and was returning to Maseru through the Maluti Mountains when his car left the road.In 1997, the ruling BCP split over leadership disputes.", "Prime Minister Ntsu Mokhehle formed a new party, the Lesotho Congress for Democracy (LCD), and was followed by a majority of members of parliament, which enabled him to form a new government.", "Pakalitha Mosisili succeeded Mokhehle as party leader and LCD won the general elections in 1998.Opposition protests \"intensified\", culminating in a demonstration outside the royal palace in August 1998.While the Botswana Defence Force troops were welcomed, tensions with South African National Defence Force troops resulted in fighting.", "Incidences of rioting \"intensified\" when South African troops hoisted a South African flag over the Royal Palace.", "By the time the SADC forces withdrew in May 1999, much of the capital of Maseru \"lay in ruins\", and the southern provincial capital towns of Mafeteng and Mohale's Hoek had lost over a third of their commercial real estate.An Interim Political Authority (IPA), charged with reviewing the electoral structure in the country, was created in December 1998.IPA devised a proportional electoral system to ensure that the opposition would be represented in the National Assembly.", "The new system retained the existing 80 elected Assembly seats, and added 40 seats to be filled on a proportional basis.", "Elections were held under this new system in May 2002, and LCD won, gaining 54% of the vote.", "There are irregularities and threats of violence from Major General Lekhanya.", "Nine opposition parties hold all 40 of the proportional seats, with BNP having the largest share (21).", "LCD has 79 of the 80 constituency-based seats.", "While its elected members participate in the National Assembly, BNP has launched legal challenges to the elections, including a recount.On 30 August 2014, an alleged abortive military \"coup\" took place, forcing then Prime Minister Thomas Thabane to flee to South Africa for three days.On 19 May 2020, Thomas Thabane formally stepped down as prime minister of Lesotho following months of pressure after he was named as a suspect in the murder of his ex-wife.", "Moeketsi Majoro, the economist and former Minister of Development Planning, was elected as Thabane's successor.On 13 May 2020, according to the health ministry, Lesotho became the last African nation to report a COVID-19 case.On 28 October 2022, Sam Matekane was sworn in as Lesotho's new Prime Minister after forming a new coalition government.", "His Revolution for Prosperity party, formed earlier same year, won the 7 October elections." ], [ "Politics", "The Lesotho Government is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy.", "The Prime Minister, Sam Matekane, is the head of government and has executive authority.", "The King of Lesotho, Letsie III, is the head of state and serves a \"largely ceremonial function\"; he no longer possesses any executive authority and is prohibited from actively participating in political initiatives.The Revolution For Prosperity (RFP) leads a coalition government in the National Assembly, the lower house of parliament.", "The upper house of parliament, the Senate, is composed of 22 principal chiefs whose membership is hereditary, and 11 appointees of the king, acting on the advice of the prime minister.The constitution provides for an independent judicial system, made up of the High Court, the Court of Appeal, Magistrate's Courts, and traditional courts that exist predominantly in rural areas.", "All but one of the Justices on the Court of Appeal are South African jurists.", "There is no trial by jury; rather, judges make rulings alone or, in the case of criminal trials, with two other judges as observers.The constitution protects some civil liberties, including freedom of speech, freedom of association, freedom of the press, freedom of peaceful assembly and freedom of religion.", "Lesotho was ranked 12th out of 48 sub-Saharan African countries in the 2008 Ibrahim Index of African Governance., the ''People's Charter Movement'' called for the practical annexation of the country by South Africa due to the HIV epidemic.", "Nearly a quarter of the population tests positive for HIV.", "The country has faced unemployment, economic collapse, a weaker currency, and travel documents restricting movement.", "An African Union report called for economic integration of Lesotho with South Africa and stopped short of suggesting annexation.", "In May 2010 the Charter Movement delivered a petition to the South African High Commission requesting integration.", "South Africa's home affairs spokesman Ronnie Mamoepa rejected the idea that Lesotho should be treated as a special case.", "\"It is a sovereign country like South Africa.", "We sent envoys to our neighbours – Botswana, Zimbabwe, Swaziland and Lesotho – before we enforced the passport rule.", "When you travel from Britain to South Africa, don't you expect to use a passport?", "\"Some believe that annexation or redrawing the Lesotho borders would be beneficial.", "At the peak of the AIDS epidemic, over 30,000 Lesotho residents signed a petition for the country to be annexed to prevent life expectancy from falling to 34 years old.", "Scholars of comparative politics, like in Jeffrey Herbst's \"War and the State of Africa\", argue that the lack of border disputes for countries like Lesotho and Eswatini has kept the countries weak politically.", "This weakness stems from the remnants of colonialism in the government, influenced by English and Roman-Dutch Common Law.", "As a result, the government was not made to serve the Basotho people but rather to be exploitative.After prime minister Tom Thabane resigned due to impeachment threats and a warrant of arrest for his wife in 2020, the South African finance minister suggested a confederation between Lesotho, Eswatini, and South Africa as a solution.", "His successor, Moeketsi Majoro, held office from 2020 to 2022 until he similarly resigned after a vote of \"no-confidence\" in Parliament for misconduct with the military and improperly handling COVID-19.While prime minister Sam Matekane is working with the South African Development Community (SADC) towards legal reform, his administration still shows signs of corruption, as 40,000 garment workers protested for better conditions and faced excessive force that killed two protestors.===Foreign relations===Lesotho is a member of some regional economic organisations, including the Southern African Development Community (SADC), and the Southern African Customs Union (SACU).", "It is active in the United Nations (UN), the African Union (AU), the Non-Aligned Movement, the Commonwealth, and other international organisations.Lesotho has maintained ties with the United Kingdom (Wales in particular), Germany, the United States and other Western states.", "It broke relations with China and re-established relations with Taiwan in 1990, and later restored ties with China.", "It recognises the State of Palestine.", "From 2014 up until 2018 it recognised the Republic of Kosovo.It was a public opponent of apartheid in South Africa and granted a number of South African refugees political asylum during the apartheid era.", "In 2019, it signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.===Defence and law enforcement===The Lesotho Defence Force (LDF) is charged with the maintenance of internal security and the defence of Lesotho.", "Its chief officer is designated ''Commander''.The Lesotho Mounted Police Service (LMPS) is charged with the maintenance of law and order.", "Its chief officer is designated ''Commissioner''.", "LMPS provides uniformed policing, criminal detection, and traffic policing.", "There are specialist units dealing with high-tech crime, immigration, wildlife, and terrorism.", "The force has existed, with changes of name, continuously since 1872.The Lesotho National Security Service (LNSS) is charged with the protection of national security.", "Established in modern form by the National Security Services Act of 1998, its chief officer is designated ''Director General'', and appointed and dismissed by the Prime Minister.", "LNSS is an intelligence service, part of the Ministry of Defence and National Security, and reporting directly to the Government.===Law===The Parliament building in MaseruThe Constitution of Lesotho came into force after the publication of the Commencement Order.", "Constitutionally, legislation refers to laws that have been passed by both houses of parliament and have been assented to by the king (section 78(1)).", "Subordinate legislation refers to laws passed by other bodies to which parliament has by virtue of section 70(2) of the Constitution validly delegated such legislative powers.", "These include government publications, ministerial orders, ministerial regulations and municipal by-laws.While Lesotho shares with South Africa, Botswana, Eswatini, Namibia and Zimbabwe a mixed general legal system which resulted from the interaction between the Roman-Dutch Civilian law and the English Common Law, its general law operates independently.", "Lesotho applies the common law, which refers to unwritten law or law from non-statutory sources, and excludes customary law.", "Decisions from South African courts are only persuasive, and courts refer to them in formulating their decisions.", "Decisions from some jurisdictions can be cited for their persuasive value.", "Magistrates' courts decisions do not become precedent since these are lower courts.", "They are bound by decisions of the High Court and the Court of Appeal.", "The Court of Appeal, the final appellate forum on all matters, has a supervisory and review jurisdiction over all the courts of Lesotho.Lesotho has a dual legal system consisting of customary and general laws operating side by side.", "Customary law is made up of the customs of the Basotho, written and codified in the Laws of Lerotholi.", "The general law on the other hand consists of Roman Dutch Law imported from the Cape and the Lesotho statutes.", "The codification of customary law came about after a council was appointed in 1903 to advise the British Resident Commissioner on which laws would be best for governing the Basotho.", "Until this time, the Basotho customs and laws were passed down from generation to generation through oral tradition.", "The council was given the task of codifying them, and they came up with the Laws of Lerotholi which are applied by customary courts today (local courts).", "Written works of certain authors have persuasive value in the courts of Lesotho.", "These include writings of the \"old authorities as well as contemporary writers from similar jurisdictions\".===Districts===Districts and citiesFor administrative purposes, Lesotho is divided into 10 districts, each headed by a district administrator.", "Each district has a capital known as a ''camptown''.The districts are subdivided into 80 constituencies, which consist of 129 local community councils." ], [ "Geography", "Topographic mapThe Afriski resort in the Maloti MountainsLesotho covers .", "It is the only independent state in the world that lies entirely above in elevation.", "Its lowest point of is thus the highest lowest point of any country in the world.", "Over 80% of the country lies above .", "Lesotho is the southernmost landlocked country in the world.", "It is the largest of the world's three independent states completely surrounded by the territory of another country, with Vatican City and San Marino being the other two.", "It is the only such state outside the Italian peninsula, and the only one that is not a microstate.Lesotho lies between latitudes 28° and 31°S, and longitudes 27° and 30°E.", "About 12% of Lesotho is arable land which is vulnerable to soil erosion; it is estimated that 40 million tons of soil are lost each year due to erosion.===Climate===Because of its elevation, Lesotho remains cooler throughout the year than other regions at the same latitude.", "Most of the rain falls as summer thunderstorms.", "Maseru and surrounding lowlands may reach in summer.", "The temperature in the lowlands can get down to and the highlands to at times.", "Snow is more common in the highlands between May and September; the higher peaks may experience snowfalls year-round.", "Rainfall in Lesotho is variable regarding both when and where precipitation occurs.", "Annual precipitation can vary from 500mm annually in one area to 1200mm in another because of elevation.", "The summer season that stretches from October to April sees the most rainfall, and from December to February, the majority of the country receives over 100mm of rain a month.", "The least monthly rainfall in Lesotho occurs in June when most regions receive less than 15mm a month.=== Drought ===HillsPeriodic droughts have an effect on Lesotho's majority rural population as some people living outside of urban areas rely on subsistence farming or small scale agriculture as their primary source of income.", "Droughts in Lesotho are exacerbated by some agricultural practices.", "The World Factbook lists periodic droughts under the 'Natural Hazard' section of Lesotho's section of the publication.In 2007, Lesotho experienced a drought and was advised by the United Nations to declare a state of emergency to get aid from international organizations.", "Famine Early Warning Systems Network reported that the rainy season of 2018/2019 not only started a month later than normal but also has recorded below-average amounts of rain.", "Data from the Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation Station (CHIRP) shows rainfall in Lesotho between October 2018 and February 2019 ranged from 55% to 80% below normal rates.In March 2019, the Lesotho Vulnerability Assessment and Analysis Committee conducted a report that initially predicted that 487,857 people in the country need humanitarian assistance because of the effects of drought.There are a variety of different ways drought in Lesotho has led to the need for humanitarian assistance.", "Some hygiene practices that result from \"a lack of clean water\" can cause cases of typhoid and diarrhea.", "Lack of available water indirectly leads to an \"increased risk\" for women and girls who collect water for household consumption as they must spend more time and travel longer distances while running the risk of being physically or sexually assaulted.", "Drought in Lesotho leads to both migration to more urban areas and immigration to South Africa for new opportunities and to escape food insecurity.", "The report found that between July 2019 and June 2020 640,000 people in Lesotho are expected to be affected by food insecurity as a result of \"unproductive harvests as well as the corresponding rise in food prices because of the drought\".===Wildlife===''Aloe polyphylla''There are known to be 339 bird species in Lesotho, including 10 globally threatened species and two introduced species, 17 reptile species, including geckos, snakes and lizards, and 60 mammal species endemic to Lesotho, including the endangered white-tailed rat.Lesotho's flora is alpine, due to mountainous terrain.", "The Katse Botanical Gardens houses a collection of medicinal plants and has a seed bank of plants from the Malibamat'so River area.", "Three terrestrial ecoregions lie within Lesotho's boundaries: Drakensberg alti-montane grasslands and woodlands, Drakensberg montane grasslands, and Highveld grasslands." ], [ "Economy", "Sani Pass on the border is a tourist attraction.The economy of Lesotho is based on agriculture, livestock, manufacturing and mining, and depends on inflows of workers' remittances and receipts from the Southern African Customs Union (SACU).", "The majority of households subsist on farming.", "The formal sector employment consists mainly of female workers in the apparel sector, male migrant labour, primarily miners in South Africa for 3 to 9 months, and employment by the Government of Lesotho (GOL).", "The western lowlands form the main agricultural zone.", "Almost 50% of the population earn income through informal crop cultivation or animal husbandry with nearly two-thirds of the country's income coming from the agricultural sector.", "The % of the population living below USD Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) US$1.25/day fell from 48% to 44% between 1995 and 2003.The country is among the \"Low Human Development\" countries (rank 160 of 187 on the Human Development Index as classified by UNDP), with 52 years of life expectancy at birth.", "Adult literacy is as high as 82%.", "Among the children below the age of 5 years, 20% are underweight.Lesotho has taken advantage of the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) to become the largest exporter of garments to the US from sub-Saharan Africa.", "US brands and retailers sourcing from Lesotho include Foot Locker, Gap, Gloria Vanderbilt, JCPenney, Levi Strauss, Saks, Sears, Timberland and Wal-Mart.", "In mid-2004 its employment reached over 50,000, mostly female, marking the first time that manufacturing sector workers outnumbered government employees.", "In 2008 it exported goods worth 487 million dollars mainly to the US.", "Since 2004, employment in the sector has dwindled to about 45,000 in mid-2011 due to international competition in the garment sector.", "It was the largest formal sector employer in Lesotho in 2011.In 2007, the average earnings of an employee in the textile sector were US$103 per month, and the official minimum wage for a general textile worker was US$93 per month.", "The average gross national income per capita in 2008 was US$83 per month.", "The sector initiated a program to fight HIV/AIDS called Apparel Lesotho Alliance to Fight AIDS (ALAFA).", "It is an industry-wide program providing disease prevention and treatment for workers.Water and diamonds are some of Lesotho's natural resources.", "Water is used through the 21-year, multibillion-dollar Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP), under the authority of the Lesotho Highlands Development Authority.", "The project commenced in 1986.LHWP is designed to capture, store, and transfer water from the Orange River system to South Africa's Free State and greater Johannesburg area.", "Completion of the first phase of the project has made Lesotho \"almost completely self-sufficient\" in the production of electricity and generated approximately US$70 million in 2010 from the sale of electricity and water to South Africa.Diamonds are produced at the Letšeng, Mothae, Liqhobong, and Kao mines, which combined are estimated to produce 240,000 carats of diamonds in 2014, worth US$300 million.", "The Letšeng mine is estimated to produce diamonds with an average value of US$2172/carat, making it the world's richest mine on an average price per carat basis.", "The sector underwent a setback in 2008 as the result of the world recession, and rebounded in 2010 and 2011.Export of diamonds reached US$230 million in 2010–2011.In 1957, a South African adventurer, colonel Jack Scott, accompanied by Keith Whitelock, set out prospecting for diamonds.", "They found their diamond mine at 3,100 m elevation, on top of the Maluti Mountains in northeastern Lesotho, some 70 km from Mokhotlong at Letšeng.", "In 1967, a diamond (Lesotho Brown) was discovered in the mountains by a Mosotho woman.", "In August 2006, a white diamond, the Lesotho Promise, was discovered at the Letšeng-la-Terae mine.", "Another diamond was discovered at the same location in 2008.Lesotho has progressed in moving from a predominantly subsistence-oriented economy to a lower middle-income economy exporting natural resources and manufacturing goods.", "The exporting sectors have brought \"higher and more secure\" incomes to a portion of the population.", "The global economic crisis make Lesotho underwent a loss of textile exports and jobs in this sector due somewhat to the economic slowdown in the United States, 1 of their export destinations.", "Reduced diamond mining and exports, including a drop in the price of diamonds and a drop in SACU revenues due to the economic slowdown in the South African economy contributed to the crisis.", "Reduction in worker remittances due to \"weakening\" of the South African economy and contraction of the mining sector and related job losses in South Africa contributed to in 2009, Lesotho's GDP growth slowing to 0.9%.The official currency is the loti (plural: maloti) which can be used interchangeably with the South African rand.", "Lesotho, Eswatini, Namibia, and South Africa form a common currency and exchange control area known as the Common Monetary Area (CMA).", "The loti is at par with the rand.", "100 ''lisente'' (singular: ''sente'') equal 1 loti." ], [ "Demographics", "Primary school classLesotho has a population of approximately .", "The population distribution of Lesotho is 25% urban and 75% rural.", "It is estimated that the annual increase in urban population is 3.5%.", "60.2% of the population is between 15 and 64 years of age.=== Ethnic groups and languages ===Lesotho's ethno-linguistic structure consists mostly of the Basotho, a Bantu-speaking people: an estimated 99.7% of the people identify as Basotho.", "In this regard, Lesotho is part of a minority of African countries that are nation states with a single dominant cultural ethnic group and language; the majority of African nations' borders were drawn by colonial powers and do not correspond to ethnic boundaries or pre-colonial polities.", "Basotho subgroups include the Bafokeng, Batloung, Baphuthi, Bakuena, Bataung, Batšoeneng, and Matebele.", "About 1% of the population consists of Europeans, Asians and Xhosa.=== Religion ===St.Michael's CathedralThe population of Lesotho is estimated to be more than 95% Christian.", "Among these estimations, Catholics represent 49.4% of the population, served by the province of the Metropolitan Archbishop of Maseru and his three suffragans (the bishops of Leribe, Mohale's Hoek and Qacha's Nek), who form the national episcopal conference.", "Protestants account for 18.2% of the population, Pentecostals 15.4%, Anglicans 5.3%, and other Christians an additional 1.8%.", "Non-Christian religions represent 9.6% of the population, and those of no religion 0.2%.=== Education and literacy ===National University of LesothoAccording to estimates, 85% of women and 68% of men over the age of 15 are literate.", "As such, Lesotho holds \"one of the highest literacy rates in Africa\", in part because Lesotho invests over 12% of its GDP in education.", "Female literacy (84.93%) exceeds male literacy (67.75%) by 17.18%.", "According to a study by the Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality in 2000, 37% of grade 6 pupils in Lesotho (average age 14 years) are at or above reading level 4, \"Reading for Meaning.\"", "A pupil at this level of literacy can read ahead or backwards through parts of text to link and interpret information.", "While education is not compulsory, the Government of Lesotho is incrementally implementing a program for free primary education.According to the International Telecommunication Union, 3.4% of the population use the internet.", "A service from Econet Telecom Lesotho expanded the country's access to email through entry-level, low-end mobile phones and consequently improved access to educational information.", "The African Library Project works to establish school and village libraries in partnership with U.S. Peace Corps Lesotho and the Butha Buthe District of Education.===Health===Life expectancy at birth in Lesotho in 2016 was 51 years for men and 55 for women.", "Infant mortality is about 8.3%.", "In 2019, life expectancy was estimated at 52 years for men and women.As of 2018, Lesotho's adult H.I.V./A.I.D.S.", "prevalence rate of 23.6% was the second-highest in the world, after Eswatini.", "In 2021, Lesotho had a 22.8% H.I.V.", "prevalence rate among people between 15 and 49 years of age.", "The country has the highest incidence of tuberculosis in the world.According to the Lesotho Census of 2006, around 4% of the population is thought to have some sort of disability.", "There are concerns regarding the reliability of the methodologies used and the real figure is thought to be closer to the global estimate of 15%.", "According to a survey conducted by the Lesotho National Federation of Organisations of the Disabled in conjunction with SINTEF, people with disability in Lesotho face social and cultural barriers which prevent them from accessing education, health-care and employment on an equal basis with others.", "On 2 December 2008 Lesotho became the 42nd country in the world to sign the U.N. Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.According to World Health Organization data, since 2008 Lesotho had the world's highest rate of suicide per capita.===Women in Lesotho===According to U.N., Lesotho has the highest rape rate of any country (91.6 per 100,000 people rate for reported rape in 2008).", "International data from UNODC found the incidence of rape recorded in 2008 by the police to be the highest in Lesotho out of any country in the study.", "A study in Lesotho found that 61% of women reported having experienced sexual violence at some point in their lives, of whom 22% reported being physically forced to have sexual intercourse.", "In the 2009 D.H.S.", "survey 15.7% of men said that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife if she refuses to have sex with him, while 16% said a husband is justified to use force to have sex.", "In another study, researchers have concluded that \"Given the high prevalence of HIV in Lesotho, programs should address women's right to control their sexuality.\"", "The ''Married Persons Equality Act 2006'' gives equal rights to wives in regard to their husbands, abolishing the husband's marital power.", "The World Economic Forum's 2020 Gender Gap Report ranks Lesotho 88th in the world for gender parity, while neighboring South Africa ranks 17th." ], [ "Culture", "Women wearing Basotho blanketsThe cuisine of Lesotho includes African traditions and British influences.The national dish of Lesotho is Motoho, a fermented sorghum porridge.", "Some staple foods include pap or 'mealies', a cornmeal porridge covered with a sauce consisting of vegetables.", "Tea and locally brewed beer are choices for beverages.", "Lesotho is famed for its fermented ginger beer, of which, there are two types with and without raisins.", "These are regularly sold by people at roadsides thoroughout Lesotho.", "Sishenyama is regularly sold independently thoroughout Lesotho with side-dishes such as cabbage, pap and baked bean salad.British influence in Lesotho is visible through the remnants of trading posts that were operated from the 18th century into the 20th century.", "These are in the villages Roma, Ramabantana, Ha Matela, Malealea and Semonkong.", "In the past these lodges were employed in the sale of fuel, grains, mealie meal and animals.", "Important in the times before the car was prevalent.The national dress revolves around the Basotho blanket, a covering made originally of wool.", "Nowadays, the Basotho blanket is made out of acrylic fibres.", "The main manufacturer of the Basotho blanket is Aranda, which has a factory over the border in South Africa.The Morija Arts & Cultural Festival is held annually in the town of Morija where missionaries arrived in 1833.Examples of San rock art can be found in the mountains throughout Basutoland.", "There are examples in the village of Ha Matela.=== Basotho pony ===The Basotho pony is integral to the culture of Lesotho.", "The pony was historically ridden into battle and in the modern day used for transport and agriculture.", "The horsemanship of Lesotho is famed throughout Africa.=== Film and media ===Ryan Coogler, director of the 2018 film ''Black Panther'', stated that his depiction of Wakanda was inspired by Lesotho.", "Basotho blankets \"became more known\" as a result of the film.", "In November 2020, the film ''This Is Not a Burial, It's a Resurrection'' became the first Lesotho film to be submitted for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film by the country." ], [ "See also", "Index of Lesotho-related articlesOutline of LesothoTelephone numbers in Lesotho" ], [ "References", "" ], [ "External links", "* Government of Lesotho* Published Judicial Opinions* Lesotho.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Lesotho from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''* * Lesotho profile from the BBC News* * * Key Development Forecasts for Lesotho from International Futures* Introduction of Lesotho" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Lesotho" ], [ "Introduction", "Flag of LesothoThe history of people living in the area now known as '''Lesotho''' () goes back as many as 400 years.", "Present Lesotho (then called Basotholand) emerged as a single polity under King Moshoeshoe I in 1822.Under Moshoeshoe I, Basotho joined other clans in their struggle against the Lifaqane associated with famine and the reign of Shaka Zulu from 1818 to 1828.The subsequent evolution of the state was shaped by contact with the British and Dutch colonists from Cape Colony.", "Missionaries invited by Moshoeshoe I developed orthography and printed works in the Sesotho language between 1837 and 1855.The country set up diplomatic channels and acquired guns for use against the encroaching Europeans and the Korana people.", "Territorial conflicts with both British and Boer settlers arose periodically, including Moshoeshoe's notable victory over the Boers in the Free State–Basotho War, but the final war in 1867 with an appeal to Queen Victoria, who agreed to make Basutoland a British suzerainty.", "In 1869, the British signed a treaty at Aliwal with the Boers that defined the boundaries of Basotholand and later Lesotho, which by ceding the western territories effectively reduced Moshoeshoe's kingdom to half its previous size.The extent to which the British exerted direct control over Basotholand waxed and waned until Basotholand’s independence in 1966 when it became the Kingdom of Lesotho.", "However, when the ruling Basotho National Party (BNP) lost the first post-independence general elections to the Basotho Congress Party (BCP), Leabua Jonathan refused to cede and declared himself Tona Kholo (Sesotho translation of prime minister).", "The BCP began an insurrection that culminated in a January 1986 military coup, that then forced the BNP out of office.", "Power was transferred to King Moshoeshoe II, until then a ceremonial monarch, but forced into exile when he lost favor with the military the following year.", "His son was installed as King Letsie III.", "Conditions remained tumultuous, including an August 1994 self-coup by Letsie III, until 1998 when the Lesotho Congress for Democracy (LCD) came to power in elections that were deemed fair by international observers.", "Despite protests from opposition parties, the country has remained relatively stable since." ], [ "Ancient history", "Lesotho's southern and eastern mountains (including Maloti) were occupied by the San people and their ancestors for thousands of years as evidenced by rock art.", "The San lived as semi nomadic hunter-gatherers.", "At some stage, during their migration south from a tertiary dispersal area Bantu speaking peoples came to settle the lands that now make up Lesotho as well as a more extensive territory of fertile lands that surround modern-day Lesotho.", "The AmaZizi people are regarded as among the first to settle Lesotho in the aftermath of the Bantu expansion.", "The Zizi gained a reputation as skilled iron workers.", "Both the Zizi and neighboring tribes claimed that they originated from the Bantu settlers who would later branch out into the Nguni and the Sotho, garnering their leader considerable prestige." ], [ "Medieval history", "The Lesotho highlands attracted migrations by local hunter-gatherers between 550 and 1300 during the Medieval Warm Period, while the Drakensberg area was completely abandoned.", "Some of the highland inhabitants at the time also held cattle for food." ], [ "Early modern history", "There were several severe disruptions to the Basotho people in the early 19th century.", "One view states that the first of these were marauding Zulu clans, displaced from Zululand as part of the Lifaqane (or Mfecane), wrought havoc on the Basotho peoples they encountered as they moved first west and then north.", "The second that no sooner than the Zulu has passed to the north than the first Voortrekkers arrived, some of whom obtained hospitality during their difficult trek north.", "Early Voortrekker accounts describe how the lands surrounding the mountain retreat of the Basotho had been burnt and destroyed, in effect leaving a vacuum that subsequent Voortrekkers began to occupy.However, this interpretation of history for the entire southern region of Africa is a matter of dispute.", "One attempt at refutation came by Norman Etherington in ''The Great Treks: The Transformation of Southern Africa, 1815-1854'' (Longman, 2001).", "Etherington argues that no such thing as the Mfecane occurred, the Zulu were no more marauding than any other group in the region, and the land the Voortrekkers saw as empty was not settled by either Zulu or Basotho because those people did not value open lowland plains as pasture." ], [ "Basutoland", "King Moshoeshoe I with his Ministers.===Free State–Basotho Wars===In 1818, Moshoeshoe I consolidated various Basotho groupings and became their king.", "During Moshoeshoe's reign (1823–1870), a series of wars (1856–68) were fought with the Boers who had settled in traditional Basotho lands.", "These wars resulted in the extensive loss of land, now known as the \"Lost Territory\".A treaty was signed with the Boers of Griqualand in 1843 and an agreement was made with the British in 1853 following a minor war.", "The disputes with the Boers over land, however, were revived in 1858 with Senekal's War and again, more seriously, in 1865 with the Seqiti War.", "The Boers had several military successes, killing possibly 1,500 Basotho soldiers, and annexed an expanse of arable land which they were able to retain following a treaty at Thaba Bosiu.", "Further conflict led to an unsuccessful attack on Thaba Bosiu and the death of a Boer commandant, Louw Wepener, but by 1867, much of Moshoeshoe's land and most of his fortresses had been taken.Fearing defeat, Moshoeshoe made further appeals to High Commissioner Philip Wodehouse for British assistance.", "On 12 March 1868, the British Cabinet agreed to place the territory under British protection and the Boers were ordered to leave.", "In February 1869, the British and the Boers agreed to the Convention of Aliwal North, which defined the boundaries of the protectorate.", "The arable land west of the Caledon River remained in Boer's hands and is referred to as the Lost or Conquered Territory.", "Moshoeshoe died in 1870 and was buried atop Thaba Bosiu.===Annexation by the Cape Colony===In 1871 the protectorate was annexed to the Cape Colony.", "The Basotho resisted the British and in 1879 a southern chief, Moorosi, rose in revolt.", "His campaign was crushed, and he was killed in the fighting.", "The Basotho then began to fight amongst themselves over the division of Moorosi's lands.", "The British extended the Cape Peace Preservation Act of 1878 to cover Basutoland and attempted to disarm the natives.", "Much of the colony rose in revolt in the Gun War (1880-1881), inflicting significant casualties upon the colonial British forces sent to subdue it.", "A peace treaty of 1881 failed to quell sporadic fighting.===Return to crown colony===South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland in 1885.Cape Town's inability to control the territory led to its return to crown control in 1884 as the Territory of Basutoland.", "The colony was bound by the Orange River Colony, Natal Colony, and Cape Colony.", "It was divided into seven administrative districts: Berea, Leribe, Maseru, Mohale's Hoek, Mafeteng, Qacha's Nek and Quthing.", "The colony was ruled by the British Resident Commissioner, who worked through the ''pits'' (national assembly) of hereditary native chiefs under one paramount chief.", "Each chief ruled a ward within the territory.", "The first paramount chief was Lerothodi, the son of Moshoeshoe.", "During the Second Boer War the colony was neutral.", "The population grew from around 125,000 in 1875, to 310,000 in 1901, and 349,000 by 1904.When the Union of South Africa was founded in 1910 the colony was still controlled by the British and moves were made to transfer it to the Union.", "However, the people of Basutoland opposed this and it did not occur.During World War I, over 4,500 Basuto enlisted into the military, most of whom served in the South African Native Labour Corps which fought on the Western Front.", "In 1916, Basutoland raised over £40,000 for the war effort.", "A year later, the troopship SS Mendi was sunk off the coast of the Isle of Wight, and over 100 Basuto were killed in the sinking.The differing fates of the seSotho-speaking peoples in the Protectorate of Basotholand and in the lands that became the Orange Free State are worth noting.", "The Orange Free State became a Boer-ruled territory.", "At the end of the Boer War, it was colonized by the British, and this colony was subsequently incorporated by Britain into the Union of South Africa as one of four provinces.", "It is still part of the modern-day Republic of South Africa, now known as the Free State.", "In contrast, Basotholand, along with the two other British Protectorates in the sub-Saharan region (Bechuanaland and Swaziland), was precluded from incorporation into the Union of South Africa.", "These protectorates were individually brought to independence by Britain in the 1960s.", "By becoming a protectorate, Basotholand, and its inhabitants were not subjected to Afrikaner rule, which saved them from experiencing Apartheid, and so generally prospered under more benevolent British rule.", "Basotho residents of Basotholand had access to better health services and education and came to experience greater political emancipation through independence.", "These lands protected by the British, however, had a much smaller capacity to generate income and wealth than had the \"lost territory\", which had been granted to the Boers.Following the British entry into World War II, the decision was taken to draw recruits from the High Commission Territories (HTC) of Swaziland, Basutoland, and Bechuanaland.", "Black citizens from the HTC were to be recruited into the African Auxiliary Pioneer Corps (AAPC) labor unit due to Afrikaner opposition to armed black units.", "Mobilization for the AAPC was launched in late July 1941 and by October 18,000 personnel had arrived in the Middle East.", "The anti-colonial Basutoland Lekhorlu la Bufo (Commoner's League) was banned and its leaders were imprisoned for demanding that training for the recruits be improved and encouraging desertion.", "The AAPC performed a wide range of manual labor, providing logistical support to the Allied war effort during the North African, Dodecanese and Italian campaigns.", "During the Italian campaign some AAPC relieved British field artillery units of their duty.On 1 May 1943, British troopship SS ''Erinpura'' was torpedoed and sunk, resulting in the loss of 694 men from AAPC's 1919th and 1927th Basuto Companies; the unit's worst loss of life during the war.", "A total of 21,000 Basuto enlisted during the war, 1,105 of whom perished during its course.", "Basuto women also contributed to the war effort by knitting warm clothing for the military.From 1948, the South African National Party put its apartheid policies into place, indirectly terminating any support among Basutos and/or UK colonial authorities for the country's incorporation in South Africa.After a 1955 request by the Basutoland Council to legislate its internal affairs, in 1959 a new constitution gave Basutoland its first elected legislature.", "This was followed in April 1965 with general legislative elections with universal adult suffrage in which the Basotho National Party (BNP) won 31 and the Basutoland Congress Party (BCP) won 25 of the 65 seats contested." ], [ "Kingdom of Lesotho", "Leabua Jonathan in 1970On October 4, 1966, the Kingdom of Lesotho attained full independence, governed by a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral Parliament consisting of a Senate and an elected National Assembly.", "Early results of the first post-independence elections in January 1970 indicated that the Basotho National Party (BNP) might lose control.", "Under the leadership of Prime Minister Chief Leabua Jonathan, the ruling BNP refused to cede power to the rival Basotholand Congress Party (BCP), although the BCP was widely believed to have won the elections.", "Citing election irregularities, Prime Minister Leabua Jonathan nullified the elections, declared a national state of emergency, suspended the constitution, and dissolved the Parliament.", "In 1973, an appointed Interim National Assembly was established.", "With an overwhelming pro-government majority, it was largely the instrument of the BNP, led by Prime Minister Jonathan.", "In addition to the Jonathan regime's alienation of Basotho powerbrokers and the local population, South Africa had virtually closed the country's land borders because of Lesotho's support of cross-border operations of the African National Congress (ANC).", "Moreover, South Africa publicly threatened to pursue more direct action against Lesotho if the Jonathan government did not root out the ANC presence in the country.", "This internal and external opposition to the government combined to produce violence and internal disorder in Lesotho that eventually led to a military takeover in 1986.Under a January 1986 Military Council decree, state executive and legislative powers were transferred to the King who was to act on the advice of the Military Council, a self-appointed group of leaders of the Royal Lesotho Defense Force (RLDF).", "A military government chaired by Justin Lekhanya ruled Lesotho in coordination with King Moshoeshoe II and a civilian cabinet appointed by the King.In February 1990, King Moshoeshoe II was stripped of his executive and legislative powers and exiled by Lekhanya, and the Council of Ministers was purged.", "Lekhanya accused those involved of undermining discipline within the armed forces, subverting existing authority, and causing an impasse on foreign policy that had been damaging to Lesotho's image abroad." ], [ "Transition to democracy", "Lekhanya announced the establishment of the National Constituent Assembly to formulate a new constitution for Lesotho to return the country to democratic, civilian rule by June 1992.Before this transition, however, Lekhanya was ousted in 1991 by a mutiny of junior army officers that left Phisoane Ramaema as Chairman of the Military Council.Because Moshoeshoe II initially refused to return to Lesotho under the new rules of the government in which the King was endowed only with ceremonial powers, Moshoeshoe's son was installed as King Letsie III.", "In 1992, Moshoeshoe II returned to Lesotho as a regular citizen until 1995 when King Letsie abdicated the throne in favor of his father.", "After Moshoeshoe II died in a car accident in 1996, King Letsie III ascended to the throne again.In 1993, a new constitution was implemented leaving the King without any executive authority and proscribing him from engaging in political affairs.", "Multiparty elections were then held in which the BCP ascended to power with a landslide victory.", "Prime Minister Ntsu Mokhehle headed the new BCP government that had gained every seat in the 65-member National Assembly.", "In early 1994, political instability increased as first the army, followed by the police and prison services, engaged in mutinies.", "In August 1994, King Letsie III, in collaboration with some members of the military, staged a coup, suspended Parliament, and appointed a ruling council.", "As a result of domestic and international pressures, however, the constitutionally elected government was restored within a month.In 1995, there were isolated incidents of unrest, including a police strike in May to demand higher wages.", "For the most part, however, there were no serious challenges to Lesotho's constitutional order in the 1995-96 period.", "In January 1997, armed soldiers put down a violent police mutiny and arrested the mutineers.In 1997, tension within the BCP leadership caused a split in which Dr. Mokhehle abandoned the BCP and established the Lesotho Congress for Democracy (LCD) followed by two-thirds of the parliament.", "This move allowed Mokhehle to remain as prime minister and leader of a new ruling party while relegating the BCP to opposition status.", "The remaining members of the BCP refused to accept their new status as the opposition party and ceased attending sessions.", "Multiparty elections were again held in May 1998.Although Mokhehle completed his term as prime minister, due to his failing health, he did not vie for a second term in office.", "The elections saw a landslide victory for the LCD, gaining 79 of the 80 seats contested in the newly expanded Parliament.", "As a result of the elections, Mokhehle's Deputy Prime Minister, Pakalitha Mosisili, became the new prime minister.", "The landslide electoral victory caused opposition parties to claim that there were substantial irregularities in the handling of the ballots and that the results were fraudulent.", "The conclusion of the Langa Commission, a commission appointed by Southern African Development Community (SADC) to investigate the electoral process, however, was consistent with the view of international observers and local courts that the outcome of the elections was not affected by these incidents.", "While the report found the election results to be free of fraud or malpractice, opposition protests in the country intensified.", "The protests culminated in a violent demonstration outside the royal palace in early August 1998 and an unprecedented level of violence, looting, casualties, and destruction of property.", "In early September, junior members of the armed services mutinied.", "The Government of Lesotho requested that a SADC task force intervene to prevent a military coup and restore stability to the country.", "To this end, joint force, consisting of South African and (later) Botswana troops, entered Lesotho on September 22, 1998, to put down the mutiny and restore the democratically elected government.", "The army mutineers were brought before a court-martial.After stability returned to Lesotho, the SADC task force withdrew from the country in May 1999, leaving only a small task force (joined by Zimbabwe and troops) to provide training to the LDF.", "In the meantime, an Interim Political Authority (IPA), charged with reviewing the electoral structure in the country, was created in December 1998 and devised a proportional electoral system to ensure that there be opposition in the National Assembly.", "The new system retained the existing 80 elected Assembly seats but added 40 seats to be filled on a proportional basis.", "Elections were held under this new system in May 2002, and the LCD won again, gaining 54% of the vote.", "For the first time, however, opposition political parties won significant numbers of seats, and despite some irregularities and threats of violence from Major General Lekhanya, Lesotho experienced its first peaceful election.", "Nine opposition parties now hold all 40 of the proportional seats, with the BNP having the largest share (21).", "The LCD has 79 of the 80 constituency-based seats.In June 2014, Prime Minister Thomas Thabane suspended parliament because of conflict within his coalition, leading to criticisms that he was undermining the government.", "In August, after Thabane attempted to remove Lieutenant General Kennedy Tlai Kamoli from the head of the army, the Prime Minister fled the country for three days, alleging a coup was taking place.", "Kamoli denied that any coup had occurred.On 19 May 2020, Thomas Thabane formally stepped down as prime minister of Lesotho following months of pressure after he was named as a suspect in the murder of his ex-wife.", "Moeketsi Majoro, the economist and former Minister of Development Planning, was elected as Thabane's successor.On 28 October 2022, Sam Matekane was sworn in as Lesotho's new prime minister after forming a new coalition government.", "His Revolution for Prosperity party, formed earlier same year, won the 7 October elections." ], [ "See also", "History of AfricaHistory of South AfricaHistory of Southern AfricaHistory of EswatiniList of heads of government of LesothoList of Kings of LesothoPolitics of Lesotho" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", " * * * ** *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Lesotho" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lesotho''' is a mountainous, landlocked country located in Southern Africa.", "It is an enclave, surrounded by South Africa.", "The total length of the country's borders is .", "Lesotho covers an area of around , of which a negligible percentage is covered with water.The most popular geographic fact about Lesotho, apart from its status as an enclave, is that it is the only independent state in the world that lies entirely above in elevation.", "Its lowest point is at , the highest low point of any country.", "Because of its elevation, the country's climate is cooler than in most other regions at the same latitude.", "Its climate zone can be classified as continental." ], [ "Location", "Lesotho is a country in Southern Africa, located at around 29°30' south latitude and 28°30' east longitude.", "It is the 141st largest country in the world, with a total land area of , of which a negligible percentage is covered with water.", "Lesotho is completely surrounded by South Africa, making it one of only three countries in the world that are enclaved within another country; the other two are San Marino and Vatican City, both located within Italy.", "The total length of the South African border is .", "Lesotho's status as an enclave also means that it is landlocked and largely dependent on South Africa.", "The nearest major shipping port is Durban." ], [ "Physical geography", "Malealea village in the highlands of LesothoLesotho can be roughly divided into three geographic regions: the lowlands, following the southern banks of the Caledon River, and in the Senqu river valley; the highlands formed by the Drakensberg and Maloti mountain ranges in the east and central parts of the country; and the foothills that form a divide between the lowlands and the highlands.", "The lowest elevation in the country is at the junction of the Makhaleng and Orange (Senqu) rivers (at the South African border), which at is the highest lowest point of any country.", "Lesotho is the only independent state in the world that lies entirely above in elevation.", "The highest point is the peak of the Thabana Ntlenyana mountain, which reaches an elevation of .", "Over 80% of Lesotho lies above .Even though very little of Lesotho is covered in water, the rivers that run across the country are an important part of Lesotho's economy.", "Much of the country's export income comes from water, and much of its power comes from hydroelectricity.", "The Orange River rises in the Drakensberg mountains in northeastern Lesotho and flows across the entire length of the country before exiting to South Africa at the Mohale's Hoek District in the southwest.", "The Caledon River marks the northwestern part of the border with South Africa.", "Other rivers include the Malibamatso, Matsoku and Senqunyane.The bedrock of Lesotho belongs to the Karoo Supergroup, consisting mostly of shale and sandstone.", "Peatlands can be found in the highlands of Lesotho, most extensively in the mountainous escarpment near the country's eastern border.", "The summit of Thabana Ntlenyana is partially encircled by bogs.Solifluction deposits, blockfields, blockstreams and stone garlands can be found across the higher portions of the Lesotho Highlands.", "These features were formed in connection to the periglacial conditions that prevailed during the last glacial period in the area." ], [ "Political geography", "Districts and Cities of LesothoLesotho is divided into 10 administrative districts, each with its own capital, called a camptown.", "The districts are further subdivided into 80 constituencies, which consist of 129 local community councils.Districts (in alphabetical order):BereaButha-ButheLeribeMafetengMaseruMohale's HoekMokhotlongQacha's NekQuthingThaba-Tseka" ], [ "Climate", "Snow on the Lesotho Moteng passBecause of its altitude, the country remains cooler throughout the year than most other regions at the same latitude.", "Lesotho has a temperate climate, with hot summers and cold winters.", "Maseru and its surrounding lowlands often reach in the summer.", "Winters can be cold with the lowlands getting down to and the highlands to at times.The yearly precipitation varies from around in the lowland valleys to around in areas of the northern and eastern escarpment bordering South Africa.", "Most of the rain falls as summer thunderstorms: 85% of the annual precipitation falls between the months of October and April.", "The winters—between May and September are usually very dry.", "Snow is common in the deserts and low valleys between May and September; the higher peaks can experience occasional significant snowfall year-round.", "Annual variance in rainfall is quite erratic, which leads to periodic droughts in the dry season (May to September) and flooding, which can be severe in the rainy season (October–April).thumb" ], [ "Natural resources", "Map of Lesotho Lesotho is poor in natural resources.", "Economically the most important resource is water.", "The Lesotho Highlands Water Project allows exporting water from the Malibamatso, Matsoku, Senqu and Senqunyane rivers to South Africa, while also generating hydroelectric power for Lesotho's needs.", "As of April 2008, the first phase of the project has been completed.", "The project already accounts for an estimated five percent of Lesotho's GDP, and when fully completed, it could account for as much as 20 percent.The main mineral resource is diamonds from the Letseng diamond mine in the Maluti mountain range.", "The mine produces very few stones, but has the highest dollar ratio per carat of any diamond mine in the world.", "Other mineral resources include coal, galena, quartz, agate and uranium deposits, but their exploitation is not considered commercially viable.", "Clay deposits can be found in the country, and are used for producing tiles, bricks and other ceramics.Much of the population engages in subsistence farming, even though only 10.71% of the country's surface is classified as arable land and 0.13% has permanent crops.", "Much of the land has been ruined by soil erosion.", "The most fertile farmlands are in the northern and central lowlands, and in the foothills between the lowlands and the mountains.", "Large tracts of the fertile farmland to the north of the country—in the Free State region of South Africa—were lost to European colonists in wars during the 19th century." ], [ "Extreme points", "This is a list of the extreme points of Lesotho, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.", "* Northernmost point - unnamed location on the border with Golden Gate National Park in South Africa immediately north-west of the village of Monontsa, In Butha-Buthe District* Easternmost point - unnamed location on the border with South Africa immediately west of the South African mountain Giant's Castle, Mokhotlong District* Southernmost point - Gairntoul mountain, Quthing District* Westernmost point - unnamed location in the Caledon River on the border with South Africa, Mafeteng District" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Lesotho" ], [ "Introduction", "Demographic features of the population of Lesotho include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects.The '''Demographics of Lesotho''' describe the condition and overview of Lesotho's people, residents of which are called Basotho in the plural and Mosotho in the singular.", "Demographic topics include basic education, health, and population statistics as well as identified racial and religious affiliations." ], [ "Population", "Historical population of Lesotho (Our World in Data).According to the 2016 census, Lesotho has a total population of 2,007,201.Of the population, 34.17 percent lived in urban and 65.83 percent in rural areas.", "The country's capital, Maseru, accounts for around half of the total urban population.", "The sex distribution is 982,133 male and 1,025,068 female, or around 96 males for each 100 females.The average population density in the country is around 66,1 people per square kilometer.", "The density is lower in the Lesotho Highlands than in the western lowlands.", "Although the majority of the population—56.1 percent—is between 15 and 64 years of age, Lesotho has a substantial youth population numbering around 37.8 percent.", "The annual population growth rate is estimated at 0.13%According to the total population was in , compared to only 734 000 in 1950.The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 37.4%, 58.3% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 4.3% was 65 years or older.Total populationPopulation aged 0–14 (%)Population aged 15–64 (%)Population aged 65+ (%) 1950 734 00040.754.94.5 1955 788 00041.953.74.4 1960 852 00043.152.74.3 1965 934 00043.652.24.2 19701 033 00044.151.84.2 19751 150 00044.551.34.2 19801 310 00044.351.64.1 19851 487 00044.351.64.1 19901 639 00044.151.74.2 19951 795 00043.152.54.4 20001 964 00041.254.34.5 20052 066 00039.656.04.4 20102 171 00037.458.34.3Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 982 133 1 025 068 2 007 201 100 0–4 100 793 99 362 200 155 9.97 5–9 109 953 111 523 221 476 11.03 10–14 107 879 107 934 215 813 10.75 15–19 106 214 103 652 209 866 10.46 20–24 98 827 100 440 199 267 9.93 25–29 95 802 93 141 188 943 9.41 30–34 86 956 81 189 168 145 8.38 35–39 68 246 62 135 130 381 6.50 40–44 48 665 47 630 96 295 4.80 45–49 36 425 38 462 74 887 3.73 50–54 31 785 38 574 70 359 3.51 55–59 25 759 34 058 59 817 2.98 60–64 20 770 28 451 49 221 2.45 65-69 15 311 22 047 37 358 1.86 70-74 12 017 18 791 30 808 1.53 75-79 8 467 15 707 24 174 1.20 80-84 5 424 13 197 18 621 0.93 85-89 1 873 5 201 7 074 0.35 90-94 662 2 127 2 789 0.14 95+ 305 1 447 1 752 0.09Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 318 625 318 819 637 444 31.76 15–64 619 449 627 732 1 247 181 62.14 65+ 44 059 78 517 122 576 6.11Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 1 019 453 1 057 858 2 077 311 100 0–4 100 104 98 343 198 446 9.55 5–9 111 585 114 805 226 390 10.90 10–14 106 278 106 664 212 942 10.25 15–19 100 311 96 522 196 832 9.48 20–24 95 959 96 699 192 658 9.27 25–29 102 411 98 595 201 006 9.68 30–34 101 352 92 981 194 333 9.36 35–39 80 459 69 851 150 310 7.24 40–44 53 415 49 648 103 063 4.96 45–49 37 537 38 314 75 852 3.65 50–54 33 352 40 804 74 155 3.57 55–59 27 071 37 915 64 986 3.13 60–64 22 945 32 509 55 454 2.67 65-69 16 336 23 852 40 187 1.93 70+ 30 340 60 356 90 696 4.37Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 317 967 319 812 637 779 30.70 15–64 654 810 653 838 1 308 648 63.00 65+ 46 676 84 208 130 884 6.30" ], [ "Vital statistics", "Registration of vital events is in Lesotho not complete.", "The Population Departement of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.PeriodLive births per yearDeaths per yearNatural change per yearCBRCDRNCTFRIMR* 1950–1955 32 000 17 000 15 00042.122.719.45.84169 1955–1960 35 000 17 000 18 00042.220.321.95.86150 1960–1965 38 000 16 000 21 00042.318.324.05.81134 1965–1970 42 000 17 000 24 00042.517.824.85.80130 1970–1975 47 000 18 000 28 00042.816.926.05.80123 1975–1980 52 000 19 000 33 00042.015.127.05.69110 1980–1985 56 000 18 000 38 00040.413.027.45.4694 1985–1990 59 000 18 000 41 00037.611.626.05.1484 1990–1995 60 000 17 000 42 00034.710.024.74.7070 1995–2000 63 000 25 000 38 00033.713.520.24.3781 2000–2005 62 000 36 000 26 00030.717.912.83.7986 2005–2010 60 000 35 000 25 00028.516.711.93.3777 * CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)===Fertility and Births===Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Year CBR (Total) TFR (Total) CBR (Urban) TFR (Urban) CBR (Rural) TFR (Rural) 2004 25,3 3,5 (2,5) 19,3 1,9 (1,4) 26,7 4,1 (2,9) 2009 26,4 3,3 (2,4) 24,5 2,1 (1,7) 27,1 4,0 (2,8) 2014 24,3 3,3 (2,3) 23,3 2,3 (1,7) 24,7 3,9 (2,7)Fertility data as of 2014 (DHS Program): District Total fertility rate Percentage of women age 15-49 currently pregnant Mean number of children ever born to women age 40-49 Butha-Buthe 3.7 4.7 3.9 Leribe 3.5 3.6 3.7 Berea 3.1 3.5 3.7 Maseru 2.6 4.4 3.5 Mafeteng 2.8 6.1 3.5 Mohale's Hoek 3.8 3.8 3.7 Quthing 3.9 3.3 4.1 Qacha's Nek 2.9 5.0 3.8 Mokhotlong 4.4 5.2 4.9 Thaba-Tseka 4.0 4.3 4.6=== Life expectancy at birth ===Life expectancy from 1950 to 2015 (''UN World Population Prospects''):PeriodLife expectancy inYears1950–195542.151955–1960 45.081960–1965 47.801965–1970 48.521970–1975 49.801975–1980 52.241980–1985 55.281985–1990 57.331990–1995 59.701995–2000 52.742000–2005 45.622005–2010 49.042010–2015 52.51" ], [ "Other demographic statistics", "Population, fertility rate and net reproduction rate, United Nations estimatesDemographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.", "One birth every 10 minutes\tOne death every 18 minutes\tOne net migrant every 63 minutes\tNet gain of one person every 31 minutesThe following demographic are from the CIA World Factbook unless otherwise indicated.6,600 people living in Lesotho are from Asia or Europe.", "They represent 0.3% of the total population of Lesotho.", "The 5,000 Chinese people form the largest non-African ethnic group in Lesotho.===Population===:2,193,970 (2022 est.", "):1,962,461 (July 2018 est.", ")===Religions===Protestant 47.8% (Pentecostal 23.1%, Lesotho Evangelical 17.3%, Anglican 7.4%), Roman Catholic 39.3%, other Christian 9.1%, non-Christian 1.4%, none 2.3% (2014 est.", ")===Age structure===Population pyramid of Lesotho in 2020:''0-14 years:'' 31.3% (male 309,991/female 306,321):''15-24 years:'' 19.26% (male 181,874/female 197,452):''25-54 years:'' 38.86% (male 373,323/female 391,901):''55-64 years:'' 4.98% (male 52,441/female 45,726):''65 years and over:'' 5.6% (2020 est.)", "(male 57,030/female 53,275):''0-14 years:'' 31.84% (male 314,155 /female 310,772):''15-24 years:'' 19.34% (male 181,332 /female 1955,236):''25-54 years:'' 38.27% (male 366,652 /female 384,333):''55-64 years:'' 5.02% (male 52,490 /female 46,016):''65 years and over:'' 5.53% (male 55,804 /female 52,671) (2018 est.", ")===Population growth rate===:0.76% (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 121st:0.24% (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 178th===Birth rate===:23.15 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 50th:24.2 births/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 52nd===Death rate===:11.05 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 22nd:15.1 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.", ")===Total fertility rate===:2.92 children born/woman (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 51st:2.59 children born/woman (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 72nd===Median age===:total: 24.7 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 164th:male: 24.7 years:female: 24.7 years (2020 est.", "):total: 24.4 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 164th:male: 24.4 years :female: 24.3 years (2018 est.", ")===Mother's mean age at first birth===:20.9 years (2014 est.", "):note: median age at first birth among women 25-49===Contraceptive prevalence rate===:64.9% (2018):60.2% (2014)===Net migration rate===:-4.55 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 199th:-6.8 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2017 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 203rd===Major infectious diseases===:degree of risk: intermediate (2020):food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever===Dependency ratios===:total dependency ratio: 66.9 (2015 est.", "):youth dependency ratio: 59.5 (2015 est.", "):elderly dependency ratio: 7.4 (2015 est.", "):potential support ratio: 13.5 (2015 est.", ")===Urbanization===:urban population: 29.9% of total population (2022):rate of urbanization: 2.77% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.", "):urban population: 30.2% of total population (2018):rate of urbanization: 2.83% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.", ")===Life expectancy at birth===:total population: 59.57 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 220th:male: 57.57 years:female: 61.64 years (2022 est.", "):total population: 53 years (2018 est.", "):male: 53 years (2018 est.", "):female: 53.1 years (2018 est.", ")===Education expenditures===:7.4% of GDP (2020) Country comparison to the world: 16th===Literacy===definition: age 15 and over can read and write (2015 est.", "):total population: 79.4% (2015 est.", "):male: 70.1% (2015 est.", "):female: 88.3% (2015 est.", ")===School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)===:total: 12 years:male: 12 years:female: 13 years (2017):total: 11 years (2015):male: 10 years (2015):female: 11 years (2015)===Unemployment, youth ages 15-24===:total: 34.4% (2013 est.", "):male: NA (2013 est.", "):female: NA (2013 est.)" ], [ "Ethnic groups and languages", "Due to Lesotho's long history as a unified nation, that continued even through British colonial rule, the ethnic makeup of the country is very homogenous.", "Lesotho's ethno-linguistic structure consists almost entirely of the Basotho (singular ''Mosotho''), a Bantu-speaking people: an estimate of 99.7 percent of the people identify as Basotho.", "The Kwena (Bakoena) are the largest subgroup of the Sotho; other Basotho subgroups include the Natal (North) Nguni, Batloung (the Tlou), Baphuthi (the Phuti), Bafokeng, Bataung (the Tau), Bats'oeneng (the tso'ene) and the Cape (South) Nguni (Thembu).", "Other ethnic groups include Europeans, numbering in the thousands, and several hundred Asians.Sesotho (Southern Sotho) and English languages are both official.", "Afrikaans, Zulu, Xhosa and French are also spoken." ], [ "Religion", "The population of Lesotho is estimated to be around 90 percent Christian.", "Roman Catholics, the largest religious group, make up around 45 percent of the population.", "Evangelicals comprise 26 percent of the population, and Anglican and other Christian groups an additional 19 percent.", "Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, Baháʼí, and members of traditional indigenous religions comprise the remaining 10 percent of the population." ], [ "Education and literacy", "According to recent estimates, 85 percent of the population 15 and over was literate.", "Among women the literacy rate was around 95 percent, and among men around 75 percent.", "As such, Lesotho boasts one of the higher literacy rates in Africa.", "Although education is not compulsory, the Government of Lesotho is incrementally implementing a programme for free primary education.", "It was expected that the program would be fully in place by 2006.The National University of Lesotho located in Roma and the Limkokwing University of Creative Technology located in the heart of Maseru, Moshoeshoe 2 are the only universities in the country.", "In addition, the country has almost 20 other public and 15 private institutes giving tertiary education." ], [ "References", "'''Attribution'''*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Lesotho" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Politics of Lesotho''' takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic constitutional monarchy, whereby the Prime Minister of Lesotho is the head of government, and of a multi-party system.", "Executive power is exercised by the government.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of Parliament, the Senate and the National Assembly.", "The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature." ], [ "Executive branch", "\|KingLetsie III7 February 1996Prime MinisterSam MatekaneRevolution for Prosperity28 October 2022The Lesotho Government is a constitutional monarchy.", "The Prime Minister, Sam Matekane, is head of government and has executive authority.", "The King serves a largely ceremonial function; he no longer possesses any executive authority and is proscribed from actively participating in political initiatives.", "According to the constitution, the leader of the majority party in the assembly automatically becomes prime minister; the monarch is hereditary, but, under the terms of the constitution which came into effect after the March 1993 election, the monarch is a \"living symbol of national unity\" with no executive or legislative powers; under traditional law the college of chiefs has the power to determine who is next in the line of succession, who shall serve as regent in the event that the successor is not of mature age, and may even depose the monarch." ], [ "Legislative branch", "Parliament has two chambers.", "The National Assembly has 120 members, elected for a five-year term, 80 in single-seat constituencies and 40 by proportional representation.", "The Senate has 33 nominated members." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "===General elections===" ], [ "Judicial branch", "The constitution provides for an independent hierarchical judicial system.", "The judiciary is made up of the High Court of Lesotho, the Court of Appeal, magistrate's courts, and traditional (customary) courts which exist predominantly in rural areas.", "There is no trial by jury; rather, judges make rulings alone, or, in the case of criminal trials, with two other judges as observers.", "The constitution also protects basic civil liberties, including freedom of speech, association, and the press; freedom of peaceful assembly; and freedom of religion.The Court of Appeal is located in Maseru and consists of a President and 6 justices of Appeal.The High Court has unlimited original jurisdiction over civil and criminal matters, as well as appellate jurisdiction from the lower courts and comprises a Chief Justice and other puisne judges.", "Parallel to the High Court is the Labour Court, which is a specialist court dealing exclusively with industrial and labour matters.Magistrates Courts are presided over by judicial officers (magistrates) employed as civil servants.", "They are not courts of record and as such their decisions are not binding on future cases.The Chief Justice and Justices of the Court of Appeal are appointed by the King on the advice of the Prime Minister.", "Puisne judges of the High Court are appointed by the King on the advice of the Judicial Service Commission.", "High Court judges may retire any time after attaining the age of 75 but may be removed from office by the King for malfeasance or infirmity.", ";Chief Justices:* 1937-1948 Sir Walter Huggard (British)* 1950-1952 Sir Walter Harragin (British)* 1952-1956 Harold Curwen Willan (British)* 1959-1961 Cox (British)* 1961-1962 Elyan (British)* 1962-1965 Watkin Williams (British)* 1965-1966 Benson (British)* 1966-1968 Johnston* 1968–1973 Hendrik Rudolf Jacobs (South African)* 1974–1975 Joas Tseliso Mapetla* 1976–1986 Taufik Suliman Cotran (afterwards Chief Justice of Belize, 1986)* 1986–1993 Peter Brendan Cullinan* <1994–2002 Joseph Lebona Kheola* 2002–2013 Mahapela Lehohla 2004 Baptista Molai (acting) 2013 Tseliso Monaphathi (acting)* 2014-2018 Nthomeng Majara* 2020-Present Sakoane Peter Sakoane" ], [ "Administrative divisions", "For administrative purposes, Lesotho is divided into 10 districts, each headed by a district secretary and a district military officer appointed by the central government and the RLDF, respectively.The districts are: Berea, Butha-Buthe, Leribe, Mafeteng, Maseru, Mohales Hoek, Mokhotlong, Qacha's Nek, Quthing, Thaba-Tseka" ], [ "International organization participation", "Lesotho is member of ACP, AfDB, C, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OPCW, SACU, SADC, United Nations, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, UNWTO and WTO.", "It was also member of the WCL and OAU before they disbanded." ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "Literature", "*K. Matlosa Electoral System Design and Conflict Mitigation: the Case of Lesotho // Democracy, Conflict and Human Security" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Lesotho" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Lesotho''' is based on agriculture, livestock, manufacturing, mining, and depends heavily on inflows of workers’ remittances and receipts from the Southern African Customs Union (SACU).", "Lesotho is geographically surrounded by South Africa and is economically integrated with it as well.", "The majority of households subsist on farming.", "The formal sector employment consist of mainly female workers in the apparel sector.", "While male migrant laborers work primarily as miners in South Africa for 3 to 9 months and employment in the Government of Lesotho (GOL).", "Half of the country's population work in informal crop cultivation or animal husbandry.Lesotho, is a member of the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) in which tariffs have been eliminated on the trade of goods between other member countries, which also include Botswana, Namibia, South Africa, and Eswatini.", "Lesotho, Eswatini, Namibia, and South Africa also form a common currency and exchange control area known as the Rand Monetary Area that uses the South African rand as the common currency.", "In 1980, Lesotho introduced its own currency, the loti (plural: '''maloti''').", "One hundred '''lisente''' equal one loti.", "The Loti is at par with the rand." ], [ "Economic history", "Until the political insecurity in September 1998, Lesotho's economy had grown steadily since 1992.The riots, however, destroyed nearly 80% of commercial infrastructure in Maseru and two other major towns in the country, having a disastrous effect on the country's economy.", "Nonetheless, the country has completed several IMF Structural Adjustment Programs, and inflation declined substantially over the course of the 1990s.", "Lesotho's trade deficit, however, is quite large, with exports representing only a small fraction of imports.The global economic crisis hit the Lesotho economy hard through loss of textile exports and jobs in the sector due largely to the economic slowdown in the United States which is a major export destination, reduced diamond mining and exports, including weak prices for diamonds; drop in SACU revenues due to the economic slowdown in the South African economy, and reduction in worker remittances due to weakening of the South African economy and contraction of the mining sector and related job losses in South Africa.", "In 2009, GDP growth slowed to 0.9 percent." ], [ "Economic progress", "Lesotho's progress in moving from a predominantly subsistence-oriented economy to a lower middle income, diversified economy exporting natural resources and manufacturing goods has brought higher, more secure incomes to a significant portion of the population.", "The percentage of the population living below USD PPP US$1.25/day fell from 48 percent to 44 percent between 1995 and 2003.The unemployment rate in 2008 was 25.29% and rose to 27.2% in 2012.However, the unemployment rate fell to 23.06% in 2017.The percentage of the population living below the poverty line fell from 58% in 2002 to 49.2% in 2017.The country is still among the \"Low Human Development\" countries (rank 155 of 192) as classified by the UNDP, with 42.3 years of life expectancy at birth.", "However, adult literacy is very high - 82% and children under weight aged under 5 is only 20%.Lesotho has received economic aid from a variety of sources, including the United States, the World Bank, the United Kingdom, the European Union, and Germany.Lesotho has nearly 6,000 kilometers of unpaved and modern all-weather roads.", "There is a short rail line (freight) linking Lesotho with South Africa that is totally owned and operated by South Africa." ], [ "Sectors", "=== Apparel ===Lesotho has taken advantage of the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) to become the largest exporter of garments to the US from sub-Saharan Africa.", "American Brands and retailers sourcing from Lesotho include: Foot Locker, Gap, Gloria Vanderbilt, JCPenney, Levi Strauss, Saks, Sears, Timberland and Wal-Mart.", "In mid-2004 its employment reached over 50,000 mainly female workers, marking the first time that manufacturing sector workers outnumbered government employees.", "In 2008 it exported 487 million dollars mainly to the United States.", "Since 2004 employment in the sector was somehow reduced to about 45,000, in mid-2011, due to intense international competition in the garment sector.", "It was the largest formal sector employer in Lesotho in 2011.The sector initiated a major program to fight HIV/AIDS, called Apparel Lesotho Alliance to Fight AIDS (ALAFA).", "It is an industry-wide program providing prevention and treatment for the workers.=== Husbandry ===High-mountain shepherds.The western lowlands form the main agricultural zone.", "Almost 50% of the population earn income through informal crop cultivation or animal husbandry with nearly two-thirds of the country's income coming from the agricultural sector.", "About 70% of the population lives in rural areas and works in agriculture." ], [ "Women in the economy", "Women make up 51% of Lesotho's population.", "While women are more subject to access to secondary schooling than men, men make 1.5 times more income than women.", "Prior to the 1950s, Basotho women migrated to South Africa for work due to an agricultural decline.", "Of those who migrated, many of them were unwed and many stayed in South Africa.", "Married couples also traveled to South Africa together for work.", "In 1923, the pass law Natives (Urban Areas) Act was passed in South Africa which required black men to carry passports with them at all times when in white areas for work.", "Women were included in an amendment to the law in 1952.The amendment caused a decline in migration of female labor, and by the 1970s, only 36.1% of women over age 39 in Lesotho had worked in South Africa.", "Lesotho women did not work in mines.In the 1980s, Lesotho received aid to help with the manufacturing industry.", "The main workers employed in the industry were young women.", "In 1990, 92% of employees in the textile industry were women.About 86% of the female population in Lesotho works in the textile industry." ], [ "Natural resources", "Water and diamonds are Lesotho's only significant natural resources.", "Water is being extracted through the 30-year, multibillion-dollar Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP), which was initiated in 1986.The LHWP is designed to capture, store, and transfer water from the Orange River system and send it to South Africa's Free State and greater Johannesburg area, which features a large concentration of South African industry, population and agriculture.", "At the completion of the project, Lesotho should be almost completely self-sufficient in the production of electricity and also gain income from the sale of electricity to South Africa.", "The World Bank, African Development Bank, European Investment Bank, and many other bilateral donors are financing the project.", "Diamonds are produced in Letšeng, Mothae, Liqhobong and Kao mines.", "The sector suffered a setback in 2008 as the result of the world recession but rebounded in 2010 and 2011.It is a major contributor to the exports of Lesotho." ], [ "Other statistics", "The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017.Year GDP(in bil.", "US$ PPP) GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in bil.", "US$ nominal) GDP growth(real) Inflation(in Percent) Government debt(Percentage of GDP) 1980 0.65 5120.43 −0.8 % 19.6 % ... 1985 1.01 7360.29 3.3 % 15.0 % ... 1990 1.50 9350.64 5.2 % 12.0 % 18 % 1995 2.10 1,1311.03 2.8 % 9.7 % 62 % 2000 2.68 1,4400.92 4.9 % 6.1 % 88 % 2005 3.47 1,8411.73 3.1 % 3.6 % 49 % 2006 3.73 1,9941.72 4.4 % 6.3 % 51 % 2007 4.02 2,1441.76 5.0 % 9.2 % 51 % 2008 4.33 2,3011.65 5.5 % 10.7 % 45 % 2009 4.50 2,3851.94 3.1 % 5.8 % 35 % 2010 4.84 2,5602.36 6.3 % 3.3 % 31 % 2011 5.27 2,7802.57 6.7 % 6.0 % 33 % 2012 5.63 2,9632.47 4.9 % 5.5 % 35 % 2013 5.85 3,0682.35 2.2 % 5.0 % 37 % 2014 6.13 3,2082.48 3.0 % 4.6 % 37% 2015 6.35 3,2962.20 2.5 % 4.3 % 41 % 2016 6.63 3,4252.21 3.1 % 6.2 % 35 % 2017 6.96 3,5812.42 3.1 % 5.6 % 35 %'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''''lowest 10%:''0.9%''highest 10%:''43.4% (1986–87)'''Industrial production growth rate:'''3% (2010)'''Electricity - consumption:'''626 GWh (2010/11)'''Agriculture - products:'''maize, wheat, pulses, sorghum, barley; livestock'''Currency:'''1 loti (L) = 100 lisente; note - maloti (M) is the plural form of loti'''Exchange rates:'''maloti (M) per US$1 – 7.32 (2010), 6.10948 (1999), 3.62709 (1995); note - the Basotho loti is at par with the South African rand" ], [ "See also", "* Economy of Africa* Lesotho* List of Basotho companies* Child labour in Lesotho* United Nations Economic Commission for Africa" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** MBendi Lesotho overview* Lesotho latest trade data on ITC Trade Map" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in Lesotho" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Telecommunications in Lesotho''' include radio, television, print and online newspapers, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet." ], [ "Radio", "* Radio stations: 2 state-owned radio stations; government controls most private broadcast media; transmissions of multiple international broadcasters are available (2008).", "* Radio stations in Lesotho: Radio Lesotho 1050AM.", " Ultimate 950AM.", " Radio Lesotho 93.3FM, Maseru only.", " People's Choice (PCFM) 95.6FM, Maseru only.", " Radio France International (RFI) 95.4FM, Maseru only.", " Thaha-Khube 97.1FM, Maseru only.", " Harvest 98.8FM, Maseru only.", " Moafrica 99.3FM, Maseru only.", " Ultimate 99.8FM, Maseru only.", " Kereke Evangel, 102FM.", " Catholic radio 103.3FM.", " Jeso KE Karabo 105.2FM, Maseru only.", " Joy 106.9FM, Maseru only.", " Soul Radio Internet based Radio" ], [ "Television", "* Television stations: 1 state-owned TV station; government controls most private broadcast media; satellite TV subscription service available; transmissions of multiple international broadcasters are available (2008).", "* TV stations in Lesotho: Lesotho Television is a state owned tv network which is operated by Lesotho National Broadcasting Services or LNBS in short, it caters for Mountain Kingdom from Current affairs, News, Culture, Reality shows, it caters in both official languages in Lesotho which is Sesotho or English (LTV 292 on DStv).", "" ], [ "Newspapers", "* Main newspapers in Lesotho: Public Eye newspaper, Public Eye website.", " Lesotho Times, Lesotho Times website.", " Sunday Express, Informative News, Informative News website.", " AllAfrica.com Finite Magazine LENA (Lesotho News Agency) The Post" ], [ "Telephones", "* Calling code +266* International call prefix: 00* Main lines: 43,100 lines in use, 168th in the world (2012).", "* Mobile cellular: 1.3 million lines, 153rd in the world (2012).", "* Telephone system: Rudimentary system consisting of a modest number of landlines, a small microwave radio relay system, and a small radiotelephone communication system; privatized in 2001, Telecom Lesotho was tasked with providing an additional 50,000 fixed-line connections within five years, a target not met; mobile-cellular service dominates the market and is expanding with a subscribership of roughly 65 per 100 persons in 2011; rural services are scant (2011).", "* Satellite earth station: 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2011).===Telecommunications providers===Vodacom Lesotho started operating in 1996 with the Government of Lesotho as a shareholder through its stake in Lesotho Telecommunications Corporation.", "When the Government of Lesotho began its privatisation process in 1999, it invited bids for this share in Vodacom Lesotho.", "In July 2000, Sekha-Metsi Consortium, a group of local business people and public figures, was announced as the successful bidder.", "Sekha-Metsi now holds a 12% share in Vodacom Lesotho with the remaining share held by Vodacom Group.", "In 2008 Vodacom Lesotho introduced its new partnership with Vodafone.Econet Telecom Lesotho is part of the Econet Wireless group and operates as a stand-alone entity with full local board and management control.", "It is the first African mobile service operator to use ForgetMeNot Africa's eTXT service to enable their customer base to send and receive email via any mobile capable of a simple SMS." ], [ "Internet", "* Top-level domain: .ls* Internet users: 88,602 users, 170th in the world; 4.6% of the population, 189th in the world (2012).", "* 27.93 % of households with internet access as of 2017 * Fixed broadband: 2,529 subscriptions, 169th in the world; 0.1% of the population, 163rd in the world (2012).", "* Wireless broadband: Unknown (2012).", "* Internet hosts: 11,030 hosts, 131st in the world (2012).", "* IPv4: 40,448 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 21.0 addresses per 1000 people (2012).", "* Internet Service Providers: 4 ISPs (2013).===Internet censorship and surveillance===There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight.", "The Internet is not widely available and almost nonexistent in rural areas due to the lack of communications infrastructure and high cost of access.The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech, so long as they do not interfere with \"defense, public safety, public order, public morality, or public health\".", "The government generally respects this right.", "An independent press, effective judiciary, and functioning democratic political system combine generally to promote freedom of the press; however, harassment of journalists and self-censorship persist.", "The law prohibits expressions of hatred or contempt for any person because of the person’s race, ethnic affiliation, gender, disability, or color." ], [ "See also", "* Lesotho Amateur Radio Society" ], [ "References", "* " ], [ "External links", " LEO domain name registrar, website.", "* Lesotho Amateur Radio Society, website.", "* Lesotho Communications Authority, website." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Lesotho" ], [ "Introduction", "This article concerns systems of '''transport in Lesotho'''.", "As a landlocked country, Lesotho has no seaports or harbours, but does have road, air transport, and limited rail infrastructure." ], [ "Roads", "A3 road towards Katse.Prior to Lesotho's independence in 1966, the only paved road in the country was the Kingsway in the capital, Maseru, between the Mejametalana Airport and the Royal Palace.", "Since the early 1970s, the road infrastructure has been substantially developed.", "In 1999, Lesotho had a road network measuring at in length, of which were paved.", "The most weight has been given to connecting the district centres, but the roads within central Lesotho have also been improved, as part of the construction needs of the Lesotho Highlands Water Project." ], [ "Railways", "The only railway line in Lesotho is the Maseru branch line, which connects the capital city Maseru to the Bloemfontein–Bethlehem line in the railway network of South Africa.", "The final of this line, which opened on 18 December 1905, lies within the borders of Lesotho, running from the border bridge on the Mohokare River through the northern industrial district of Maseru to that city's station, the only railway station in the country.As of 2008, there have been talks of building new railways to connect Lesotho to Durban and Port Elizabeth." ], [ "Air transport", "There are a total of 28 airports in Lesotho, of which 3 have paved runways.", "The only international airport is the Moshoeshoe I International Airport in Mazenod, a short distance southeast from Maseru.", "The main runway of the Moshoeshoe Airport is the only one with a runway longer than 1,523 meters; it measures at 3,200 meters.Of the other airports, one has a paved runway between 914 and 1,523 meters in length and one a paved runway with a length of under 914 meters.", "Four of the airports have unpaved runways of between 914 and 1,523 meters in length, and the others have unpaved runways of less than 914 meters.", "All of the classifications are made by the length of the longest runway on an airport." ], [ "Water transport", "Lesotho is landlocked and completely dependent on South Africa for sea transport.", "The nearest major port and the transshipping point for the country is Durban.", "Recently due to delays out of Durban more companies have been using the Port Elizabeth facilities that are 2 hours farther south.Inland water transport is limited to small ferry boats at river crossings, and the Government of Lesotho operates boats at major crossings." ], [ "Intermediate means of transport", "Cattle work in LesothoThe main intermediate means of transport (IMTs) in use are wheelbarrows and work animals.", "Wheelbarrows are widespread in the urban and rural areas and are commonly used by women and men to transport food aid, grains for milling, water containers, and building materials.", "The importance of wheelbarrows for water collection is gradually being reduced by the provision of water taps.", "Also common in both highland and lowland areas are two-wheeled ‘scotch carts' with pneumatic tyres.", "They used to be pulled mainly by oxen, but in recent years there has been an increasing tendency to use cows (females), as farmers often do not own oxen.", "The carts vary in design, some being made with old pickup bodies, some made using old axles, and many being purpose-made to standard designs by small workshops in Lesotho or South Africa.", "Most are painted red.", "Discussion with workshops producing carts suggest the main problem is obtaining suitable wheels and axles, as well as other raw materials, that can be afforded by their clients.Horse riding.Basotho ponies are very important in the highlands for riding.", "Ponies are sometimes used as pack animals to carry goods, but this is relatively uncommon.", "Donkeys, on the other hand are widely used as pack animals in all parts of the county.", "Donkeys are quite commonly ridden, mainly by young men and usually without a saddle.", "It is quite common for women to ride ponies, but relatively few women ride donkeys.", "A few people, notably older men, ride donkeys fitted with saddles.", "Mules are relatively uncommon, and may be used for riding or pack transport.", "The use of ponies, mules and donkeys to pull carts is very low.", "Very few two-wheeled donkey carts or horse carts, although such carts are very common in other countries in southern, eastern, western and northern Africa.", "In at least two urban areas (Maputsoe and Mafeteng) a small number of transport entrepreneurs use carts or wagons with pneumatic tyres pulled mainly by single ponies (and occasionally by two donkeys or a mule).", "In Mafeteng, the transporters use two-wheel carts, while in Maputsoe, the transporters use four-wheel wagons.The numbers of bicycles and motorcycles in use is very low.", "The per-capita ownership of motorcycles in Lesotho, and also bicycles, may be among the lowest in the world.", "The small number of people who do use bicycles tend to be children and young men, primarily for recreation although some use them for inter-village travel.", "A few people use bicycles for sport, and some South Africans and other tourists travel through the highlands on bicycles.", "A small number of transport entrepreneurs use bicycles to gain a livelihood." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Lesotho" ], [ "Introduction", "Nations with which Lesotho has diplomatic relations.Lesotho's geographic location makes it extremely vulnerable to political and economic developments in South Africa.", "Its capital is the small city of Maseru.", "It is a member of many regional economic organizations including the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the Southern African Customs Union (SACU).", "Lesotho also is active in the United Nations, the Organisation of African Unity, now the African Union, the Non-Aligned Movement, and many other international organizations.", "In addition to the Republic of Korea, the United States, South Africa, Ireland, People's Republic of China, Libya, and the European Union all currently retain resident diplomatic missions in Lesotho.", "'''Foreign relations of Lesotho''' are administered by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Relations.Lesotho has historically maintained generally close ties with the Republic of Ireland (Lesotho's largest bilateral aid donor), the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and other Western states.", "Although Lesotho decided in 1990 to break relations with the People's Republic of China (P.R.C.)", "and re-establish relations with the Republic of China (commonly known by its main island as '''Taiwan'''), it had restored ties with the P.R.C.", "in 1994." ], [ "Bilateral relations", "=== Africa === Country Formal Relations BeganNotes * Lesotho King Letsie III paid a visit to Algeria in 2015.1983* Lesotho is represented in Angola through its embassy in South Africa.", "* Lesotho is represented in Angola through its embassy in South Africa.14 April 2016* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 April 2016 when Ambassador of Burkina Faso to Lesotho with residence in Pretoria, Mme.", "Salamata Sawadogo/Tapsoba presented his credentials to King Letsie III.", "* Lesotho is represented in Burundi through its embassy in Ethiopia.29 October 1968Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 October 1968* Lesotho is represented in Cabo Verde through its embassy in Ethiopia.", "* Lesotho is represented in the Central African Republic through its embassy in Ethiopia.", "* Lesotho is represented in Comoros through its embassy in Ethiopia.", "* Lesotho is represented in Angola through its embassy in South Africa.", "* Lesotho is represented in Djibouti through its embassy in Ethiopia.31 May 1973Both countries established diplomatic relations on 31 May 1973* Lesotho is represented in Equatorial Guinea through its embassy in Ethiopia.21 June 2015Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 June 2015 when Mr. Saleh Omar, Eritrean Ambassador to South Africa, has presented his credentials to King of Lesotho Letsie III.", "* Lesotho is represented in Eritrea through its embassy in Kuwait.12 February 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 February 1976* Lesotho has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* Lesotho is represented in Gabon through its embassy in Ethiopia.24 November 1966Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 November 1966* Guinea is represented in Lesotho through its embassy in South Africa.28 October 1968Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 October 1968June 1968Both countries established diplomatic relations in June 1968.4 July 1974Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 July 1974The two countries maintain diplomatic relations and Lesotho formerly had a diplomatic mission in Tripoli.7 December 1971Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 December 19714 February 1967Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 February 1967* Lesotho is represented in Malawi through its embassy in South Africa.9 March 2017Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 March 2017 when first Ambassador of Mauritania to Lesotho M. Mohamed Ould Hanani presented his credentials to King Letsie III.", "* Lesotho is represented in Mauritius through its embassy in South Africa.1990* The two countries maintain diplomatic relations.9 September 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 September 1975* Lesotho is represented in Mozambique through its embassy in South Africa.", "* Lesotho is represented in Namibia through its embassy in South Africa.17 August 2017* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 August 2017 when Ambassador of Niger to Lesotho Mrs. Rakiatou Mayaki presented his credentials to King Letsie III.November 1971* Diplomatic relations between the two countries are described as 'positive'.1983* Lesotho is represented in Rwanda through its embassy in Ethiopia.", "* Lesotho is represented in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic through its embassy in Kuwait.", "* Lesotho is represented in São Tomé and Príncipe through its embassy in Ethiopia.", "* Lesotho is represented in the Seychelles through its embassy in South Africa.22 October 1968Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 October 1968* Lesotho is represented in Somalia through its embassy in Ethiopia.21 May 1992See Lesotho–South Africa relationsThe countries signed a memorandum of understanding in 2018 in the fields of political consulation and social development.23 January 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 January 1970 when first High Commissioner of Lesotho, Mr. P. A. Mabathoana, presented credentils to President Nyerere* Lesotho is represented in Tanzania through its embassy in Ethiopia.1 December 2000Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 December 20004 October 1968Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 October 196819 September 1973Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 September 19731 July 1982Both countries established diplomatic relations on * Lesotho is represented in Zimbabwe through its embassy in South Africa.=== Elsewhere === Country Formal Relations BeganNotes 19 May 1999Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 May 1999* Australia is represented in Lesotho through its high commission in South Africa.", "See Austria–Lesotho relations 28 September 2012Diplomatic relations between the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Kingdom of Lesotho were established on September 28, 2012.24 July 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 March 1983The two countries maintain diplomatic relations.4 March 1983Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 March 198325 November 1979Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 November 1979.", "Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.2020* Diplomatic relations were established in 2020.", "* Lesotho has an embassy in Brussels.1975Mohlabi Kenneth Tsekoa visited Brazil in 201030 March 2000Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 March 200010 July 1980Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 July 19801966See Canada–Lesotho relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations in 1966.", "Canada is represented in Lesotho via parallel accreditation of its high commission in Pretoria, South Africa and has an honorary consulate in Maseru.", "Since 2006, Lesotho has a high commission in Ottawa Both countries are full members of Commonwealth of Nations.", "Pakalitha Mosisili was educated in through Canadian Government provided scholarships25 August 1998Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 August 199830 April 1983See China-Lesotho relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 30 April 1983, but broke off 7 April 1990 and re-established on 12 January 199417 April 1998Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 April 199817 April 1998Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 April 19986 November 1998Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 November 1998.14 June 1979Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 June 197925 February 2004Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 February 2004.", "Cyprus is represented in Lesotho through its High Commission in Pretoria, South Africa.", "Lesotho is represented in Cyprus via parallel accreditation of its High Commission in London.", "Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.1982Both countries established diplomatic relations in 19821970* Lesotho is represented in Denmark through its embassy in Ireland.2 November 2023Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 November 2023.26 September 2012Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 September 20121 February 1979 See Finland–Lesotho relations 21 August 1967The two countries maintain diplomatic relations.23 September 2013Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 September 2013.1966* Germany is represented in Lesotho through its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa.", "* Lesotho has an embassy in Berlin.31 January 1977Both countries established diplomatic relations on 31 January 1977Greece is represented in Lesotho through its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa.", "Lesotho is represented in Greece via parallel accreditation of its embassy in Rome, Italy.25 August 1979Both countries have established diplomatic relations on 25 August 1979.", "Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.11 March 1967Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 November 199329 March 1983Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 March 1983* Hungary is represented in Lesotho through its embassy in South Africa.24 August 1983Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 August 19838 June 1971See India–Lesotho relations* The High Commission in Pretoria has been concurrently accredited to Lesotho.", "* Lesotho has a High Commission in New Delhi.4 November 1993Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 November 1993* Lesotho is represented in Iraq through its embassy in Kuwait.15 December 1971Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 December 1971.", "* Lesotho is represented in Iran through its embassy in Kuwait.14 June 2005Lesotho has significant relations with Ireland.", "On 13 November 1997, Liz O'Donnell (Irish Minister for State) spoke about the relationship between the two nations and Ireland's future commitment towards Lesotho.", "The Irish Prime Minister, Bertie Ahern visited Lesotho in 2000.This relationship was further strengthened by a visit from the then President of Ireland Mary McAleese between 14 and 16 June 2006 on her speech about the long-standing relationship with Lesotho and shared history between both nations.The Irish Government has donated aid to Lesotho since 1975.Donations to Lesotho is Ireland's longest running aid programme.", "On 14 February 2005, Lesotho announced that Ireland is the largest bilateral donor with financial support in excess of M70 million in each of the past three years.", "Ireland also supports Lesotho's Flying Doctor Service, education, sanitation, water and various health such as the Fight against AIDS with the Clinton Foundation.4 October 1966Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 October 1966* Italy is represented in Lesotho through its embassy in South Africa.19 October 1979Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 October 197929 July 1971Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 July 1971.", "Japan is represented in Lesotho via parallel accreditation of its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa.2 April 2015Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 April 201530 April 1973Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 April 197320 July 2017Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 July 2017.10 February 2014Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 February 2014.1 September 2005Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 September 2005.20 July 2000Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 July 2000.The countries maintain diplomatic relations.31 March 1988Both countries established diplomatic relations on 31 March 198829 March 2021Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 March 202111 April 2006Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 April 2006.", "Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.14 November 1975* Lesotho is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.", "* Mexico is accredited to Lesotho from its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa.15 July 2008Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 July 1985.2 July 1985Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 July 1985.23 September 2013Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 September 2013.18 May 2010Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 May 2010.", "* Both countries maintain diplomatic relations.27 April 2000Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 April 2000* New Zealand is represented in Lesotho through its high commission in South Africa.14 June 1983Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 June 19833 September 1998Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 September 19988 May 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 May 1976.4 July 1984Pakistan and Lesotho maintain trade links.", "Pakistan is also a leading trainer of Lesotho Defense Force.Both Countries maintain honorary consulates in each other's country.", "Both Pakistan and Lesotho are members of the Commonwealth of Nations.30 September 2021Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 September 202121 July 1989Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 July 198915 April 1998Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 April 199820 December 1978Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 December 197829 March 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 March 197610 April 2001Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 April 20011 May 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 May 1975.1 February 1980During the 1980s, the Soviet Union and Lesotho developed closer relations.", "In 1992, Lesotho recognised the Russian Federation as the successor state to the Soviet Union.", "From 2004 to 2007 Monyane Moleleki, who had studied at the Moscow State University, was Lesotho's Minister of Foreign Affairs.30 November 2010Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 November 2010.20 August 2021Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 August 2021.1972Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1972.12 January 1990Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 January 1990.8 May 1995Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 May 1995.7 December 1966Establishment of Diplomatic Relations between the Republic of Korea and Lesotho is 7 December 1966 and in 2011 Bilateral Trade were Exports $27,330,000, Imports: $290,000.14 July 2000Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 July 2000.3 May 1976 Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 May 1976.", "* Lesotho is represented in Denmark through its embassy in Ireland.22 August 1967Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 August 196717 April 1989Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 April 1989* Burkina Faso and Lesotho maintain diplomatic relations.1980Embassy of Lesotho in Rome is accredited to Turkey.", "Turkish ambassador in Pretoria to South Africa is also accredited to Lesotho.", "Trade volume between the two countries was 1.65 million USD in 2019 (Lesotho's exports/imports: 0.03/1.62 million USD).1 June 2000Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 June 2000The two countries maintain diplomatic relations.4 October 1966Lesotho was previously the British protectorate of Basutoland prior to gaining independence in 1966.Since then Lesotho has been a member of the Commonwealth of Nations and maintained strong relations with the United Kingdom, exchanging High Commissioners between respective governments.", "The United Kingdom has maintained its status as one of Lesotho's major defence equipment suppliers as well as significant investment coming from the United Kingdom to help in the prevention and management of AIDS/HIV as well as other infrastructure projects.4 October 1966See Lesotho-United States relationsThe United States was one of the first four countries to establish an embassy in Maseru after Lesotho gained its independence from Great Britain in 1966.Since this time, Lesotho and the United States have consistently maintained warm bilateral relations.", "In 1996, the United States closed its bilateral aid program in Lesotho.", "The Southern African regional office of the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) in Gaborone, Botswana now administers most of the U.S. assistance to Lesotho, which totalled approximately $2 million in FY 2004.Total U.S. aid to Lesotho is over $69 million, including humanitarian food assistance.", "The Peace Corps has operated in Lesotho since 1969.About 69 Peace Corps volunteers concentrate in the sectors of health, agriculture, education, rural community development, and the environment.", "The Government of Lesotho encourages greater American participation in commercial life and welcomes interest from potential U.S. investors and suppliers.", "In 2007, the Government of Lesotho signed a compact with the Millennium Challenge Corporation to provide $362.5 million in support to develop Lesotho's water sector, healthcare infrastructure, and private sector.26 May 1998Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 May 199826 June 1983Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 June 19836 January 1998Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 January 1998." ], [ "Notable people", " Lefa Mokotjo (1999–2005), ambassador of the Kingdom of Lesotho to the People's Republic of China" ], [ "See also", "List of diplomatic missions in Lesotho" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Further Reading from Irish Department of Foreign Affairs" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Liberia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Liberia''' (), officially the '''Republic of Liberia''', is a country on the West African coast.", "It is bordered by Sierra Leone to its northwest, Guinea to its north, Ivory Coast to its east, and the Atlantic Ocean to its south and southwest.", "It has a population of around 5 million and covers an area of .", "The country's official language is English; however, over 20 indigenous languages are spoken, reflecting the country's ethnic and cultural diversity.", "The capital and largest city is Monrovia.Liberia began in the early 19th century as a project of the American Colonization Society (ACS), which believed black people would face better chances for freedom and prosperity in Africa than in the United States.", "Between 1822 and the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, more than 15,000 freed and free-born African Americans, along with 3,198 Afro-Caribbeans, relocated to Liberia.", "Gradually developing an Americo-Liberian identity, the settlers carried their culture and tradition with them.", "Liberia declared independence on July 26, 1847, which the U.S. did not recognize until February 5, 1862.Liberia was the first African republic to proclaim its independence and is Africa's first and oldest modern republic.", "Along with Ethiopia, it was one of the two African countries to maintain its sovereignty and independence during the European colonial \"Scramble for Africa\".", "During World War II, Liberia supported the United States war effort against Germany, and in turn received considerable American investment in infrastructure, which aided the country's wealth and development.", "President William Tubman encouraged economic and political changes that heightened the country's prosperity and international profile; Liberia was a founding member of the League of Nations, United Nations, and the Organisation of African Unity.The Americo-Liberian settlers did not relate well to the indigenous peoples they encountered.", "Colonial settlements were raided by the Kru and Grebo from their inland chiefdoms.", "Americo-Liberians formed into a small elite that held disproportionate political power; indigenous Africans were excluded from birthright citizenship in their own land until 1904.In 1980, political tensions from the rule of William R. Tolbert resulted in a military coup during which Tolbert was killed, marking the end of Americo-Liberian rule in the country and beginning over two decades of political instability.", "Five years of military rule by the People's Redemption Council and five years of civilian rule by the National Democratic Party of Liberia were followed by the First and Second Liberian Civil Wars.", "These resulted in the deaths of 250,000 people (about 8% of the population) and the displacement of many more, with Liberia's economy shrinking by 90%.", "A peace agreement in 2003 led to democratic elections in 2005." ], [ "History", "=== Indigenous people ===The presence of Oldowan Earlier Stone Age (earliest ESA) artifacts in West Africa has been confirmed by Michael Omolewa, attesting to the presence of ancient humans.Undated Acheulean (ESA) artifacts are well documented across West Africa.", "The emerging chronometric record of the Middle Stone Age (MSA) indicates that core and flake technologies have been present in West Africa since at least the Chibanian (~780–126 thousand years ago or ka) in northern, open Sahelian zones, and that they persisted until the Terminal Pleistocene/Holocene boundary (~12 ka) in both northern and southern zones of West Africa.", "This makes them the youngest examples of such MSA technology anywhere in Africa.", "The presence of MSA populations in forests remains an open question; however technological differences may correlate with various ecological zones.", "Later Stone Age (LSA) populations evidence significant technological diversification, including both microlithic and macrolithic traditions.The record shows that aceramic and ceramic Later Stone Age (LSA) assemblages in West Africa overlap chronologically, and that changing densities of microlithic industries from the coast to the north are geographically structured.", "These features may represent social networks or some form of cultural diffusion allied to changing ecological conditions.Microlithic industries with ceramics became common by the Mid-Holocene, coupled with an apparent intensification of wild food exploitation.", "Between ~4–3.5 ka, these societies gradually transformed into food producers, possibly through contact with northern pastoralists and agriculturalists, as the environment became more arid.", "However, hunter-gatherers have survived in the more forested parts of West Africa until much later, attesting to the strength of ecological boundaries in this region.A European map of West Africa and the Grain Coast, 1736.It has the archaic mapping designation of Negroland.=== Mande expansion ===The Pepper Coast, also known as the Grain Coast, has been inhabited by indigenous peoples of Africa at least as far back as the 12th century.", "Mande-speaking people expanded from the north and east, forcing many smaller ethnic groups southward toward the Atlantic Ocean.", "The Dei, Bassa, Kru, Gola, and Kissi were some of the earliest documented peoples in the area.This influx of these groups was compounded by the decline of the Mali Empire in 1375 and the Songhai Empire in 1591.As inland regions underwent desertification, inhabitants moved to the wetter coast.", "These new inhabitants brought skills such as cotton spinning, cloth weaving, iron smelting, rice and sorghum cultivation, and social and political institutions from the Mali and Songhai empires.", "Shortly after the Mane conquered the region, the Vai people of the former Mali Empire immigrated into the Grand Cape Mount County region.", "The ethnic Kru opposed the influx of Vai, forming an alliance with the Mane to stop further influx of Vai.People along the coast built canoes and traded with other West Africans from Cap-Vert to the Gold Coast.=== Early colonization ===Between 1461 and the late 17th century, Portuguese, Dutch, and British traders had contacts and trading posts in the region.", "The Portuguese named the area ''Costa da Pimenta'' (\"Pepper Coast\") but it later came to be known as the Grain Coast, due to the abundance of melegueta pepper grains.", "The traders would barter commodities and goods with local people.In the United States, there was a movement to settle Negroes from the Americas , both free-born and formerly enslaved, in Africa.", "This was because they faced racial discrimination in the form of political disenfranchisement and the denial of civil, religious, and social rights.", "Formed in 1816, the American Colonization Society (ACS) was made up mostly of Quakers and slaveholders.", "Quakers believed black people would face better chances for freedom in Africa than in the U.S.", "While slaveholders opposed freedom for enslaved people, some viewed \"repatriation\" of free people of color as a way to avoid slave rebellions.In 1822, the American Colonization Society began sending free people of color to the Pepper Coast voluntarily to establish a colony.", "Mortality from tropical diseases was high—of the 4,571 emigrants who arrived in Liberia between 1820 and 1843, only 1,819 survived.", "By 1867, the ACS (and state-related chapters) had assisted in the migration of more than 13,000 people of color from the United States and the Caribbean to Liberia.", "These free Negroes or Blacks in the Americas and their descendants married other Blacks or Africans within their community and came to identify as Liberians.", "Many were of mixed race and educated in American culture; they welcomed recaptured Africans and Black people escaping the than illegal Trans-Atlantic slave trade.", "They developed an ethnic group that had a cultural tradition infused with American notions of political republicanism and Protestant Christianity.", "Many of the native born Africans of the grain coast experienced more early forms of Christianity influence and also mixed and carried the offspring of the Europeans they came in contact with.", "John S. Mills a Mulatto whose father was an English white man and whose mother an African woman.", "John S. Mills would take over his fathers slave trading business at Providence Island until he sold the land to Captain R.F.", "Stockton and Eli Ayres.", "Source: Nikes’ Weekly Register.", "(1823).", "United States: H. NilesMap of Liberia Colony in the 1830s, created by the ACS, and also showing Mississippi Colony and other state-sponsored colonies.The ACS, supported by prominent American politicians such as Abraham Lincoln, Henry Clay, and James Monroe, believed \"repatriation\" was preferable to having emancipated slaves remain in the United States.", "Similar state-based organizations established colonies in Mississippi-in-Africa, Kentucky in Africa, and the Republic of Maryland, which Liberia later annexed.", "However, Lincoln in 1862 described Liberia as only \"in a certain sense...a success\", and proposed instead that free people of color be assisted to emigrate to Chiriquí, today part of Panama.The Americo-Liberian settlers did not relate well to the indigenous peoples they encountered, especially those in communities of the more isolated \"bush\".", "The colonial settlements were raided by the Kru and Grebo, from their inland chiefdoms.", "Encounters with tribal Africans in the bush often became violent.", "Believing themselves different from, and culturally and educationally superior to the indigenous peoples, the Americo-Liberians developed as an elite minority that created and held on to political power.", "The Americo-Liberian settlers adopted clothing such as hoop skirts and tailcoats, and excluded natives from economic opportunities, including creating plantations on which natives were forced to work as slaves, enacting the same binding chains they were just recently freed from as they saw themselves as superior to the natives.", "Indigenous tribesmen did not enjoy birthright citizenship in their own land until 1904.Americo-Liberians encouraged religious organizations to set up missions and schools to educate the indigenous peoples.=== Political formation ===Residence of Joseph Jenkins Roberts, first President of Liberia, between 1848 and 1852.On July 26, 1847, the settlers issued a Declaration of Independence and promulgated a constitution.", "Based on the political principles of the United States Constitution, it established the independent Republic of Liberia.", "On August 24, Liberia adopted its 11-striped national flag.", "The United Kingdom was the first country to recognize Liberia's independence.", "The United States did not recognize Liberia until 1862, after the Southern states, which had strong political power in the American government, declared their secession and the formation of the Confederacy.The leadership of the new nation consisted largely of the Americo-Liberians, who at the beginning established political and economic dominance in the coastal areas that the ACS had purchased; they maintained relations with the United States and contacts in developing these areas and the resulting trade.", "Their passage of the 1865 Ports of Entry Act prohibited foreign commerce with the inland tribes, ostensibly to \"encourage the growth of civilized values\" before such trade was allowed in the region.", "African Americans depart for Liberia, 1896.The ACS sent its last emigrants to Liberia in 1904.By 1877, the True Whig Party was the country's most powerful political entity.", "It was made up primarily of Americo-Liberians, who maintained social, economic and political dominance well into the 20th century, repeating patterns of European colonists in other nations in Africa.", "Competition for office was usually contained within the party; a party nomination virtually ensured election.Pressure from the United Kingdom, which controlled Sierra Leone to the northwest, and France, with its interests in the north and east, led to a loss of Liberia's claims to extensive territories.", "Both Sierra Leone and the Ivory Coast annexed territories.", "Liberia struggled to attract investment to develop infrastructure and a larger, industrial economy.There was a decline in production of Liberian goods in the late 19th century, and the government struggled financially, resulting in indebtedness on a series of international loans.", "On July 16, 1892, Martha Ann Erskine Ricks met Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle and presented her a handmade quilt, Liberia's first diplomatic gift.", "Born into slavery in Tennessee, Ricks said, \"I had heard it often, from the time I was a child, how good the Queen had been to my people—to slaves—and how she wanted us to be free.", "\"=== Early 20th century ===Charles D. B.", "King, 17th President of Liberia (1920–1930), with his entourage on the steps of the Peace Palace, The Hague (the Netherlands), 1927.American and other international interests emphasized resource extraction, with rubber production as a major industry in the early 20th century.", "In 1914, Imperial Germany accounted for three quarters of the trade of Liberia.", "This was a cause for concern among the British colonial authorities of Sierra Leone and the French colonial authorities of French Guinea and the Ivory Coast as tensions with Germany increased.==== World Wars and interwar period ====Liberia remained neutral during World War I until August 4, 1917, upon declaring war on Germany.", "Subsequently, it was one of 32 nations to take part in the Versailles Peace Conference in 1919, which ended the war and established the League of Nations; Liberia was among the few African and non-Western nations to participate in both the conference and the founding of the League.In 1927, the country's elections again showed the power of the True Whig Party, with electoral proceedings that have been called some of the most rigged ever; the winning candidate was declared to have received votes amounting to more than 15 times the number of eligible voters.", "(The loser actually received around 60% of the eligible vote.", ")Soon after, allegations of modern slavery in Liberia led the League of Nations to establish the Christy Commission.", "Findings included government involvement in widespread \"Forced or compulsory labour\".", "Minority ethnic groups especially were exploited in a system that enriched well-connected elites.", "As a result of the report, President Charles D. B.", "King and Vice President Allen N. Yancy resigned.In the mid-20th century, Liberia gradually began to modernize with American assistance.", "During World War II, the United States made major infrastructure improvements to support its military efforts in Africa and Europe against Germany.", "It built the Freeport of Monrovia and Roberts International Airport under the Lend-Lease program before its entry into the Second World War.After the war, President William Tubman encouraged foreign investment, with Liberia achieving the second-highest rate of economic growth in the world during the 1950s.", "In international affairs, it was a founding member of the United Nations, a vocal critic of South African apartheid, a proponent of African independence from European colonial powers, and a supporter of Pan-Africanism.", "Liberia also helped to fund the Organisation of African Unity.technical in Monrovia during the Second Liberian Civil War.=== Late 20th-century political instability ===On April 12, 1980, a military coup led by Master Sergeant Samuel Doe of the Krahn ethnic group overthrew and killed President William R. Tolbert Jr. Doe and the other plotters later executed a majority of Tolbert's cabinet and other Americo-Liberian government officials and True Whig Party members on a Monrovia beach.", "The coup leaders formed the People's Redemption Council (PRC) to govern the country.", "A strategic Cold War ally of the West, Doe received significant financial backing from the United States while critics condemned the PRC for corruption and political repression.After Liberia adopted a new constitution in 1985, Doe was elected president in subsequent elections that were internationally condemned as fraudulent.", "On November 12, 1985, a failed counter-coup was launched by Thomas Quiwonkpa, whose soldiers briefly occupied the national radio station.", "Government repression intensified in response, as Doe's troops retaliated by executing members of the Gio and Mano ethnic groups in Nimba County.The National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL), a rebel group led by Charles Taylor, launched an insurrection in December 1989 against Doe's government with the backing of neighboring countries such as Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast.", "This triggered the First Liberian Civil War.", "By September 1990, Doe's forces controlled only a small area just outside the capital, and Doe was captured and executed in that month by rebel forces.The rebels soon split into various factions fighting one another.", "The Economic Community Monitoring Group under the Economic Community of West African States organized a military task force to intervene in the crisis.", "From 1989 to 1997 around 60,000 to 80,000 Liberians died, and, by 1996, around 700,000 others had been displaced into refugee camps in neighboring countries.", "A peace deal between warring parties was reached in 1995, leading to Taylor's election as president in 1997.Under Taylor's leadership, Liberia became internationally known as a pariah state due to its use of blood diamonds and illegal timber exports to fund the Revolutionary United Front in the Sierra Leone Civil War.", "The Second Liberian Civil War began in 1999 when Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy, a rebel group based in the northwest of the country, launched an armed insurrection against Taylor.=== 21st century ===In March 2003, a second rebel group, Movement for Democracy in Liberia, began launching attacks against Taylor from the southeast.", "Peace talks between the factions began in Accra in June of that year, and Taylor was indicted by the Special Court for Sierra Leone for crimes against humanity the same month.", "By July 2003, the rebels had launched an assault on Monrovia.Under heavy pressure from the international community and the domestic Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peace movement,Taylor resigned in August 2003 and went into exile in Nigeria.A peace deal was signed later that month.The United Nations Mission in Liberia began arriving in September 2003 to provide security and monitor the peace accord,and an interim government took power the following October.The subsequent 2005 elections were internationally regarded as the freest and fairest in Liberian history.", "Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, a US-educated economist, former Minister of Finance and future Nobel Prize for Peace winner, was elected as the first female president in Africa.", "Upon her inauguration, Sirleaf requested the extradition of Taylor from Nigeria and transferred him to the SCSL for trial in The Hague.In 2006, the government established a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to address the causes and crimes of the civil war.", "In 2011, July 26 was proclaimed by President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf to be observed as National Independence Day.", "In October 2011, peace activist Leymah Gbowee received the Nobel Peace Prize in her work of leading a women's peace movement that brought to an end to the Second Liberian Civil War in 2003.In November 2011, President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf was re-elected for a second six-year term.Following the 2017 Liberian general election, former professional football striker George Weah, considered one of the greatest African players of all time, was sworn in as president on January 22, 2018, becoming the fourth youngest serving president in Africa.", "The inauguration marked Liberia's first fully democratic transition in 74 years.", "Weah cited fighting corruption, reforming the economy, combating illiteracy, and improving living conditions as the main targets of his presidency.", "However, opposition leader Joseph Boakai defeated Weah in the tightly contested 2023 presidential election.", "On 22 January 2024, Joseph Boakai was sworn in as Liberia’s new president." ], [ "Geography", "A map of LiberiaLiberia is situated in West Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean to the country's southwest.", "It lies between latitudes 4° and 9°N, and longitudes 7° and 12°W.The landscape is characterized by mostly flat to rolling coastal plains that contain mangroves and swamps, which rise to a rolling plateau and low mountains in the northeast.Tropical rainforests cover the hills, while elephant grass and semi-deciduous forests make up the dominant vegetation in the northern sections.Liberia's watershed tends to move in a southwestern pattern towards the sea as new rains move down the forested plateau off the inland mountain range of Guinée Forestière, in Guinea.", "Cape Mount near the border with Sierra Leone receives the most precipitation in the nation.Liberia's main northwestern boundary is traversed by the Mano River while its southeast limits are bounded by the Cavalla River.", "Liberia's three largest rivers are St. Paul exiting near Monrovia, the river St. John at Buchanan, and the Cestos River, all of which flow into the Atlantic.", "The Cavalla is the longest river in the nation at .The highest point wholly within Liberia is Mount Wuteve at above sea level in the northwestern Liberia range of the West Africa Mountains and the Guinea Highlands.", "However, Mount Nimba near Yekepa, is higher at above sea level, but is not wholly within Liberia as Nimba is located at the point where Liberia borders both Guinea and Ivory Coast.", "Nimba is thus the tallest mountain in those countries, as well.=== Climate ===Liberia map of Köppen climate classification.The equatorial climate, in the south of the country, is hot year-round with heavy rainfall from May to October with a short interlude in mid-July to August.", "During the winter months of November to March, dry dust-laden harmattan winds blow inland, causing many problems for residents.", "Climate change in Liberia causes many problems as Liberia is particularly vulnerable to climate change.", "Like many other countries in Africa, Liberia both faces existing environmental issues, as well as sustainable development challenges.", "Because of its location in Africa, it is vulnerable to extreme weather, the coastal effects of sea level rise, and changing water systems and water availability.", "Climate change is expected to severely impact the economy of Liberia, especially agriculture, fisheries, and forestry.", "Liberia has been an active participant in international and local policy changes related to climate change.=== Biodiversity and conservation ===A Liberian tropical forestShare of forest area in total land area, top countries (2021).", "Liberia has the ninth highest percentage of forest cover in the world.Forests on the coastline are composed mostly of salt-tolerant mangrove trees, while the more sparsely populated inland has forests opening onto a plateau of drier grasslands.", "The climate is equatorial, with significant rainfall during the May–October rainy season and harsh harmattan winds the remainder of the year.", "Liberia possesses about forty percent of the remaining Upper Guinean rainforest.", "It was an important producer of rubber in the early 20th century.", "Four terrestrial ecoregions lie within Liberia's borders: Guinean montane forests, Western Guinean lowland forests, Guinean forest–savanna mosaic, and Guinean mangroves.", "It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.79/10, ranking it 116th globally out of 172 countries.Loggers and logging truck, early 1960sLiberia is a global biodiversity hotspot—a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is under threat from humans.Pygmy hippos are among the species illegally hunted for food in Liberia.", "The World Conservation Union estimates that there are fewer than 3,000 pygmy hippos remaining in the wild.Endangered species are hunted for human consumption as bushmeat in Liberia.", "Species hunted for food in Liberia include elephants, pygmy hippopotamus, chimpanzees, leopards, duikers, and other monkeys.", "Bushmeat is often exported to neighboring Sierra Leone and Ivory Coast, despite a ban on the cross-border sale of wild animals.Bushmeat is widely eaten in Liberia, and is considered a delicacy.", "A 2004 public opinion survey found that bushmeat ranked second behind fish amongst residents of the capital Monrovia as a preferred source of protein.", "Of households where bushmeat was served, 80% of residents said they cooked it \"once in a while,\" while 13% cooked it once a week and 7% cooked bushmeat daily.", "The survey was conducted during the last civil war, and bushmeat consumption is now believed to be far higher.", "''Trypanosoma brucei gambiense'' is endemic in some animal hosts here including both domestic and wild.", "This causes the disease ''nagana''.", "In pigs here and in Ivory Coast, that includes ''Tbg'' group 1.", "''Tbg'' and its vector ''Glossina palpalis gambiense'' are a constant presence in the rainforests here.", "Much research into ''Tbg'' was performed in the 1970s by Mehlitz and by Gibson, both working in Bong Mine with samples from around the country.", "The West African pariah dog is also a host for ''Tbg''.The Desert Locust (''Schistocerca gregaria'') is a constant presence here.The Hairy Slit-Faced Bat (''Nycteris hispida'') suffers from malaria here.Slash-and-burn agriculture is one of the human activities eroding Liberia's natural forests.", "A 2004 UN report estimated that 99% of Liberians burned charcoal and fuel wood for cooking and heating, resulting in deforestation.Illegal logging has increased in Liberia since the end of the Second Civil War in 2003.In 2012, President Sirleaf granted licenses to companies to cut down 58% of all the primary rainforest left in Liberia.", "After international protests, many of those logging permits were canceled.", "In September 2014, Liberia and Norway struck an agreement whereby Liberia ceased all logging in exchange for $150 million in development aid.Pollution is a significant issue in Monrovia.", "Since 2006, the international community has paid for all garbage collection and disposal in Monrovia via the World Bank.=== Administrative divisions ===A view of a lake in Bomi CountyLiberia is divided into fifteen counties, which, in turn, are subdivided into a total of 90 districts and further subdivided into ''clans''.", "The oldest counties are Grand Bassa and Montserrado, both founded in 1839 prior to Liberian independence.", "Gbarpolu is the newest county, created in 2001.Nimba is the largest of the counties in size at , while Montserrado is the smallest at .", "Montserrado is also the most populous county with 1,144,806 residents as of the 2008 census.The fifteen counties are administered by superintendents appointed by the president.", "The Constitution calls for the election of various chiefs at the county and local level, but these elections have not taken place since 1985 due to war and financial constraints.Parallel to the administrative divisions of the country are the local and municipal divisions.", "Liberia currently does not have any constitutional framework or uniform statutes which deal with the creation or revocation of local governments.", "All existing local governments—cities, townships, and a borough—were created by specific acts of the Liberian government, and thus the structure and duties/responsibilities of each local government vary greatly from one to the other.", "Map # County Capital Population(2022 Census) Area(mi2) Number ofDistricts DateCreated 1 BomiTubmanburg133,66841984 2 BongGbarnga467,502121964 3 GbarpoluBopolu95,995 62001 4 Grand BassaBuchanan293,55781839 5 Grand Cape MountRobertsport178,79851844 6 Grand GedehZwedru216,69231964 7 Grand KruBarclayville109,342181984 8 LofaVoinjama367,37661964 9 MargibiKakata304,9464198510 MarylandHarper172,2022185711 MontserradoBensonville1,920,91417183912 NimbaSanniquellie621,8416196413 RivercessRiver Cess90,7777198514 River GeeFish Town124,6536200015 SinoeGreenville150,358171843" ], [ "Government and politics", "Former President Ellen Johnson SirleafThe government of Liberia, modeled on the government of the United States, is a unitary constitutional republic and representative democracy as established by the Constitution.", "The government has three co-equal branches of government: the executive, headed by the president; the legislative, consisting of the bicameral Legislature of Liberia; and the judicial, consisting of the Supreme Court and several lower courts.The president serves as head of government, head of state, and the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of Liberia.", "Among the president's other duties are to sign or veto legislative bills, grant pardons, and appoint Cabinet members, judges, and other public officials.", "Together with the vice president, the president is elected to a six-year term by majority vote in a two-round system and can serve up to two terms in office.The Legislature is composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives.", "The House, led by a speaker, has 73 members apportioned among the 15 counties on the basis of the national census, with each county receiving a minimum of two members.", "Each House member represents an electoral district within a county as drawn by the National Elections Commission and is elected by a plurality of the popular vote of their district into a six-year term.", "The Senate is made up of two senators from each county for a total of 30 senators.", "Senators serve nine-year terms and are elected at-large by a plurality of the popular vote.", "The vice president serves as the President of the Senate, with a President pro tempore serving in their absence.Liberia's highest judicial authority is the Supreme Court, made up of five members and headed by the Chief Justice of Liberia.", "Members are nominated to the court by the president and are confirmed by the Senate, serving until the age of 70.The judiciary is further divided into circuit and speciality courts, magistrate courts, and justices of the peace.", "The judicial system is a blend of common law, based on Anglo-American law, and customary law.", "An informal system of traditional courts still exists within the rural areas of the country, with trial by ordeal remaining common despite being officially outlawed.From 1877 to 1980, the government was dominated by the True Whig Party.", "Today, over 20 political parties are registered in the country, based largely around personalities and ethnic groups.", "Most parties suffer from poor organizational capacity.", "The 2005 elections marked the first time that the president's party did not gain a majority of seats in the Legislature.", "According to 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices Liberia is ranked 65th electoral democracy worldwide and 9th electoral democracy in Africa.=== Military ===The Armed Forces of Liberia (AFL) have 2,010 active personnel as of 2023, with most of them organized into the 23rd Infantry Brigade, consisting of two infantry battalions, one engineer company, and one military police company.", "There is also a small National Coast Guard with 60 personnel and several patrol ships.", "The AFL used to have an Air Wing, but all of its aircraft and facilities have been out of operation since the civil wars.", "It is in the process of reactivating its Air Wing with help from the Nigerian Air Force.", "Liberia has deployed peacekeepers to other countries since 2013 as part of UN or ECOWAS missions, with the largest being an infantry unit in Mali, and smaller numbers of personnel in Sudan, Guinea-Bissau, and South Sudan.", "About 800 of the AFL's 2,000 personnel have been deployed to Mali in several rotations before the UN mission there ended in December 2023.In 2022 the country had a military budget of US$18.7 million.", "The old military was disbanded after the civil wars and entirely rebuilt, starting in 2005, with assistance and funding from the United States.", "The military assistance program, which became known as Operation Onward Liberty in 2010, provided training with the goal of making the AFL into an apolitical and professional military.", "The operation ended in 2016, though the Michigan National Guard still continues to work with the AFL as part of the U.S. National Guard's State Partnership Program.=== Foreign relations ===President Sirleaf with (left to right) British Prime Minister David Cameron, Colombian President Juan Manuel Santos, and United States Secretary of State John Kerry in September 2015After the turmoil following the First and Second Liberian Civil Wars, Liberia's internal stabilization in the 21st century brought a return to cordial relations with neighboring countries and much of the Western world.", "As in other African countries, China is an important part of the post-conflict reconstruction.In the past, both of Liberia's neighbors, Guinea and Sierra Leone, have accused Liberia of backing rebels in their countries.=== Law enforcement and crime ===The Liberian National Police is the country's national police force.", "As of October 2007 it has 844 officers in 33 stations in Montserrado County, which contains Monrovia.", "The National Police Training Academy is in Paynesville City.", "A history of corruption among police officers diminishes public trust and operational effectiveness.", "The internal security is characterized by a general lawlessness coupled with the danger that former combatants in the late civil war might reestablish militias to challenge the civil authorities.Rape and sexual assault are frequent in the post-conflict era in Liberia.", "Liberia has one of the highest incidences of sexual violence against women in the world.", "Rape is the most frequently reported crime, accounting for more than one-third of sexual violence cases.", "Adolescent girls are the most frequently assaulted, and almost 40% of perpetrators are adult men known to victims.Both male and female homosexuality are illegal in Liberia.", "On July 20, 2012, the Liberian senate voted unanimously to enact legislation to prohibit and criminalize same-sex marriages.=== Corruption ===Corruption is endemic at every level of the Liberian government.", "When President Sirleaf took office in 2006, she announced that corruption was \"the major public enemy.\"", "In 2014, the US ambassador to Liberia said that corruption there was harming people through \"unnecessary costs to products and services that are already difficult for many Liberians to afford\".Liberia scored a 3.3 on a scale from 10 (highly clean) to 0 (highly corrupt) on the 2010 Corruption Perceptions Index.", "This gave it a ranking 87th of 178 countries worldwide and 11th of 47 in Sub-Saharan Africa.", "This score represented a significant improvement since 2007, when the country scored 2.1 and ranked 150th of 180 countries.", "When dealing with public-facing government functionaries, 89% of Liberians say they have had to pay a bribe, the highest national percentage in the world according to the organization's 2010 Global Corruption Barometer." ], [ "Economy", "A proportional representation of Liberian exports.", "The shipping related categories reflect Liberia's status as an international flag of convenience—there are 3,500 vessels registered under Liberia's flag accounting for 11% of ships worldwide.Liberia, trends in the Human Development Index 1970–2010.Real GDP per capita development, since 1950The Central Bank of Liberia is responsible for printing and maintaining the Liberian dollar, Liberia's primary currency (the United States dollar is also legal tender in Liberia).", "Liberia is one of the world's poorest countries, with a formal employment rate of 15%.", "GDP per capita peaked in 1980 at US$496, (~$ in ) when it was comparable to Egypt's (at the time).", "In 2011, the country's nominal GDP was US$1.154 billion, while nominal GDP per capita stood at US$297, the third-lowest in the world.", "Historically the Liberian economy has depended heavily on foreign aid, foreign direct investment and exports of natural resources such as iron ore, rubber, and timber.=== Economic history ===Following a peak in growth in 1979, the Liberian economy began a steady decline due to economic mismanagement after the 1980 coup.", "This decline was accelerated by the outbreak of civil war in 1989; GDP was reduced by an estimated 90% between 1989 and 1995, one of the fastest declines in modern history.", "Upon the end of the war in 2003, GDP growth began to accelerate, reaching 9.4% in 2007.The global financial crisis slowed GDP growth to 4.6% in 2009, though a strengthening agricultural sector led by rubber and timber exports increased growth to 5.1% in 2010 and an expected 7.3% in 2011, making the economy one of the 20 fastest-growing in the world.Current impediments to growth include a small domestic market, lack of adequate infrastructure, high transportation costs, poor trade links with neighboring countries, and the high dollarization of the economy.", "Liberia used the United States dollar as its currency from 1943 until 1982 and continues to use the U.S. dollar alongside the Liberian dollar.Following a decrease in inflation beginning in 2003, inflation spiked in 2008 as a result of worldwide food and energy crises, reaching 17.5% before declining to 7.4% in 2009.Liberia's external debt was estimated in 2006 at approximately $4.5 billion, 800% of GDP.", "As a result of bilateral, multilateral and commercial debt relief from 2007 to 2010, the country's external debt fell to $222.9 million by 2011.While official commodity exports declined during the 1990s as many investors fled the civil war, Liberia's wartime economy featured the exploitation of the region's diamond wealth.", "The country acted as a major trader in Sierra Leonian blood diamonds, exporting over US$300 million (~$ in ) in diamonds in 1999.This led to a United Nations ban on Liberian diamond exports in 2001, which was lifted in 2007 following Liberia's accession to the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme.In 2003, additional UN sanctions were placed on Liberian timber exports, which had risen from US$5 million in 1997 to over US$100 million in 2002 and were believed to be funding rebels in Sierra Leone.", "These sanctions were lifted in 2006.Due in large part to foreign aid and investment inflow following the end of the war, Liberia maintains a large account deficit, which peaked at nearly 60% in 2008.Liberia gained observer status with the World Trade Organization in 2010 and became an official member in 2016.Liberia has the highest ratio of foreign direct investment to GDP in the world, with US$16 billion (~$ in ) in investment since 2006.Following Sirleaf's inauguration in 2006, Liberia signed several multi-billion-dollar concession agreements in the iron ore and palm oil industries with numerous multinational corporations, including ArcelorMittal, BHP and Sime Darby.", "Palm oil companies like Sime Darby (Malaysia) and Golden Veroleum (USA) have been accused of destroying livelihoods and displacing local communities, enabled by government concessions.", "Since 1926 Firestone has operated the world's largest rubber plantation in Harbel, Margibi County.", "As of 2015, it had more than 8,000 mostly Liberian employees, making it the country's largest private employer.=== Shipping flag of convenience ===Due to its status as a flag of convenience, Liberia has the second-largest maritime registry in the world behind Panama.", "It has 3,500 vessels registered under its flag, accounting for 11% of ships worldwide.=== Major industries ======= Agriculture ======== Mining ======== Telecommunications ====There are six major newspapers in Liberia, and 65% of the population has a mobile phone service.Much of Liberia's communications infrastructure was destroyed or plundered during the two civil wars (1989–1996 and 1999–2003).", "With low rates of adult literacy and high poverty rates, television and newspaper use is limited, leaving radio as the predominant means of communicating with the public.==== Transportation ====The streets of downtown Monrovia, March 2009==== Energy ====Public electricity services are provided solely by the state-owned Liberia Electricity Corporation, which operates a small grid almost exclusively in the Greater Monrovia District.", "The vast majority of electric energy services is provided by small, privately owned generators.", "At $0.54 per kWh, the cost of electricity in Liberia is among the highest in the world.", "Total capacity in 2013 was 20 MW, a sharp decline from a peak of 191 MW in 1989 before the wars.The repair and expansion of the Mount Coffee Hydropower Project, with a maximum capacity of 80 MW, was completed in 2018.Construction of three new heavy fuel oil power plants is expected to boost electrical capacity by 38 MW.", "In 2013, Liberia began importing power from neighboring Ivory Coast and Guinea through the West African Power Pool.Liberia has begun exploration for offshore oil; unproven oil reserves may be in excess of one billion barrels.", "The government divided its offshore waters into 17 blocks and began auctioning off exploration licenses for the blocks in 2004, with further auctions in 2007 and 2009.An additional 13 ultra-deep offshore blocks were demarcated in 2011 and planned for auction.", "Among the companies to have won licenses are Repsol YPF, Chevron Corporation, and Woodside Petroleum." ], [ "Demographics", "Liberia's population from 1961 to 2013, in millions.", "Liberia's population tripled in 40 years.Liberia's population pyramid, 2005.43.5% of Liberians were below the age of 15 in 2010.As of the 2017 national census, Liberia was home to 4,694,608 people.", "Of those, 1,118,241 lived in Montserrado County, the most populous county in the country and home to the capital of Monrovia.", "The Greater Monrovia District has 970,824 residents.", "Nimba County is the next most populous county, with 462,026 residents.", "As revealed in the 2008 census, Monrovia is more than four times more populous than all the county capitals combined.Prior to the 2008 census, the last census had been taken in 1984 and listed the country's population as 2,101,628.The population of Liberia was 1,016,443 in 1962 and increased to 1,503,368 in 1974., Liberia had the highest population growth rate in the world (4.50% per annum).", "In 2010 some 43.5% of Liberians were below the age of 15.=== Ethnic groups ===The population includes 16 indigenous ethnic groups and various foreign minorities.", "Indigenous peoples comprise about 95 percent of the population.", "The 16 officially recognized ethnic groups include the Kpelle, Bassa, Mano, Gio or Dan, Kru, Grebo, Krahn, Vai, Gola, Mandingo or Mandinka, Mende, Kissi, Gbandi, Loma, Dei or Dewoin, Belleh, and Americo-Liberians (or ''Congo people'').The Kpelle comprise more than 20% of the population and are the largest ethnic group in Liberia, residing mostly in Bong County and adjacent areas in central Liberia.", "Americo-Liberians, who are descendants of African American and West Indian, mostly Barbadian (Bajan) settlers, make up 2.5%.", "Congo people, descendants of repatriated Congo and Afro-Caribbean slaves who arrived in 1825, make up an estimated 2.5%.", "These latter two groups established political control in the 19th century which they kept well into the 20th century.The Liberian constitution exercises ''jus sanguinis'', which means it usually restricts its citizenship to \"Negroes or persons of Negro descent.\"", "That being said, numerous immigrants have come as merchants and become a major part of the business community, including Lebanese, Indians, and other West African nationals.", "There is a high percentage of interracial marriage between ethnic Liberians and the Lebanese, resulting in a significant mixed-race population especially in and around Monrovia.", "A small minority of Liberians who are White Africans of European descent reside in the country.=== Languages ===English is the official language and serves as the ''lingua franca'' of Liberia.", "As of 2022, 27 indigenous languages are spoken in Liberia, but each is a first language for only a small percentage of the population.", "Liberians also speak a variety of creolized dialects collectively known as Liberian English.=== Largest cities ====== Religion ===According to the 2008 National Census, 85.6% of the population practiced Christianity, while Muslims represented a minority of 12.2%.", "A multitude of diverse Protestant confessions such as Lutheran, Baptist, Episcopal, Presbyterian, Pentecostal, United Methodist, African Methodist Episcopal (AME) and African Methodist Episcopal Zion (AME Zion) denominations form the bulk of the Christian population, followed by adherents of the Catholic Church and other non-Protestant Christians.", "Most of these Christian denominations were brought by African-American settlers moving from the United States into Liberia via the American Colonization Society, while some are indigenous—especially Pentecostal and evangelical Protestant ones.", "Protestantism was originally associated with Black American settlers and their Americo-Liberian descendants, while native peoples initially held to their own animist forms of African traditional religion before largely adopting Christianity.", "While Christian, many Liberians also participate in traditional, gender-based indigenous religious secret societies, such as Poro for men and Sande for women.", "The all-female Sande society practices female circumcision.Muslims comprised 12.2% of the population in 2008, largely represented by the Mandingo and Vai ethnic groups.", "Liberian Muslims are divided between Sunnis, Shias, Ahmadiyyas, Sufis, and non-denominational Muslims.In 2008, 0.5% identified adherence to traditional indigenous religions, while 1.5% claimed no religion.", "A small number of people were Baháʼí, Hindu, Sikh, or Buddhist.The Liberian constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respects this right.", "While separation of church and state is mandated by the Constitution, Liberia is considered a Christian state in practice.", "Public schools offer biblical studies, though parents may opt their children out.", "Commerce is prohibited by law on Sunday and major Christian holidays.", "The government does not require businesses or schools to excuse Muslims for Friday prayers.=== Education ===Students studying by candlelight in Bong CountyIn 2010, the literacy rate of Liberia was estimated at 60.8% (64.8% for males and 56.8% for females).", "In some areas primary and secondary education is free and compulsory from the ages of 6 to 16, though enforcement of attendance is lax.", "In other areas children are required to pay a tuition fee to attend school.", "On average, children attain 10 years of education (11 for boys and 8 for girls).", "The country's education sector is hampered by inadequate schools and supplies, as well as a lack of qualified teachers.Higher education is provided by a number of public and private universities.", "The University of Liberia is the country's largest and oldest university.", "Located in Monrovia, the university opened in 1862.Today it has six colleges, including a medical school and the nation's only law school, Louis Arthur Grimes School of Law.In 2009, Tubman University in Harper, Maryland County was established as the second public university in Liberia.", "Since 2006, the government has also opened community colleges in Buchanan, Sanniquellie, and Voinjama.Due to student protests late in October 2018, newly-elected president George Weah abolished tuition fees for undergraduate students in public universities in Liberia.==== Private universities ====* Cuttington University was established by the Episcopal Church of the USA in 1889 in Suakoko, Bong County, as part of its missionary education work among indigenous peoples.", "It is the nation's oldest private university.", "* Stella Maris Polytechnic, a post-secondary, private institution of higher learning.", "Founded in 1988, the school is owned and operated by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Monrovia.", "Located on Capitol Hill, the school has approximately 2,000 students.", "* Adventist University of West Africa, a post-secondary learning environment that is situated in Margibi County, on the Roberts International Airport.", "* United Methodist University, a private Christian university located in Liberia, West Africa, it is commonly known amongst locals as UMU.", "As of 2016, it had approximately 9,118 students.", "This institution was founded in 1998.", "* African Methodist Episcopal University, a private higher education institution that was founded in 1995.", "* Starz University, is a private higher education institution that was established in the United States in 2007, and became incorporated in Monrovia, 2009; with the objective of addressing the Information Technology(IT) need of Liberia.", "* St. Clements University College (Liberia), a private higher education institution that was founded in 2008.=== Health ===Development of life expectancyHospitals in Liberia include the John F. Kennedy Medical Center in Monrovia and several others.", "Life expectancy in Liberia is estimated to be 64.4 years in 2020.With a fertility rate of 5.9 births per woman, the maternal mortality rate stood at 990 per 100,000 births in 2010, and 1,072 per 100,000 births in 2017.A number of highly communicable diseases are widespread, including tuberculosis, diarrheal diseases and malaria.", "In 2007, the HIV infection rates stood at 2% of the population aged 15–49 whereas the incidence of tuberculosis was 420 per 100,000 people in 2008.Approximately 58.2% – 66% of women are estimated to have undergone female genital mutilation.Liberia imports 90% of its rice, a staple food, and is extremely vulnerable to food shortages.", "In 2007, 20.4% of children under the age of five were malnourished.", "In 2008, only 17% of the population had access to adequate sanitation facilities.Approximately 95% of the country's healthcare facilities had been destroyed by the time civil war ended in 2003.In 2009, government expenditure on health care per capita was US$22, (~$ in ) accounting for 10.6% of total GDP.", "In 2008, Liberia had only one doctor and 27 nurses per 100,000 people.In 2014, an outbreak of Ebola virus in Guinea spread to Liberia.", ", there were 2,812 confirmed deaths from the ongoing outbreak.", "In early August 2014 Guinea closed its borders to Liberia to help contain the spread of the virus, as more new cases were being reported in Liberia than in Guinea.", "On May 9, 2015, Liberia was declared Ebola free after six weeks with no new cases.According to an Overseas Development Institute report, private health expenditure accounts for 64.1% of total spending on health." ], [ "Culture", "Sande Society (Ndoli Jowei)'', Liberia.", "20th century.", "Brooklyn Museum.The religious practices, social customs, and cultural standards of the Americo-Liberians had their roots in the antebellum American South.", "The settlers wore top hat and tails and modeled their homes on those of Southern slaveowners.", "Most Americo-Liberian men were members of the Masonic Order of Liberia, which became heavily involved in the nation's politics.Liberia has a rich history in textile arts and quilting, as the settlers brought with them their sewing and quilting skills.", "Liberia hosted National Fairs in 1857 and 1858 in which prizes were awarded for various needle arts.", "One of the most well-known Liberian quilters was Martha Ann Ricks, who presented a quilt featuring the famed Liberian coffee tree to Queen Victoria in 1892.When President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf moved into the Executive Mansion, she reportedly had a Liberian-made quilt installed in her presidential office.A rich literary tradition has existed in Liberia for over a century.", "Edward Wilmot Blyden, Bai T. Moore, Roland T. Dempster and Wilton G. S. Sankawulo are among Liberia's more prominent authors.", "Moore's novella ''Murder in the Cassava Patch'' is considered Liberia's most celebrated novel.=== Media ====== Polygamy ===One-third of married Liberian women between the ages of 15–49 are in polygamous marriages.", "Customary law allows men to have up to four wives.=== Cuisine ===A beachside barbecue at Sinkor, Monrovia, LiberiaLiberian cuisine heavily incorporates rice, the country's staple food.", "Other ingredients include cassava, fish, bananas, citrus fruit, plantains, coconut, okra and sweet potatoes.", "Heavy stews spiced with habanero and scotch bonnet chilies are popular and eaten with fufu.", "Liberia also has a tradition of baking imported from the United States that is unique in West Africa.=== Sport ===The most popular sport in Liberia is association football, with former President George Weah being the nation's most famous athlete.", "He is so far the only African to be named FIFA World Player of the Year.", "The Liberia national football team has reached the Africa Cup of Nations finals twice, in 1996 and 2002.The second most popular sport in Liberia is basketball.", "The Liberian national basketball team has reached the AfroBasket twice, in 1983 and 2007.In Liberia, the Samuel Kanyon Doe Sports Complex serves as a multi-purpose stadium.", "It hosts FIFA World Cup qualifying matches in addition to international concerts and national political events.=== Measurement system ===Liberia has not yet completely adopted the International System of Units (abbreviated as the SI, also called the metric system).", "The Liberian government has begun transitioning away from use of United States customary units to the metric system.", "However, this change has been gradual, with government reports concurrently using both United States Customary and metric units.", "In 2018, the Liberian Commerce and Industry Minister announced that the Liberian government is committed to adopting the metric system." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of Liberia* Gender inequality in Liberia" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "235.Source: Niles’ Weekly Register.", "(1823).", "United States: H." ], [ "Further reading", "* Cooper, Helene, ''House at Sugar Beach: In Search of a Lost African Childhood'' (Simon & Schuster, 2008, )* * * * * * * Lang, Victoria, ''To Liberia: Destiny's Timing'' (Publish America, Baltimore, 2004, ).", "Novel of the journey of a young Black couple fleeing America to settle in the African motherland of Liberia.", "* Maksik, Alexander, ''A Marker to Measure Drift'' (John Murray 2013; Paperback 2014; ).", "A novel about a young woman's experience of and escape from the Liberian civil war.", "* * Mwakikagile, Godfrey, ''Military Coups in West Africa Since The Sixties'', Chapter Eight: Liberia: 'The Love of Liberty Brought Us Here,' pp.", "85–110, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., Huntington, New York, 2001; Godfrey Mwakikagile, ''The Modern African State: Quest for Transformation'', Chapter One: The Collapse of A Modern African State: Death and Rebirth of Liberia, pp.", "1–18, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 2001.", "* * Sankawulo, Wilton, ''Great Tales of Liberia''.", "Dr. Sankawulo is the compiler of these tales from Liberia and about Liberian culture.", "Editura Universității \"Lucian Blaga\", Sibiu, Romania, 2004..* Sankawulo, Wilton, ''Sundown at Dawn: A Liberian Odyssey''.", "Recommended by the Cultural Resource Center, Center for Applied Linguistics for its content concerning Liberian culture.", "* Shaw, Elma, ''Redemption Road: The Quest for Peace and Justice in Liberia'' (a novel), with a foreword by President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf (Cotton Tree Press, 2008, )" ], [ "External links", " Chief of State and Cabinet Members * Liberia.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Liberia from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Liberia" ], [ "Introduction", "Liberia is a country in West Africa founded by free people of color from the United States.", "The emigration of African Americans, both freeborn and recently emancipated, was funded and organized by the American Colonization Society (ACS).", "The mortality rate of these settlers was the highest among settlements reported with modern recordkeeping.", "Of the 4,571 emigrants who arrived in Liberia between 1820 and 1843, only 1,819 survived (39.8%).In 1846, the first black governor of Liberia, Joseph Jenkins Roberts, requested the Liberian legislature to declare independence, but in a manner that would allow them to maintain contacts with the ACS.", "The legislature called for a referendum, in which Liberians chose independence.", "On July 26, 1847, a group of eleven signatories declared Liberia an independent nation.", "The ACS as well as several northern state governments and local colonization chapters continued to provide money and emigrants as late as the 1870s.", "The United States government declined to act upon requests from the ACS to make Liberia an American colony or to establish a formal protectorate over Liberia, but it did exercise a \"moral protectorate\" over Liberia, intervening when threats manifested towards Liberian territorial expansion or sovereignty.", "Upon Liberian independence, Roberts was elected as the first president of Liberia.Liberia retained its independence throughout the Scramble for Africa by European colonial powers during the late 19th century, while remaining in the American sphere of influence.", "President William Howard Taft made American support to Liberia a priority of his foreign policy.", "From the 1920s, the economy focused on exploitation of natural resources.", "The rubber industry, specifically the Firestone Company, dominated the economy.", "Until 1980, Liberia was controlled politically by descendants of the original African-American settlers, known collectively as Americo-Liberians, who consisted of a small minority of the population.", "The violent overthrow of the Americo-Liberian regime that year led to two civil wars that devastated the country, the first from 1989 to 1997 and the second from 1999 to 2003." ], [ "Early history (pre-1821)", "Map of Liberia circa 1830Historians believe that many of the indigenous peoples of Liberia migrated there from the north and east between the 12th and 16th centuries AD.", "Portuguese explorers established contacts with people of the land later known as \"Liberia\" as early as 1462.They named the area ''Costa da Pimenta'' (Pepper Coast), or Grain Coast, because of the abundance of melegueta pepper, which became desired in European cooking.In 1602, the Dutch established a trading post at Grand Cape Mount but destroyed it a year later.", "In 1663, the English established a few trading posts on the Pepper Coast.", "No further known settlements by Europeans occurred until the arrival in 1821 of free blacks from the United States." ], [ "Colonization (1821–1847)", "From around 1800, in the United States, people opposed to slavery were planning ways to liberate more slaves and, ultimately, to abolish the practice.", "At the same time, slaveholders in the South opposed having free blacks in their states, as they believed the free people threatened the stability of their slave societies.", "Slaves were gradually freed in the North, although more slowly than generally realized; there were hundreds of slaves in Northern states in the 1840 census, and in New Jersey, in the 1860 census.", "The former slaves and other free blacks suffered considerable social and legal discrimination; they were not citizens and were seen by many as unwanted foreigners who were taking jobs away from whites by working for less.", "Like Southern states, some Northern states and territories (Illinois was one, and the Lecompton Constitution proposed this for Kansas) severely restricted or prohibited altogether entry by free blacks.Some abolitionists, including distinguished blacks such as ship builder Paul Cuffe or Cuffee, believed that blacks should return to \"the African homeland\", as if it were one ethnicity and country, despite many having been in the United States for generations.", "Cuffe's dream was that free African Americans and freed slaves \"could establish a prosperous colony in Africa,\" one based on emigration and trade.", "In 1811, Cuffe founded the Friendly Society of Sierra Leone, a cooperative black group intended to encourage “the Black Settlers of Sierra Leone, and the Natives of Africa generally, in the Cultivation of their Soil, by the Sale of their Produce.” As historian Donald R. Wright put it, \"Cuffee hoped to send at least one vessel each year to Sierra Leone, transporting African-American settlers and goods to the colony and returning with marketable African products.\"", "However, Cuffe died in 1817, and with him his project.The first ship of the American Colonization Society, the ''Elizabeth'', departed New York on February 6, 1820, for West Africa carrying 86 settlers.", "Between 1821 and 1838, the American Colonization Society developed the first settlement, which would be known as Liberia.", "On July 26, 1847, Liberia declared itself a (free) sovereign nation.===First ideas of colonization===As early as the period of the American Revolution, many white members of American society thought that African Americans could not succeed in living in their society as free people.", "Many considered blacks physically and mentally inferior to whites, and others believed that the racism and societal polarization resulting from slavery were insurmountable obstacles for integration of the races.", "Thomas Jefferson was among those who proposed colonization in Africa: relocating free blacks outside the new nation.===Colonies in Africa===Paul Cuffee in 1812.In 1787, Britain had started to resettle the \"black poor\" of London in the colony of Freetown in Sierra Leone.", "Many were Black Loyalists, former American slaves who had been freed in exchange for their services during the American Revolutionary War.", "The Crown also offered resettlement to former slaves whom they had first resettled in Nova Scotia.", "The Black Loyalists there found both the discrimination by white Nova Scotians and climate hard to bear.", "(See Black Nova Scotians.)", "Wealthy African-American shipowner Paul Cuffe thought that colonization was worth supporting.", "Aided by support from certain members of Congress and British officials, he transported 38 American blacks to Freetown in 1816 at his own expense.", "He died in 1817, but his private initiative helped arouse public interest in the idea of colonization.===Colonization societies===The American Colonization Society (ACS) was founded in 1816 by Virginia politician Charles F. Mercer and Presbyterian minister Robert Finley of New Jersey.", "The goal of the ACS was to settle free blacks outside of the United States; its method was to help them relocate to Africa.Starting in January 1820, the ACS sent ships from New York to West Africa.", "The first had 88 free black emigrants and three white ACS agents on board.", "The agents were to find an appropriate area for a settlement.", "Additional ACS representatives arrived in the second ACS ship, the ''Nautilus''.", "In December 1821, they acquired Cape Mesurado, a strip of land near present-day Monrovia, from the indigenous ruler King Peter (perhaps with some threat of force).From the beginning, the colonists were attacked by indigenous peoples whose territory this was, such as the Malinké tribes.", "In addition, they suffered from disease, the harsh climate, lack of food and medicine, and poor housing conditions.Until 1835, five more colonies were created by the colonization societies of five different states in the U.S. (Republic of Maryland, Kentucky-in-Africa, Mississippi in Africa, Louisiana, Liberia, and that set up by the Pennsylvania state colonization society and one planned by the New Jersey colonization society), and one by the U.S. government in the vicinity of the ACS settlement.", "The first colony on Cape Mesurado was extended along the coast as well as inland, sometimes by use of force against the native tribes.", "In 1838 these settlements came together to create the Commonwealth of Liberia.", "Monrovia was named the capital.", "By 1842, four of the other American settlements were incorporated into Liberia, and the fifth was destroyed by indigenous people.", "The colonists of African-American descent became known as Americo-Liberians.", "Many were of mixed race, including European ancestry.", "They remained African Americans in their education, religion, and culture, and they treated the natives as White Americans had treated them: as savages from the jungle, unwanted as citizens and not deserving the vote.===Rejection of colonization in the United States===Free people of color in the United States, with a few notable exceptions, overwhelmingly rejected the idea of moving to Liberia, or anywhere else in Africa, from the very beginning of the movement.", "Most of them had lived in the United States for generations, and while they wanted better treatment, they did not want to leave.", "In response to the proposal for blacks to move to Africa, Frederick Douglass said \"Shame upon the guilty wretches that dare propose, and all that countenance such a proposition.", "We live here—have lived here—have a right to live here, and mean to live here.", "\"Starting in 1831 with William Lloyd Garrison's new newspaper, ''The Liberator'', and followed by his ''Thoughts on African Colonization'' in 1832, support for colonization dropped, particularly in Northern free states.", "Garrison and his followers supported the idea of \"immediatism,\" calling for immediate emancipation of all slaves and the legal prohibition of slavery throughout the United States.", "The ACS, Garrison declared, was \"a creature without heart, without brains, eyeless, unnatural, hypocritical, relentless and unjust.\"", "It was not, in his view, a plan to eliminate slavery; rather, it was a way to protect it.The ACS was made up of a combination of abolitionists who wanted to end slavery—it was easier to get slaves freed if they agreed to go to Liberia—and slaveholders who wanted to get rid of free people of color.", "Henry Clay, one of the founders of the group, had inherited slaves as a young child, but adopted antislavery views in the 1790s under the influence of his mentor, George Wythe.", "Garrison pointed out that the number of free people of color who actually resettled in Liberia was minute in comparison to the number of slaves in the United States.", "As put by one of his supporters: \"As a remedy for slavery, it must be placed amongst the grossest of all delusions.", "In fifteen years it has transported less than three thousand persons to the African coast; while the ''increase'' on their numbers, in the same period, is about seven hundred thousand!", "\"===High mortality===Emigrants to Liberia suffered the highest mortality rate of any country since modern record-keeping began.", "Of the 4,571 emigrants who arrived in Liberia from 1820 to 1842, only 1,819 survived until 1843.The ACS knew of the high death rate, but continued to send more people to the colony.", "Professor Shick writes:===Handing over command to Americo-Liberians===Liberia on a 1839 map of West AfricaThe ACS administrators gradually gave the maturing colony more self-governance.", "In 1839, it was reorganized into the Commonwealth of Liberia.", "In 1841, the Commonwealth's first non-white governor, Joseph Jenkins Roberts, was appointed by ACS's governing board.", "In early 1847, the ACS directed Liberian leadership to declare independence.", "On July 26, 1847, eleven signatories to the Liberian Declaration of Independence established the free and independent Republic of Liberia.", "It took several years for other nations to recognize Liberia's independence, most notably Britain in 1848 and France in 1852.In the United States, the Southern bloc in Congress refused to recognize Liberian sovereignty.", "In 1862, however, following the departure of most Southern congressmen due to the American Civil War and the secession of the Southern states, the United States finally established diplomatic relations and welcomed a Liberian delegation to Washington." ], [ "Americo-Liberian rule (1847–1980)", "Between 1847 and 1980, the state of Liberia was dominated by the small minority of African-American colonists and their descendants, known collectively as Americo-Liberians.", "The Americo-Liberian minority, many of whom were mixed-race African Americans, viewed the native majority as \"racially\" inferior to themselves and treated them much the same as white Americans had treated them.", "To avoid \"racial\" contamination, the Americo-Liberians practiced endogamous marriage.", "For over a century the indigenous population of the country was denied the right to vote or participate significantly in the running of the country.", "The Americo-Liberians consolidated power amongst themselves.", "They, but not the natives, received financial support from supporters in the United States.", "They established plantations and businesses, and were generally richer than the indigenous people of Liberia, exercising overwhelming political power.===Politics===Map of Liberia 1856Politically, Liberia was dominated by two political parties.", "The Americo-Liberians had limited the franchise to prevent indigenous Liberians from voting in elections.", "The Liberian Party (later the Republican Party), was supported primarily by mixed-race African Americans from poorer backgrounds, while the True Whig Party received much of its following from richer blacks.", "From the first presidential election in 1847, the Liberian Party held political dominance.", "It used its position of power to attempt to cripple its opposition.In 1869, however, the Whigs won the presidential election under Edward James Roye.", "Although Roye was deposed after two years and the Republicans returned to government, the Whigs regained power in 1878 and maintained power constantly thereafter for over a century.A series of rebellions among the indigenous Liberian population took place between the 1850s and 1920s.", "In 1854, a newly independent African-American state in the region, the Republic of Maryland, was forced by an insurgency of the Grebo and the Kru people to join Liberia.", "Liberia's expansion brought the colony into border disputes with the French and British in French Guinea and Sierra Leone, respectively.", "The presence and protection of the U.S. Navy in West Africa until 1916 ensured that Liberia's territorial acquisitions or independence were never under threat.===Society======= Americo-Liberian and indigenous segregation (1847–1940) ====Charles D. B.", "King, 17th President of Liberia (1920–1930), with his entourage on the steps of the Peace Palace, The Hague (the Netherlands), 1927.The social order in Liberia was dominated by Americo-Liberians.", "Although descended primarily from peoples of African origin, often with some white ancestry as slave owners commonly impregnated their female slaves (see Children of the plantation), the ancestors of most Americo-Liberians had been born in the United States for generations before emigrating to Africa.", "As a result, they held American cultural, religious, and social values.", "Like most Americans of the period, the Americo-Liberians held a firm belief in the religious superiority of Christianity, and indigenous animism and culture became systematically oppressed.The Americo-Liberians created communities and a society that reflected closely the American society they had known.", "They spoke English, and built churches and houses in styles resembling those found in the Southern United States.", "The Americo-Liberians controlled the native peoples' access to the ocean, modern technology and skills, literacy, higher levels of education, and valuable relationships with many of the United States' institutions—including the American government.Reflecting the system of segregation in the United States, the Americo-Liberians created a cultural and racial caste system, with themselves at the top and indigenous Liberians at the bottom.", "They believed in a form of \"racial equality,\" which meant that all residents of Liberia had the potential to become \"civilized\" through western-style education and conversion to Christianity.====Social change (1940–1980)====During World War II, thousands of indigenous Liberians migrated from the nation's rural interior to the coastal regions in search of jobs.", "The Liberian Government had long opposed this kind of migration, but was no longer able to restrain it.", "In the decades after 1945, the Liberian government received hundreds of millions of dollars of unrestricted foreign investment, which destabilized the Liberian economy.", "Government revenue rose enormously, but was being grossly embezzled by government officials.", "Growing economic disparities caused increased hostility between indigenous groups and Americo-Liberians.The social tensions led President William Tubman to enfranchise the indigenous Liberians either in 1951 or 1963 (accounts differ).", "Tubman and his Whig Party continued to repress political opposition and rig elections.===Economics===A one Liberian Dollar banknote from 1862The suppression of the transatlantic slave trade in West Africa by the American and British navies after 1808 also produced new settlers, as these two navies would settle liberated slaves in Liberia or Sierra Leone.", "In the later 19th century, Liberia had to economically compete with European colonies in Africa.", "The economy of Liberia was always based on the production of agricultural products for export.", "In particular, Liberia's important coffee industry was destroyed in the 1870s by the emergence of production in Brazil.New technology that became available in Europe increasingly drove Liberian shipping companies out of business.", "Although Roye's government attempted to procure funding for a railway in 1871, the plan never materialized.", "The first railway in Liberia was not constructed until 1945.From the late 19th century, European powers, such as the United Kingdom and Germany, invested in infrastructure in their African colonies, making them more competitive in terms of getting products to market, improving communications, etc.The national currency, the Liberian dollar, collapsed in 1907.The country was later forced to adopt the United States dollar.", "The Liberian government was constantly dependent on foreign loans at high rates of exchange, which endangered the country's independence.In 1926, Firestone, an American rubber company, started the world's largest rubber plantation in Liberia.", "This industry created 25,000 jobs, and rubber quickly became the backbone of the Liberian economy; in the 1950s, rubber accounted for 40% of the national budget.", "During the 1930s, Liberia signed concession agreements with Dutch, Danish, German, and Polish investors in what has been described as an \"open door\" economic policy.Between 1946 and 1960, exports of natural resources such as iron, timber and rubber rose significantly.", "In 1971, Liberia had the world's largest rubber industry, and was the third largest exporter of iron ore.", "Since 1948, ship registration was another important source of state revenue.From 1962 until 1980, the U.S. donated $280 million in aid to Liberia, in exchange for which Liberia offered its land rent-free for American government facilities.", "Throughout the 1970s, the price of rubber in the world commodities market was depressed, which put pressure on Liberian state finances.===International relations===After 1927, the League of Nations investigated accusations that the Liberian government had forcibly recruited and sold indigenous people as contract laborers or slaves.", "In its 1930 report, the league admonished the Liberian government for \"systematically and for years fostering and encouraging a policy of gross intimidation and suppression\" by \"suppressing the native, prevent him from realizing his powers and limitations and prevent him from asserting himself in any way whatever, for the benefit of the dominant and colonizing race, although originally the same African stock as themselves.\"", "President Charles D. B.", "King hastily resigned.====Relations with the United States====The United States had a long history of intervening in Liberia's internal affairs, and had repeatedly sent naval vessels to help suppress insurrections by indigenous tribes before and after independence (in 1821, 1843, 1876, 1910, and 1915).", "However, the United States had lost interest in Liberia after 1876 (the end of Reconstruction), and the country instead became closely tied to British capital.", "Starting in 1909, the U.S. once again became heavily involved in Liberia.", "By 1909, Liberia faced serious external threats to its sovereignty over unpaid foreign loans and border disputes.In 1912, the U.S. arranged a 40-year international loan of $1.7 million, against which Liberia had to agree to four Western powers (United States, Britain, France, and Germany) controlling Liberian Government revenues until 1926.The American administration of the border police stabilized the frontier with Sierra Leone (then part of the British Empire), and checked French ambitions to annex more Liberian territory.", "The United States Navy established a coaling station in Liberia.Ensuring American support for Liberian independence, prosperity, and reform was among the high priorities of United States President, William Howard Taft.", "The United States played a significant role in training the Liberian army, known as the Liberian Frontier Force, with the assistance of African-American officers from the United States Army.", "The American presence warded off European powers, defeated a series of local rebellions, and helped bring in American technology to develop the resource-rich interior.", "Democracy was not a high priority, as the 15,000 Americo-Liberians had full control over the approximately 750,000 locals.", "The Krus and Greboe tribes remained highly reluctant to accept control from Monrovia, but were not powerful enough to overcome a regime strongly supported by the U.S. Army and Navy.", "The American officers, including Charles Young and Benjamin Davis among others, were skilled at training recruits, helped the government minimize corruption, and advocated for loans from American corporations (while monitoring the resulting flow of fund).===World War I===Liberia remained neutral for most of World War I.", "It joined the war on the Allied side on 4 August 1917.After its declaration of war, the resident German merchants were expelled from Liberia.", "As they constituted the country's largest investors and trading partners, Liberia suffered economically as a result.=== Firestone concession ===In 1926, the Liberian government granted a concession to Firestone, an American rubber company, that allowed the company to establish the world's largest rubber plantation at Harbel, Liberia.", "Concurrently, Firestone had arranged a $5 million private loan to Liberia.", "By the 1930s, Liberia became virtually bankrupt once again.", "After receiving pressure from the United States, the Liberian government agreed to an assistance plan from the League of Nations.", "As stipulated by the plan, two key officials of the league were placed in positions to \"advise\" the Liberian government.===World War II===American troops in Liberia during World War II.In 1942, Liberia signed a defense pact with the United States.", "Rubber was a strategically important commodity, and Liberia assured the U.S. and its allies that a sufficient supply of natural rubber would be provided.", "Furthermore, Liberia allowed the U.S. to use its territory as a bridgehead for transports of soldiers and war supplies, in addition to the construction of military bases, airports, the Freeport of Monrovia, roads to the interior, etc.", "Many of the American personnel who passed through Liberia were black soldiers (who, at the time, were in racially segregated army divisions), and were deployed into military service in Europe.", "The American military presence boosted the Liberian economy; thousands of laborers descended from the interior to the coastal region.", "The country's huge iron ore deposits were made accessible to commerce.The Defense Areas Agreement between the U.S. and Liberia entailed the US-financed construction of Roberts Field airport, the Freeport of Monrovia, and roads into the interior of Liberia.", "By the end of World War II, approximately 5,000 American troops had been stationed in Liberia.", "Americo-Liberians disproportionately controlled and benefited from Liberia's growing economy and increase in foreign investment.===Cold War===President Tolbert and U.S. President Jimmy Carter (in car, left) in Monrovia, 1978After World War II, the U.S. pressured Liberia to resist the expansion of Soviet influence in Africa during the Cold War.", "Liberian president William Tubman was agreeable to this policy.", "Between 1946 and 1960 Liberia received some $500 million in unrestricted foreign investment, mainly from the U.S. From 1962 to 1980, the U.S. donated $280 million in aid to Liberia.", "In the 1970s under president Tolbert, Liberia strove for a more non-aligned and independent posture, and established diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, China, Cuba and Eastern bloc countries.", "It also severed ties with Israel during the Yom Kippur War in 1973, but announced it supported American involvement in the Vietnam War.===End of Americo-Liberian rule===President William Tolbert pursued a policy of suppressing opposition.", "Dissatisfaction over governmental plans to raise the price of rice in 1979 led to protest demonstrations in the streets of Monrovia.", "Tolbert ordered his troops to fire on the demonstrators, and seventy people were killed.", "Rioting ensued throughout Liberia, finally leading to a military coup d'état in April 1980.Tolbert was killed during the coup, and several of his ministers were executed soon afterwards, marking the end of Americo-Liberian domination of the country." ], [ "Samuel Doe and the People's Redemption Council (1980–1989)", "After a bloody overthrow of the Americo-Liberian régime by indigenous Liberians in 1980, a 'Redemption Council' took control of Liberia.", "Internal unrest, opposition to the new military regime, and governmental repression steadily grew, until in 1989 Liberia sank into outright tribal and civil war.===Coup d’état; relations with U.S.===Samuel Kanyon Doe (1951–1990) was a member of the Krahn, a small ethnic group.", "He was a master sergeant in the Liberian army, and had trained with the U.S. Army Special Forces.", "On April 12, 1980, Doe led a bloody coup d'état against president Tolbert, in which Tolbert and twenty-six of his supporters were murdered.", "Ten days later, thirteen of Tolbert's Cabinet members were executed publicly.", "This ended the 133 years of Americo-Liberian political domination.", "Doe formed a military regime known as the People's Redemption Council (PRC).", "Many welcomed Doe's takeover, since the majority of the population had always been excluded from power.", "The PRC also for the time being tolerated a relatively free press.Doe quickly established good relations with the United States, especially after 1981, when U.S. President Ronald Reagan took office.", "Reagan more than tripled Liberia's financial aid, from $20 million in 1979 to $75 million per year.", "This soon rose to $95 million per annum.", "Liberia again became an important Cold War ally of the United States.", "Liberia protected important U.S. facilities and investments in Africa, and countered the threatened spread of Soviet influence in the continent.", "Doe closed the Libyan mission in Monrovia and severed diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union.", "He agreed to modify the mutual defense pact with the U.S., allowing the U.S. staging rights at 24 hours notice to use Liberia's harbors and airports for the U.S.", "Rapid Deployment Forces.Under Doe, Liberian ports were opened to American, Canadian, and European merchant ships, which brought in considerable foreign investment from shipping firms and earned Liberia a reputation as a tax haven.===Fear of counter-coup; repression===Doe put down seven coup attempts between 1981 and 1985.In August 1981, he had Thomas Weh Syen and four other PRC members arrested and executed for allegedly conspiring against him.", "Doe's government then declared amnesty for all political prisoners and exiles, and released sixty political prisoners.However, there soon were more internal rifts in the PRC.", "Doe became paranoid about the possibility of a counter-coup, and his government grew increasingly corrupt and repressive, banning all political opposition, shutting down newspapers, and jailing reporters.", "He began to systematically eliminate PRC members who challenged his authority, and to place people of his own ethnic Krahn background in key positions, which intensified popular anger.", "Meanwhile, the economy deteriorated precipitously.", "Popular support for Doe's government evaporated.===1985 presidential election===A draft constitution providing for a multiparty republic had been issued in 1983 and was approved by referendum in 1984.After the referendum, Doe staged a presidential election on October 15, 1985.Nine political parties sought to challenge Doe's National Democratic Party of Liberia (NDPL), but only three were allowed to take part.", "Prior to the election, more than fifty of Doe's opponents were murdered.", "Doe was ‘elected’ with 51% of the vote, but the election was heavily rigged.", "Foreign observers declared the elections fraudulent, and most of the elected opposition candidates refused to take their seats.U.S.", "Assistant Secretary of State for Africa Chester Crocker testified before Congress that the election was imperfect but that at least it was a step toward democracy.", "He further justified his support for the election results with the claim that, in any case, all African elections were known to be rigged at that time.===Outbreak of Civil War===In November 1985, Doe's former second-in-command Thomas Quiwonkpa led an estimated 500 to 600 people in a failed attempt to seize power; all were killed.", "Doe was sworn in as president on January 6, 1986.Doe then initiated crackdowns against certain tribes, such as the Gio (or Dan) and Mano, in the north, where most of the coup plotters came from.", "This government's mistreatment of certain ethnic groups resulted in divisions and violence among indigenous peoples, who until then had coexisted relatively peacefully.In the late 1980s, as fiscal austerity took hold in the United States and the perceived threat of Communism declined with the waning of the Cold War, the U.S. became disenchanted with Doe's government and began cutting off critical foreign aid to Liberia.", "This, together with the popular opposition, made Doe's position precarious." ], [ "First Liberian Civil War (1989–1996)", "In the late 1980s opposition from abroad to Doe’s regime led to economic collapse.", "Doe had already been repressing and crushing internal opposition for some time, when in November 1985 another coup attempt against him failed.", "Doe retaliated against tribes such as the Gio (or Dan) and Mano in the north, where most of the coup plotters had come from.", "Doe's Krahn tribe began attacking other tribes, particularly in Nimba County in the northeast of Liberia, bordering on Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast) and on Guinea.", "Some Liberian northerners fled brutal treatment from the Liberian army into the Ivory Coast.===Charles Taylor and the NPFL (1980–1989)===Charles Taylor, born 1948 in Arthington, Liberia, is son of a Gola mother and either an Americo-Liberian or an Afro-Trinidadian father.", "Taylor was a student at Bentley University in Waltham, Massachusetts, U.S.A., from 1972 to 1977, earning a degree in economics.", "After the 1980 ''coup d’état'' he served some time in Doe's government until he was fired in 1983 on accusation of embezzling government funds.", "He fled Liberia, was arrested in 1984 in Massachusetts on a Liberian warrant for extradition, and jailed in Massachusetts.", "He escaped from jail the following year and probably fled to Libya.", "In 1989, while in the Ivory Coast, Taylor assembled a group of rebels into the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL), mostly from the Gio and Mano tribes.===War===December 1989, the NPFL invaded Nimba County in Liberia.", "Thousands of Gio and Mano joined them, Liberians of other ethnic background as well.", "The Liberian army (AFL) counterattacked, and retaliated against the whole population of the region.", "Mid-1990, a war was raging between Krahn on one side, and Gio and Mano on the other.", "On both sides, thousands of civilians were massacred.By the middle of 1990, Taylor controlled much of the country, and by June laid siege to Monrovia.", "In July, Yormie Johnson split off from NPFL and formed the Independent National Patriotic Front of Liberia (INPFL), based around the Gio tribe.", "Both NPFL and INPFL continued their siege of Monrovia.In August 1990, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), an organisation of West African states, created a military intervention force called the Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) composed of 4,000 troops, to restore order.", "President Doe and Yormie Johnson (INPFL) agreed to this intervention, Taylor didn't.INPFL militiamen in 1990 after taking control of much of Monrovia.On September 9, President Doe paid a visit to the barely established headquarters of ECOMOG in the Free Port of Monrovia.", "While he was at the ECOMOG headquarters, he was attacked by INPFL, taken to the INPFL's Caldwell base, tortured, and killed.In November 1990, ECOWAS agreed with some principal Liberian players, but without Charles Taylor, on an Interim Government of National Unity (IGNU) under President Dr. Amos Sawyer.", "Sawyer established his authority over most of Monrovia, with the help of a paramilitary police force, the 'Black Berets', under Brownie Samukai, while the rest of the country was in the hands of the various warring factions.In June 1991, former Liberian army fighters formed a rebel group, the United Liberation Movement of Liberia for Democracy (ULIMO).", "They entered western Liberia in September 1991 and gained territories from the NPFL.American troops secure Freeport of Monrovia, 2003In 1993, ECOWAS brokered a peace agreement in Cotonou, Benin.", "On 22 September 1993, the United Nations established the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia (UNOMIL) to support ECOMOG in implementing the Cotonou agreement.", "In March 1994, the Interim Government of Amos Sawyer was succeeded by a Council of State of six members headed by David D. Kpormakpor.", "Renewed armed hostilities broke out in 1994 and persisted.", "During the course of the year, ULIMO split into two militias: ULIMO-J, a Krahn faction led by Roosevelt Johnson, and ULIMO-K, a Mandigo-based faction under Alhaji G.V.", "Kromah.", "Faction leaders agreed to the Akosombo peace agreement in Ghana but with little consequence.", "In October 1994, the UN reduced its number of UNOMIL observers to about 90 because of the lack of will of combatants to honour peace agreements.", "In December 1994, the factions and parties signed the Accra agreement, but fighting continued.", "In August 1995, the factions signed an agreement largely brokered by Jerry Rawlings, Ghanaian President; Charles Taylor agreed.", "In September 1995, Kpormakpor’s ''Council of State'' was succeeded by one under the civilian Wilton G. S. Sankawulo and with the factional heads Charles Taylor, Alhaji Kromah, and George Boley in it.", "In April 1996, followers of Taylor and Kromah assaulted the headquarters of Roosevelt Johnson in Monrovia, and the peace accord collapsed.", "In August 1996, a new ceasefire was reached in Abuja, Nigeria.", "On September 3, 1996, Ruth Perry followed Sankawulo as chairwoman of the Council of State, with the same three militia leaders in it." ], [ "Second Liberian Civil War (1997–2003)", "===Elections 1997===Charles Taylor won the 1997 presidential elections with 75.33 percent of the vote, while the runner-up, Unity Party leader Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, received a mere 9.58 percent of the vote.", "Accordingly, Taylor's National Patriotic Party gained 21 of a possible 26 seats in the Senate, and 49 of a possible 64 seats in the House of Representatives.", "The election was judged free and fair by some observers although it was charged that Taylor had employed widespread intimidation to achieve victory at the polls.===1997–1999===Bloodshed in Liberia did slow considerably, but it did not end.", "Violence kept flaring up.", "During his entire reign, Taylor had to fight insurgencies against his government.", "Suspicions were rife that Taylor continued to assist rebel forces in neighbouring countries like Sierra Leone, trading weapons for diamonds.President Charles Taylor had fortified his power over Liberia, mostly by purging the security forces of opponents, killing opposition figures, and raising new paramilitary units that were loyal only to him or his most trusted officers.", "Nevertheless, he still faced a few remaining opponents in the country, mostly former warlords of the First Liberian Civil War who had kept part of their forces to protect themselves from Taylor.", "His most important domestic rival by early 1998 was Roosevelt Johnson, a Krahn leader and former commander of the ULIMO.", "After some minor armed altercations, almost all of Johnson's followers were finally killed by Taylor's security forces during a major firefight in September 1998, though Johnson himself managed to flee into the United States embassy.", "After one last attempt by Taylor's paramilitaries to kill him there, causing a major diplomatic incident, Johnson was evacuated to Ghana.===1999–2003===Some ULIMO forces reformed themselves as the Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD), backed by the government of neighbouring Guinea.", "In 1999, they emerged in northern Liberia, and in April 2000 they started fighting in Lofa County in northernmost Liberia.", "By the spring of 2001, they were posing a major threat to the Taylor government.", "Liberia was now engaged in a complex three-way conflict with Sierra Leone and the Republic of Guinea.Meanwhile, the United Nations Security Council in March 2001 (Resolution 1343) concluded that Liberia and Charles Taylor played roles in the civil war in Sierra Leone, and therefore:* banned all arms sales to, and diamonds sales from Liberia; and* banned high Liberian Government members from travel to UN-states.By the beginning of 2002, Sierra Leone and Guinea were supporting the LURD, while Taylor was supporting opposition factions in both countries.", "By supporting Sierra Leonean rebels, Taylor also drew the hostility of the British and American governments.In 2003, other elements of the former ULIMO-factions formed another new small rebel group in the Republic of Ivory Coast, the Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL), headed by Mr Yayah Nimley, and they emerged in the south of Liberia.===Women of Liberia===Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peace.In 2002, the women in Liberia were tired of seeing their country torn apart.", "Organized by social worker Leymah Gbowee, women started gathering and praying in a fish market to protest the violence.", "They organized the Women in Peacebuilding Network (WIPNET), and issued a statement of intent: \"In the past we were silent, but after being killed, raped, dehumanized, and infected with diseases, and watching our children and families destroyed, war has taught us that the future lies in saying NO to violence and YES to peace!", "We will not relent until peace prevails.", "\"Joined by Liberian Muslim Women's Organization, Christian and Muslim women joined forces to create Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peace.", "They wore white, to symbolize peace.", "They staged silent nonviolence protests and forced a meeting with President Charles Taylor and extracted a promise from him to attend peace talks in Ghana.In 2003, a delegation of Liberian women went to Ghana to continue to apply pressure on the warring factions during the peace process.", "They staged a sit in outside of the Presidential Palace, blocking all the doors and windows and preventing anyone from leaving the peace talks without a resolution.", "Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peace became a political force against violence and against their government.", "Their actions brought about an agreement during the stalled peace talks.", "As a result, the women were able to achieve peace in Liberia after a 14-year civil war and later helped bring to power the country's first female head of state, Ellen Johnson Sirleaf.===UN timber embargo and arrest warrant against Taylor===The Buduburam refugee camp west of Accra, Ghana, home in 2005 to more than 40,000 refugees from LiberiaOn March 7, 2003, the war tribunal Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) decided to summon Charles Taylor and charge him with war crimes and crimes against humanity, but they kept this decision and this charge secret until June that year.Due to concerns over the lack of social, humanitarian and development use of industry revenue by the Liberian government, the UN Security Council enacted a 10-month embargo on timber imports from Liberia on July 7, 2003 (passed in Resolution 1478).By mid-2003, LURD controlled the northern third of the country and was threatening the capital, MODEL was active in the south, and Taylor's government controlled only a third of the country: Monrovia and central Liberia.On June 4, 2003, ECOWAS organized peace talks in Accra, Ghana, among the Government of Liberia, civil society, and the rebel groups LURD and MODEL.", "On the opening ceremony, in Taylor's presence, the SCSL revealed their charge against Taylor, which they had kept secret since March, and also issued an international arrest warrant for Taylor.", "The SCSL indicted Taylor for “bearing the greatest responsibility” for atrocities in Sierra Leone since November 1996.The Ghanaian authorities did not attempt to arrest Taylor, declaring they could not round up a president they themselves had invited as a guest for peace talks.", "The same day, Taylor returned to Liberia.===Pressure of rebels, Presidents, and UN: Taylor resigns===June 2003, LURD began a siege of Monrovia.", "July 9, the Nigerian President offered Taylor safe exile in his country, if Taylor stayed out of Liberian politics.", "Also in July, American President Bush stated twice that Taylor “must leave Liberia”.", "Taylor insisted that he would resign only if American peacekeeping troops were deployed to Liberia.August 1, 2003, the Security Council, (Resolution 1497) decided on a multinational force in Liberia, to be followed-on by a United Nations stabilization force.ECOWAS sent troops under the banner of 'ECOMIL' to Liberia.", "These troops started to arrive in Liberia probably as of August 15.The U.S. provided logistical support.", "President Taylor resigned, and flew into exile in Nigeria.", "Vice-President Moses Blah replaced Taylor as interim-President.An ECOWAS-ECOMIL force of 1000 Nigerian troops was airlifted into Liberia on August 15, to halt the occupation of Monrovia by rebel forces.", "Meanwhile, U.S. stationed a Marine Expeditionary Unit with 2300 Marines offshore Liberia." ], [ "Peace agreement and transitional government (2003–2005)", "Gyude BryantOn August 18, 2003, the Liberian Government, the rebels, political parties, and leaders from civil society signed the Accra Comprehensive Peace Agreement that laid the framework for a two-year National Transitional Government of Liberia.", "August 21, they selected businessman Charles Gyude Bryant as chair of the National Transitional Government of Liberia (NTGL), effective on October 14.These changes paved the way for the ECOWAS peacekeeping mission to expand into a 3,600-strong force, constituted by Benin, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal and Togo.On October 1, 2003, UNMIL took over the peacekeeping duties from ECOWAS.", "Some 3,500 West African troops were provisionally ‘re-hatted’ as United Nations peacekeepers.", "The UN Secretary-General commended the African Governments who have contributed to UNMIL, as well as the United States for its support to the regional force.", "October 14, 2003, Blah handed power to Gyude Bryant.Fighting initially continued in parts of the country, and tensions between the factions did not immediately vanish.But fighters were being disarmed; in June 2004, a program to reintegrate the fighters into society began; the economy recovered somewhat in 2004; by year's end, the funds for the re-integration program proved inadequate; also by the end of 2004, more than 100,000 Liberian fighters had been disarmed, and the disarmament program was ended.In light of the progress made, President Bryant requested an end to the UN embargo on Liberian diamonds (since March 2001) and timber (since May 2003), but the Security Council postponed such a move until the peace was more secure.", "Because of a supposed ‘fundamentally broken system of governance that contributed to 23 years of conflict in Liberia’, and failures of the Transitional Government in curbing corruption, the Liberian government and the International Contact Group on Liberia signed onto the anti-corruption program GEMAP, starting September 2005." ], [ "Ellen Johnson Sirleaf elected president (2005)", "Ellen Johnson Sirleaf.The transitional government prepared for fair and peaceful democratic elections on October 11, 2005, with UNMIL troops safeguarding the peace.", "Twenty three candidates stood for the presidential election, with George Weah, international footballer, UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador and member of the Kru ethnic group, and Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, a former World Bank economist and finance minister, Harvard-trained economist and of mixed Americo-Liberian and indigenous descent.In the first round, no candidate took the required majority, Weah won this round with 28% of the vote.", "A run-off between the top two vote getters, Weah and Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, was necessary.The second round of elections took place on November 8, 2005.Ellen Johnson Sirleaf won this runoff decisively.", "Both the general election and runoff were marked by peace and order, with thousands of Liberians waiting patiently in the Liberian heat to cast their ballots.Sirleaf claimed victory of this round, winning 59 per cent of the vote.", "However, Weah alleged electoral fraud, despite international observers declaring the election to be free and fair.", "Although Weah was still threatening to take his claims to the Supreme Court if no evidence of fraud was found, Johnson-Sirleaf was declared winner on November 23, 2005, and took office on January 16, 2006; becoming the first African woman to do so." ], [ "Recent events (2006–present)", "===Allegations of labor rights abuses by Firestone===In November 2005, the International Labor Rights Fund filed an Alien Tort Claims Act (ATCA) case against Bridgestone, the parent company of Firestone, alleging “forced labor\", the modern equivalent of slavery, on the Firestone Plantation in Harbel.", "In May 2006, the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) released a report: “Human Rights in Liberia’s Rubber Plantations: Tapping into the Future”, which detailed the results of its investigation into the conditions on the Firestone plantation in Liberia.===Extradition and trial of Charles Taylor, arrest of Bryant===Under international pressure, President Sirleaf requested in March 2006 that Nigeria extradite Charles Taylor, who was then brought before an international tribunal in Sierra Leone to face charges of crimes against humanity, arising from events during the Sierra Leone civil war (his trial was later transferred to The Hague for security purposes).", "In June 2006, the United Nations ended its embargo on Liberian timber (effective since May 2003), but continued its diamond embargo (effective since March 2001) until an effective certificate of origin program was established, a decision that was reaffirmed in October 2006.In March 2007, former Interim President Bryant was arrested and charged with having embezzled government funds while in office.", "In August 2007, the Supreme Court of Liberia allowed the criminal prosecution for this to proceed in the lower courts.", "The court ruled that Bryant was not entitled to immunity as the head of state under the Constitution as he was not elected to the position and he was not acting in accordance with law when he allegedly stole US$1.3 million in property from the government.===Ebola epidemic===In 2014 an Ebola virus disease epidemic struck West Africa (see Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa), and spread to Liberia in early 2014.A few initial cases grew into an Ebola virus epidemic in Liberia.=== Free and democratic elections 2011, 2017, and 2023 === In November 2011, President Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf was re-elected for a second six-year term.Following the 2017 Liberian general election, former professional football striker George Weah, considered one of the greatest African players of all time, was sworn in as president on January 22, 2018, becoming the fourth youngest serving president in Africa.", "The inauguration marked Liberia's first fully democratic transition in 74 years.", "Weah cited fighting corruption, reforming the economy, combating illiteracy, and improving life conditions as the main targets of his presidency.", "However, opposition leader Joseph Boakai defeated George Weah in the tightly contested 2023 presidential election.", "On 22 January 2024, Joseph Boakai was sworn in as Liberia’s new president." ], [ "See also", "* History of Africa* History of West Africa* President of Liberia* Politics of Liberia* Lott Carey, of Richmond, Virginia, the first American missionary to Liberia* ''Pray the Devil Back to Hell''* Monrovia history and timeline* History of Sierra Leone" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Akpan, Monday B.", "\"Black imperialism: Americo-Liberian rule over the African peoples of Liberia, 1841-1964.\"", "''Canadian Journal of African Studies'' (1973): 217–236.in JSTOR* Allen, William E. \"Liberia and the Atlantic World in the Nineteenth Century: Convergence and Effects.\"", "''History in Africa'' (2010) 37#1 pp : 7-49.", "* Brown, George Williams.", "''The economic history of Liberia'' (1941) online* * * Ciment, James.", "''Another America: The story of Liberia and the former slaves who ruled it'' (Hill and Wang, 2013).", "* Clegg III, Claude Andrew.", "''The price of liberty: African Americans and the making of Liberia'' (Univ of North Carolina Press, 2009).", "* * * Ellis, Stephen.", "''The mask of anarchy updated edition: The destruction of Liberia and the religious dimension of an African civil war'' (NYU Press, 2006).", "* Everill, Bronwen.", "''Abolition and empire in Sierra Leone and Liberia'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013).", "* * Hyman, Lester S. ''United States policy towards Liberia, 1822 to 2003'' (2003) online free* * * Levitt, Jeremy I.", "''Evolution of Deadly Conflict in Liberia: From\" Paternaltarianism\" to State Collapse'' (Carolina Academic Press, 2005).", "* * Lyon, Judson M. \"Informal Imperialism: The United States in Liberia, 1897–1912.\"", "''Diplomatic History'' (1981) 5#3 pp 221–243.", "* Maugham, R. C. F. ''The republic of Liberia, being a general description of the negro republic, with its history, commerce, agriculture, flora, fauna, and present methods of administration'' (1920) online* Moran, Mary H. ''Liberia: The violence of democracy'' (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2006).", "* Morison, Samuel Eliot.", "''\"Old Bruin\": Commodore Matthew C. Perry, 1794-1858: The American naval officer who helped found Liberia, Hunted Pirates in the West Indies, Practised Diplomacy With the Sultan of Turkey and the King of the Two Sicilies; Commanded the Gulf Squadron in the Mexican War, Promoted the Steam Navy and the Shell Gun, and Conducted the Naval Expedition Which Opened Japan'' (1967) pp 61–76, 168-78 online free to borrow* * Olukoju, Ayodeji.", "''Culture and customs of Liberia'' (Greenwood, 2006).", "* Rosenberg, Emily S. \"The Invisible Protectorate: The United States, Liberia, and the Evolution of Neocolonialism, 1909–40.\"", "''Diplomatic History'' (1985) 9#3 pp 191–214.", "* * * * * Tyler-McGraw, Marie.", "''An African republic: black & white Virginians in the making of Liberia'' (Univ of North Carolina Press, 2007).", "online* West, Richard.", "''Back to Africa; a history of Sierra Leone and Liberia'' (1971) online" ], [ "External links", "* The Struggle for the Recognition of Haiti and Liberia as Independent Republics – From Haitian history Wiki* The Liberian Post – Extensive background information with links and photos.", "* U.S. Library of Congress exhibition, based on materials deposited by the ACS.", "* CIA World Factbook : Liberia* BBC Country Profile : Liberia* Art and Life in Africa : Liberia* History of Liberia: a Timeline, from Library of Congress* Political Resources on the Net: Liberia by Martin Delany*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Liberia" ], [ "Introduction", "alt=Location of Liberia in western Africaalt='''Liberia''' is a sub-Saharan nation in West Africa located at 6 °N, 9 °W.", "It borders the north Atlantic Ocean to the southwest ( of coastline) and three other African nations on the other three sides, Sierra Leone to the northwest, Guinea to the northeast and Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire) to the east.In total, Liberia comprises of which is land and is water." ], [ "Physical geography", "Liberia extends from between 4.21°N and 8.34°N to 7.27°W and 11.31°W.", "It is roughly rectangular measuring about in length from northwest to southeast, with a width of about .", "The coastline is about , including river mouths ad inlets up to one kilometre wide.Drainage of the whole country is direct to the sea, with a series of short rivers flowing directly into the sea.", "These are, from west to east, the Mano River on the border with Sierra Leone, the Mafa River, the Lofa River, the Saint Paul River, the Mesurado River, the Farmington River, the Saint John River, the Timbo River, the Cestos River, the Sehnkwehn River, the Sinoe River, the Dugbe River, the Dubo River, the Grand Cess River and the Cavalla River on the border with Ivory Coast.In the west, the coast is low and sandy, but in the central and eastern parts of the country it is sandy and rocky and of moderate relief, frequently broken by the mouths of the rivers.", "The coastal plain varies in width, being narrow between Monrovia and Buchanan, but being much wider in the west and in the Cestos Valley in the centre, narrowing again in the eastern end of the country.Further inland the land rises, sometimes with escarpments, to a plateau some above sea level.", "This is divided by the river valleys and there are hilly ridges between some of the river valleys.", "The land rises further in the north and northwest of the country, with mountains that exceed in several places, the highest point in the country being in the Wologizi Range at .=== Extreme points ===This is a list of the extreme points of Liberia, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.", "* Northernmost point – unnamed location on the border with Guinea in the Sodia river immediately north of the town of Voinjama, Lofa County.", "* Easternmost point – unnamed headland at the confluence of the Cavally river and the Hana river, River Gee County.", "* Southernmost point – Kablaké headland, Maryland County.", "* Westernmost point - unnamed headland immediately west of the town of Sewulu at the mouth of the Mano River, Grand Cape Mount County." ], [ "Borders and maritime claims", "The total length of Liberia's land borders is : with Sierra Leone on the northwest, with Guinea to the north, and with Ivory Coast.", "Liberia claims an Exclusive Economic Zone of and ." ], [ "Terrain", "Liberia has a mostly hilly terrain, it also has rolling plains along the coast to a rolling plateau and low mountains in the northeast.===Elevation extremes===The lowest point on Liberia is at sea level on the Atlantic Ocean.", "The highest point on Liberia is above sea level at Mount Wuteve." ], [ "Natural resources", "Natural resources that are found in Liberia include iron ore, timber, diamonds, gold and hydropower.=== Mining ===" ], [ "Land use and agriculture", "''arable land:''5.2%''permanent crops:''2.1%''permanent pastures:''20.8%''forest:''44.6%''other:''27.3% (2011)===Irrigated land===30 square kilometres of Liberia's land was irrigated as of 2012.===Natural hazards===The natural hazard that occurs in Liberia is a dust-laden harmattan wind that blows from the Sahara (December to March)." ], [ "Environmental issues", "=== Climate change ===" ], [ "See also", " Administrative divisions of Liberia* List of cities in Liberia* List of rivers of Liberia* List of Liberian national forests" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Liberia" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Population", "Population, fertility rate and net reproduction rate, United Nations estimatesAccording to , Liberia's total population was in .", "This is compared to 911,000 in 1950.43.5% of Liberians were below the age of 15 in 2010.53.7% were between 15 and 65 years of age, while 2.8% were 65 years or older.Estimates of Liberia's population prior to the 20th century are unreliable due to the lack of historical censuses.", "Estimates by scholars of pre-World War II demographics in Liberia differ wildly.Total populationPopulation Age (%)0–1415–6465+ 1950 911 00041.055.93.0 1955 997 00041.156.12.8 19601 116 00041.455.92.7 19651 262 00043.054.32.6 19701 440 00044.153.32.6 19751 658 00044.852.62.6 19801 923 00045.551.92.6 19852 212 00045.951.52.6 19902 127 00045.652.82.6 19952 095 00044.552.82.6 20002 847 00043.653.82.6 20053 183 00043.354.02.7 20103 994 00043.553.72.8Population by Sex and Age Group (Census 21.III.2008):Liberia's population from 1961-2013.Liberia's population tripled in 40 years.Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 1 739 945 1 736 663 3 476 608 1000–14736 834721 2381 458 07241.94 0–4 270 564 263 911 534 475 15.37 5–9 251 411 250 520 501 931 14.44 10–14 214 859 206 807 421 666 12.1315–64945 641954 7841 900 42554.66 15–19 189 407 186 288 375 695 10.81 20–24 161 951 180 979 342 930 9.86 25–29 141 006 150 852 291 858 8.39 30–34 107 326 112 306 219 632 6.32 35–39 99 136 104 400 203 536 5.85 40–44 81 670 74 067 155 737 4.48 45–49 63 827 54 980 118 807 3.42 50–54 44 870 38 070 82 940 2.39 55–59 30 975 25 485 56 460 1.62 60–64 25 473 27 357 52 830 1.5265-85+57 47060 641118 1113.40 65-69 19 250 20 557 39 807 1.14 70-74 12 343 13 403 25 746 0.74 75-79 11 580 11 333 22 913 0.66 80-84 5 408 6 599 12 007 0.35 85+ 8 889 8 749 17 638 0.51" ], [ "Vital statistics", "Registration of vital events is in Liberia not complete.", "The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.YearMid-year populationLive births per yearDeaths per yearNatural change per yearCBRCDRNCTFRIMR*Life expectancy (years)1950 916 40 22 18 43.124.019.16.00199.338.51951 933 41 23 18 43.724.219.66.04198.838.61952 952 42 23 19 44.324.220.26.09198.038.71953 971 44 24 20 44.924.220.66.12197.338.81954 992 45 24 21 45.424.321.16.16196.639.01955 1 014 46 25 22 45.824.521.36.19197.238.81956 1 037 48 26 22 46.424.721.66.24198.038.81957 1 061 50 26 23 46.824.921.96.28198.738.71958 1 085 51 27 24 47.225.222.16.31199.438.51959 1 110 53 28 25 47.725.422.36.35200.138.41960 1 137 55 29 26 48.025.622.56.39200.638.31961 1 165 56 30 26 48.425.722.76.45200.738.31962 1 194 58 31 27 48.725.723.06.50200.538.41963 1 224 60 31 28 48.925.723.26.56200.038.51964 1 255 61 32 29 49.025.723.46.59199.038.61965 1 287 63 33 30 49.125.523.66.62197.538.81966 1 320 65 33 31 49.025.323.76.63195.839.11967 1 354 66 34 33 49.025.024.06.65193.739.41968 1 389 68 34 34 49.024.724.26.66191.339.81969 1 426 70 35 35 49.124.424.76.64188.540.21970 1 464 71 35 36 48.524.024.56.58185.640.61971 1 502 72 35 37 48.023.624.56.54183.140.91972 1 541 74 36 39 48.223.125.16.60180.341.51973 1 583 77 36 40 48.422.825.66.65177.741.91974 1 626 79 36 42 48.522.426.06.69175.142.41975 1 672 81 37 44 48.622.126.56.74172.442.81976 1 718 84 37 46 48.721.826.96.79169.943.21977 1 768 86 38 48 48.721.427.36.84167.643.61978 1 821 88 38 50 48.621.027.66.88165.444.01979 1 876 91 39 52 48.520.727.86.92163.444.31980 1 932 93 39 54 48.020.327.76.87161.644.61981 1 990 94 40 55 47.519.927.56.83159.945.01982 2 048 96 40 56 46.919.627.36.79158.645.21983 2 109 98 41 57 46.519.427.06.76157.845.41984 2 174 100 42 58 45.919.326.66.73157.845.41985 2 240 102 44 58 45.719.726.16.69159.944.71986 2 306 105 45 60 45.519.426.06.64161.045.01987 2 372 107 47 60 45.0 19.725.36.57164.044.51988 2 440 109 49 60 44.720.124.66.51167.444.01989 2 508 111 51 60 44.520.524.06.43170.643.51990 2 210 114 65 49 44.425.518.96.37173.236.71991 1 939 85 40 45 44.621.023.66.32175.042.81992 2 053 90 43 48 44.521.023.56.28173.942.71993 2 133 95 46 49 44.621.523.16.25174.842.21994 2 125 97 48 50 44.621.822.86.21172.941.81995 2 142 94 43 52 44.720.224.46.17166.143.91996 2 204 99 44 55 44.619.924.76.13161.244.41997 2 383 100 39 60 44.417.626.86.08151.547.81998 2 639 115 44 71 44.316.927.46.02144.648.91999 2 790 122 45 77 44.116.127.95.95137.350.02000 2 895 126 44 82 43.615.228.45.88129.851.42001 2 982 128 43 86 43.014.328.75.77122.052.82002 3 061 130 42 88 42.313.628.75.65114.253.82003 3 085 131 43 88 41.713.927.95.55108.953.02004 3 122 129 38 92 41.512.129.35.5199.556.02005 3 266 133 37 96 41.511.629.95.5293.256.92006 3 455 141 38 103 41.311.230.25.5387.857.62007 3 633 147 39 108 40.910.830.15.4683.358.32008 3 784 151 39 111 39.910.429.55.3379.658.82009 3 905 152 39 113 38.9 10.128.85.1776.559.22010 4 020 153 40 113 38.19.928.25.0674.059.42011 4 181 155 40 114 37.49.727.74.9772.059.62012 4 332 162 42 121 37.39.627.74.8870.359.92013 4 427 160 42 118 36.19.526.74.7568.859.92014 4 519 159 44 115 35.19.825.34.6268.759.12015 4 612 158 45 113 34.29.724.54.5267.759.12016 4 706 159 43 116 33.79.124.74.4665.060.42017 4 797 159 43 116 33.29.024.24.4063.760.62018 4 889 160 43 117 32.78.823.94.3462.460.92019 4 985 161 43 118 32.28.723.54.2661.161.12020 5 088 161 45 117 31.78.823.04.1759.660.92021 5 193 163 46 117 31.38.822.44.0958.060.7 In thousands '''CBR''' = crude birth rate (per 1000); '''CDR''' = crude death rate (per 1000); '''NC''' = natural change (per 1000); '''IMR''' = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; '''TFR''' = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)===Fertility and births===Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR):YearCBRTFR Total Urban Rural Total Urban (Rural) 2007 37.6 32.5 40.4 5.2 (4.6) 3.8 (3.3) 6.2 (5.6) 2013 34.4 31.1 38.5 4.7 (4.0) 3.8 (3.3) 6.1 (5.1)2019-2030.127.533.64.2 (3.7)3.4 (3.1)5.5 (4.8)Fertility data as of 2013 (DHS Program): Region Total fertility rate Percentage of women age 15-49 currently pregnant Mean number of children ever born to women age 40-49 North Western 5.8 10.3 7.1 South Central 3.8 6.7 5.8 South Eastern A 6.5 9.6 6.7 South Eastern B 5.9 9.2 7.1 North Central 5.6 10.2 6.2" ], [ "Ethnic communities of Liberia", "===Indigenous===The indigenous ethnic groups of Liberia can be linguistically divided into three groups who speak;* The isolate Gola language and the* Mel languages (particularly Kissi) in the east and* Kru languages (particularly Bassa) in the southeastto which must be added the immigrant communities;* Mande-Fu (Kpelle, Gio, Mano, Loma)* Mande-Tan (Vai, Mende, Mandingo)* Repatriated (Americo-Liberians, Congo, Caribbean)The Gola ethnic group originated somewhere in central Africa.", "During the Empire of Ancient Ghana they were involved in the land-surveying and jurisprudence of the empire.The other ethnic groups that fall under the Mande-Tan, Mande-Fu were also members of Ancient Ghana.", "Because of their influence in the judicial aspects of the Ghana, the Gola's social structure dominated through the Poro.With the influx of Islam many groups adopted it while others resisted.", "The Golas fought three wars with pro-Islamic elements in a changing Ghana.", "These wars were known as the Kumba Wars.", "The Golas lost the third of these wars and were forced to retreat toward Sierra Leone.", "They were pursued by the Mende, Gbandi and Loma.", "Their battles with the Mende in Sierra Leone forced them to retreat yet again and settle finally in Liberia where they encountered the Dei.===Immigrants from Mali===The Kpelle, Gio, Mano, Mandingo and Vai groups migrated from the Empire of Mali for various reasons, some escaping political intrigue, others looking for a better life.", "The Vais, settled in Grand Cape Mount county in the west of Liberia, were the first to invent a form of writing in 1833 or 1834.The reported inventor was Dwalu Bukele of Bandakor along the Robertsport (provincial capital) highway.===Immigrants from Côte d'Ivoire===In the 16th century; Kru (Tajuasohn), Bassa, Belleh, Krahn, Grebo.===19th century===Americo-Liberians: Free black people and emancipated slaves, and their descendants, from the U.S. and the CaribbeanCongos is an eponymic term for \"recaptives,\" people rescued from slave ships after the slave trade, not slavery itself, was abolished by Great Britain and the United States.", "These people were \"repatriated\" to Liberia (and Sierra Leone if rescued by the British) and their descendants.", "The term was used because many of these rescued Africans were thought to be from the Congo River Basin.===Immigrants from Lebanon===In the late 19th century to early 20th century Lebanese merchants, families and businessmen began arriving in Liberia.", "Lebanese currently own many major businesses such as supermarkets, restaurants, textiles, construction works, factories and other production based companies across the country." ], [ "Religion", " According to the 2008 National Census, 85.5% of Liberia's population practices Christianity.", "Muslims comprise 12.2% of the population, largely coming from the Mandingo and Vai ethnic groups.", "The vast majority of Muslims are Malikite Sunni, with sizeable Shia and Ahmadiyya minorities.", "Traditional indigenous religions are practiced by 0.5% of the population, while 1.8% subscribe to no religion." ], [ "Other demographic statistics", "Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.", "One birth every 3 minutes\tOne death every 14 minutes\tOne net migrant every 103 minutes\tNet gain of one person every 4 minutesThe following demographic are from the CIA World Factbook unless otherwise indicated.===Population===:5,358,483 (2022 est.", "):4,809,768 (July 2018 est.", ")===Religions===Christian 85.6% (primarily Baptist), Muslim 12.2%, Traditional 0.6%, other 0.2%, none 1.5% (2008 est.", ")===Age structure===Population pyramid of Liberia in 2020:''0-14 years:'' 43.35% (male 1,111,479/female 1,087,871):''15-24 years:'' 20.35% (male 516,136/female 516,137):''25-54 years:'' 30.01% (male 747,983/female 774,615):''55-64 years:'' 3.46% (male 89,150/female 86,231):''65 years and over:'' 2.83% (male 70,252/female 73,442) (2020 est.", "):''0-14 years:'' 43.72% (male 1,062,766 /female 1,040,211):''15-24 years:'' 19.9% (male 478,041 /female 478,999):''25-54 years:'' 30.1% (male 711,963 /female 735,878):''55-64 years:'' 3.43% (male 84,474 /female 80,410):''65 years and over:'' 2.85% (male 67,229 /female 69,797) (2018 est.", ")===Birth rate===:36.64 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 11th:37.9 births/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 10th===Death rate===:6.62 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 131st:7.4 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 116th===Total fertility rate===:4.79 children born/woman (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 13th:5 children born/woman (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 13th===Median age===:total: 18 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 215th:male: 17.7 years:female: 18.2 years (2020 est.", "):total: 17.8 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 217th:male: 17.6 years :female: 18.1 years (2018 est.", ")===Population growth rate===:2.73% (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 16th:2.59% (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 19th===Mother's mean age at first birth===:19.1 years (2019/20 est.", "):note: median age at first birth among women 25-49:19.2 years (2013 est.", "):note: median age at first birth among women 25-29===Contraceptive prevalence rate===:24.9% (2019/20):31% (2016)===Net migration rate===:-2.74 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 176th:-4.7 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 192nd===Dependency ratios===:total dependency ratio: 83.2 (2015 est.", "):youth dependency ratio: 77.6 (2015 est.", "):elderly dependency ratio: 5.5 (2015 est.", "):potential support ratio: 18.1 (2015 est.", ")===Urbanization===:urban population: 53.1% of total population (2022):urban population: 51.2% of total population (2018):rate of urbanization: 3.41% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.", ")===Sex ratio===''at birth:''1.03 male(s)/female''under 15 years:''1.02 male(s)/female''15–64 years:''1.01 male(s)/female''65 years and over:''0.96 male(s)/female''total population:''1 male(s)/female (2018 est.", ")===Life expectancy at birth===Development of life expectancy:total population: 65.45 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 201st:male: 63.19 years:female: 67.78 years (2022 est.", "):total population: 63.8 years (2018 est.", "):male: 61.6 years (2018 est.", "):female: 66 years (2018 est.", "):''total population:'' 57 years (2011 est.", "):''male:'' 55.44 years:''female:'' 58.6 years===Major infectious diseases===:degree of risk: very high (2020):food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever:vector borne diseases: malaria, dengue fever, and yellow fever:water contact diseases: schistosomiasis:animal contact diseases: rabies:aerosolized dust or soil contact diseases: Lassa fevernote: on 21 March 2022, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued a Travel Alert for polio in Africa; Liberia is currently considered a high risk to travelers for circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPV); vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) is a strain of the weakened poliovirus that was initially included in oral polio vaccine (OPV) and that has changed over time and behaves more like the wild or naturally occurring virus; this means it can be spread more easily to people who are unvaccinated against polio and who come in contact with the stool or respiratory secretions, such as from a sneeze, of an “infected” person who received oral polio vaccine; the CDC recommends that before any international travel, anyone unvaccinated, incompletely vaccinated, or with an unknown polio vaccination status should complete the routine polio vaccine series; before travel to any high-risk destination, CDC recommends that adults who previously completed the full, routine polio vaccine series receive a single, lifetime booster dose of polio vaccine===Ethnic groups===There are officially 17 ethnic groups that make up Liberia's indigenous African population, making up maybe 95% of the total: Kpelle, the largest group; Bassa, Gio, Kru, Grebo, Mandingo, Mano, Krahn, Gola, Gbandi, Loma, Kissi, Vai, Sapo, Belleh (Kuwaa), Mende and Dey.There are also more or less nomadic groups like the Fula, who engage mostly in trade, and the Fanti, who are often fishermen or traders of fish, usually from Ghana, living seasonally and more and more often permanently in Liberia.Then there are Americo-Liberians, who are descendants of free-born and formerly enslaved African Americans who arrived in Liberia from 1822 onward and Congo People (descendants of immigrants from the Caribbean), making up an estimated 5% of the population.", "They used to dominate political life in Liberia and still have a lot of influence.There are about 5,000 people of European descent, many of them having settled down as miners, missionaries, business people, and so on.", "There also is a sizeable number of Lebanese, Indians, and other people with Asian roots who make up a significant part of Liberia's business community.", "Because of the civil war and its accompanying problem of insecurity, the number of non-Africans in Liberia is low and confined largely to Monrovia and its immediate surroundings.The Liberian Constitution restricts citizenship of Liberia only to people who are either 'Negroes or of Negro descent' wherein the Liberian Constitution / Chapter 4 / Article 27b states: \"In order to preserve, foster and maintain the positive Liberian culture, values and character, only persons who are Negroes or of Negro descent shall qualify by birth or by naturalization to be citizens of Liberia.", "\"===Languages===English 20% (official), some 20 ethnic group languages, of which a few can be written and are used in correspondence.===Literacy===definition: age 15 and over can read and write (2015 est.", "):total population: 48.3%:male: 62.7%:female: 34.1% (2017):total population: 47.6% (2015 est.", "):male: 62.4% (2015 est.", "):female: 32.8% (2015 est.", ")===Unemployment, youth ages 15-24===:total: 2.3% (2016 est.", "):male: 2.4% (2016 est.", "):female: 2.2% (2016 est.)" ], [ "See also", "LiberiaList of countries by population growth rate" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "Ciment, J.", "(2013) Another America: The Story of Liberia and the Former Slaves Who Ruled It.", "New York: Hill and Wang.", "Clegg, C. (2004).", "The Price of Liberty: African Americans and the Making of Liberia.", "Chapel Hill: UNC Press.", "Sundiata, I.", "(2003) Brothers and Strangers: Black Zion, Black Slavery, 1914-1940.Durham: Duke University Press" ], [ "External links", " Liberia: Nation & People without identity* The Indigenous & Americo Liberians' Palva* Liberia, \"America's step child\" searches for own identity* Words Matter: Terms of Global Conflicts debated, NPR* Contemporary Africa & Legacy of late colonialism* How the word ‘tribe’ stereotypes Africa" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Liberia" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''Politics of Liberia''' takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic modeled on the government of the United States, whereby the President is the head of state and head of government; unlike the United States, however, Liberia is a unitary state as opposed to a federation and has a pluriform rather than the two-party system that characterizes US politics.", "Executive power is exercised by the government.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the legislature.Liberia is still in transition from dictatorship and civil war to democracy.", "Liberia's government is based on the American model of a republic with three equal branches of government, though in reality, the President of Liberia has usually been the dominant force in Liberian politics.", "Following the dissolution of the Republican Party in 1876, the True Whig Party dominated the Liberian government until the 1980 coup, eventually creating what was effectively a stable, one-party state, with little politics in the usual sense.", "The longest-serving president in Liberian history was William Tubman, serving from 1944 until his death in 1971.The shortest term was held by James Skivring Smith, who was interim president for all of two months in 1871.However, the political process from Liberia's founding in 1847, despite widespread corruption, was very stable until the end of the First Republic in 1980.This situation changed abruptly in 1980, with the revolt against the Americo-Liberians and their True Whig Party.", "Currently, no party has majority control of the legislature." ], [ "Political developments since 1980", "Executive Mansion has been the home of Liberian Presidents since its construction in 1964.It has not been used since a fire in 2006.Between 1980 and 2006, Liberia was governed by a series of military and transitional governments.", "The president of the last of these, Charles Taylor, was forced to step down in 2003, and the United Nations installed a transitional government.", "Elections to select a government to replace the transitional government took place in October and November 2005.", "(''see 2005 Liberian general election'').In the 1980s, Samuel K. Doe's government increasingly adopted an ethnic outlook as members of his Krahn ethnic group soon dominated political and military life in Liberia.", "This caused a heightened level of ethnic tension leading to frequent hostilities between the politically and militarily dominant Krahns and other ethnic groups in the country.Political parties remained banned until 1984.Elections were held on 15 October 1985 in which Doe's National Democratic Party of Liberia (NDPL) was declared the winner.", "The elections were characterized by widespread fraud and rigging.", "The period after the elections saw increased human rights abuses, corruption, and ethnic tensions.", "The standard of living, which had been rising in the 1970s, declined drastically.On 12 November 1985, former Army Commanding General Thomas Quiwonkpa invaded Liberia by way of neighboring Sierra Leone and almost succeeded in toppling the government of Samuel Doe.", "Members of the Krahn-dominated Armed Forces of Liberia repelled Quiwonkpa's attack and executed him in Monrovia.On 24 December 1989, a small band of rebels led by Doe's former procurement chief, Charles Taylor invaded Liberia from Ivory Coast.", "Taylor and his National Patriotic Front rebels rapidly gained the support of Liberians because of the repressive nature of Samuel Doe and his government.", "Barely six months after the rebels first attacked, they had reached the outskirts of Monrovia.The First and Second Liberian Civil War, which was one of Africa's bloodiest, claimed the lives of more than 200,000 Liberians and further displaced a million others into refugee camps in neighboring countries.The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) intervened and succeeded in preventing Charles Taylor from capturing Monrovia.", "Prince Johnson who had been a member of Taylor's National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL) but broke away because of policy differences, formed the Independent National Patriotic Front of Liberia (INPFL).", "Johnson's forces captured and killed Doe on 9 September 1990.An Interim Government of National Unity (IGNU) was formed in Gambia under the auspices of ECOWAS in October 1990 and Dr. Amos Sawyer became President.", "Taylor refused to work with the interim government and continued war.By 1992, several warring factions had emerged in the Liberian civil war, all of which were absorbed in the new transitional government.", "After several peace accords and declining military power, Taylor finally agreed to the formation of a five-man transitional government.After considerable progress in negotiations conducted by the United States, United Nations, Organization of African Unity, and the Economic Community of West African States, disarmament and demobilization of warring factions were hastily carried out and special elections were held on 19 July 1997 with Charles Taylor and his National Patriotic Party emerging victorious.", "Taylor won the election by a large majority, primarily because Liberians feared a return to war had Taylor lost.Unrest continued, and by 2003, two rebel groups were challenging Taylor's control of the country.", "In August 2003, Taylor resigned and fled the country and vice-president Moses Blah became acting president.", "On 18 August 2003, the warring parties signed the Accra Comprehensive Peace Agreement which marked the political end of the conflict.The international community again intervened and helped set up a transitional government (National Transitional Government of Liberia) which was led by Gyude Bryant until the Liberian general election of 2005.For more than a year, over 9,000 census-takers combed the densely forested nation mapping every structure.", "For three days starting 21 March 2008, they revisited each dwelling and counted the inhabitants.In November 2011, President Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf was re-elected for a second six-year term.", "Following the 2017 Liberian general election, former professional football striker George Weah, considered one of the greatest African players of all time, was sworn in as president on January 22, 2018, becoming the fourth youngest serving president in Africa.", "The inauguration marked Liberia's first fully democratic transition in 74 years.", "Weah cited fighting corruption, reforming the economy, combating illiteracy, and improving life conditions as the main targets of his presidency.", "However, opposition leader Joseph Boakai defeated George Weah in the tightly contested 2023 presidential election.", "On 22 January 2024, Joseph Boakai was sworn in as Liberia’s new president." ], [ "Executive branch", "\|PresidentJoseph BoakaiUnity Party22 January 2024Vice PresidentJeremiah KoungMovement for Democracy and Reconstruction22 January 2024The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term (renewable).", "The cabinet is appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate." ], [ "Legislative branch", "Legislature of Liberia.Liberia has a bicameral Legislature that consists of the Senate (30 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve nine-year terms) and the House of Representatives (73 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms)" ], [ "Political parties and elections", "===Presidential elections======House of Representatives elections======Senate elections===" ], [ "Judicial branch", "There is a Supreme Court, criminal courts, and appeals court and magistrate courts in the counties.", "There also are traditional courts and lay courts in the counties.", "Trial by ordeal is practiced in various parts of Liberia." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "The basic unit of local government is the town chief.", "There are clan chiefs, paramount chiefs, and district commissioners.", "The counties are governed by superintendents appointed by the President.", "There are fifteen counties in Liberia.#CountyCapitalEstablishedArea (km2)Population (2008 Census)1 BomiTubmanburg19841,93284,1192 BongGbarnga19648,754333,4813 GbarpoluBopulu20019,95383,3884 Grand BassaBuchanan18477,814221,6935 Grand Cape MountRobertsport18564,781127,0766 Grand GedehZwedru196410,855125,2587 Grand KruBarclayville19843,89557,9138 LofaVoinjama19649,982276,8639 MargibiKakata19852,691209,92310 MarylandHarper18572,297135,93811 MontserradoBensonville18471,8801,118,24112 NimbaSanniquellie196411,551462,02613 RivercessRivercess19855,56471,50914 River GeeFish Town20005,11366,78915 SinoeGreenville18479,764102,391" ], [ "International organization participation", "ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO" ], [ "See also", "* List of government ministries of Liberia" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "Clower, Robert W. \"Growth without development.", "An economic survey of Liberia.\"", "(1966).", "Ellis, Stephen.", "The Mask of Anarchy updated edition: The destruction of Liberia and the religious dimension of an African civil war.", "NYU Press, 2007.", "Fraenkel, Merran.", "Tribe and class in Monrovia.", "publ.", "for the International African Institute by the Oxford Univ.", "Press, 1970.", "Gifford, Paul.", "Christianity and politics in Doe's Liberia.", "Vol.", "2.Cambridge University Press, 2002.", "SS Hlophe, Class, ethnicity and politics in Liberia: a class analysis of power struggles in the Tubman and Tolbert administrations from 1944-1975 - 1979 - University Press of AmericaInternational Crisis Group, Liberia reportsLevitt, Jeremy Isaac.", "\"The evolution of deadly conflict in Liberia: From paternaltarianism to state collapse.\"", "PhD diss., University of Cambridge, 2002.Book form 2005.", "Martin Lowenkopf, Politics in Liberia: The Conservative Road to Development, 1976.", "Amos Sawyer, The emergence of autocracy in Liberia: Tragedy and challenge.", "ICS Press, 1992.", "Amos Sawyer, Effective immediately, dictatorship in Liberia, 1980-1986: a personal perspective.", "No.", "5.Liberia Working Group, 1987.", "Amos Sawyer, Beyond Plunder: Toward Democratic Governance in LiberiaWilliam Reno, Reinvention of an African Patrimonial State: Charles Taylor's Liberia, Third World Quarterly, Vol.", "16, No.", "1 (Mar.", "1995), pp.", "109–120 Published by Taylor & Francis, Ltd." ], [ "External links", "*http://www.traveldocs.com/lr/history.htm" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Liberia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Liberia''' is extremely underdeveloped, with only $3.222 billion by gross domestic product as of 2019, largely due to the First (1989–1996) and Second Liberian Civil War (1999–2003).", "Liberia itself is one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world, according to the United Nations.Until 1979, Liberia's economy was among the more developed and fastest-growing in Sub-Saharan Africa, but after the 1980 coup d'état, it declined, and the civil war destroyed much of Liberia's economy and infrastructure, especially the infrastructure in and around the nation's capital, Monrovia.", "The war also caused a brain drain and the loss of capital, as the civil war involved overthrowing the Americo-Liberian minority that ruled the country.", "Some have returned since 1997, but many have not.Liberia is richly endowed with water, mineral resources, forests, and a climate favorable to agriculture, but poor in human capital, infrastructure, and stability.", "Liberia has a fairly typical profile for Sub-Saharan African economies.", "The majority of the population is reliant on subsistence agriculture, while exports are dominated by raw commodities such as rubber and iron ore. Local manufacturing, such as it exists, is mainly foreign-owned.The democratically elected government, installed in August 1997, inherited massive international debts and currently relies on revenues from its maritime registry to provide the bulk of its foreign exchange earnings.", "The restoration of the infrastructure and the raising of incomes in this ravaged economy depend on the implementation of sound macro- and microeconomic policies of the new government, including the encouragement of foreign investment." ], [ "Economic history", "Much of independent Liberia's economic history is subject to limited archival documentation, making it hard for economic historians to make comprehensive assessments about the nature of Liberia's economy over time.", "The Liberian government only began producing GDP per capita data in 1964.A 2022 study by LSE economic historian Leigh A. Gardner assessed that Liberian GDP per capita was $430 in 1845, which was just above subsistence and approximately half of Japan's GDP per capita at the time.", "It rose to approximately $500 by the time of independence, but the economy subsequently stagnated until the 1930s when a period of rapid economic growth began.", "Whereas Liberia had been poorer than Ghana during the 19th and early 20th centuries, it caught up with Ghana in 1950 and subsequently diverged considerably, becoming almost twice as wealthy as Ghana by 1970.Throughout the 1970s, the Liberian economy stagnated.In 1926, the Liberian government gave the Firestone Tire company the right to lease up to 1 million acres of land for 99 years at a cost of 6 cents per acre.", "Firestone developed an inordinate sway over the Liberian government, effectively acquiring control over its finances in the subsequent period.", "The company was an important source of foreign investment into Liberia during this period.", "Firestone then set about establishing rubber tree plantations of the non-native South American rubber tree, ''Hevea brasiliensis'' in the country.", "By the 1950s, the company was Liberia's largest private employer and also its largest exporter.", "Vincent Browne wrote in 1955 that rubber accounted for more than $45,000,000 of Liberia's approximately $55,000,000 worth of exports.", "Liberia became one of the largest rubber exporters in the world in the post-World War II period.", "Today, Firestone's rubber plantation in Liberia is the world's largest contiguous rubber plantation, operated by the Firestone (now Bridgestone) subsidiary, the Firestone Natural Rubber Company.In the 1940s, Liberia become one of the largest recipients of American aid.", "US aid to Liberia began with the Lend-Lease program of 1942.The aid per capita received by Liberia was comparable to that obtained by countries such as Korea and Marshall Aid recipients like the United Kingdom.", "Economic historian George Dalton estimated in 1965 that Liberia received more aid per capita from the United States than any other African country.In the post-WWII period, Liberia tried to become a destination for offshore services, as the country loosened laws related to ship registration, corporation, and taxes.", "The Liberian shipping registry was highly successful as Liberia had by the 1960s become the largest ship registry in the world in terms of tonnage.The Liberian economy had relied heavily on the mining of iron ore prior to the civil war.", "Liberia was a major exporter of iron ore on the world market.", "By the 1970s, iron mining accounted for more than half of Liberia's export earnings.", "Since the coup d'état of 1980, the country's economic growth rate has slowed down because of a decline in the demand for iron ore on the world market and political upheavals in Liberia.Upon the end of the war in 2003, GDP growth began to accelerate again, reaching a peak of 9.4% in 2007.The global financial crisis slowed GDP growth to 4.6% in 2009, though a strengthening agricultural sector led by rubber and timber exports increased growth to 5.1% in 2010 and an expected 7.3% in 2011, making the economy one of the 20 fastest growing in the world.In March 2010, Bob Johnson, founder of BET, funded the first hotel constructed in Liberia in 20 years.", "The luxury resort was built in the Paynesville section of Monrovia.Liberia's external debt was estimated in 2006 at approximately $4.5 billion, 800% of GDP.", "As a result of bilateral, multilateral and commercial debt relief from 2007 to 2010, the country's external debt fell to $222.9 million by 2011." ], [ "Economic sectors", "Boy grinding sugar cane 1968Liberia's business sector is largely controlled by foreigners mainly of Levantine (primarily Lebanese) and Indian descent.", "There also are limited numbers of Chinese people engaged in agriculture.", "The largest timber concession, Oriental Timber Corporation (OTC), is Indonesian owned.", "There also are significant numbers of West Africais engaged in cross-border trade.", "Legal monopolies are possible; for example, Cemenco holds a monopoly on cement production.=== Forestry ===Timber and rubber are Liberia's main export items since the end of the war.", "Liberia earns more than $100 million and more than $70 million annually from timber and rubber exports, respectively.=== Mining and resources ===Alluvial diamond and gold mining activities also account for some economic activity.", "In recent years (2005 - 2012), foreign investment from ArcelorMittal Steel, BHP Biliton, and China Union is aiding the revitalization of the iron-ore mining sector.Liberia has begun exploration for offshore oil; unproven oil reserves may be in excess of one billion barrels.", "The government divided its offshore waters into 17 blocks and began auctioning off exploration licenses for the blocks in 2004, with further auctions in 2007 and 2009.An additional 13 ultra-deep offshore blocks were demarcated in 2011 and planned for auction.", "Among the companies to have won licenses are Repsol YPF, Chevron Corporation, and Woodside Petroleum.=== Shipping flag of convenience ===A proportional representation of Liberian exports.", "The shipping related categories reflect Liberia's status as an international flag of convenience - there are 3,500 vessels registered under Liberia's flag accounting for 11% of ships worldwide.Liberia maintains an open maritime registry, meaning that owners of ships can register their vessels as Liberian with relatively few restrictions.", "This has meant that Liberian ship registration is usually understood as the employment of a flag of convenience.", "Liberia has the second-largest maritime registry in the world behind Panama, with 4,300 vessels registered under its flag accounting for 12% of ships worldwide.", "This includes 35% of the world's tanker fleet.", "Liberia earned more than $18 million from its maritime program in 2000.=== Foreign aid ===Liberia has relied heavily on vast amounts of foreign assistance, particularly from the United States, Sweden, Britain, France, Italy, Germany, the People's Republic of China, and Romania.", "But because of the Liberian Government's perceived disregard for human rights, foreign assistance to Liberia has declined drastically.The Republic of China (Taiwan) and Libya are currently the largest donors of direct financial aid to the Liberian Government.", "Significant amounts of aid continue to come in from Western countries through international aid agencies and non-governmental organizations, avoiding direct aid to the government.=== Communications ===Communications in Liberia is the press, radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.", "There are six major newspapers in Liberia, and 45% of the population has a mobile phone service.", "Also, the radio stations in Liberia are abundant to the extent that there are over 70 radio stations in the entire country (Liberia).", "As for Montserrado County, there exist about 30 radio stations.Even as it struggles with economic and political constraints, Liberia's media environment is expanding.", "The number of registered newspapers and radio stations (many of them community stations) is on the rise despite limited market potential.", "And politically critical content and investigative pieces do get published or broadcast.=== Energy ===Formal electricity services are solely provided by the state-owned Liberia Electricity Corporation, which operates a small grid almost exclusively in the Greater Monrovia District.", "The vast majority of electric energy services is provided by small privately owned generators.", "At $0.54 per kWh, the electricity tariff in Liberia is among the highest in the world.", "Total installed capacity in 2013 was 20 MW, a sharp decline from a peak of 191 MW in 1989." ], [ "International economic networks", "Liberia is a member of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).", "With Guinea and Sierra Leone, it formed the Mano River Union (MRU) for development and the promotion of regional economic integration.", "The MRU became all but defunct because of the Liberian civil war which spilled over into neighboring Sierra Leone and Guinea." ], [ "See also", "* Central Bank of Liberia* Transport in Liberia* Tourism in Liberia* Firestone Natural Rubber Company* United Nations Economic Commission for Africa" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* 68% of Liberians live in poverty census reveals* * Mineral resources of Liberia* Liberia latest trade data on ITC Trade Map* Liberia profile - World Bank" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Mass media in Liberia" ], [ "Introduction", " A Cellcom Liberia antenna in Monrovia (2009).", "'''Mass media in Liberia''' include the press, radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.Much of Liberia's communications infrastructure was destroyed or plundered during the two civil wars (1989–1996 and 1999–2003).", "With low rates of adult literacy and high poverty rates, television and newspaper use is limited, leaving radio as the predominant means of communicating with the public.Even as it struggles with economic and political constraints, Liberia's media environment is expanding.", "The number of registered newspapers and radio stations (many of them community stations) is on the rise despite limited market potential.", "And politically critical content and investigative pieces do get published or broadcast." ], [ "Press", "The main newspapers are:* ''The Analyst''Pumah Times Newspaper ''Daily Observer'' (est.", "1981), private.", "* ''The Daily Talk''* ''FrontPage Africa'', private.", "* ''The Inquirer'', private daily.", "* ''National Chronicle''* ''The New Dawn'', private daily.", "* ''New Democrat''* ''New Republic Liberia''Defunct newspapers and magazines include:* ''Africa League''* ''African Nationalist''* ''Africa's Luminary'' (est.", "1839)* ''Amulet'' (est.", "1839)* ''Daily Listener'' (est.", "1950)* ''Footprints Today'' (est.", "1984)* ''The Friend''* ''Independent Weekly''* ''Journal of Commerce and Industry''* ''Liberia and West Africa'' (ceased in 1932)* ''Liberia Herald'' (est.", "1826)* ''Liberian Age'' (est.", "1946)* ''Liberian Herald''* ''Liberian News''* ''Liberian Recorder'' (est.", "1897)* ''Liberian Star'' (est.", "1839)* ''Monrovia Observer'' (est.", "1878)* ''Palm Magazine''* ''SunTimes''* ''Weekly Mirror''* ''Whirlwind''" ], [ "Radio", "* Radios: 790,000 radio receivers (1997).", "* Radio stations: 1 state-owned radio station, but no national public service broadcaster; about 15 independent radio stations broadcasting in Monrovia, with another 25 local stations operating in other areas; transmissions of 2 international broadcasters are available (2007).", " BBC World Service 103 FM.", " ELBC FM, public.", " ELWA FM and SW, private, religious-Christian.", "Pumah FM 106.3 LUX 106.6 FM, University of Liberia.", " Radio Liberia FM, operated by the state-run Liberian Broadcasting System (LBS).", " Radio Veritas FM and SW, religious-Catholic.", " RFI English FM, the English service of Radio France Internationale.", "Sky FMSTAR Radio FM and SW, operated in partnership with Swiss-based Hirondelle Foundation.", " Truth FM UNMIL Radio FM, operated by the United Nations mission.", "** Voice of Firestone Liberia 89.5 FM" ], [ "Television", "* Television sets: 70,000 sets (1997).", "Pumah TV Channel 4 Television stations: 4 private TV stations, none with national reach; satellite TV service available (2007).", " Clar TV, private.", " DC TV, private.", " Power TV, private.", " Real TV, private.", "* Liberia Broadcasting System: Government owned Liberia National Television (LNTV)." ], [ "Telephones", "The Comium mobile phone building (2006).", "* Calling code: +231 * International call prefix: 00* Main lines: 3,200 lines in use, 213th in the world (2011).", "* Mobile cellular: 2.4 million lines, 138th in the world (2012).", "* Telephone system: the limited services available are found almost exclusively in the capital Monrovia; fixed-line service stagnant and extremely limited; telephone coverage extended to a number of other towns and rural areas by four mobile-cellular network operators; mobile-cellular subscription base growing and teledensity reached 50 per 100 persons (2011).", "* Satellite earth stations: 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2010).", "* Communications cables: Africa Coast to Europe (ACE) cable system, links countries along the west coast of Africa to each other and on to Portugal and France.The fixed line infrastructure of Liberia was nearly completely destroyed during the civil wars (1989-1996 and 1999-2003).Prior to the passage of the Telecommunications Act of 2007, the state-owned Liberia Telecommunications Corporation (LIBTELCO) held a legal monopoly for all fixed line services in Liberia, and remains the sole licensed fixed line telephone service provider in the country.Two licensed GSM cellular mobile service providers operate in the country: Lonestar Cell and CellCom.", "Approximately 45% of the population has cell phone service." ], [ "Internet", "* Top-level domain: .lr* Internet users: 317,717 users; 7.3% of the population, 158th in the world (2016 est.).", " 20,000 users, 194th in the world (2009).", "* Fixed broadband: 78 subscriptions, 193rd in the world; less than 0.05% of the population, 192nd in the world (2012).", "* Wireless broadband: Unknown (2012).", "* Internet hosts: 7 hosts, 228th in the world (2012).", "* IPv4: 13,312 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 3.4 addresses per 1000 people (2012).===Notable commercial websites===While Liberia's commercial internet sector is still behind the majority of African countries there are still a few classifieds sites:* liberiacommerce.com===Internet censorship and surveillance===There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms.The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice.", "Libel and national security laws place some limits on freedom of speech.", "Individuals can generally criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal.", "Some journalists practice self-censorship.The constitution prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government generally respects these prohibitions in practice.President Sirleaf endorsed and signed the World Association of Newspapers and News Publishers' Declaration of Table Mountain in Monrovia on 21 July 2012, committing to the core principles of a free press and calling for the repeal of the criminal defamation and insult laws regularly used against journalists." ], [ "See also", "* Liberia Telecommunications Corporation, the sole provider of fixed line telephone services in Liberia.", "* Cable Consortium of Liberia, a public-private partnership formed in 2010 to own and operate Liberia's cable landing point for the ACE cable system.", "* The Liberian Journal, a US-based Liberian online and print news organization covering issues of interest to Liberians in the Diaspora.", "* Cinema of Liberia" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "Bibliography", " * * * * * * * (Includes information about broadcast media)* * " ], [ "External links", " Liberia Domain Registration (.lr)* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Liberia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Transport in Liberia''' consist of 266 miles of railways, 6,580 miles of highways (408 mi paved), seaports, 29 airports (2 paved) and 2 miles of pipeline for oil transportation.", "Busses and taxis are the main forms of ground transportation in and around Monrovia.", "Charter boats are also available." ], [ "Railways", "Historically, three railways were built in Liberia to export ore from mines; they were damaged during civil war.", "In 2010, only the Bong mine railway was operational but the Lamco Railway was at least partially rebuilt by ArcelorMittal and put back into service in 2011.There are no rail connections with other countries, although there has been a proposal to extend the Bong mine railway to serve a mine across the border in Guinea.", "''Total:''429 km (2008)''Standard gauge:''345km (2008)''Narrow gauge:''84 km (2008)" ], [ "Roadways", "A map of Liberia's major roads and railways''Total:''10,600 km (6,586 mi) (there is major deterioration on all highways due to heavy rains and lack of maintenance)''Paved:''657 km (408 mi)''Unpaved:''9,943 km (6,178 mi) (2018)When construction and reconstruction of roads in Liberia is complete, the Trans–West African Coastal Highway will cross the country, connecting it to Freetown (Sierra Leone), Abidjan (Ivory Coast), and eventually to 11 other nations of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)." ], [ "Ports and harbors", "* Buchanan - railhead of for civil war affected iron mine at Nimba * Greenville* Harper* Monrovia" ], [ "Merchant marine", "Liberia is an international flag of convenience for freight shipping.", "''Total:''3,942 (2021) ''Ships by type:''barge carrier 1,487, container ship 878, general cargo 131, oil tanker 851, other 595 (2021)" ], [ "Airports", "The exterior of Roberts International Airport in 201020 (2017)The main international airport in the country is Roberts International Airport.=== Airports - with paved runways ===''Total:''2''Over 3,047 m (10,000 ft):''1''1,524 to 2,437 m (5,000 to 8,000 ft):''1 (2017)=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===''Total:''27''1,524 to 2,437 m (5,000 to 8,000 ft):''5''914 to 1,523 m (3,000 to 4,999 ft):''8''Under 914 m (3,000 ft):''14 (2013)" ], [ "See also", "* Economy of Liberia" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Armed Forces of Liberia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Armed Forces of Liberia''' ('''AFL''') are the armed forces of the Republic of Liberia.", "Tracing its origins to a militia that was formed by the first black colonists in what is now Liberia, it was founded as the '''Liberian Frontier Force''' in 1908, and retitled in 1956.For almost all of its history, the AFL has received considerable materiel and training assistance from the United States.", "For most of the 1941–89 period, training was largely provided by U.S. advisers, though this assistance has not prevented the same generally low levels of effectiveness common to most of the armed forces in the developing world.For most of the Cold War, the AFL saw little action, apart from a reinforced company group which was sent to ONUC in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the 1960s.", "This changed with the advent of the First Liberian Civil War in 1989.The AFL became entangled in the conflict, which lasted from 1989 to 1996–97, and then the Second Liberian Civil War, which lasted from 1999 to 2003.As of 2014, the AFL consists of an infantry brigade, an air wing, and the coast guard.", "For several years after the war, a Nigerian Army officer served as head of the armed forces.11 February is Armed Forces Day, having been proclaimed in 2011." ], [ "Legal standing", "The New National Defense Act of 2008 was approved on August 21, 2008.It repeals the National Defense Act of 1956, the Coast Guard Act of 1959, and the Liberian Navy Act of 1986.The duties and functions of the AFL are officially stated as follows:* Section 2.3(a): The primary mission of the AFL shall be to defend the national sovereignty and territorial integrity of Liberia, including land, air and maritime territory, against external aggressions, insurgency, terrorism and encroachment.", "In addition thereto the AFL shall respond to natural disasters and engage in other civic works as may be required or directed.", "* Section 2.3(b): The AFL shall also participate in international peacekeeping peace enforcement and other by the UN, the AU, ECOWAS, MRU, and/or all international institutions of which Liberia may be a member.", "All such activities shall be undertaken only upon authorization of the President of Liberia with the consent of the Legislature.", "* Section 2.3(c): The AFL shall provide command, communications, logistical, medical, transportation, and humanitarian support to the civil authority in the event of a natural or man-made disaster, outbreak of disease, or epidemic.", "Such assistance shall be authorized by the President of Liberia.", "* Section 2.3(d): The AFL shall assist civil authorities in search, rescue, and saving of life on land, sea, or air; such assistance shall be authorized by the President for immediate response by specialized search and rescue units in conjunction with other Government Ministries and Agencies.", "* Section 2.3(e): The duties of the AFL in peacetime shall include support to the national law enforcement agencies when such support is requested and approved by the President.", "Such support shall include exchange of information, personnel training, and mobilization and deployment of security contingents.", "At no time during peacetime however, shall the AFL engage in law enforcement within Liberia, such function being the prerogative of the Liberia National Police and other law enforcement agencies.", "Notwithstanding, the Military Police of the AFL may, on request of the Ministry of Justice made to the Ministry of National Defense, and approved by the President of Liberia, provide assistance to these law enforcement agencies as determined by prevailing situations.", "The AFL shall intervene only as a last resort, when the threat exceeds the capability of the law enforcement agencies to respond.", "* Section 2.5: Standards of Conduct for the Armed Forces of Liberia: Members of the AFL shall perform their duties at all times in accordance with democratic values and human rights.", "They shall perform their duties in a non-partisan manner, obey all lawful orders and commands from their superior officers in ways that command citizen respect and confidence and contribute towards the maintenance and promotion of the respect for the rule of law." ], [ "History", "Chief of the Liberian Frontier Force, Captain Alford Russ (seated far right) sits alongside members of President Barclay's party during the Liberian President's visit to Washington DC in 1943.The modern Armed Forces of Liberia grew out of a militia that was formed by the first black colonists from the United States.", "The militia was first formed when in August 1822 an attack was feared on Cape Mesurado (where Monrovia now is) and the agent of the settlements directed the mobilization of all \"able-bodied males into a militia and declared martial law.\"", "By 1846, the size of the militia had grown to two regiments.", "Following independence in 1847, the militia continued to serve as the country's defense force.", "In 1900, Liberian men between the ages of sixteen and fifty were considered liable for service in the militia.", "The militia also had a navy consisting of two small gunboats.", "In the 1850s, the Liberian president requested naval support from the British government to transport Liberian troops to the Gallinas territory to punish Liberians there who persisted in slave trafficking.On February 6, 1908, the militia was established on a permanent basis as the 500-strong Liberian Frontier Force (LFF).", "The LFF's original mission was \"to patrol the border in the Hinterland against British and French territorial ambitions and to prevent disorders.\"", "The LFF was initially placed under the command of British Major MacKay Cadell, who was quickly replaced under threat of arms after he complained the Force was not being properly paid.In 1912, the United States established military ties with Liberia by sending some five black American officers to help reorganize the force.", "The LFF in its early years was frequently recruited by inducing men from the interior forcibly.", "When dispatched to the interior to quell tribal unrest, units often lived off the areas that they were pacifying, as a form of communal punishment.", "The Force's officers were drawn from either the coastal aristocracy or tribal elites.===World Wars===Liberia joined the Allies in both World War I and World War II.", "The only troops dispatched overseas were a few individuals to France during World War I, and reported volunteers under U.S. command in World War II, but none served in combat in either war.", "A law of 20 February 1940 stipulated that the armed forces of the Republic \"shall consist ..of the Frontier Force, of twelve companies ..the Militia, ..and the Militia Reserve.\"", "During World War II, U.S. involvement in the country increased greatly.", "A steady supply of rubber from the world's largest rubber plantation, operated at Harbel by the Firestone Company since 1926 was vital.", "Thus the US government built roads, created an international airport (known as Robertsfield), and transformed the capital by building a deep water port (the Freeport of Monrovia).", "Black (\"Colored\") United States Army troops arrived from June 1942.During the war, funding provided by the United States allowed an increase in the Frontier Force's strength to around 1,500.The armed forces came to rely almost exclusively on American assistance in terms of training, with non-US training \"tending to be brief and uninspired with little accomplished other than some desultory close-order drill.", "\"As a result of American arms sales, by the 1920s Liberian forces were equipped with the American Krag and Peabody rifles, as well as German Mausers.U.S.", "Army Forces in Liberia commanded by Brigadier General Percy Lee Sadler also established an officer candidate school during the later part of World War II, using instructors selected from the American troops in the country.", "The school conducted two courses and graduated nearly 300 new officers.", "Just under twenty years later in 1964, the group still made up over 50% of the officer corps of the AFL.===1945–1980===Members of the Liberian National Guard at the inauguration of President William R. Tolbert in 1976From 1945 to 1964, the officers appointed were nearly all college graduates.", "From 1951, there was a US military mission based in Liberia to assist in training the AFL.", "A Reserve Officers' Training Corps was established in 1956 with units at the University of Liberia in Monrovia and the Booker Washington Institute in Kakata.", "By 1978 the program had been redesignated the Army Student Training Program (ASTP) and had a total of 46 students at the University of Liberia, the Booker Washington Institute, and three smaller institutions.", "However it was not until the late 1960s that the Tubman Military Academy was established in Todee District, upper Montserrado County, as an officer training facility.The LFF was renamed as the Armed Forces of Liberia under the Amended National Defense Law of 1956, though other sources say February 1962, which appears to have been the date the land force became the Liberian National Guard.", "Liebenow says that the LFF was 'restyled the National Guard in 1962.'", "From this period, Liberia's armed forces consisted of the Liberian National Guard, the Liberian Militia, whose ostensible structure is depicted below, and the Liberian Coast Guard.", "Until 1980, by law every able-bodied male between the ages of 16 and 45 years was to serve in the militia, though this stipulation was not enforced.On January 26, 1957, the Liberian Legislature set aside Feb 11, 1957, as Armed Forces Day.", "Speaking in 2012, Jonathan B.", "B. Hart, the Bishop of the Episcopal Church of Liberia recalled that \"..the Sierra Leoneans were sent to Liberia to take over the army by the British government because it had given Liberia a loan.\"", ".. \"The Sierra Leonean commanders took orders from the British government and not the President of Liberia, then Arthur Barclay.", "When they began to misbehave, the army was turned over to a Liberian who refused.", "It was during that time that some soldiers took to the streets in demand of salary arrears, so soldiers getting in the streets.. in demand of salary is not new.", "\"At the start of the 1960s, Liberia dispatched troops, including a movement control unit, to support ONUC during the Congo Crisis, and were airlifted into the Congo by the United States Air Force.", "The Liberian troops were initially in Équateur province.", "In 1961, during their first combat action in the country, 300 Liberian troops repelled an attack by 5,000 Baluba tribesmen and their European officers.The National Guard was not a high status force: \"It was a skeleton brigade of soldiers who were predominantly from the lower economic and social stratum of society.", "They were poorly paid, and had less than decent facilities for accommodation and care.\"", "Despite this, a Liberian company, designated the Reinforced Security Company, was contributed to the United Nations Operation in the Congo in the early 1960s.", "Six rotations were made.", "The 1964 US Army Area Handbook described the company's actions as \"...After a poor start, the performance of the contingent improved steadily; the last company, which returned home in May 1963, had performed creditably and, by its conduct and appearance, gave the impression of being a well-trained and disciplined military organization.", "\"Liebenow writes that the head of the National Guard was arrested, along with others, in February 1963, to forestall an alleged coup, and that Tubman had announced that following the labour strikes of 1966, a foreign power had attempted to bribe army officers to stage a coup.", "In addition, Albert T. White, Commanding Officer of the LNG, was 'rusticated' by Tubman to become the Superintendent of Grand Gedeh County in 1966, though he was later 'rehabilitated'.In 1964 the US Army Area Handbook described the National Guard as 3,000 strong with a headquarters company, the Executive Mansion Guard Battalion in Monrovia, three infantry battalions and one engineer battalion (which was newly formed at Camp Naama in 1962 and only had one company organized).", "The three infantry battalions were the 1st Infantry Battalion, at Camp Schiefflin, situated on the airport road between Monrovia and Roberts International Airport, the 2nd Infantry Battalion, HQ at Barclay Training Center (BTC), Monrovia, and the 3rd Infantry Battalion, HQ at Baworobo, Maryland County.By 1978, the LNG Brigade had been established and the Brigade was described as comprising a Headquarters and Headquarters Company at the Barclay Training Center, Monrovia, the Executive Mansion Guard Battalion on Capitol Hill, Monrovia, the Engineer Battalion and the First Field Artillery Battalion (both at Camp Jackson, Naama) two tactical combat battalions (the First Infantry Battalion, at Schiefflin and the Second Infantry Battalion which in the intervening period had moved from the BTC to Camp Tolbert, Todee) and three non-tactical battalions, tasked with providing guard services to government officials, tax collection, and 'other non-military duties'.The Third Infantry Battalion covered Montserrado, Grand Cape Mount, and Grand Bassa counties from BTC.", "The Fourth Infantry Battalion covered Grand Gedeh, Sinoe and Maryland counties from Camp Whisnant, Zwedru.", "The Fifth Infantry Battalion was at Gbarnga.Other field units of the brigade were the Armoured Unit, at Camp Ram Rod, Paynesward City (possibly Paynesville), Monrovia, and the Bella Yella Special Detachment, Camp Bella Yella, Lofa.", "Bella Yella was of course the location of the feared Bella Yella prison.", "The Service Support Battalion was located at BTC, and comprised the Medical Company, the Brigade Band, the Brigade Special Unit (a parade unit) and the Military Police Unit.", "Also at BTC was the Logistical Command, consisting of a depot, arsenal (whose location had been declared unsafe), the AFL Quartermaster Corps, and the AFL Transportation Company.", "Strength was reported to be 4,822 in 1978.While militia service was compulsory by law for all eligible males, the law was only enforced in a lax manner.", "From the mid-1960s, and in its later years, members of the militia met only quarterly for sparsely attended drill practice.", "Estimates of men enrolled over the years vary.", "The 1964 US Army Area Handbook said that \"some 20,000 men are estimated to be enrolled.\"", "The IISS estimated militia numbers at 5,000 in 1967 and 6,000 in 1970.By the early 1970s the militia reported a strength of some 4,000 poorly trained and ill-equipped men.", "The 1978 Annual Report of the Liberian Ministry of National Defense said that \"The various militia regiments, in accordance with the law, held quarterly parades.", "...Furthermore, the entire Regiments were out in full strength during burial occasions.\"", "By the time it was disbanded in 1980, the militia was considered to be completely ineffective as a military force.The armed forces' third arm, the Liberian National Coast Guard, was established in 1959.Throughout the Tubman period the coastguard was little more than a few sometimes unserviceable patrol craft manned by ill-trained personnel, though its training improved in the 1980s to the point where it was considered the best trained of the armed services.From 1952 onwards, Chiefs of Staff of the AFL included Major General Alexander Harper (1952–54), Lieutenant General Abraham Jackson (1954–60), Albert T. White (1964–65), Lieutenant General George T. Washington (late 1960s), Lieutenant General Henry Johnson (1970–74), Lieutenant General Franklin Smith, and Lieutenant General Henry Dubar (1980–1990).When William Tolbert replaced the long-serving William Tubman as president in 1971, he retired more than 400 aging soldiers.", "Sawyer comments that \"retired soldiers were replaced by young recruits from urban areas, many of whom were then poorly trained at the Tubman Military Academy.", "This development dramatically changed the character of the military in Liberia.\"", "(Samuel Doe was among this group.)", "Amos Sawyer also comments that \"recruitment of such individuals for the military was part of Tolbert's efforts to replace aging, illiterate soldiers with younger, literate men who were capable of absorbing technical and professional training.", "\"===Doe regime (1980–1990)===President Samuel Doe with United States Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger during a visit to Washington DC in 1982The AFL became involved in politics when seventeen soldiers launched a coup on April 12, 1980.The group was made up of Master Sergeant Samuel Doe, two staff sergeants, four sergeants, eight corporals, and two privates.", "They found President Tolbert sleeping in his office in the Executive Mansion and there they killed him.", "While then-Sergeant Thomas Quiwonkpa led the plotters, it was the group led by Samuel Doe that found Tolbert in his office, and it was Doe, as a master sergeant the highest ranking of the group, who went on the radio the next day to announce the overthrow of the long-entrenched True Whig Party government.Doe became Head of State and co-chair of the new People's Redemption Council government.", "Quiwonkpa became commander of the army and the other co-chair of the PRC.", "(In the aftermath of the coup, the title of LNG Brigade commanding general was confusingly changed to commanding general of the AFL, reporting to the chief of staff, and it was this position that Quiwonkpa inherited.)", "Henry Dubar (who had helped recruit Doe personally years before) was promoted in one leap from captain to lieutenant general as chief of staff.", "From 1980 onward, Doe's systematic promotion of ethnic Krahn to sensitive posts in the government and military, began to drive deepening divisions within the AFL, among others with Quiwonkpa's Gio tribe, and to hamper morale.\"...", "Military discipline was an early casualty of the coup.", "The revolt had been an enlisted men's affair, and one of the first instructions broadcast over the radio had ordered soldiers not to obey their officers.", "Over four years later, according to observers, the reluctance of most officers to impose discipline had combined with the unwillingness of more than a few enlisted men to accept it.", "\"The launch of Doe's coup meant that Major William Jarbo, another soldier with political ambitions who was said to have excellent connections to U.S. security officials, had had his takeover plans forestalled.", "He tried to escape abroad but was hunted down and killed by the new government.", "The junta started to split in 1983, with Doe telling Quiwonkpa that he was planning to move Quiwonkpa from command of the army to a position as secretary-general of the People's Redemption Council.", "Unhappy with this proposed change, Quiwonkpa fled into exile in late 1983, along with his aide-de-camp Prince Johnson.In 1984 the AFL included the Liberian National Guard (LNG) Brigade and related units (6,300 men), and the Liberian National Coast Guard (about 450 men).", "The brigade, formed between 1964 and 1978, was based at the Barclay Training Center (BTC) in Monrovia, and was composed of six infantry battalions, a military engineer battalion (which circa 1974 under the command of Colonel Robert M. Blamo completed an airstrip at Belefania Town), a field artillery battalion (the First Field Artillery Battalion, reportedly at Camp Naama in Bong County) and a support battalion.Three of the infantry units—the First Infantry Battalion, stationed at Camp Schieffelin, the Second Infantry Battalion at Camp Todee in northern Montserrado County, and the Sixth Infantry Battalion at Bomi Hills—were tactical elements designed to operate against hostile forces.", "The other battalions, the Third Infantry Battalion based at the Barclay Training Centre in Monrovia, the Fourth Infantry Battalion at Zwedru in Grand Gedeh County, and the Fifth Infantry Battalion at Gbarnga in Bong County served mostly as providers of personnel for non-military duties.", "Soldiers in these units were used extensively as policemen, customs and immigration officials, and as tax collectors.===Attempted coup (1985)===In the aftermath of the rigged elections of 1985, which Doe manipulated to solidify his power, Quiwonkpa returned from his U.S. exile to enter Liberia from Sierra Leone.", "On November 12, 1985, he entered Monrovia with a group of dissident soldiers, took over the national Liberia Broadcasting System radio station and announced that the 'National Patriotic Forces of Liberia' had seized power.", "Adekeye says that Quiwonkpa erred in 'failing to establish control over the country's communications system and resisted a frontal attack on the Executive Mansion.", "'These mistakes allowed Doe the time to rally the Krahn-dominated Executive Mansion Guard and 1st Infantry Battalion from Camp Schieffelin to reestablish control.", "Quiwonkpa was captured, killed, and mutilated, his body being dismembered and parts eaten.", "In the aftermath of the attempted coup, purges took place in Monrovia and in Nimba County, Quiwonkpa's home, against those who had rejoiced after the coup announcement.", "As many as 1,500 people may have been killed.", "The AFL was purged of Gio soldiers.Under Samuel Doe the Coast Guard was retitled the Liberian Navy in 1986 through the passage of The Liberian Navy Act of 1986.The Aviation Unit was founded in 1970 with the delivery of three Cessna U-17C light aircraft.", "An Aviation Unit aircraft crashed at Spriggs-Payne in 1984.In 1985 it operated three fixed-wing aircraft from Spriggs Payne Airport in Monrovia, including Cessna 172s.", "Their duties included reconnaissance and transport of light cargo and VIPs.", "The Aviation Unit was expanded in the 1980s with the delivery of more Cessna aircraft: three 172s, a 206, 207 and two single engined turboprop 208s.The Liberian Air Force was established from the Aviation Unit by an Act of Legislature on August 12, 1987.Its statutory responsibilities were to: protect and defend the air space of the Republic of Liberia; protect lives and properties; provide air mobility for military and civil personnel; assist in search and rescue operations; undertake emergency operations; conduct reconnaissance patrols; participate in joint military operations and perform other duties as may be designated by the Ministry of Defense.", "The LAF was to be headed by a colonel in his capacity as Assistant Chief of Defense Staff for the Air Force and was mandated to do the following: to train personnel and develop doctrine; advise the Chief of Staff of the AFL on matters relating to the Air Force.In 1989 two refurbished DHC-4 Caribou, a single Piper Aztec light twin and three IAI Arava STOL twins were delivered.===First Liberian Civil War (1989–1997)===Charles Taylor invaded the country at Butuo in Nimba County on Christmas Eve 1989 with a force of around 150 men, initiating the First Liberian Civil War.", "Doe responded by sending two AFL battalions to Nimba in December 1989 – January 1990, under then-Colonel Hezekiah Bowen.", "The Liberian government forces assumed that most of the Mano and Gio peoples in the Nimba region were supporting the rebels.", "They thus acted in a very brutal and scorched-earth fashion which quickly alienated the local people.", "Taylor's support rose rapidly, as the Mano and Gio flocked to his National Patriotic Front of Liberia seeking revenge.", "Many government soldiers deserted, some to join the NPFL.", "The inability of the AFL to make any headway was one of the reasons why Doe changed his field commander in the area five times in the first six months of the war.Field commanders apparently included Brigadier General Edward Smith.", "By May 1990 the AFL had been forced back to Gbarnga, still under the control of Bowen's troops, but they lost the town to a NPFL assault by the end of May 1990, at which time the NPFL also captured Buchanan on the coast.", "The NPFL had now gathered an estimated 10,000 fighters while the AFL, splintering, could only summon 2,000.The revolt reached Monrovia by July 1990, and General Dubar left the country for exile in the United States.", "In place of Dubar, Brigadier General Charles Julu, former commander of the Executive Mansion Guard Battalion, was appointed Chief of Staff.", "Two Liberian Coast Guard vessels were sunk in the battles for the city.", "The NPFL had been distributing weapons to Gio civilians after it arrived in Nimba, where many were very interested in taking their revenge on the government after Doe had punished Nimba country for its support of Quiwonkpa in 1983 and 1985.By July 1990 the government began to distribute weapons to civilians in turn, to Krahn and Mandingo who wished to protect themselves.", "These hastily enlisted civilians became known as '1990 soldiers.'", "A '1990 soldier' which the President had personally picked, Tailey Yonbu, led a massacre of refugees, mostly Gio and Mano civilians, on the night of July 29/30, 1990 at St. Peter's Lutheran Church in Sinkor, Monrovia.", "Some 600 were killed.", "Because of the previous ethnic purges carried out by Doe's forces, the conflict took on characteristics of an ethnic pogrom.In August 1990 the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) dispatched a peacekeeping force, ECOMOG, to Liberia.", "The force arrived at the Freeport of Monrovia on August 24, 1990, landing from Nigerian and Ghanaian vessels.", "By the time ECOMOG arrived, Prince Johnson's INPFL and Taylor's NPFL were fighting on the outside bounds of the port.", "A series of peacemaking conferences in regional capitals followed.", "There were meetings in Bamako in November 1990, Lome in January 1991, and Yamoussoukro in June–October 1991.The first seven peace conferences, including the Yamoussoukro I-IV processes and the Carter Center negotiation leading to the Cotonou Accords, failed due to lack of agreement between the warring factions.", "The NPFL launched an assault on Monrovia in 1992, which they named 'Operation Octopus.'", "The civil war lasted until the Abuja Accords of August 1996.The AFL was confined to an enclave around the capital during the conflict, and did not play a significant part in the fighting.", "Elections in July 1997 finally brought Taylor to power.", "Under the accords, which led to a break in fighting in 1996 and the Liberian general election, 1997, ECOMOG was to retrain a new national army based on fair ethnic and geographical representation.", "Yet Taylor denied ECOMOG any role in the restructuring of the AFL, and the force eventually left Liberia by the end of 1998.During the 1990–99 period, Chiefs of Staff included Lieutenant Colonel Davis S. Brapoh, Lieutenant General Hezekiah Bowen (later Minister of Defense), Lieutenant General A.M.V.", "Doumuyah, and Lieutenant General Kalilu Abe Kromah, appointed during the interim rule of the Council of State in 1996, who was chief of staff from May 1996 to April 1997.Following Kromah, Lieutenant General Prince C. Johnson was appointed, who died in October 1999 following a car accident.===Taylor regime (1997–2003)===Shortly after the induction of Taylor as elected president of Liberia in August 1997, the Ministry of National Defense determined that the strength of the AFL had risen during the war from 6,500 to 14,981 service members.", "To begin demobilization, the AFL Chief of Staff published Special Orders No.", "1 on January 1, 1998, demobilizing and retiring 2,250 personnel.", "The demobilization process was delayed and badly managed, and only on April 22, 1998, did payments began to be issued to the demobilizing personnel, without prior explanation of what exactly the payments represented.Demonstrations and protests by the demobilized personnel eventually led to a riot in which three died on May 5, 1998.As a result, Taylor authorised the formation of a commission to submit recommendations on how the AFL should be reorganized.", "The commission, led by Blamoh Nelson, Director of the Cabinet, submitted its report on December 17, 1998, recommending a 6,000-strong armed forces (5,160 Army, 600 Navy, and 240 Air Force) but the proposal was never implemented.Instead Taylor ran down the Armed Forces, letting go 2,400–2,600 former personnel, many of whom were Krahn brought in by former President Doe, in December 1997 – January 1998, and building up instead the Anti-Terrorist Unit (ATU), the Special Operations Division of the Liberian National Police, and the Special Security Service.", "On November 19, 1999, Taylor named General Kpenkpah Konah as the new Chief of Staff of the AFL (where he would stay until 2006) and John Tarnue as head of the army.", "Tarnue was later implicated in a land dispute in 1999, while acting as AFL commander.The International Crisis Group writes that the AFL was reduced practically to the point of non-existence by fall 2001, by which time a total of 4,000 personnel had been retired.", "The Second Liberian Civil War originated in clashes in April 1999 but was not a major threat to Taylor until 2000–01.However, on the government side the AFL played only a minor role; irregular ex National Patriotic Front of Liberia militias backed by more privileged Taylor partisans such as the Anti-Terrorist Unit saw most of the fighting.As a result of the Civil War, all aircraft, equipment, materiel, and facilities belonging to the Liberian Air Force were badly damaged, rendering the force inoperable.", "During the Civil War the Taylor government made a variety of different air support arrangements; a seemingly inoperable Mil Mi-2 and Mil Mi-8, one in Anti-Terrorist Unit markings, could be seen at Spriggs Payne Airport in central Monrovia in mid-2005, apparently a hangover from the war.", "Meanwhile, during the Taylor era, the Navy consisted of a couple of small patrol craft.", "However, on shore, both late 1990s and 2005 sources indicate the Navy included the 2nd Naval District, Buchanan, the 3rd Naval District, Greenville, and the 4th Naval District, Harper.===Rebuilding the AFL===USS ''Fort McHenry'' in 2008Part 4 (Articles VI and VII) of the August 2003 Accra Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) which ended the Second Liberian Civil War addressed security sector reform.", "It declared that future recruits for the new AFL would be screened for their fitness for service as well as prior human rights violations, that the new force would be ethnically balanced and without political bias, and that the new force's mission would be to defend national sovereignty and \"in extremis\" respond to natural disasters.By March 1, 2005, over a year after the war ended, the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) had disarmed and demobilized 103,018 people who claimed to have fought for former president Charles Taylor or the two rebel groups, Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD) or the Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL).", "That year most former AFL elements were concentrated at Camp Schiefflin.", "The previous AFL personnel, including those of the Navy and Air Force, were slowly retired with pensions obtained by the MND and international partners from a number of international donors.In 2005, the United States provided funding for DynCorp International and Pacific Architects & Engineers, private military contractors, to train a new 4,000-man Liberian military.", "DynCorp was made responsible for individual training and PA&E unit training.", "In June–July 2005 the projected force strength was reduced to 2000 men.", "DynCorp and the U.S. Embassy scrutinized the personnel for the new armed forces thoroughly.", "Recruits had to pass a literacy test, an aptitude test, a drug test and an HIV test, and their names and faces were put on posters which are distributed to try to make sure none have a history of war crimes or other human rights violations.", "A new batch of 500 screened personnel started to arrive at the Camp Ware base at VOA Careysburg, inland from Monrovia, for initial training in early November 2007, joining 608 others who had graduated earlier.The Minister of Defense that President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf appointed in early 2006, Brownie Samukai, had a good public reputation.A U.S. Marine Corps officer speaks to AFL troops during a 2009 training exercise.There appears to be some lack of coordination, at least according to ''The Wall Street Journal'', between the Ministry of National Defense and DynCorp, who is training the new army.", "The newspaper said in an August 2007 report:Mr. Samukai also complains that he feels sidelined from the formation of an army that, as defense minister, he is supposed to oversee.", "Neither the State Department nor DynCorp will let him see the company's contract, for instance.", "And the U.S. insists that instead of talking directly to DynCorp managers, he go through Major Wyatt chief of the Office of Defense Cooperation at the U.S. Embassy in Monrovia on all matters related to the training.", "Whether well regarded or not, Samukai has been accused of misusing his power; there have been allegations that he has ordered soldiers to manhandle other senior Liberian government officials—the Comptroller General of the Ministry of Finance in August 2008.On January 11, 2008, a total 485 soldiers graduated from Initial Entry Training class 08–01.The addition of this third class of soldiers, consisting of 468 men and 17 women, raised the total strength of the AFL from 639 to 1,124.As the new Liberian force developed, UNMIL started winding down its initially 15,000 strong peacekeeping mission; by 2008 the force had been reduced to 11,000.In the interim buildup period, President Johnson-Sirleaf decided that a Nigerian officer would act as the Command Officer-In-Charge of the new armed forces.", "Major General Suraj Abdurrahman succeeded the previous incumbent, Lieutenant General Luka Yusuf, in early June 2007; Lieutenant General Yusuf had been posted home to Nigeria to become Chief of Army Staff.Luka had succeeded the previous Liberian Chief of Staff, Kpenkpa Y. Konah, in 2006.In mid-July 2008, five reinstated AFL officers returned from the Nigerian Armed Forces Command and Staff College after training there.", "These officers include Lt Cols.", "Sekou S. Sheriff, Boakai B. Kamara, Aaron T. Johnson, Daniel K. Moore and Major Andrew J. Wleh.", "Subsequently, Aaron T. Johnson was promoted to colonel and confirmed by the Liberian Senate as Deputy Chief of Staff of the AFL, immediately subordinate to General Abdurrahman.", "A number of the current senior AFL officers have been drawn from the ranks of the previous 1993–94 Interim Government of National Unity paramilitary police force, the 'Black Berets.", "'Facility reconstruction has not been limited to VOA/Camp Ware and Schiefflin/EBK.", "The Chinese Government offered in 2006 to rebuild Camp Tubman in Gbarnga, and the new facility was opened in April 2009.There is also a plan to rebuild Camp Todee in Todee District, upper Montserrado.", "The Barclay Training Center (BTC) was handed back to the Government of Liberia on July 31, 2009, at a ceremony attended by the Minister for National Defense and the United States Ambassador after four years of management by DynCorp.In October 2009 a State Partnership Program relationship was begun between the AFL and the U.S. state of Michigan's Michigan National Guard.", "Of the other large number of security agencies, plans existed as of mid-2008 at least to dissolve the Ministry of National Security, the National Bureau of Investigation and the Drug Enforcement Agency.", "The 2009–2010 budget appears to indicate however that this consolidation has not taken place.===Peacekeeping Operations===In 2013, the AFL deployed a platoon as part of the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA), marking the first time that the AFL had operated abroad since the United Nations Operation in the Congo in the early 1960s.", "Initially under Nigerian command, the AFL platoon came under Togo Contingent Command when Nigeria withdrew from the mission.", "Despite some initial logistical problems the platoon performed admirably, performing patrols and VIP escort duties.", "The deployment has now seen a number of rotations:* Platoon 1 (Capt.?", "Nathaniel Waka) – 45 personnel strong; June 23, 2013, to June 26, 2014* Platoon 2 (Capt.", "Ernest A. Appleton) – June 26, 2014, to June 25, 2015* Platoon 3 (Capt.", "Stephen T. Powo) – June 25, 2015, to September 2, 2016* Platoon 4 (Capt.", "Forkpah Tarnue) – September 2, 2016, to ...From February 2017 the Mali deployment was increased to a 75-strong contingent, growing to a company of 105 personnel, with additional military observers and staff officers, from September 2018.In August 2019 training was completed of another company, the sixth rotation, due for deployment in September 2019.May 3, 2017, saw the first Liberian soldier killed on deployment with MINUSMA.", "Corporal Sheriff Ousmane was killed when a rebel group fired mortars into a UN base near Timbuktu.", "Seven other Liberians were wounded in the bombardment, three seriously so, together with a Swedish peacekeeper.During January 2019 the Ministry of National Defense announced plans to send a platoon-size contingent of peacekeepers to the United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS)." ], [ "Structure", "Major Andrew Wleh, commander, AFL Armed Forces Training Command (left), discusses marksmanship training with a U.S. soldier (right) whilst on a visit to the United States.=== 23rd Infantry Brigade ===The Liberian ground forces currently consist of two infantry battalions under the 23rd Infantry Brigade and supporting units.", "The 1st Battalion, 23rd Infantry Brigade, was formed on August 29, 2008, at the Barclay Training Center in Monrovia, and the 2nd Battalion, 23rd Infantry Brigade in December that year.", "Both battalions are currently based at the former Camp Schiefflin, which has now been renamed the Edward Binyah Kesselly Barracks, often known simply as 'EBK Barracks.", "'As a result of the concentration of troops at EBK, the camp was overcrowded, and disturbances among the soldiers have occurred.", "As of mid-2009, the Ministry of Defense is attempting to alleviate the problem by relocating some personnel to Camp Tubman in Gbarnga.The two battalions and supporting units went through training and preparation for an assessment exercise, a modified US Army Readiness Training Evaluation Program (ARTEP), which was held in late 2009.When declared operational, the 23rd Infantry Brigade was planned to be commanded by a colonel with a headquarters of 113 personnel.", "Supporting units were to include a band platoon (40 members), engineer company (220 strong), Brigade Training Unit (162 strong, now retitled the Armed Forces Training Command, located at Camp Ware under Major Wleh), and a military police company (105 strong).The force operates according to slightly modified United States Army practices, and uses U.S.", "doctrine.", "\"..The first battalion started the United States Army Training and Evaluation Programme, which it will complete in September 2009, while the second battalion will complete the programme in December 2009.At that time, the United States contractors currently training and equipping the force will hand over to the Ministry of National Defense, which will assume responsibility for training and standing up the new army.", "The United States has indicated that it plans to assign as many as 60 United States serving military personnel to continue mentoring the Armed Forces of Liberia, beginning in January 2010.", "\"Major General Suraj Abdurrahman, Command Officer-in-Charge of the AFL, hands over a new Guidon to the reactivated Coast Guard.As of December 2010, a Logistics Command is being established within the AFL, taking the same name as a pre-Civil War AFL formation.=== Coast Guard ===The Coast Guard was reactivated on the 53rd Armed Forces Day on February 11, 2010, with an initial strength of 40 personnel who had been trained in the United States.", "A United States Coast Guard officer is now serving at the U.S. Embassy in Monrovia supporting efforts to reestablish the Liberian Coast Guard.A detachment from SeaBee Naval Mobile Construction Battalion 7, based at Naval Station Rota, Spain, constructed a United States Africa Command-funded boat ramp and concrete perimeter wall for the Coast Guard, which was handed over in December 2010.In February 2011, the United States turned over two donated USCG Defender class boats to the Coast Guard.The ranks and insignia of the Armed Forces of Liberia are based on those of the United States Department of Defense, and are laid out in the Liberian Defense Act of 2008.=== Air Force ===Liberian Air Force RoundelThe Liberian Air Force was formally dissolved in 2005 as part of the armed forces demobilization programme, though it had effectively ceased to exist during the civil war.", "There was also a paramilitary Justice Air Wing operating some Mil Mi-2s.", "After 2003, only the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) operated military aircraft in Liberia – Mil Mi-8 transport and Mil Mi-24 attack helicopters from Roberts International Airport with several subsidiary locations.", "These aircraft left the country on or before the cessation of UNMIL operations on 31 March 2018.In 2018–19, two Liberian pilots were trained by the Nigerian Air Force, and the Chief of Staff of the AFL visited Ghana to discuss military cooperation opportunities, including those related to the reestablishment of an aviation capability." ], [ "Equipment", "=== Infantry battalion equipment ===The two infantry battalions' equipment, partially donated by Romania, includes AKM and PM md.", "63 assault rifles, and PK machine guns.", "It may also include Streit Cougar vehicles.=== Aircraft inventory ===The Liberian Air Force inventory for its entire existence included:AircraftOriginTypeVariantIn serviceNotesTransportDe Havilland Canada DHC-4 CaribouCanadaTransport2Cessna 208 Caravan 1United StatesTransport1Boeing 707United StatesVIPBoeing 707-351B1Government transportBoeing 727United StatesVIPBoeing 727–251Government transportBAC 1–11United KingdomVIPBAC 1–11 Series 401AK1Government TransportCommunicationsCessna 150KUnited StatesCommunications2Operated by the Liberian Army Air Reconnaissance UnitCessna 172United StatesCommunications1Operated by the Liberian Army Air Reconnaissance UnitCessna 180EUnited StatesCommunications1Operated by the Liberian Army Air Reconnaissance UnitCessna 206United StatesCommunications2Operated by the Liberian Army Air Reconnaissance UnitHelicoptersMil Mi-24RussiaAttack1Mil Mi-2PolandTransport1Operated by the Justice Air Wing" ], [ "Training", "===Higher education===The Tubman Military Academy at Camp Todee in Montserrado County trains officer candidates in the AFL.", "The Officer Candidate School is part of the academy.===ROTC===The first Liberian Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) program was established in 1956 at the University of Liberia (UL) in Monrovia and the Booker Washington Institute (BWI) in Kakata.", "In August 2015, the Ministry of National Defense announced its intention with the Ministry of Education to resume ROTC in Liberian schools.", "ROTC had not been institutions since the end of the conflicts in the 2000s.", "A year later, an ROTC pilot program was established at (BWI).=== Armed Forces Training Command (AFTC) ===The Armed Forces Training Command (AFTC) is the training center for the Armed Forces of Liberia.", "It was established in February 2009." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Aboagye, Festus B, and Rupiya, Dr Martin R, (2005).", "''Enhancing post-Conflict Democratic Governance through effective Security Sector Reform in Liberia'', Institute for Security Studies, Pretoria, RSA, (Chapter 11 of larger book)* * * Ebo, Adedeji, (2005).", "''The Challenges And Opportunities Of Security Sector Reform in post-conflict Liberia,'' Geneva Center for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces,* .", "* International Crisis Group, ''Liberia: Uneven Progress in Security Sector Reform'', Africa Report No.", "148, January 13, 2009* International Crisis Group, ''Liberia: Staying Focused'' , Africa Report No.", "36, January 13, 2006* * International Institute for Strategic Studies, Adelphi Papers 27 (1967) and 67 (1970), The Armed Forces of African States* * * Pamphlet 550–38.Also Irving Kaplan, Barbara Lent, Dennis Morrisey, Charles Townsend, Neda Walpole.", "* Roberts et al.", "1972.See * Colin Robinson, Military or hybrid solutions for border patrolling in Liberia, Comments on Africa No.", "13, Conflict, Security, and Development Group, King's College London, March 2012* Samukai, Brownie J., (February 17, 2004).", "''Armed Forces Of Liberia: Reality Check For A New Military With A Redefined Constitutional Mission'',* Sawyer was an interim president of Liberia in the mid-1990s.", "* United Nations Mission in Liberia, United Nations Secretary-General's Report on UNMIL, released August 10, 2009" ], [ "Further reading", "* Ahadzi, 'Failure of Domestic Politics..,' in Omeje, Kenneth.", "\"War to peace transition: conflict intervention and peacebuilding in Liberia.\"", "(2009).", "* Bekoe, Dorina, and Parajon, Christina, ''Security Sector Reform in Liberia: Domestic Considerations and the Way Forward'', United States Institute of Peace, April 2007* Dunn, D. Elwood, 'Liberia and the United States during the Cold War: Limits of Reciprocity,' Palgrave Macmillan, 2009, * Global Witness, Taylor-made: The Pivotal Role of Liberia's Forests and Flag of Convenience in Regional Conflict , September 2001* Sean McFate, Building Better Armies: An Insider's Account of Liberia , Strategic Studies Institute, November 2013* McFate, Sean, '' Military Review '', July–August 2007.", "* (includes section on Liberian military professionalism)* United States Africa Command, Social Sciences Research Center, \"Civilian and Enlisted Perspectives on the Armed Forces of Liberia (AFL): A Qualitative Research Study Report\", September 2010, accessible at * United States Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, Principal Policies and Problems in the Relations of the United States with Liberia, 1950, pages 1712–1714, 1721, 1723–29 note the beginning of the U.S. military aid mission." ], [ "External links", "* * – in November 2018 a soldier of the AFL deployed to cover a sports match sustained wounds from an unintentional shooting from the EPS at the SKD Stadium outside Monrovia." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Liberia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Liberian foreign relations''' were traditionally stable and cordial throughout much of the 19th and 20th centuries.", "During the 1990s, Charles Taylor's presidency and the First and Second Liberian Civil Wars underscored Liberian relations with the Western world, the People's Republic of China, and its neighboring countries in Western Africa.Stabilization in the 21st century brought a return to cordial relations with neighboring countries and much of the Western world.", "Liberia holds diplomatic relations with many western nations, including its long time partner the United States, as well as Russia, Cuba, and the People's Republic of China." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Liberia maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate11 August 1849220 April 18523423 February 186455 June 1867—15 December 1927619 July 194573 May 1949815 May 195091 January 1951105 October 19511129 June 19521223 July 195313June 19571422 August 1957151957166 June 19581711 June 1958181 August 19581918 December 1958201958216 March 19592215 September 1959—1959238 January 1960245 April 19602530 June 1960267 July 19602719 July 19602829 July 1960291 October 19603014 October 19603123 November 19603220 January 19613331 July 196134September 1961358 June 1962368 August 19623719623825 June 19633919634019634119634218 March 19644321 May 19644417 February 19654516 March 1965463 November 1965476 December 19654819654927 May 1966502 February 19675113 March 1967525 April 19675319695424 March 1970555 May 19705624 February 19715731 December 1971581971593 April 19726030 April 1972617 June 19726230 May 19736315 October 19736420 December 19736520 February 19746630 March 1974671 April 19746819 April 19746920 May 19747029 May 1974714 July 1974721 November 19747311 November 19747419 March 1975752 June 19757617 June 1975777823 April 1976798 June 19768022 June 19768115 July 19768217 February 19778331 March 19808419808519808619808715 October 1982887 January 19878928 September 19889028 April 19909130 March 19939222 May 19969310 January 1997941997956 March 19989624 September 19989730 November 20009820049928 November 20061002 May 20071011 June 200710228 June 200710310 December 200710420 May 200810526 September 200810617 December 200810726 February 20091086 May 20091093 November 20091103 December 200911123 February 20101124 March 201011321 September 201011428 August 201211515 November 20121164 April 201411710 April 201411823 April 201411926 August 201412027 April 201612127 April 201612217 June 201612328 June 201612412 August 20161255 May 201712616 May 201712717 August 201712822 September 2017—27 May 201812922 January 202013021 September 202213122 September 2022132Unknown133Unknown134Unknown" ], [ "Bilateral relations", " Country Formal Relations BeganNotes31 December 1971Both countries established diplomatic relations on 31 December 1971 when Algeria established first Mission and first Algerian Ambassador Mr. Zitouni Messaoudi presented his credentials to President of Liberia.5 June 1867Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 June 1867 when has been appointed Chargé d'Affaires of Liberia to Belgium (resident in Paris) M. le vicomte de Fleury.1963Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1963 when M. Pierre Cofi, the Ambassador of the Ivory Coast has presented his Letters of credence to President Tubman, from the Presidents of Republics of the Upper Volta, Niger and Dahomey, accrediting him Ambassador of the free states to the Republic of Liberia.21 September 2010Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 September 2010 whe Ambassador of Liberia to Botswana Mr. Lois Lewis Brutus presented his credentials to President Seretse Khama.23 November 1960Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 November 1960 when open Embassy of Cameroon in Monrovia.17 February 1977See China–Liberia relationsRelations between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and Liberia have been broken and reestablished several times since February 17, 1977, when diplomatic relations between the PRC and Liberia were first formed.", "The PRC broke off relations with Liberia on October 10, 1989, in response to Liberia's recognition of the Republic of China (Taiwan).Taiwan had offered $200 million in aid to Liberia for education and infrastructure in exchange for this recognition.", "The PRC reestablished relations with Liberia on August 10, 1993, and opened an embassy in Monrovia, making Liberia one of the few nations with established diplomatic ties to both the PRC and ROC.", "In 1997, Charles Taylor's government proclaimed to recognize \"two Chinas\" and the PRC subsequently severed diplomatic relations.Liberia dropped diplomatic relations with the ROC on October 12, 2003, and reestablished ties with the People's Republic of China.", "This move was seen largely as a result of the PRC's lobbying in the UN and plans to deploy a peacekeeping force in Liberia.", "* China has an embassy in Monrovia.", "* Liberia has an embassy in Beijing.31 July 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 31 July 1961* Ivory Coast has an embassy in Monrovia.", "* Liberia has an embassy in Abidjan.25 July 1963Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 July 1963 when was accredited first Ambassador of Denmark to Liberia (resident in Accra) Mr. Hans Adolf Biering11 June 1958Both countries established diplomatic relations and exchange diplomatic representations at ambassadorial level on 11 June 1958.1980Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1980 when has been accredited ambassador of Equatorial Guinea to Liberia, residing in Lagos M. Jose Walterio Okori Dougan.1958Both countries have agreed to exchange diplomatic missions at Embassy level in 1958.20 April 1852See France–Liberia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 20 April 1852* France recognized Liberia in 1852.", "* France has an embassy in Monrovia.", "* Liberia has an embassy in Paris.3 November 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 November 1965 when has been accredited Ambassador of Liberia to Gambia Mr. R. Francis Okai (Jnr.", ").23 July 1953Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 July 1953See Germany–Liberia relations* Liberia has an embassy in Berlin.", "* Germany has an embassy in Monrovia.June 1957Both countries established diplomatic relations in June 1957 when M. Abraham Benjamin Bah Kofi, Ghanian Charge d'Affaires to Liberia presented his credentials to President Tubman.6 March 1959Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 March 1959 when Mr. Edward Peal, the Liberian Ambassador to the Republic of Guinea, presented his credentials to President S. Toure.The First Liberian Civil War, instigated by Charles Taylor and the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL) on December 24, 1989, eventually spread to neighboring Sierra Leone in 1991 when dissidents of the Revolutionary United Front (RUF), led by Foday Sankoh, began using Liberia as a staging ground for NPFL backed military assaults on border towns in Sierra Leone.By 1992, 120,000 people had fled from Sierra Leone to Guinea due to the RUF's practice of targeting civilians.", "In 2001, Liberian forces along with the RUF began attacking and burning refugee camps and Guinean villages along the border.", "In an inflammatory speech the Guinean president Lansana Conté, blamed the refugees for the border destabilization and alleged that the vast majority of refugees were rebels.He called for the Guinean population to defend its nation.", "This call precipitated attacks, beatings, rapes, and abductions of refugees by Guinean police and military forces.", "This reversal of Guinea's previously open policy towards refugees, further escalated the refugee crisis as refugees attempted to cross back through RUF territory.", "By 2002, the United Nations estimated that three million people, or one in five people of the Mano River Union countries, were displaced.", "* Guinea has an embassy in Monrovia.", "* Liberia has an embassy in Conakry.29 June 1952Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 June 1952.", "Haiti and Liberia recognized each other in 1864.", "The two countries established treaties of friendship and commerce the same year.7 July 1960See India–Liberia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 7 July 1960Indian-Liberian relations have traditionally been strong and cordial with Liberia's full-fledged support for India's stand on Kashmir and India's aspiration for permanent membership on the United Nations Security Council.", "In recent years, both nations have developed close and extensive cooperation in trade, military and strategic fields.Amidst India's growing role in Liberia, the Liberian Minister of Mines and Energy, Dr. Eugene Shannon visited India in October 2005 to participate in the Confederation of Indian Industry-Africa Conclave.", "In 2008, the President of Liberia Ellen Johnson Sirleaf was invited to visit India.", "Major items of Indian exports include engineering goods, pharmaceuticals, two wheelers, transportation equipment, steel and plastic products.", "Major items of imports are gold, diamonds, timber and metal scrap.", "Following lifting of United Nations sanctions, timber concessions have been awarded to Indian firms.", "Overall, Indian investments in Liberia have been increased from US$450 million in 2005 to an estimated $2 billion in 2009.", "* India has an embassy in Monrovia.", "* Liberia maintains an honorary consulate in New Delhi.2 June 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 June 1975In 2023, an Iranian drone struck the Liberian flagged chemical tanker ''Chem Pluto''.1980Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1980 when has been accredited Ambassador of Iraq to Liberia, residing in Lagos M. Saffa Mohammed Ali.22 August 1957See Israel–Liberia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 22 August 1957.", "* Liberia and Israel established ties in 1957 with the accreditation of Israeli ambassador Ehud Avriel.", "* Liberia severed ties with Israel over the Yom Kippur War in 1973.", "* Relations are re-established in 1983.", "* On 8 June 2022, Liberia announced its plans to open a trade office in Jerusalem, which is to become an embassy.5 October 1951Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 October 1951 when has been accredited first Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Italy to Liberia Mr. Umberto Campini.September 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations in September 1961Liberia is accredited to New Zealand from its embassy in Tokyo, Japan.21 May 1964Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 May 1964 when Liberia's Ambassador to Kenya, Mr. George Padmore, has presented his credentials to the Governor-General of Kenya.12 August 2016Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 August 2016* Liberia is accredited to Laos through its embassy in Beijing, China.", "* Laos does not have an accreditation to Liberia.1 January 1951Both countries established diplomatic relations when Liberian and Lebanese Governments to raise their Consulates General to the status of Legations, and a proclamation was issued announcing that the change would take effect from 1 January 1951.In 1957 both countries raise their Legations to status of Embassies1 April 1974See Liberia–Libya relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 1 April 1974.Liberia's relationship with Libya has been characterized by Muammar Gaddafi's attempts at bringing Liberia under greater Libyan influence.", "Relations under the Doe administration were poor, owing to efforts by the United States to undermine Gaddafi's leverage, and Doe's cynicism of the Libyan leader's intentions.", "Gaddafi financially and militarily backed rebel leader Charles Taylor, under whose regime Liberia sought closer relations with Libya.", "After Taylor was ousted in 2003, Liberia continued to maintain diplomatic relations with Libya, only severing them after the onset of the Libyan Civil War, and just recently reestablishing them.14 October 1960Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 October 1960 when established Embassy of Mali in Liberia and appointed first Chargé d'Affaires Mr. Sango Ibrahima in Monrovia13 March 1967Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 March 1967 when Ambassador of Mauritania to Liberia M. Bakar Ould Ahmedou, has presented his credentials to President Tubman.22 June 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 June 1976* Liberia is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.", "* Mexico is accredited to Liberia from its embassy in Accra, Ghana.17 December 2008Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 December 2008 when has been accredited Ambassador of Liberia to Mozambique.28 April 1990Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 April 1990In 1960, Liberia and Ethiopia brought litigation against apartheid South Africa in the International Court of Justice to end its illegal occupation of Namibia.", "As part of Liberia's support for Namibia's liberation struggle, many Namibian students received Liberian passports which helped them study abroad.As of July 2008, a total of 5,900 Namibia Defence Force troops had been rotated through Liberia as part of the United Nations Mission in Liberia.", "Namibia maintained a battalion of about 800 personnel in Grand Cape Mount county for several years, for most of the period part of UNMIL Sector 2, headquartered at Tubmanburg.", "In May 2005, Namibian troops were accused of sexual exploitation of young girls and women; three Namibian soldiers were sent home from the force after a United Nations investigation found them guilty of \"engaging in sexual activity with civilians\", which is against United Nations rules for peacekeepers.", "* Liberia is accredited to Namibia from its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa.", "* Namibia is accredited to Liberia from its high commission in Abuja, Nigeria.3 May 1949Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 May 1949.27 March 1936 has been accredited Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Liberia to the Netherlands Baron Otto van den Bogaerde van Terbrugge.", "The Netherlands recognized Liberia in 1862.", "The two countries signed a treaty of friendship, commerce, and navigation on 20 December 1862.1 October 1960Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 October 1960 when the Nigerian Government has agreed to Liberia's raising the status its consulate general in Lagos to that of an Embassy on the same date.", "* Liberia has an embassy in Abuja.", "* Nigeria has an embassy in Monrovia.1969Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1969 when has been accredited Pakistan's first Ambassador to Liberia M. Ali Arshad.7 June 1972Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 June 1972.Liberia and Russia resumed bilateral relations in March 2010 and cited a recent exploration of mine by a Russian company as a sign of future trade relations.", "Liberia began recognizing the SADR on 31 July 1985.", "Liberia revoked its recognition in September 1997.", "By 2012, Liberia had re-established relations with the SADR.1962Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1962 when has been accredited Ambassador of Senegal to Liberia M. Amadou Lamine Sall.8 June 1962See Liberia-Sierra Leone relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 8 June 1962 when has been appointed first ambassador of Liberia to Sierra Leone Mr. Henry B. Fahnbulleh.The First Liberian Civil War, instigated by Charles Taylor and the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL) on December 24, 1989, eventually spread to neighboring Sierra Leone in 1991 when dissidents of the Revolutionary United Front (RUF), led by Foday Sankoh, began using Liberia as a staging ground for NPFL backed military assaults on border towns in Sierra Leone.", "Guinea and Sierra Leone have accused Liberia of backing rebels who have devastated their countries.", " Liberia has an embassy in Freetown.", "* Sierra Leone has an embassy in Monrovia.1980Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1980 when has been accredited Ambassador of Somalia to Liberia, residing in Dakar, M. Jaallee-Abdinur Yusuf Mohamed.10 January 1997Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 January 1997* Liberia has an embassy in Pretoria.", "* South Africa has an embassy in Monrovia.18 March 1964Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 March 1964In 2001 Bilateral Trade were Exports $7,350,000,000 (Ships, Automobile) Imports $1,270,000 (Used Ships, Mineral Fuel).15 May 1950See Liberia–Spain relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 15 May 1950* Liberia is accredited to Spain from its embassy in Paris, France.", "* Spain is accredited to Liberia from its embassy in Abidjan, Ivory Coast.27 May 1966Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 May 1966 when first Ambassador of Liberia to Tanzania Henry Bima Fahnbulleh presented his credentials to President Nyerere29 July 1960Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 July 1960 when accredited first Ambassador of Liberia to Togo Mr. John Cox.6 December 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 December 1965 when was accredited first ambassador of Liberia to Trinidad and Tobago (resident in Haiti) Mr. William B. Fernandez 1 August 1958See Liberia–Turkey relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 1 August 1958Embassy of Liberia in Brussels is accredited to Turkey.", "Turkish Embassy in Accra is accredited to Liberia.", "Trade volume between the two countries was US$191.9 million in 2019.5 April 1967Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 April 1967 when has been accredited Ambassador of Liberia to Uganda (Resident in Nairobi) Mr. H. B. Fahnbulleh.1 August 1849See Liberia–United Kingdom relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 1 August 1849The UK was amongst the first countries to recognise the new republic.", "After the visit to the UK in 1848 of President Roberts, Queen Victoria put the Royal Navy ship HMS ''Amazon'' at the disposal of him and his family, for his return journey to Liberia.In 1961, Queen Elizabeth II made a state visit to Liberia, arriving at Monrovia on the HMY ''Britannia''.", "President Tubman made a gift of two Pygmy hippopotamus, which arrived by cargo ship in 1962 and were sent to Whipsnade Zoo.In 1962, President Tubman and his wife visited the UK.", " Liberia has an embassy in London.", "* United Kingdom has an embassy in Monrovia.23 February 1864Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 February 1864See Liberia–United States relationsU.S.", "relations with Liberia date back to 1819 when the US Congress appropriated $100,000 for the establishment of Liberia.", "After official US recognition of Liberia in 1862, the two nations shared very close ties until strains in the 1970s due to Liberia's establishment of diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union and other Eastern Bloc countries.During the 1980s, the United States forged especially close ties with Liberia as part of a Cold War effort to suppress socialist and Marxist movements in Africa.", "Liberia received between $500 million and $1.3 billion during the 1980s from the United States government.The rise of Charles Taylor's government, the Liberian Civil War, regional instability and human rights abuses interrupted the previously close relations between Liberia and the United States.", "The United States cut direct financial and military aid to the Liberian government, withdrew Peace Corps operations, imposed a travel ban on senior Liberian Government officials, and frequently criticized Charles Taylor's government.", "Due to intense pressure from the international community and the United States, Charles Taylor resigned his office on August 11, 2003.The resignation and exile of Charles Taylor in 2003 brought changes in diplomatic ties between the United States and Liberia.", "The United States proposed a United Nations Security Council draft resolution to authorize the deployment of a multi-national stabilization force, and 200 marines as well as warships were sent to Monrovia's airport to support the peace-keeping effort.", "The United States committed $1.16 billion to Liberia between 2004 and 2006.In 2009, A 17.5 million dollar contract to support elections was offered to Liberia with International Foundation for Electoral Systems as the conduit.", "This money is meant to support the presidential election of 2011 and the general election of 2014.", "* Liberia has an embassy in Washington, D.C., and consulate-generals in New York City, Atlanta and Minneapolis.", "* United States has an embassy in Monrovia.16 March 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 March 196528 June 2016Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 June 2016* During the Cold War, Liberia maintained diplomatic relations with South Vietnam only.", "* Vietnam is accredited to Liberia through its embassy in Abuja, Nigeria.", "* Liberia is accredited to Vietnam through its embassy in Beijing, China.", "3 April 1972Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 April 1972 when first Zambian Ambassador to Liberia Mr. Siteke G. Mwale presented his credentials" ], [ "Diplomatic Agreements", "Liberia is a founding member of the United Nations (see Permanent Representative of Liberia to the United Nations) and its specialized agencies and is a member of the African Union (AU), Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), African Development Bank (ADB), Mano River Union (MRU) and the Non-Aligned Movement.", "Liberia is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98)." ], [ "See also", "List of diplomatic missions in LiberiaList of diplomatic missions of Liberia" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Libya" ], [ "Introduction", "Libya's location.Libya is the fourth largest country in Africa and the sixteenth largest country in the world.", "It is on the Mediterranean with Egypt to the east, Tunisia to the northwest, Algeria to the west, Niger and Chad to the south, and Sudan to the southeast.", "Although the oil discoveries of the 1960s have brought immense wealth, at the time of its independence it was an extremely poor desert state whose only important physical asset appeared to be its strategic location at the midpoint of Africa's northern rim.", "Libya lay within easy reach of the major European nations and linked the Arab countries of North Africa with those of the Middle East, facts that throughout history had made its urban centres bustling crossroads rather than isolated backwaters without external social influences.", "Consequently, an immense social gap developed between the cities, cosmopolitan and peopled largely by foreigners, and the desert hinterland, where tribal chieftains ruled in isolation and where social change was minimal." ], [ "Geographical summary", "Libya's topography.The Mediterranean coast and the Sahara Desert are the country's most prominent natural features.", "There are several highlands but no true mountain ranges except in the largely empty southern desert near the Chadian border, where the Tibesti Massif rises to over 2,200 metres.", "A relatively narrow coastal strip and highland steppes immediately south of it are the most productive agricultural regions.", "Still farther south a pastoral zone of sparse grassland gives way to the vast Sahara Desert, a barren wasteland of rocky plateaus and sand.", "It supports minimal human habitation, and agriculture is possible only in a few scattered oases.The Sahara desert is connected to the Gulf of Sidra on the coast by a barren zone, known as the Sirtica, which has great historical significance.", "Along the shore of Tripolitania for more than 300 km, coastal oases alternate with sandy areas and lagoons.", "Inland from these lies the Jifarah Plain, a triangular area of some 15,000 square km.", "About 120 km inland the plain terminates in an escarpment that rises to form the Nafusa Mountains, with elevations of up to 1,000 metres, which is the northern edge of the Tripolitanian Plateau.In Cyrenaica there are fewer coastal oases, and the Marj Plain – the lowland area corresponding to the Jifarah Plain of Tripolitania – covers a much smaller area.", "The lowlands form a crescent about 210 km long between Benghazi and Derna and extend inland a maximum of 50 km.", "Elsewhere along the Cyrenaican coast, the precipice of an arid plateau reaches to the sea.", "Behind the Marj Plain, the terrain rises abruptly to form Jabal al Akhdar (Green Mountain), so called because of its leafy cover of pine, juniper, cypress, and wild olive.", "It is a limestone plateau with maximum altitudes of about 900 metres.", "From Jabal al Akhdar, Cyrenaica extends southward across a barren grazing belt that gives way to the Sahara Desert, which extends still farther southwest across the Chadian frontier.", "Unlike Cyrenaica, Tripolitania does not extend southward into the desert.", "The southwestern desert region, known as Fezzan, was administered separately during both the Italian regime and the federal period of the Libyan monarchy.", "The large dune seas known as ergs of the Idehan Ubari and the Idehan Murzuq cover much of the land of Fezzan.In 1969 the revolutionary government officially changed the regional designation of Tripolitania to Western Libya, of Cyrenaica to Eastern Libya, and of Fezzan to Southern Libya; however, the old names were intimately associated with the history of the area, and during the 1970s they continued to be used frequently.", "Cyrenaica comprises 51%, Fezzan 33%, and Tripolitania 16% of the country's area.Before Libya achieved independence, its name was seldom used other than as a somewhat imprecise geographical expression.", "The people preferred to be referred to as natives of one of the three constituent regions.", "The separateness of the regions is much more than simply geographical and political, for they have evolved largely as different socioeconomic entities – each with a culture, social structure, and values different from the others.", "Cyrenaica became Arabized at a somewhat earlier date than Tripolitania, and Beduin tribes dominated it.", "The residual strain of the indigenous Berber inhabitants, however, still remains in Tripolitania.", "Fezzan has remained a kind of North African outback, its oases peopled largely by minority ethnic groups.The border between Tripolitania and Tunisia is subject to countless crossings by legal and illegal migrants.", "No natural frontier marks the border, and the ethnic composition, language, value systems, and traditions of the two peoples are nearly identical.", "The Cyrenaica region is contiguous with Egypt, and here, too, the border is not naturally defined; illegal as well as legal crossings are frequent.", "In contrast, Fezzan's borders with Algeria, Niger, and Chad are seldom crossed because of the almost total emptiness of the desert countryside.Other factors, too, such as the traditional forms of land tenure, have varied in the different regions.", "In the 1980s their degrees of separation were still sufficiently pronounced to represent a significant obstacle to efforts toward achieving a fully unified Libya." ], [ "Area and boundaries", "A dust storm over the Tripolitania region of Libya.", "Over 90% of Libya is desert.", "'''Area:'''''Total:''1 759 540 km²''Land:''1 759 540 km²''Water:''0 km²'''Area - comparative:'''Libya is the fourth largest country in Africa, seven times the size of the United Kingdom, and slightly larger than Alaska.", "'''Land boundaries:'''''Total:''4 348 km''Border countries:''Algeria 982 km, Chad 1,055 km, Egypt 1,115 km, Niger 354 km, Sudan 383 km, Tunisia 459 km'''Coastline:'''1,770 km'''Maritime claims:'''''Territorial sea:''''note:''Gulf of Sidra closing line – 32 degrees, 30 minutes north.", "''Exclusive economic zone:''" ], [ "Climate and hydrology", "Köppen climate classification types in Libya.Wan Caza sand dunes in the Sahara Desert region of Fezzan.Jabal Al Akdhar area.", "Annual rainfall averages at between .Bayda, Libya's Fourth largest cityThe coastline of Benghazi in the Cyrenaica, Libya's east.", "Libya has the longest Mediterranean coastline among African nations.Libya is the fourth most water stressed country in the world.Within Libya as many as five different climatic zones have been recognized, but the dominant climates are the hot-summer Mediterranean climate and the hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification ''Csa'' and ''BWh'').", "In most of the coastal lowland, the climate is Mediterranean, with hot or very hot summers and extremely mild winters.", "Rainfall is scant.", "The weather is cooler in the highlands, and frosts occur at maximum elevations.", "In the desert interior, despite the relatively high elevation, the climate has long, extremely hot summers and high diurnal temperature ranges due to the permanence of cloudless skies and excessively dry atmosphere.", "The highest purported temperature ever recorded was on 13 September 1922 at 'Aziziya, Libya, but in 2012 the World Meteorological Organization discredited the dubious reading and stated that Furnace Creek in Death Valley, California had recorded the real highest temperature in the world at .", "Less than 2% of the national territory receives enough rainfall for settled agriculture, the heaviest precipitation occurring in the Jabal al Akhdar zone of Cyrenaica, where annual rainfall of is recorded.", "All other areas of the country receive less than , and in the Sahara Desert or less occurs.", "Rainfall is often erratic, and a pronounced drought may extend over two seasons.", "For example, epic floods in 1945 left Tripoli underwater for several days, but two years later an unprecedentedly severe drought caused the loss of thousands of head of cattle.Deficiency in rainfall is reflected in an absence of permanent rivers or streams, and the approximately twenty perennial lakes are brackish or salty.", "In 1987 these circumstances severely limited the country's agricultural potential as a basis for the sound and varied economy Gaddafi sought to establish.", "The allocation of limited water is considered of sufficient importance to warrant the existence of the Secretariat of Dams and Water Resources, and damaging a source of water can be punished by a heavy fine or imprisonment.The government has constructed a network of dams in wadis, dry watercourses that become torrents after heavy rains.", "These dams are used both as water reservoirs and for flood and erosion control.", "The wadis are heavily settled because soil in their bottoms is often suitable for agriculture, and the high water table in their vicinity makes them logical locations for digging wells.", "In many wadis, however, the water table is declining at an alarming rate, particularly in areas of intensive agriculture and near urban centers.", "The government has expressed concern over this problem and because of it has diverted water development projects, particularly around Tripoli, to localities where the demand on underground water resources is less intense.", "It has also undertaken extensive reforestation projects.There are also numerous springs, those best suited for future development occurring along the scarp faces of the Jabal Nafusah and the Jabal al Akhdar.", "The most talked-about of the water resources, however, are the great subterranean aquifers of the desert.", "The best known of these lies beneath Kufra Oasis in southeastern Cyrenaica.", "An aquifer with even greater reputed capacity is located near the oasis community of Sabha in the southwestern desert.", "In the late 1970s, wells were drilled at Kufra and at Sabha as part of a major agricultural development effort.", "An even larger undertaking is the so-called Great Manmade River, initiated in 1984.It is intended to tap the tremendous aquifers of the Kufra, Sarir, and Sabha oases and to carry the resulting water to the Mediterranean coast for use in irrigation and industrial projects." ], [ "Terrain and land use", "'''Terrain:'''mostly barren, flat to undulating plains, plateaus, depressions'''Elevation extremes:'''''lowest point:''Sabkhat Ghuzayyil -47 m''highest point:''Bikku Bitti 2,267 m'''Natural resources:'''petroleum, natural gas, gypsum'''Land use:'''''arable land:''0.99%''permanent crops:''0.19%''other:''98.82% (2011)'''Irrigated land:'''4,700 km² (2003)'''Total renewable water resources:'''0.7 (2011)" ], [ "Environmental issues", "'''Natural hazards:'''hot, dry, dust-laden ghibli is a southern wind lasting one to four days in spring and fall; dust storms, sandstorms'''Environment - current issues:'''desertification; very limited natural fresh water resources; the Great Manmade River Project, the largest water development scheme in the world, is being built to bring water from large aquifers under the Sahara to coastal cities'''Environment - international agreements:'''''party to:''Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands''signed, but not ratified:''Law of the Sea" ], [ "Extreme points", "This is a list of the extreme points of Libya, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.", "* Northernmost point – Ras Ajdir at the point where the border with Tunisia enters the Mediterranean Sea, Nuqat al Khams District* Easternmost point – Marsa er Ramla at the point where the border with Egypt enters the Mediterranean Sea, Butnan District* Southernmost point - the tripoint with Chad and Sudan, Kufra District* Westernmost point - unnamed point on the border with Algeria immediately east of Ghadames, Nalut District" ], [ "See also", "CyrenaicaFezzanList of cities in LibyaTripolitaniaTransliteration of Libyan placenames" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "" ], [ "External links", " About Libya \| Libya Connected" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Libya" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Demographics of Libya''' is the demography of Libya, specifically covering population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, and religious affiliations, as well as other aspects of the Libyan population.", "The Libyan population resides in the country of Libya, a territory located on the Mediterranean coast of North Africa, to the west of and adjacent to Egypt.", "Libyans live in Tripoli.", "It is the capital of the country and first in terms of urban population, along with Benghazi, Libya's second largest city." ], [ "History", "Demographics of Libya, Data of Our World in Data, year 2021; Number of inhabitants in millions.", "Historically Berber, over the centuries, Libya has been occupied by the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, and Italians.", "The Phoenicians had a big impact on Libya.", "Many of the coastal towns and cities of Libya were founded by the Phoenicians as trade outposts within the southern Mediterranean coast in order to facilitate the Phoenician business activities in the area.", "Starting in the 8th century BCE, Libya was under the rule of the Phoenician Carthage.", "After the Romans defeated Carthage in the Third Punic War, Libya became a Roman province under the name of Tripolitania until the 7th century CE when Libya was conquered by the Arab Muslims as part of the Arab conquest of North Africa, and Arab migrations to the region began since then.", "In the 11th century, major migrations of Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym from the Arabian Peninsula to Libya began, with other nomadic tribes from Eastern Arabia.", "Centuries after that, the Ottoman Empire conquered Libya in 1551.It remained in control of its territory until 1911 when the country was conquered by Italy.", "In the 18th century Libya was used as the base for various pirates.", "The story of the Awlad Sulayman, an Arab group from present-day Libya dominated northern Lake Chad in the 19th century.", "Since the Middle Ages, the populations of this region have shared close political, economic, and social ties maintained by the mobility specific to the nomadic way of life.", "These relationships, fluid due to the difficulties of surviving in this difficult environment, have always been structured in turn, through conflict and cooperation, both of which produced rapidly changing alliances.", "In the middle of the 18th century, the Awlad Sulayman carved out a vast area of influence for themselves in Sirte and Fezzan by force of arms and by their alliances with neighboring peoples and the Libian administration.", "Defeated by the Ottoman administration in Tripoli at the end of the 1830s, the survivors of the Awlad Sulayman took refuge in the Lake Chad basin where they reconstituted the conditions for their success in Libya; they controlled trans-Saharan trade and maintained their links with Libian society.", "Despite the limits imposed on their action by the French colonization of Chad and the Italian colonization of Libia; the Awlad Sulayman retained regional influence during colonial times and appear to maintain it today.In the Second World War Libya was one of the main battlegrounds of North Africa.", "During the war, the territory was under an Anglo-French military government until it was overrun by the Axis Powers, who, in turn, were defeated by the Allies in 1943.In 1951, the country was granted independence by the United Nations, being governed by King Idris.", "In 1969, a military coup led by Muammar Gaddafi resulted in the overthrow of King Idris I. Gaddafi then established an anti-Western leadership.", "In 1970, Gaddafi ordered all British and American military bases closed.The Libyan population has increased rapidly after 1969.They were only 2 million in 1968, and 5 million in 2006..", "Many migrant workers came to Libya since 1969.Among the workers were construction workers and laborers from Tunisia, teachers and laborers from Egypt, teachers from Palestine, and doctors and nurses from Yugoslavia and Bulgaria.", "1,000,000 workers, mainly from other neighboring African countries like Sudan, Niger, Chad and Mali, migrated to Libya in the 1990s, after changes were made to Libya's Pan-African policies.Gaddafi used money from the sale of oil to improve the living conditions of the population and to assist Palestinian guerrillas in their fight against the Israelis.", "In 1979, Libya fought in Uganda to assist the government of Idi Amin in the Ugandan Civil War, and in 1981, fought in the Libyan-Chadian War.", "Libya had occupied the Aozou Strip; however, in 1990 the International Court of Justice submitted the case and allowed the full recuperation of territory to Chad.In September 2008, Italy and Libya signed a memorandum by which Italy would pay $5 billion over the next 20 years to compensate Libya for its dominion over Libya for its reign of 30 years.Since 2011, the country is swept by Libyan Civil War, which broke out between the Anti-Gaddafi rebels and the Pro-Gaddafi government in 2011, culminating in the death and overthrow of Gaddafi.", "Nevertheless, even today Libya still continues to generate problems within the area and beyond, greatly affecting its population and the migrant route to Europe.Under Gaddhafi the country had oil income and a level of stability, allowing birthrates to fall to 2.56 by 2010.However, with instability, the government in Libya announced population of 7.7 million as of Oct 2022, indicating a substantial population boom and/or migration.", "Since migration is less likely, birthrates probably soared as women no longer afforded security of the old regime, about 10-15% higher than expected." ], [ "Population", "Population pyramid for Libya in 2011Bayda.", "In 2019, about 28 % of the population was under the age of 15.Libya has a small population residing in a large land area.", "Population density is about 50 persons per km2 (130/sq.", "mi.)", "in the two northern regions of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, but falls to less than one person per km2 (2.7/sq.", "mi.)", "elsewhere.", "Ninety percent of the people live in less than 10% of the area, primarily along the coast.", "About 90% of the population is urban, mostly concentrated in the four largest cities, Tripoli, Benghazi, Misrata and Bayda.", "As of 2019, twenty-eight percent of the population is estimated to be under the age of 15, but this proportion has decreased considerably during the past decades.", "The majority of the population of Libya is composed of Arabs.Total population (x 1000)Population aged 0–14 (%)Population aged 15–64 (%)Population aged 65+ (%) 1950 1 029 41.9 53.4 4.7 1955 1 126 43.0 52.7 4.3 1960 1 349 43.3 52.7 4.0 1965 1 623 43.4 53.0 3.6 1970 1 994 45.2 52.1 2.7 1975 2 466 46.5 51.3 2.2 1980 3 063 47.0 50.7 2.2 1985 3 850 47.3 50.5 2.3 1990 4 334 43.5 53.9 2.6 1995 4 775 38.3 58.8 2.9 2000 5 231 32.4 64.2 3.4 2005 5 770 30.6 65.6 3.8 2010 6 355 30.4 65.3 4.3" ], [ "Age distribution", "Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (1.VII.2015) (Data refer to Libyan nationals only.", "):Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% '''Total''' '''3 129 026''' '''3 033 221''' '''6 162 247''' '''100''' 0–4 316 497 299 059 615 556 9.99 5–9 297 303 280 602 577 905 9.38 10–14 284 318 270 831 555 149 9.01 15–19 268 106 257 009 525 115 8.52 20–24 278 875 267 533 546 408 8.87 25–29 289 113 282 117 571 230 9.27 30–34 287 480 281 354 568 834 9.23 35–39 279 699 271 907 551 606 8.95 40–44 235 088 231 285 466 373 7.57 45–49 180 029 180 796 360 825 5.86 50–54 126 799 126 848 253 647 4.12 55–59 87 135 86 625 173 760 2.82 60–64 56 199 59 834 116 033 1.89 65–69 51 782 50 863 102 645 1.67 70–74 38 750 33 736 72 486 1.18 75-79 26 942 25 616 52 558 0.85 80-84 15 038 15 233 30 271 0.49 85+ 9 873 11 973 21 846 0.35Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 898 118 850 492 1 748 610 28.38 15–64 2 088 523 2 045 308 4 133 831 67.08 65+ 142 385 137 421 279 806 4.54" ], [ "Population history", "===Population census===Eight population censuses have been carried out in Libya, the first in 1931 and the most recent one in 2006.The population multiplied sixfold between 1931 and 2006.Year Males (thousands) Females (thousands) Total population (thousands) Average annual growth rate (%)193170419364633868493.819545645241,0891.41964 (July 31)8137511,5643.71973 (July 31)1,1921,0572,2494.11984 (July 31)1,9541,6893,6434.51995 (August 11)2,2372,1684,4051.72006 (April 15)2,9342,7235,6582.3" ], [ "Vital statistics", "During the past 60 years the demographic situation of Libya changed considerably.", "Since the 1950s, life expectancy increased steadily and the infant mortality rates decreased.", "As the fertility rates remained high until the 1980s (the number of births tripled between 1950–55 and 1980–85), population growth was very high for three decades.", "However, after 1985 a fast decrease in fertility was observed from over 7 children per woman in the beginning of the 1980s to less than 3 in 2005–2010.Because of this decrease in fertility the population growth slowed down and also the proportion of Libyans under the age of 15 decreased from 45% in 1985 to 29% in 2010.===Births and deaths===PeriodPopulation(thousands)Live births (thousands)Deaths (thousands)Natural change (thousands)CBRCDRNCTFRIMRLife expectancy (years)19501 131 53 36 1747.031.815.26.93232.833.591951 1 143 54 36 1747.131.815.36.94233.933.551952 1 158 55 37 1847.332.115.26.95235.433.311953 1 176 56 38 1947.932.015.97.03235.333.471954 1 198 58 38 2048.431.816.67.08233.533.781955 1 226 60 38 2148.931.417.67.14230.134.291956 1 259 62 38 2449.430.718.87.20225.135.121957 1 296 64 38 2649.929.820.17.26218.536.081958 1 336 67 38 2950.228.721.57.31210.337.281959 1 379 69 38 3150.327.422.97.33200.938.751960 1 427 72 37 3550.526.024.57.37190.440.271961 1 479 75 36 3950.724.426.37.45179.342.061962 1 535 78 35 4351.122.928.27.55168.143.841963 1 595 82 34 4851.721.730.07.70157.545.311964 1 652 86 33 5252.020.231.87.82147.047.141965 1 700 89 32 5651.919.032.97.91137.848.661966 1 740 90 31 5851.217.833.37.99129.550.131967 1 779 89 30 5949.916.833.18.02121.551.391968 1 819 89 29 6048.615.633.08.05113.852.711969 1 863 89 27 6247.514.533.08.08106.754.001970 1 909 89 26 6346.413.532.98.1099.855.191971 1 958 89 25 6545.512.632.98.1393.456.341972 2 013 89 24 6644.311.732.68.1087.557.491973 2 084 90 23 6743.411.032.48.0782.158.291974 2 179 94 22 7243.310.133.28.0277.259.591975 2 292 97 21 7542.69.433.27.9672.660.811976 2 414 100 21 8041.98.633.27.9068.662.061977 2 542 104 21 8341.38.233.17.8264.962.791978 2 676 108 20 8840.77.733.07.7161.663.571979 2 817 112 20 9240.17.332.97.5858.664.261980 2 963 113 20 9338.56.931.77.2255.864.891981 3 112 115 20 9437.16.530.67.0253.265.361982 3 265 118 20 9736.36.330.16.8350.865.811983 3 424 121 20 10035.66.029.66.6348.566.411984 3 565 124 20 10334.85.729.16.4446.366.871985 3 684 126 20 10634.45.528.86.2444.267.291986 3 800 128 20 10833.75.328.46.0242.067.771987 3 912 128 20 10832.95.127.75.7940.068.201988 4 022 128 20 10831.95.026.95.5338.168.621989 4 130 127 20 10730.74.825.95.2636.268.991990 4 237 125 20 10529.54.724.84.9734.469.421991 4 342 123 20 10328.34.523.74.6732.769.821992 4 445 120 20 10127.14.422.74.3831.370.231993 4 545 118 20 9825.94.321.64.1129.970.421994 4 641 116 20 9624.94.320.73.8628.770.711995 4 733 114 20 9424.14.220.03.6427.771.091996 4 820 113 20 9323.54.219.33.4426.771.281997 4 902 112 21 9122.84.318.53.2725.871.131998 4 981 111 22 8922.24.417.83.1125.171.081999 5 058 110 23 8721.64.517.22.9724.371.062000 5 155 109 24 8521.24.716.52.8523.770.682001 5 276 119 25 9422.64.717.92.9723.070.862002 5 405 123 25 9822.84.718.12.9122.471.002003 5 543 127 26 10223.14.718.42.8621.671.132004 5 688 132 26 10623.34.518.82.8120.771.492005 5 838 138 26 11123.64.519.12.7719.771.592006 5 973 142 27 11523.84.519.32.7018.571.722007 6 097 144 27 11623.64.519.12.6517.271.862008 6 228 146 27 11823.44.419.02.6016.172.272009 6 360 147 28 11923.14.418.72.5615.172.362010 6 492 153 29 12423.64.519.12.6014.272.372011 6 188 158 36 12223.95.518.42.6515.070.072012 5 870 129 29 9922.05.016.92.6813.072.252013 5 985 131 30 10121.95.116.82.7212.572.342014 6 098 134 33 10121.95.416.52.7512.371.512015 6 192 131 34 9821.25.415.82.7111.971.702016 6 282 129 34 9520.65.515.12.6711.571.762017 6 378 127 34 9319.95.314.62.6310.972.482018 6 478 125 34 9119.35.214.02.5810.572.792019 6 569 123 36 8718.75.513.32.5410.472.462020 6 654 122 37 8518.35.612.72.519.972.472021 6 735 12041 8017.86.011.82.469.371.91Source: UN DESA, World Population Prospects, 2022Life expectancy in Libya since 1950Life expectancy in Libya since 1960 by gender" ], [ "Other demographic statistics", "Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.", "One birth every 4 minutes\tOne death every 15 minutes\tOne net migrant every 288 minutes\tNet gain of one person in the population of Libya every 6 minutes.." ], [ "CIA World Factbook demographic statistics", "The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook.===Population===:7,137,931 (2022 est.", "):6,754,507 (July 2018 est.", "):note: immigrants make up just over 12% of the total population, according to UN data (2019)===Religions===:Muslim (official; virtually all Sunni) 96.6%, Christian 2.7%, Buddhist <1%, Hindu <1%, Jewish <1%, folk religion <1%, other <1%, unafilliated <1% (2020 est.", "):note: non-Sunni Muslims include native Ibadhi Muslims (<1% of the population) and foreign Muslims===Age structure===Population population of Libya in 2020:0-14 years: 33.65% (male 1,184,755/female 1,134,084):15-24 years: 15.21% (male 534,245/female 513,728):25-54 years: 41.57% (male 1,491,461/female 1,373,086):55-64 years: 5.52% (male 186,913/female 193,560):65 years and over: 4.04% (male 129,177/female 149,526) (2020 est.", "):0-14 years: 25.53% (male 882,099/ female 842,320):15-24 years: 16.81% (male 582,247/ female 553,004):25-54 years: 47.47% (male 1,684,019/ female 1,522,027):55-64 years: 5.77% (male 197,196/ female 192,320):65 years and over: 4.43% (male 147,168/ female 152,107) (2018 est.", ")===Median age===:total: 25.8 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 156th:male: 25.9 years:female: 25.7 years (2020 est.", "):total: 29.4 years:male: 29.5 years:female: 29.2 years (2018 est.", ")===Population growth rate===:1.65% (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 57th:1.45% (2018 est.", ")===Birth rate===:21.56 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 62nd:17.2 births/1,000 population (2018 est.", ")===Death rate===:3.45 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 221st:3.7 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.", ")===Net migration rate===:-1.61 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 161st:0.9 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2018 est.", ")===Total fertility rate===:3.09 children born/woman (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 46th:3.71 children born/woman (2000 est.", "):3.01 children born/woman (2010 est.", "):2.12 children born/woman (2012 est.", "):2.03 children born/woman (2018 est.", ")===Contraceptive prevalence rate===:27.7% (2014)===Urbanization===:urban population: 80.1% of total population (2018):rate of urbanization: 1.68% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.", ")===Sex ratio===:at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female:0–14 years: 1.05 male(s)/female:15–24 years: 1.06 male(s)/female:25–54 years: 1.1 male(s)/female:55–64 years: 1.04 male(s)/female:65 years and over: 1.01 male(s)/female:total population: 1.07 male(s)/female (2017 est.", ")===Infant mortality rate===:total: 10.5 deaths/1,000 live births:male: 11.3 deaths/1,000 live births:female: 9.6 deaths/1,000 live births (2018 est.", ")===Urbanization===:urban population: 81.3% of total population (2022):rate of urbanization: 1.45% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.", ")===Life expectancy at birth===:Total population: 73.08 years.", "(2020 est.", ")::Male: 70.27 years.", "(2020 est.", "):Female: 76.11 years.", "(2020 est.", ")::::Total population: 73.44 years.", "(2022 est.", "):Male: 70.6 years.", "(2022 est.", ")::Female: 76.46 years.", "(2022 est.", "):Country comparison to the world: 110rd===Literacy===:Definition: The percentage of the population of a given age group that can read and write:Total population: 91%:Male: 96.7% :Female: 85.6% (2015)" ], [ "Ethnic and tribal groups", "Ethnic composition of the Libyan population in 1974 (CIA map)===Ethnic groups===97% of Libya's population is made up of Arabs and Berbers, of which 92% are Arabs and 5% are Berbers.The majority of the population of Libya is primarily Arab.", "Unofficial estimates put the number of Berbers in Libya at around 600,000, about 10% of the population of Libya.", "Among the Berber groups are the minority Berber populations of Zuwarah and the Nafusa Mountains, and the nomadic Tuareg, who inhabit the southwestern areas as well as parts of southeastern Algeria, northern Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso.", "In the southeast, there are small populations of Toubou (Tibbu).", "They occupy about a quarter of the country and also inhabit Niger and Chad.", "Among foreign residents, the largest groups are from other African nations, including citizens of other North African nations (primarily Egyptians) and West Africans.There are also a significant number of koroğlu families which are a mixed ethnic groups like Turks, circassians and some bosniaks and Albanians.===Tribal groups===Libyan society is to a large extent structured along tribal lines, with more than 20 major tribal groups.The major tribal groups of Libya in 2011 were listed:Tripolitan settled tribes: Misurata Ahali, Misurata Karagula, Geryan, Zawia, Misalata, Zwara Berber, KhumusTripolitan Bedouin tribes: Warfalla, Tarhona, Al-Zintan, Al-Rijban, Awlad SuleimanCyrenaican Bedouin tribes: Al-Awagir, Al-Abaydat, Drasa, Al-Barasa, Al-Fawakhir, Al-Zuwayya, Al-MajabraSirte Bedouin: Awlad Suleiman, Qadhadhfa, Al-Magarha, Al-Magharba, Al-Riyyah, Al-Haraba, Al-Zuwaid, Al-GuwaidFezzan: Awlad Suleiman, Hutman, Hassawna, Toubou, TuaregKufra: Al-Zuwayya; ToubouSome of the ancient Berber tribes include: Adyrmachidae, Auschisae, Es'bet, Temeh'u, Teh'nu, Rebu, Kehek, KeyKesh, Imukehek, Meshwesh, Macetae, Macatutae, Nasamones, Nitriotae, and Tautamaei.", "the major tribal groups of Libya, by region, were as follows: * Tripolitania: alawana-Souk El Joma'a, AL-Mahameed, Warfalla, Tarhona, Misurata tribes, Al-Jawary, Siyan Tribe, The Warshfana tribes, Zawia Groups, Ghryan Tribes, AL-Asabea, Al-Fwatir, Awlad Busayf, Zintan, Al-jbalya, Zwara, Alajelat, Al-Nawael tribe, Alalqa tribe, Al-Rijban, al Mashashi, Amaym.", "* Cyrenaica: AJ-JWAZY, Al-Awagir, Magharba, Al-Abaydat, Drasa, Al-Barasa, Al-Fawakhir, Zuwayya, Majabra, Awama, Minfa, Taraki, alawana, Shwa'ir and in Kufra Zuwayya, Toubou.", "* Sirte: Awlad Suleiman, Qadhadhfa, Magharba, Al-Hosoon, Ferrjan* Fezzan: Awlad Suleiman, Al-Riyyah, Magarha, Al-Zuwaid, Al-Hutman, Al-Hassawna; Toubou, Tuareg.", "* Kufra: Zuwayya; Toubou.===Foreign population===Migrant workers from Sub-Saharan AfricaThe foreign population is estimated at 3%, most of whom are migrant workers in the oil industry from Tunisia and Egypt, but also including small numbers of Greeks, Maltese, Italians, Pakistanis, Palestinians, Turks, Indians, and people from former Yugoslavia.", "Due to the Libyan Civil War, most of these migrant workers have returned to their homelands or simply left the country for a different one, however a good minority still work in Libya.According to news accounts in Allafrica.com, and the Libya Herald, between 1 million and 2 million Egyptians are resident in Libya with Sudanese and Tunisians numbering in the hundreds to thousands.", "There is also up to a million undocumented migrants mainly from sub-saharan africa residing in Libya." ], [ "Genetics", "===Y-chromosome===Analysis of Y-chromosome have found that the Libyan population is characterized by the high frequency of haplogroup J1-P58 (37.2%) and haplogroup E-M81 (33%).Listed here are the human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups in Libya taken from a sample of 215 unrelated males.", "Y-Haplogroup Frequency Percentage J1-P58 80 37.21 E1-M81(xM107, M165) 71 33.02 E1-M78 29 13.49 G2-P15 11 5.12 J2-M158 7 3.26 R1b-M343 5 2.33 E1-M123 4 1.86 E1-M2 3 1.40 J2-M92 2 0.93 E1-M35(xM78, M81, M123) 2 0.93 R1a 1 0.47 Total 215 100.00" ], [ "Religions", "The vast majority Libyans are nominally Sunni Muslim.", "Almost 3% of the population is Christian, with some local Christian church adherents in Eastern Libya - the Copts.", "A small Jewish community historically lived in Libya since antiquity (see History of the Jews in Libya), but almost the entire Jewish community in Libya eventually fled the country for Italy, Israel, or the United States, particularly after anti-Jewish riots in the wake of the 1967 Six-Day War between Arab countries and Israel.", "The final Jew in Libya, Esmeralda Meghnagi, died in 2002 ending the several millennia long Jewish ancestral body in Libya." ], [ "Culture", "===Cuisine===Libyan cuisine is mainly Arab and Mediterranean with Italian influence.", "Notable dishes include Shorba Arabiya, or Arabian soup, which is a thick, highly spiced soup.", "Like other Maghrebi countries, couscous and tajine are traditional of Libya.", "Bazeen is a traditional Libyan food, made from a mix of barley flour and a small amount of plain flour.===Music===Libyan music is largely Arab in nature, however some Andalusi and Berber cultures also exist.", "Libyan origin instruments are the Zukra (a bagpipe), a flute (made of bamboo), the tambourine, the oud (a fretless lute) and the darbuka (a goblet drum held sideways and played with the fingers).", "Bedouin poet-singers had a great influence on the musical folklore of Libya, particularly the style of ''huda'', the camel driver's song.===Language===The official language of Libya is Standard Arabic, while the most prevalent spoken language is Libyan Arabic.", "Arabic varieties are partly spoken by immigrant workers and partly by local Libyan populations.", "These varieties include Egyptian, Tunisian, Sudanese, Moroccan, Yemeni, Hassaniya and South Levantine Arabic.", "Minority Berber languages are still spoken by the Tuareg, a rural Berber population inhabiting Libya's south, and is spoken by about 300,000 in the north, about 5% of the Libyan population.Indigenous minority languages in Libya:Berber languages: ca.", "305,000 speakers (5% of the population)Nafusi: 184,000 speakers (2006) (3%)Tamahaq: 47,000 speakers (2006) (<1%)Ghadamès: 30,000 speakers (2006) (<1%)Sawknah: 5,600 speakers (2006) (<1%)Awjilah: 3,000 speakers (2000) (<1%)Domari: ca.", "33,000 speakers (2006) (<1%)Tedaga: 2,000 speakers (<1%)Non-Arabic languages had largely been spoken by foreign workers (who had been massively employed in Libya in various infrastructure projects prior to the 2011 civil war), and those languages with more than 10,000 speakers included Punjabi, Urdu, Mandarin, Cantonese, Korean, Sinhala, Bengal, Tamil, Tagalog, French, Italian, Ukrainian, Serbian, and English." ], [ "See also", " Health in Libya* List of Ashraf tribes in Libya" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Looklex Encyclopedia'''Attribution'''*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Libya" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''politics of Libya''' has been in an uncertain state since the collapse of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya in 2011 and a recent civil war and various jihadists and tribal elements controlling parts of the country.", "On 10 March 2021, the interim Government of National Unity (GNU), unifying the Second Al-Thani Cabinet and the Government of National Accord was formed, only to face new opposition in Government of National Stability, until Libyan Political Dialogue Forum assured the ongoing ceasefire." ], [ "Libyan Political Agreement (2015) & Political Atmosphere post-2015", "Members of that House of Representatives and the New General National Congress signed a political agreement on 18 December 2015.Under the terms of the agreement, a nine-member Presidential Council and a seventeen-member interim Government of National Accord was formed, with a view to holding new elections within two years.", "The House of Representatives would continue to exist as a legislature and an advisory body, to be known as the State Council, was formed with members nominated by the New General National Congress.This attempt at unification was unsuccessful, as three competing governments still remained by the end of 2016, disputes between which continuing until the formation of the GNU in 2015.Still, even with the establishment of this governmental structure, widespread human rights abuses exist throughout the country to this day; this is due to the lack of a central government to regulate the ten years of conflict that ensued after Gaddafi's reign.", "However, the country has made some democratic progress: Libya's score was trending upwards from 2011 to 2013 on the PolityIV authority trends scale, increasing from a -7 to a 1, shifting its categorization from “autocracy” to “anocracy.”" ], [ "House of Representatives", "The House of Representatives was formed following June 2014 elections, when the General National Congress formed as a transitional body after the Libyan Revolution dissolved.", "However, Islamists fared poorly in the low-turnout elections, and members of the Islamist-led GNC reconvened in August 2014, refusing to recognise the new parliament dominated by secularist and federalist lawmakers.", "Supporters of the New General National Congress swiftly seized control of Tripoli, Libya's constitutional capital, forcing the newly elected parliament into virtual exile in Tobruk, near the Egyptian border.", "The House of Representatives enjoys widespread international recognition as Libya's official government.", "However, the Tripoli-based Supreme Court declared it illegal and voided the results of the election in November 2014.The court ruling was hailed by the GNC and its backers, but it was rejected as invalid by the House of Representatives and its loyalists.Against this backdrop of division, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and Ansar al-Sharia, as well as other militant groups both religious and tribal in nature, have seized control of several cities and districts across Libya, especially in Cyrenaica, which is theoretically under the control of the Tobruk-based government.", "A number of commentators have described Libya as a failed state or suggested it is on the verge of failure." ], [ "General National Congress", "The General National Congress (also translated as ''General National Council'') was the legislative authority of Libya.", "It was elected by popular vote on 7 July 2012, and from 8 August replaced the National Transitional Council that had governed the country since the end of the Libyan Civil War.", "The General National Congress was composed of 200 members of which 80 were elected through a party list system of proportional representation, and 120 were elected as independents in multiple-member districts.The executive branch was appointed by the GNC and led by the Prime Minister, while the President of the GNC was the ''de facto'' head of state, though not explicitly described as such in the Declaration.", "The main responsibility of the GNC was to form a constituent assembly which would write Libya's permanent constitution, for approval by a referendum.", "The law of Libya is based on sharia.On 30 March 2014, the General National Congress voted to replace itself with a new House of Representatives.", "The new legislature would allocate 30 seats for women, would have 200 seats overall (with individuals able to run as members of political parties) and allow Libyans of foreign nationalities to run for office.", "While elections were held and lawmakers took office, the former General National Congress rejected the results and reconvened in opposition to the new parliament, which now meets in the eastern Libyan city of Tobruk.In early December 2015 both parliaments, the GNC and the House of Representatives, agreed a declaration of principles calling for the formation of a joint ten-person committee to name an interim prime minister and two deputies, leading to new elections within two years." ], [ "Changes after the 2011 Civil War", "Political parties were banned in Libya from 1972 until the removal of Gaddafi's government, and all elections were nonpartisan under law.", "However, during the revolution, the National Transitional Council (NTC), a body formed on 27 February 2011 by anti-Gaddafi forces to act as the \"political face of the revolution\", made the introduction of multiparty democracy a cornerstone of its agenda.", "In June 2011, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi said his father would agree to internationally monitored general elections, and would step down if he lost them, but his offer was refused by the rebels and ignored by the UN Security Council.On 8 March, the NTC issued a statement in which it declared itself to be the \"sole representative all over Libya\".The council formed an interim governing body on 23 March.", "As of 20 October 100 countries declared full support to the council by severing all relations with Gaddafi's rule and recognizing the National Transitional Council as the rightful representative of Libya.On 3 August 2011, the NTC issued a Constitutional Declaration which declared the statehood of Libya as a democracy with Islam as its state religion, in which the state guarantees the rule of law and an independent judiciary as well as civic and human basic rights (including freedom of religion and women's rights), and which contains provisions for a phase of transition to a presidential republic with an elected national assembly and a democratically legitimized constitution by 2013.Vice Chairman Abdul Hafiz Ghoga declared Libya to be \"liberated\" on 23 October 2011, announcing an official end to the war.", "Chairman Mustafa Abdul Jalil said Libya would become an Islamic democracy in the wake of Gaddafi's death, though the extent of Islamic law's influence would be determined by elected lawmakers.", "Ghoga later confirmed that Libya will continue to adhere to all international agreements to which it was signatory prior to the uprising.On 7 July 2012 an election was held for the General National Congress (GNC) to replace the NTC.", "There were 2,501 candidates for the 200 seats – 136 for political parties and 64 for independent candidates.", "About 300 candidates' views were considered unacceptable and removed from candidates list, suspected of sympathizing with the defeated forces of the Jamahiriya.", "Accreditation centers have also been organized in European cities with larger Libyan communities like Berlin and Paris, in order to allow Libyan nationals there to cast their vote.", "On 8 August 2012 the NTC officially dissolved and transferred power to the General National Congress." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "On 7 July 2012, the Legislative body – the General National Congress – was elected.=== List of parties with seats in the General National Congress ===* National Forces Alliance* Justice & Construction* National Front* Wadi al-Hiya Alliance* Union for Homeland* National Centrist Party* Libyan National Democratic Party* The Message* The Foundation* National Party For Development and Welfare* Nation & Prosperity* Authenticity & Renewal* Authenticity & Progress* Moderate Umma Assembly* Libik Watani* National Gathering of Wadi al-Shati* Moderate Youth Party* Libyan List for Freedom & Development* National Coalition of Parties* Libya the Hope* Wisdom Party=== List of parties without seats in the General National Congress ===* Libyan Popular National Movement* Democratic Party* Homeland Party* Party of Reform and Development* Libyan Constitutional Union* Libyan Amazigh Congress* Alhaq and Democracy Party of Benghazi* Libyan National Congress Party* New Libya Party* National Unity of Libya Party* Freedom and Development Party of Libya* The Patriotic Reform Party* National Solidarity Party* The Libyan National Party* Umma Party* Justice and Democracy Party of Libya* Libya Future Party* Libyan Center Party* National Democratic Assembly for Justice and Progress* Libya Development Party* Libyan Universal Party* National Democratic Alliance* New National Congress Party* Tawasul Party* Libyan National Democratic Party for Justice and Development* Libya Our Home and Tribe Party* Libyan Liberation Party* Libya for All Party* Popular Front for the Liberation of Libya* Unity Movement* Democratic Youth Party* National Democratic Assembly* Wefaq Party* Libyan National Democratic Assemblage* Ansar Al Horria* Libyan Unionist Party" ], [ "International organization participation", "The National Transitional Council has pledged to honor Libya's international commitments until the 2012 elections.Libya is a member of ABEDA, AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, AMU, AU, CAEU, ECA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, MONUC, NAM, OAPEC, OIC, OPEC, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHRC (suspended), UNIDO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, UNWTO and UNHABITAT." ], [ "Libyan politics under Muammar Gaddafi", "After originally rising to power through a military ''coup d'état'' in 1969, Colonel Muammar Gaddafi's governance of Libya became increasingly centric on the teachings of his ''Green Book'', which he published in the mid-1970s chapter by chapter as a foundation for a new form of government.", "This ''jamahiriya'', as he called it, was supposedly a form of direct democracy in which power was balanced between a General People's Congress, consisting of 2,700 representatives of Basic People's Congresses, and an executive General People's Committee, headed by a General Secretary, who reported to the Prime Minister and the President.", "However, Gaddafi retained virtually all power, continuing to operate and control vestiges of the military junta put in place in 1969.Gaddafi's authoritarian rule, a transition from the former monarchical structure, aligns with Samuels' finding that most military coups spark change from one form of non-democratic government to another.", "Gaddafi acted as a military/personalist leader during his 42-year reign, nearly tripling the average ruling length of 15.1 years for this regime type, as found by political scientist Barbara Geddes in her 1999 publication.", "Still, Gaddafi's regime did follow many of the military/personalist tropes that Geddes outlined: failing after its leader's death, relying on unstable personal networks to rule, and facing military opposition during the reign.The Libyan revolt of 2011 that ultimately ended Gaddafi's reign was partially inspired by both Tunisia and Egypt's attempted democratization, demonstrating the neighborhood effect: a theory that postulates countries will be influenced by their neighbors when adopting regime types.===Wanted figures===Interpol on 4 March 2011 issued a security alert concerning the \"possible movement of dangerous individuals and assets\" based on United Nations Security Council Resolution 1970, which imposed a travel ban and asset freeze.", "The warning lists Gaddafi himself and 15 key members of his government:# Muammar Gaddafi: Responsibility for ordering repression of demonstrations, human rights abuses.", "Killed 20 October 2011 in Sirte# Dr. Baghdadi Mahmudi: Head of the Liaison Office of the Revolutionary Committees.", "Revolutionary Committees involved in violence against demonstrators.# Abuzed Omar Dorda: Director, External Security Organisation.", "Government loyalist.", "Head of external intelligence agency.# Major General Abu-Bakr Yunis Jabr: Defense Minister.", "Overall responsibility for actions of armed forces.# Ayesha Gaddafi: Daughter of Muammar Gaddafi.", "Closeness of association with government.# Hannibal Muammar Gaddafi: Son of Muammar Gaddafi.", "Closeness of association with government.# Mutassim Gaddafi: National Security Adviser.", "Son of Muammar Gaddafi.", "Closeness of association with government# Al-Saadi Gaddafi: Commander Special Forces.", "Son of Muammar Gaddafi.", "Closeness of association with government.", "Command of military units involved in repression of demonstrations.# Saif al-Islam Gaddafi: Director, Gaddafi Foundation.", "Son of Muammar Gaddafi.", "Closeness of association with government.", "Inflammatory public statements encouraging violence against demonstrators.# Abdulqader Yusef Dibri: Head of Muammar Gaddafi's personal security.", "Responsibility for government security.", "History of directing violence against dissidents.# Matuq Mohammed Matuq: Secretary for Utilities.", "Senior member of government.", "Involvement with Revolutionary Committees.", "Past history of involvement in suppression of dissent and violence.# Sayyid Mohammed Qadhaf Al-dam: Cousin of Muammar Gaddafi.", "In the 1980s, Sayyid was involved in the dissident assassination campaign and allegedly responsible for several deaths in Europe.", "He is also thought to have been involved in arms procurement.# Khamis Gaddafi: Son of Muammar Gaddafi.", "Closeness of association with government.", "Command of military units involved in repression of demonstrations.# Muhammad Gaddafi: Son of Muammar Gaddafi.", "Closeness of association with government.# Saif al-Arab Gaddafi: Son of Muammar Gaddafi.", "Closeness of association with government.# Colonel Abdullah Senussi: Director Military Intelligence.", "Military Intelligence involvement in suppression of demonstrations.", "Past history includes suspicion of involvement in Abu Selim prison massacre.", "Convicted in absentia for bombing of UTA flight.", "Brother-in-law of Muammar Gaddafi.The NTC has been in negotiations with Algeria and Niger, neighboring countries to which members of the government and defecting military commanders have fled, attempting to secure the arrest and extradition of Al-Saadi Gaddafi and others.Of these officials, Baghdadi Mahmudi and Abuzed Omar Dorda were arrested, while Saif al-Arab Gaddafi was killed by a NATO airstrike during the war, Khamis Gaddafi was killed in action after the fall of Tripoli, and Muammar and Mutassim Gaddafi, as well as Abu-Bakr Yunis Jabr, were killed during the fall of Sirte." ], [ "See also", "* Green Resistance* General People's Committee of Libya* List of diplomatic missions of Libya" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* \"Gaddafi Plays Quietly, But He's Still in the Game,\" ''The New York Times'', 17 March 1991* Chief of state and cabinet members , ''CIA Factbook, as of 17 March 2010*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Libya" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Libya''' depends primarily on revenues from the petroleum sector, which represents over 95% of export earnings and 60% of GDP.", "These oil revenues and a small population have given Libya one of the highest nominal per capita GDP in Africa.After 2000, Libya recorded favorable growth rates with an estimated 10.6% growth of GDP in 2010.This development was interrupted by the Libyan Civil War, which resulted in contraction of the economy by 62.1% in 2011.After the war, the economy rebounded by 104.5% in 2012.It crashed again following the Second Libyan Civil War.", "As of 2017, Libya's per capita PPP GDP stands at 60% of its pre-war level." ], [ "Macroeconomic trends", "Libyan GDP per capita was about $40 in the early 1920s and it rose to $1,018 by 1967.In 1947 alone, per capita GDP rose by 42 percent.The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2021 (with IMF staff estimates in 2022–2027).", "Inflation below 5% is in green.", "The annual unemployment rate is extracted from the World Bank, although the International Monetary Fund find them unreliable.YearGDP(in Bil.", "US$PPP)GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in Bil.", "US$nominal)GDP per capita(in US$ nominal)GDP growth(real)Inflation rate(in Percent)Unemployment(in Percent)Government debt(in % of GDP)198097.832,745.540.213,449.60.6%14.3%n/an/a198185.627,398.534.711,107.6-20.0%13.2%n/an/a198292.328,202.734.610,575.61.5%13.8%n/an/a198391.426,800.233.09,671.5-4.7%10.5%n/an/a198486.824,406.130.98,681.2-8.3%12.4%n/an/a198590.125,471.430.48,586.40.6%9.1%n/an/a198681.522,172.124.86,734.0-11.4%3.4%n/an/a198771.218,585.123.06,002.1-14.7%4.4%n/an/a198879.318,346.525.95,981.67.6%3.1%n/an/a198988.419,550.027.46,070.17.2%4.5%n/an/a199095.122,327.731.67,424.23.7%0.7%n/a4.7%1991116.326,685.335.08,026.318.3%11.7%19.8%9.6%1992113.625,468.735.57,950.5-4.5%9.5%20.0%1.2%1993109.924,106.131.96,998.3-5.5%7.5%20.0%-4.6%1994115.924,921.729.76,391.13.2%10.7%19.9%-1.6%1995100.121,064.933.77,102.9-15.4%8.3%20.0%4.8%1996103.721,422.236.87,608.81.8%4.0%19.8%12.2%1997102.720,872.437.77,663.0-2.6%3.6%19.8%-1.3%1998103.120,587.930.96,171.8-0.7%3.7%19.8%-1.5%1999104.420,511.037.17,294.5-0.2%2.6%19.7%6.4%2000111.121,444.439.57,625.04.0%-2.9%19.7%13.6%2001116.622,161.235.26,693.12.6%-8.8%19.7%0.4%2002114.021,343.221.13,956.5-3.7%-9.9%19.6%7.0%2003135.024,905.227.04,986.316.1%-2.1%19.5%6.2%2004146.726,626.334.16,180.45.8%1.3%19.5%11.3%2005167.429,942.748.98,739.210.6%2.7%19.4%30.4%2006173.030,408.660.110,561.40.3%1.5%19.4%29.1%2007188.832,659.568.211,801.36.2%6.2%19.4%28.4%2008192.132,666.686.814,762.6-0.2%10.4%19.4%27.7%2009184.831,007.560.810,202.8-4.4%2.4%19.4%-5.5%2010196.432,515.475.412,478.05.0%2.5%19.3%11.5%201199.616,810.948.28,132.3-50.3%15.9%19.4%-11.5%2012172.527,458.892.514,728.186.8%6.1%19.0%24.6%2013144.523,054.575.412,025.6-18.0%2.6%19.5%-16.3%2014126.920,273.657.49,166.6-23.0%2.4%19.5%-30.5%2015137.221,709.948.77,706.7-0.8%10.0%19.5%-28.5%2016137.421,520.749.97,817.6-1.5%25.9%19.5%-29.3%2017154.423,949.367.210,414.132.5%25.9%19.4%-11.1%2018170.726,207.076.711,773.87.9%14.0%19.5%9.4%2019154.323,454.969.210,526.3-11.2%-2.9%19.7%11.9%2020110.116,575.146.97,056.7-29.5%1.5%20.1%-22.3%2021147.121,929.039.05,813.328.3%2.8%19.6%11.3%2022128.418,944.740.86,025.7-18.5%5.5%n/a15.8%2023156.722,899.543.86,391.817.9%4.0%n/a22.1%2024172.824,997.245.66,599.08.0%3.0%n/a18.8%2025188.827,034.747.76,836.37.2%3.0%n/a16.5%2026200.528,434.649.16,964.64.2%3.0%n/a13.5%2027212.829,874.150.57,096.04.1%3.1%n/a9.7%Notes:1.For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US Dollar is exchanged at 0.77 Libyan Dinars only.Mean wages were $9.51 per man-hour in 2009 (amounts to a compensation of $1598 for 21 working days of 8 hours)." ], [ "Oil sector", "Development of oil production in LibyaLibya is an OPEC member and holds the largest proven oil reserves in Africa (followed by Nigeria and Algeria), as of January 2007, up from in 2006.About 80% of Libya's proven oil reserves are located in the Sirte Basin, which is responsible for 90% of the country's oil output.", "The state-owned National Oil Corporation (NOC) dominates Libya's oil industry, along with smaller subsidiaries, which combined account for around 50% of the country's oil output.", "Among NOC's subsidiaries, the largest oil producer is the Waha Oil Company (WOC), followed by the Agoco, Zueitina Oil Company (ZOC), and Sirte Oil Company (SOC).", "Oil resources, which account for approximately 95% of export earnings, 75% of government receipts, and over 50% of GDP.", "Oil revenues constitute the principal foreign exchange source.", "Reflecting the heritage of the command economy, three-quarters of employment is in the public sector, and private investment remains small at around 2% of GDP.A map of world oil reserves according to U.S. EIA, 2017Falling world oil prices in the early 1980s and economic sanctions caused a serious decline in economic activity, eventually leading to a slow private sector rehabilitation.", "At 2.6% per year on average, real GDP growth was modest and volatile during the 1990s.", "Libya's GDP grew in 2001 due to high oil prices, the end of a long cyclical drought, and increased foreign direct investment following the suspension of UN sanctions in 1999.Real GDP growth has been boosted by high oil revenues, reaching 4.6% in 2004 and 3.5% in 2005.Despite efforts to diversify the economy and encourage private sector participation, extensive controls of prices, credit, trade, and foreign exchange constrain growth.Although UN sanctions were suspended in 1999, foreign investment in the Libyan gas and oil sectors were severely curtailed due to the U.S. Iran and Libya Sanctions Act (ILSA), which capped the amount foreign companies can invest in Libya yearly at $20 million (lowered from $40 million in 2001).", "As of May 2006, the U.S. has removed Libya from its list of states that sponsor terrorism and has normalised ties and removed sanctions.", "This clears the road for U.S. oil companies to exploit Libyan oil and is expected to have a positive impact on the Libyan economy.", "The NOC hopes to raise oil production from 1.80 million bpd in 2006 to 2 million bpd by 2008.FDI into the oil sector is likely, which is attractive due to its low cost of oil recovery, high oil quality, and proximity to European markets.", "Most Libyan oil is sold on a term basis, including to the country's Oilinvest marketing network in Europe; to companies like Agip, OMV, Repsol YPF, Tupras, CEPSA, and Total; and small volumes to Asian and South African companies.", "Statistic Amount Proven Oil Reserves (2007E) Oil Production (2006E) (95% crude) Oil Consumption (2006E) Net Oil Exports (2006E) Crude Oil Distillation Capacity (2006E) Proven Natural Gas Reserves (2007E) Natural Gas Production (2006E) Natural Gas consumption (2005E) Notes:1.Energy Information Administration (2007)===Field Development and Exploration===Oil is Libya's major resource.In November 2005, Repsol YPF discovered a significant oil deposit of light, sweet crude in the Murzuq Basin.", "Industry experts believe the discovery to be one of the biggest made in Libya for several years.", "Repsol YPF is joined by a consortium of partners including OMV, Total and Norsk Hydro.", "Also located in Murzuq Basin is Eni's Elephant field.", "In October 1997, a consortium led by British company Lasmo, along with Eni and a group of five South Korean companies, announced that it had discovered large recoverable crude reserves about south of Tripoli.", "Lasmo estimated field production would cost around $1 per barrel.", "Elephant began production in February 2004.WOC's Waha fields currently produce around .", "In 2005, ConocoPhillips and co-venturers reached an agreement with NOC to return to its operations in Libya and extend the Waha concession 25 years.", "ConocoPhillips operates the Waha fields with a 16.33% share in the project.", "NOC has the largest share of the Waha concession, and additional partners include Marathon and Amerada Hess.===Refining and Downstream===Libya has five domestic refineries: Refinery Capacity Operator Zawia Refinery 120,000 ZOC Ras Lanuf Refinery 220,000 Ras Lanuf El-Brega Refinery 10,000 SOC Tobruk Refinery 20,000 Agoco Sarir Refinery 10,000 AgocoNotes:1.Amounts in barrels per day." ], [ "Diversification", "Pivot irrigation in Kufra, southeast Cyrenaica.", "Oil wealth has enabled Libya to pursue extravagant projects such as agriculture and the Great Manmade River in the Sahara Desert.Modern buildings in Tripoli before the wars, 2009In 2007, mining and hydrocarbon industries accounted for well over 95 percent of the Libyan economy.", "Diversification of the economy into manufacturing industries remain a long-term issue.Although agriculture is the second-largest sector in the economy, Libya depends on imports in most foods.", "Climatic conditions and poor soils severely limit farm output, and domestic food production meets only about 25% of demand.", "Domestic conditions limit output, while higher incomes and a growing population have caused food consumption to rise.", "Because of low rainfall levels in Libya, agricultural projects such as the Kufra oasis rely on underground water sources.", "Libya's primary agricultural water source remains the Great Manmade River (GMMR), but significant resources are being invested in desalinization research to meet growing demand.", "Libyan agricultural projects and policies are overseen by a General Inspector; there is no Ministry of Agriculture, ''per se''.Libya produced in 2018:* 348 thousand tons of potato;* 236 thousand tons of watermelon;* 215 thousand tons of tomato;* 188 thousand tons of olive;* 183 thousand tons of onion;* 176 thousand tons of date;* 138 thousand tons of wheat;* 93 thousand tons of barley;* 72 thousand tons of vegetable;* 60 thousand tons of plum;* 53 thousand tons of orange;In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products." ], [ "Tourism", "The tourism industry was heavily hit by the Libyan Civil War.", "Before the war tourism was developing, with 149,000 tourists visiting Libya in 2004, rising to 180,000 in 2007, although this still only contributed less than 1% of the country's GDP.", "There were 1,000,000 day visitors in the same year.", "The country is best known for its ancient Greek and Roman ruins and Sahara desert landscapes." ], [ "Labor market", "Libya posted a 3.3% rate of population growth during 1960–2003.In 2003, 86% of the population was urban, compared to 45% in 1970.Although no reliable estimates are available, unemployment is reportedly acute: over 50% of the population under the age of 20.Moreover, despite the bias of labor market regulations favoring Libyan workers, the mismatch of the educational system with market demand has produced a large pool of expatriate workers, with typically better-suited education and higher productivity.", "However, because of shortages for manual labor, Libya has also attracted important numbers of less skilled immigrants.", "Expatriate workers represent an estimated fifth of the labor force.Although significant, the proportion of expatriate workers is still below oil producing countries in the Persian Gulf.", "Foreign workers mainly come from the Maghreb, Egypt, Turkey, India, the Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, Poland, Chad, Sudan, and Bosnia and Herzegovina.", "They tend to earn relatively high wages, taking either skilled or hard manual jobs.", "Census data for 2000 show the share of expatriates earning over LD 300 (US$230) per month was 20%, compared to 12% for Libyan nationals.", "A campaign encouraging conversion of qualified civil servants to entrepreneurs, in the face of public sector over employment and declining productivity, does not seem to be producing the desired results thus far." ], [ "External trade and finance", "Libyan export destinations in 2006.The Government is in the process of preparing a financial sector reform program.", "Recent legislation setting corporate governance standards for financial institutions makes progress towards better management and greater operational independence of public banks.", "However, Libyan public banks still lack management structures supported by skills in critical areas like credit, investment, risk management, and information and control systems.The new banking law reinforces the independence of the Central Bank of Libya (CBL) and offers a legal framework for regulating banking activities, even if some provisions call for improvement.", "Despite progress brought by the new banking Law that specifies and limits its duties and responsibilities, the CBL remains the owner of the public banks, with the associated potential conflict of interest between ownership and regulation.Financial sector reform has also progressed with partial interest rate liberalization.", "Interest rates have been liberalized on deposits, while a lending rate ceiling has been set above the discount rate.", "The Libyan Stock Exchange, established in 2007, is the first exchange of its kind in the country.In 2011, Libya Oil Holdings had its €38m stake in Irish exploration firm Circle Oil frozen on foot of a European Union order that's been put in place to put pressure on the Gaddafi regime." ], [ "Statistics", "A proportional representation of Libyan exports.", "'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''''lowest 11%:''NA%''highest 10%:''NA%'''Industrial production growth rate:'''2.7% (2009)'''Electricity - production:'''24 billion kWh (2007 est)'''Electricity - production by source:'''''fossil fuel:''100%''hydro:''0%''nuclear:''0%''other:''0% (1998)'''Electricity - consumption:'''22.17 billion kWh (2007 est)'''Electricity - exports:'''104 million kWh (2007)'''Electricity - imports:'''77 million kWh (2007)'''Agriculture - products:'''wheat, barley, olives, dates, citrus, vegetables, peanuts, soybeans, cattle, corn" ], [ "International rankings", " Organisation Survey Ranking ''The Economist'' The World in 2005 - Worldwide quality-of-life index, 2005 70 out of 111 Energy Information Administration Greatest Oil Reserves by Country, 2006 9 out of 20 Reporters Without Borders Press Freedom Index (2007) 155 out of 169 Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 2007 131 out of 180 United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index 200558 out of 177" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Energy Information Administration (2007) ''Libya: Country Analysis Brief''* World Bank (2006), ''Libya: Economic Report'', Social & Economic Development Group* P. Mobbs (2002) ''Mineral Industry of Libya''* T. Ahlbrandt (2001) ''Sirte Basin Province: Sirte-Zelten Total Petroleum System'' USGS* Central Bank Of Libya Economic Bulletin Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya* National Authority for Information and Statistics, Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.", "* Pilat D., ''Innovation and Productivity in Services - State of the Art'', Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Directorate for Science, Technology, and Industry, Paris.", "2000* GSPLA.", "''Agriculture achievements in 20 years''.", "Secretariat of Agriculture Land Reclamation and Animal Wealth.", "1989* GSPLA.", "''Agriculture in Libya''.", "Facts and Figure 1970.", "* Mohamed Al Genedal.", "''Agriculture in Libya''.", "Arab Book Publishers 1978.", "* Ali Rahuma.", "''Cost of barley and wheat production in some state managed agricultural projects''.", "J. Agric.", "Res.", "1989* ''Future of food economics in the Arab State''.", "Vol.", "4.Statistics.", "1979.", "* ''Statistical index 1970''.", "Ministry of Economic and Planning." ], [ "See also", "* Central Bank of Libya* List of companies of Libya* List of banks in Libya* United Nations Economic Commission for: Africa & Western Asia" ], [ "External links", "* * Libya Connected - Business in Libya* History of Exploratation of the Petroleum Geology of Libya* Map of the oil and gas infrastructure in Libya" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Mass media in Libya" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mass media in Libya''' describes the overall environment for the radio, television, telephone, Internet, and newspaper markets in Libya.The control of the media by Colonel Gaddafi's regime came to an end after the fall of Tripoli in August 2011, resulting in a mushrooming of new media outlets.", "Journalists are still experiencing extortion and blackmail, and are subject to assassinations since the beginning of the second civil war circa 2012 - 2016.Libya has adopted a few media laws outlawing the slander of the 17th February revolution, and active political parties that used to have affiliation with Gaddafi.", "Update 2016: On 2013, Sharia law was adopted by Islamic Supreme court of Tripoli.", "Internet censorship has been invoked.", "Since the second civil war, journalists have been persecuted through kidnapping, assassination, and blackmail.", "Media outlets have been bombed and some strafed with small arms fire, over the course of 2013 - 2016.Freedom of speech has suffered a few blows since the killing of activists and bloggers making the country unsafe to freely report news or protest.", "These events appear to have happened during the period when Islamic brotherhood - or \"more inclined to Islamic values\" GNC political parties led by Nouri Abusahmein, who have issued a number of reforms or decrees that would formulate a more Islamic nation in Tripoli, that led to the creation of more fundamentalist laws (such as Internet censorship and adaptation of vague rules in reporting news banning critique of the February 17th revolution).However, due to the breakup of country politically and the infighting between militia and authorities, and the rivalry to the Muslim brotherhood or, simply known as 'more salafi or fundamentalist Islamists' parties or groups, the country has fragmented in a plethora of different political beliefs.", "Including, the laws recently adopted by the Libyan Supreme court that affect the running of the country, which do not represent the rights and interests of all Libyan people, but seemingly, only the Islamic majority.As of 2016, the new Unity government of national accord led by Faiez Seraj agreed to and organised with the help of the UN, is attempting to bring about political unity between the HoR of Tobruk and other governments to assess unity in the country, by removing the illegitimate and expired governments set up during the second civil war (such as Nouri Abusahmein's GNC), to in good faith re-balance the Libyan crisis." ], [ "Radio", "First radio service began in 1939 in Libya.", "Libya Radio and Television (LRT) is the successor to the Gaddafi-era state broadcaster.", "Dozens of radio outlets, many privately owned, broadcast from Libyan cities and from Middle East media hubs.", "The BBC World Service Arabic broadcasts on 91.5 FM in Tripoli, Benghazi, and Misrata.", ";Radio stations:Al Aan FM: Broadcasts on 105.3 MHz, covering Al Bayda, Al Marj, Benghazi, Misrata, Labraq, Nalut, Sabha, Susah, Tobruk and Tripoli.", "* Allibya FM* Libya FM - Egypt-based* Libya Radio and Television (LRT) - state-run, operates Radio Libya, Al-Shababiyah, Al-Itha'ah al-Wataniya* LJBC Radio* Tribute FM: an English-language internet station broadcasting from Benghazi* Voice of Africa* Voice of Free Libya - Benghazi-based, Al-Bayda, Misurata;Radio::1.35 million (1997)" ], [ "Television", "Libyan Radio and Television (LRT) is the successor to the Gaddafi-era state broadcaster.", "More than 20 TV stations, many privately owned, broadcast from Libyan cities and from Middle East media hubs.", ";Television receivers::889,232 receivers, 149 per 1000 inhabitants (2005);Television broadcast stations:* Allibya TV* Libya TV - a.k.a.", "Libya al-Ahrar; Qatar-based satellite station, launched in April 2011.Homepage* Libya al-hurra TV * Libya Al-Wataniya TV - state-run* Libya Radio and Television (LRT) - state-run* Al-Asimah TV - private" ], [ "Telephones", "In the course of the 2011 Libyan civil war, the government severed the physical communications links between the rebel-held east and the rest of Libya.", "However, the newer and less centralised Libyana network held copies of the HLR and engineers were able to restore some local services.", "With some assistance from the international community, and funded by an expatriate Libyan, a limited international service became available in mid-April.", "NTC officials were reported to be negotiating with Qtel, the Qatari-owned service provider, to restore full service to the rebel-held areas.", ";Telephones:* 814,000 fixed subscriptions, 12.58 per 100 inhabitants (2012) * 1,228,300 fixed subscriptions, 19.33 per 100 inhabitants (2010)* 9.6 million mobile cellular subscriptions, 148.19 per 100 inhabitants (2012)* 10.9 million mobile cellular subscriptions, 171.52 per 100 inhabitants (2010);Mobile telephone operators:* Al Madar * Libyana'''International dialing code''': +218" ], [ "Internet", "Facebook, X, and YouTube played important roles in bringing news to the world audience during the revolt.", "Facebook remains a favorite platform to view and comment on the news.", ";Internet censorship: was applied in 2013 blocking 'pornographic material' however was found to block other non pornographic related websites, including proxy sites and some political websites that belonged to rival groups / governments.references outdated Please update;Social Media users:* 1,115,025 users, 19.9% of the population (2012):904,604 users, 14.0% (2010);Fixed broadband Internet subscriptions:* 67,300 subscriptions, 111th in the world, 1.0 subscriptions per 100 inhabitants (2012)* 72,800 subscriptions, 98th in the world, 1.2 subscriptions per 100 inhabitants (2010);Internet hosts:* 17,926 hosts, 121st in the world (2012)* 17,787 hosts, 122nd in the world (2011);IPv4 addresses allocated:* 299,008 addresses, 105th in the world, 44.4 per 1000 inhabitants (2012);Top-level domain::.ly;Internet Service Providers (ISPs):The Internet and telecommunications are mainly run by the government through a semi-private telecommunication company Libya Telecom & Technology.", "The company moderates and controls the use of the Internet in Libya.", "* 23 ISPs * Libya Telecom & Technology (LTT) - a state-owned telecommunications company* Aljeel Aljadeed for Technology a state-owned telecommunications company* Al-Manarah - leading Libyan online community* All Libyan Blogs - blog aggregator* Bayt Al Shams (BsISP)* Modern World Telecom (MWC)* Vizocom ===The Internet and the Libyan revolution===In 2006 Reporters Without Borders (RWB) removed Libya from their list of Internet enemies after a fact-finding visit found no evidence of Internet censorship.", "The OpenNet Initiative’s 2007–2008 technical test results contradicted that conclusion, however.", "In 2009 ONI classified Internet filtering in Libya as selective in the political area and as no evidence in social, conflict/security, and Internet tools.Prior to the Libyan revolution, Internet filtering under the Gaddafi regime had become more selective, focusing on a few political opposition Web sites.", "This relatively lenient filtering policy coincided with what was arguably a trend toward greater openness and increasing freedom of the press.", "However, the legal and political climate continued to encourage self-censorship in online media.On 18 February 2011, the day after the first protests that were to lead to the 2011 Libyan revolution, Libya appeared to have withdrawn all of its BGP prefix announcements from the Internet for a short period, cutting it off from the rest of the global Internet.", "The prefix were re-advertised six hours later.There was no traffic for several hours on 19 and 20 February.", "Service picked up over the next few days to almost normal levels until, at 6:00am on 3 March, traffic effectively ceased (except for very limited satellite links).", "The government had severed the underwater backbone fibre-optic cable that runs along the coast, linking networks in the east and servers in the west of the country.", "Engineers reckon the break is between the cities of Misrata and Khoms, and may be a physical or electronic rupture.From 10 July traffic began increasing again, and after a brief shutdown on 15 July, it was reaching about 15% of its pre-17 February levels up to 22 August, the day Tripoli fell to the rebels.", "Traffic began increasing again at that point, and as of 2 September was reaching daily levels in excess of 50% and often as high as 75% of pre-war levels.The overthrow of the Gaddafi regime in the fall of 2011 did not end an era of censorship.", "In 2012, RWB removed Libya from its list of countries under surveillance." ], [ "Newspapers", "Following the fall of the Gaddafi regime in August 2011 former state-affiliated dailies have closed and new titles have appeared, many short-lived.", "Benghazi has emerged as a publishing hub.", "There are as yet few daily newspapers and print runs are small.", ";Daily newspapers* ''Al-Bilad'' - private daily* ''Brnieq''* ''February'' - state-owned daily* ''Libya Herald'' - private online English-language daily* ''New Quryna'' - Benghazi-based private daily;Weekly newspapers* ''Tripoli Post'' - private English-language weekly Homepage;News agencies and websites:* Al-Tadamun News Agency - originally started in Switzerland in February 2011, later moved to Benghazi, Libya * Libyan News Agency (\"Lana\") - state-run, formerly Jamahiriya News Agency (\"Jana\")* Mathaba News Agency - independent pro-Gaddafi news site still in operation* Tawasul News Agency (TNA) - private news agency, via social media* Akhbar Libya 24 (AL24) - independent news website, based in Benghazi, publishing in-depth news and reports" ], [ "See also", "* Media of Libya" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Libya" ], [ "Introduction", "Bayda, Libya in 2010." ], [ "Railways", "Libya has had no railway in operation since 1965, all previous narrow gauge lines having been dismantled.", "Plans for a new network have been under development for some time (earthworks were begun between Sirte and Ras Ajdir, Tunisia border, in 2001-5), and in 2008 and 2009 various contracts were placed and construction work started on a standard gauge railway parallel to the coast from the Tunisian border at Ras Ajdir to Tripoli, and on to Misrata, Sirte, Benghazi and Bayda.", "Another railway line will run inland from Misrata to Sabha at the centre of a mineral-rich area." ], [ "Highways", "flyover on an urban highway in the capital Tripoli.", "''Total:''83,200 km''Paved:''47,590 km''Unpaved:''35,610 km (1996 est.", ")There are about 83,200 km of roads in Libya, 47,590 km of which are surfaced.", "983 out of 1000 Libyans have cars, which is the highest rate in Africa.", "The best roads run along the coast between Tripoli and Tunis in Tunisia; also between Benghazi and Tobruk, connecting with Alexandria in Egypt.", "A fairly efficient bus service operates along these routes, with two main bus transport companies.", "One covers long-distance, international routes, while the other is chiefly engaged in shorter trips between towns.", "Bus fares are low and the standard of comfort, particularly on international routes is good, with air-conditioned vehicles and good service.", "Taxis are available in the larger towns and are usually hired on a shared basis, although individual hire can be negotiated.", "The driving skills of taxi drivers are extremely variable.", "Taxis may have meters, but these are rarely in use.", "Car hire for self-drive is not recommended in Libya, although it is possible to hire a vehicle from agents in larger hotels.", "Vehicles are often old and poorly maintained, however, and are unequal to long-distance driving.", "Driving itself can be hazardous and there is a high rate of road accidents.===Regional highways===Libya has two routes in the Trans-African Highway network, but only one currently functions as such, the Cairo-Dakar Highway." ], [ "Ports and harbours", "===Mediterranean Sea===(west to east)ZuwaraTripoliKhomsMisrataRa's LanufBregaBenghaziDernaTobruk" ], [ "Merchant marine", "'''Total:'''17 ships (1000 GT or over) 96,062 GT/ '''By type:'''Cargo 9, Liquified Gas 3, Passenger/Cargo 2, Petroleum Tanker 1, Roll on/Roll off 2 Foreign-owned: 4 (Kuwait 1, Turkey 2, UAE 1) (2005)" ], [ "Airports", "139 (2005) Most international flights arrive in and through Tripoli International Airport.===Airports - with paved runways===Total: 59over 3,047 m: 23 2,438 to 3,047 m: 61,524 to 2,437 m: 23914 to 1,523 m: 5under 914 m: 2 (2005)===Airports - with unpaved runways===Total: 80over 3,047 m: 52,438 to 3,047 m: 21,524 to 2,437 m: 14914 to 1,523 m: 41under 914 m: 18 (2008)" ], [ "See also", " List of bridges in Libya" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Armed Forces of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Armed Forces of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya''' () consisted of the Libyan Army, Libyan Air Force and the Libyan Navy and other services including the People's Militia.", "In November 2010, before the 2011 Libyan Civil War, the total number of Libyan personnel was estimated at 760,000 though that war wore the military's numbers away.", "There was no separate defence ministry; all defence activities were centralised under Muammar Gaddafi.", "There was a High Command of the Armed Forces (al-Qiyada al-ulya lil-quwwat al-musallaha).", "Arms production was limited and manufacturers were state-owned.", "Colonel Abu-Bakr Yunis Jabr was the last minister of defence of the Gaddafi-era military." ], [ "Origins and history 1945–69", "The roots of the 1951–2011 Libyan armed forces can be traced to the Libyan Arab Force (popularly known as the Sanusi Army) of World War II.", "Shortly after Italy entered the war, a number of Libyan leaders living in exile in Egypt called on their compatriots to organise themselves into military units and join the British in the war against the Axis powers.", "Five battalions, which were initially designed for guerrilla warfare in the Jabal al Akhdar region of Cyrenaica, were established under British command.", "Because the high mobility of the desert campaigns required a considerable degree of technical and mechanical expertise, the Libyan forces were used primarily as auxiliaries, guarding military installations and prisoners.", "One battalion, however, participated in the fighting at Tobruk.After Britain succeeded in occupying the Libyan territories, the need for the British-trained and equipped Sanusi troops appeared to be over.", "The Sanusi Army was reluctant to disband, however, and the majority of its members arranged to be transferred to the local police force in Cyrenaica under the British military administration.", "When Libya gained its independence in 1951, veterans of the original Sanusi Army formed the nucleus of the Royal Libyan Army.", "British Army troops, part of Middle East Command and comprising 25th Armoured Brigade and briefly 10th Armoured Division, were still present after independence and stayed in Libya until at least 1957.Despite the Sanussi lineage of the new army, King Idris I quickly came to distrust them.", "The Free Officers' coup of 1952 in Egypt led many Libyan officers to be disenchanted with Idris and become great followers of Gamal Abdel Nasser.", "This situation reached the stage that the British Army officers retained by Idris to train and advise the new armed forces deemed the force entirely untrustworthy.", "They increasingly saw their role as to watch the army rather than to raise its effectiveness.From November 1959, 3 L.A.A.", "Regiment and 11 H.A.A.", "Regiment (Royal Malta Artillery) formed the backbone of a mobile anti-aircraft force in Libya.", "(Source: P.R.S.", "Malta & Libya B.F.P.O.", "51: 240/5)Meanwhile, Idris formed a navy in 1962 and an air force in 1963.He attempted to counter his growing doubts about the loyalty of the army by stripping it of potential.", "He placed loyal but often unqualified Cyrenaicans in all senior command positions, limited the armed forces to 6,500 men, kept the army lightly armed, and built up two rival paramilitary units, the National Security Force and the Cyrenaican Defence Force which was recruited from Cyrenaican Bedouin loyal to the Sanussi.", "Together the two forces had a total of 14,000 men armed with helicopters, armoured cars, anti-tank weapons, and artillery.These measures did not prevent, however, a group of army officers led by then Captain Muammar Gaddafi (a signals officer) seizing power on 1 September 1969.Pollack says that the defeat of the Arabs during the Six-Day War of July 1967 was an important factor in the coup, as the officers believed that Libya should have dispatched forces to aid Egypt and the other Arab states.", "Idris had also tried to reform the military, but only half-heartedly, further frustrating young Libyan officers.", "Immediately after the coup, Gaddafi began to dismiss, arrest, or execute every officer above the rank of colonel in the armed forces, as well as some other lower-ranking officers closely linked to the monarchy.", "Then he began to reorganise the armed forces in line with his foreign policy plans.", "Expansion of the army and amalgamation of the CDF and NSF into the army was the first priority, and by 1970 the force numbered nearly 20,000.Attention was also focused on the Air Force, with the pre-coup strength of 400 personnel and ten Northrop F-5 'Freedom Fighter' jet fighters planned to be supplemented with large-scale purchases of Mirage III fighters from France." ], [ "Forces under Gaddafi", "=== Army ===In 2009, the Libyan Army consisted of 25,000 volunteers with an additional 25,000 conscripts (total 50,000).", "At that time, the army was organised into 11 border defence and 4 security zones, one regime security brigade, 10 tank battalions, 10 mechanized infantry battalions, 18 infantry battalions, 6 commando battalions, 22 artillery battalions, 4 SSM brigades and 7 air defence artillery battalions.", "Khamis Gaddafi's 32nd Brigade ('Khamis Brigade') was one of the main regime protection forces, and was considered by US diplomats in 2009 as the most capable of defending the regime.", "In addition, the Revolutionary Guard Corps also served as a brigade-sized protection force for Gaddafi.", "In 2009, it emerged that a British Special Air Service team were training Libyan special forces.", "Under Gaddafi, conscription was listed as 18 months.President Siad Barre of Somalia reviewing officers of the Libyan Army on a state visit to Tripoli in 1974.In addition, seven military regions had been listed in various sources as part of the Gaddafi-era military.", "These regions appear to have included the Western Military Region (Tripoli), the Middle Military Region (Sirte), the Eastern Military Region (Tobruk), the Mountain Military Region (Gharyan), and regions headquartered at Kufra and Benghazi.", "The final military region appears to have been the Southern Military Region headquartered at Sabha in the southeast.Though the Libyan army had a large amount of fighting equipment at its disposal, the vast majority was bought from the Soviet Union in the 1970s and 1980s and eventually became largely obsolete.", "A high percentage remained in storage and a large amount of equipment was also sold to various African countries.", "No major purchases of equipment had been made in recent years largely due to the decline of the economy and military sanctions experienced throughout the 1990s.", "This and various other internal factors had seriously decayed the strength of the whole of the Libyan Armed Forces over the years and it lagged behind its major neighbours in terms of its military capabilities and real war fighting capability.Libyan Air Defence missilesLibya dispatched a contingent to the Arab Deterrent Force in Lebanon in 1976 as the Lebanese Civil War escalated.", "In the spring of 1979, after the Arab League had extended the mandate of the Arab Deterrent Force, the Sudanese, the Saudis and the UAE troops departed Lebanon, the Libyan troops were essentially abandoned and had to find their own way home, if at all.From the late 1970s to around 1987, the armed forces were involved in the Chadian–Libyan conflict with four major incursions into Chad.", "The Libyan Army suffered great losses in these conflicts, especially that of the Toyota War of 1987, largely due to poor tactics and Western aid to Chad.", "All of these incursions were eventually repulsed and Libya no longer occupies the Aouzou Strip or any other part of Chad.The Libyan Army ceased functioning following the rebel victory in the First Libyan Civil War.=== Army equipment ===The Libyan ground forces had a large amount of mostly Soviet equipment in service.", "These numbers do not take into account equipment destroyed or captured during the 2011 Libyan civil war.The IISS estimated tank numbers in 2009 as 2,025:* T-55 – 1000+ T-54/T-55* T-62 – 600; 462 in store;* T-72 – 150; 115 in store.Russian official sources reported in 2010 that T-72s would be modernised with help from Russia.", "750 BTR-50 and BTR-60s were also reported by the IISS.The IISS estimated there were 500 BRDM-2 and 700 EE-9 Cascavel reconnaissance vehicles, 1,000 BMP-1s, plus BMDs.", "Other reported wheeled vehicles in service include 1000 EE-11 Urutu and Czechoslovak OT-64 SKOT.The IISS estimated artillery in service in 2009 as totaling 2,421 pieces.444 SP artillery pieces were reported:* 122 mm – 130 2S1 Carnation;* 152 mm – 140: 60 2S3 Akatsiya; 80 M-77 Dana;* 155 mm – 174: 14 M-109; 160 VCA 155 Palmaria.647+ towed artillery pieces were reported:* 105 mm – 42+ M-101* 122 mm – 250: 190 D-30; 60 D-74;* 130 mm – 330 M-46;* 152 mm – 25 ML-20.", "* 155 mm – ?", "M114 155 mm howitzer830 multiple rocket launchers were reported:* 107 mm Type 63 multiple rocket launcher – an estimated 300;* 122 mm – 530: ε200 BM-11; ε230 BM-21 Grad; ε100 RM-70 Dana (RM-70 multiple rocket launcher?", ").The IISS also estimated that Libya had 500 mortars:* 82 mm – 428;* 120 mm – ε48 120-PM-43 mortar;* 160 mm – ε24 160mm Mortar M1943.Surface-to-surface missiles reported in service included FROG-7 and SCUD-B (416 missiles).Anti-tank missiles reported in service included 400 French/German MILAN, and 620+ AT-3, AT-4, and AT-5, all of Soviet manufacture.In 2009 the IISS estimated that Libya had Crotale, SA-7 Grail, and SA-9/SA-13 surface-to-air missiles, as well as AA guns in Army service.", "A separate Air Defence Command had SA-2 Guideline, SA-3 Goa, SA-5 Gammon, and SA-8b Gecko missiles, plus guns.Reported anti-aircraft artillery included Soviet 57 mm S-60, 23 mm self-propelled ZSU-23-4 and ZU-23-2, Czech M53/59 Praga, and Swedish Bofors 40 mm guns.Small arms reported in service included TT pistol, Browning Hi-Power, Beretta M12, FN P90, FN FAL, SKS, AK-47, AKM and AK-103 assault rifles, the FN F2000, Soviet RPD machine gun, RPK machine gun, PK machine guns, DShK heavy machine gun, KPV heavy machine guns, SG-43 Goryunov, and a number of RPG-type and anti-aircraft missile systems: RPG-2, RPG-7, 9K32 Strela-2.=== Arms and ammunition deliveries ===Even in the five years between 2005 and 2009, large quantities of arms and ammunition were delivered to Libya.", "It is not always clear which armed service or police organisation received the weaponry.", "Bulgaria delivered €1,850,594 worth of material in the category of small arms in 2006.In 2009, the country licensed the delivery of €3.73 million of material in the category of ammunition.", "It is not clear whether all 3.73 million of material was actually delivered.", "Serbia exported $1,920,185 of equipment including assault rifles for 'civilian and military end-users' to Libya in 2009.In 2008 Serbia exported $1,613,280 of equipment including automatic rifles and sub-machine guns.", "There also were large deliveries to brokers acting as intermediaries for several countries including Libya in 2005, 2006 and 2007.", "Malta delivered €7,936,000 of what were described as 'non-military items' to Libya in 2009.There was a mistake in original reports which gave the value as €79 million.", "Despite being marked as 'non-military items,' the shipment comprised 1,800 Benelli 12 gauge shotguns, 7,500 semi-automatic Beretta Px4 Storm pistols, and 1,900 cal 9xI9mm Beretta Cx4 Storm semi-automatic carbines.", "They were destined for the General People's Committee for Public Security, effectively Libya's Ministry of the Interior.=== Air & Air Defence Forces ===Su-22 fighter-bomber, 1985The Libyan Air Force was created after the US and UK pressured then-ruling King Idris to modernise his armed forces so that they could better stand off against revolutionary regimes in the Middle East.", "The LAF was created in 1963.The Libyan Air Force had an estimated personnel strength of 22,000 in 2005.There were 13 military airbases in Libya.After US forces had left Libya in 1970, Wheelus Air Base, a previous US facility about seven miles from Tripoli, became a Libyan Air Force installation and was renamed Okba Ben Nafi Air Base.", "The base housed the LPAF's headquarters and a large share of its major training facilities.All combat aircraft of the Libyan Air Force that were not in the rebel forces' hands were destroyed by NATO bombings during the civil war, effectively leading to the destruction of the Libyan Air Force.==== Aircraft ====MiG-21 – 32MiG-23 – 26MiG-25 – 35Su-22 – 18Su-24 – 22G-2 Galeb – 16;(G2A-E version)Mirage 5 – 8Mirage F1 – 12Tupolev Tu-22 – 7'''Surface-to-Air Missiles include:'''Almaz S-75 Volga / SA-2 Guideline – 6 Brigades with 18 launchers each;Almaz S-125 Pechora / SA-3 Goa – 9 Brigades with 12 launchers each;Almaz S-200VE Vega / SA-5 Gammon long range missile systems – 8 battalions of 6 launchers each at 4 sites and an estimated 380 missiles;Crotale – 9 acquisition and 27 firing units9K33 Osa/ SA-8 Gecko – 509K38 Igla – 380;9K34 Strela-3 – 278;ZSU-23-4Shilka – 200;ZSU-57-2 – 75;2K12 Kub – 50;=== Navy ===Libyan frigate ''Al Ghardabia'' in Valletta, 2005.The Libyan Navy is the maritime force of Libya, established in November 1962.It is a fairly typical small navy with a few missile frigates, corvettes and patrol boats to defend the coastline, but with a very limited self-defence capability.", "The Navy has always been the smallest of Libya's services and has always been dependent on foreign sources for equipment, spare parts, and training.", "The total personnel of the Libyan Navy is about 8,000.Its first warship was delivered in 1966.Initially the effective force was limited to smaller vessels, but this changed after the rise of Colonel Muammar Gaddafi in 1969.From this time, Libya started to buy armaments from Europe and the Soviet Union.", "The Customs and Harbour police were amalgamated with the Navy in 1970, extending the Navy's mission to include anti-smuggling and customs duties.", "Originally Libya received six submarines from the Soviet union in 1982, but it is very unlikely that the submarines are still operational.Much of the Libyan Navy was rendered inoperable by NATO bombing in 2011, and the exact number of surviving vessels is unknown.=== Paramilitary forces ======= Revolutionary Guard Corps ====The '''Revolutionary Guard Corps''' (''Liwa Haris al-Jamahiriya'') or '''Jamahiriya Guard''' was a Libyan paramilitary key protection force of the government of Muammar Gaddafi, until his death in October 2011.Composed of 3,000 men hand-picked from Gaddafi's tribal group in the Sirte region, the Guard was well armed, being provided with T-54 and T-62 tanks, APCs, MRLs, SA-8 and ZSU-23-4 SAMs taken from the army inventory.", "As of 2005, its commander was Hasan al-Kabir al-Gaddafi, a cousin of the former Libyan leader.The Revolutionary Guard developed from the Revolutionary Committees, even if the latter had at first been introduced only into workplaces and communities, and not extended to the military.", "After the early 1980s, however, the Revolutionary Guard, as a paramilitary wing of the Revolutionary Committees, became entrenched within the armed forces.", "They served as a parallel channel of control, a means of ideological indoctrination in the barracks, and an apparatus for monitoring suspicious behavior.", "The Revolutionary Guards reportedly held the keys to ammunition stockpiles at the main military bases, doling it out in small quantities as needed by the regular forces.", "Their influence increased after a coup attempt in May 1985, that was blocked mainly thanks to the action of the Revolutionary Guard that engaged regular army units in a series of street battles.==== Pan-African Legion ====In about 1980, Gaddafi introduced the Islamic Pan-African Legion, a body recruited primarily among dissidents from Sudan, Egypt, Tunisia, Mali, and Chad.", "West African states with Muslim populations have also been the source of some personnel.", "Believed to consist of about 7,000 individuals, the force has received training from experienced Palestinian and Syrian instructors.", "Some of those recruited to the legion were said to have been forcibly impressed from among nationals of neighboring countries who migrated to Libya in search of work.According to the Military Balance published by the International Institute for Strategic Studies, the force was organized into one armored, one infantry, and one paratroop/commando brigade.", "It has been supplied with T-54 and T-55 tanks, armored personnel carriers, and EE-9 armored cars.", "The Islamic Pan-African Legion was reported to have been committed during the fighting in Chad in 1980 and was praised by Gaddafi for its success there.", "However, it was believed that many of the troops who fled the Chadian attacks of March 1987 were members of the Legion.==== Islamic Arab Legion ====In an effort to realise Gaddafi's vision of a united Arab military force, plans for the creation of an Islamic Arab Legion were being announced from time to time.", "The goal, according to the Libyan press, would be to assemble an army of one million men and women fighters to prepare for the great Arab battle – \"the battle of liberating Palestine, of toppling the reactionary regimes, of annihilating the borders, gates, and barriers between the countries of the Arab homeland, and of creating the single Arab Jamahiriya from the ocean to the gulf\".", "In March 1985, it was announced that the National Command of the Revolutionary Forces Command in the Arab Nation had been formed with Gaddafi at its head.", "A number of smaller radical Arab groups from Lebanon, Tunisia, Sudan, Iraq, the Persian Gulf states, and Jordan were represented at the inaugural meeting.", "Syrian Ba'ath Party and radical Palestinian factions were also present.", "Each of these movements was expected to earmark 10 per cent of its forces for service under the new command.", "As of April 1987, there was no information confirming the existence of such a militia.==== People's Militia ====In 1987 the mission of the 45,000 People's Militia was territorial defence, and it was to function under the leadership of local military commanders.", "Gaddafi contended that it was the People's Militia that met the Egyptian incursions during the border clash of 1977, although the Egyptians insisted that their successful raids had been contested by regular army units.", "The militia forces are not known to have faced any other test that would permit an appraisal of their performance in home defence or as auxiliaries to the regular army.", "There was some evidence that local commanders had not responded energetically to their responsibility for training and supervising militia units.", "Militia units were reportedly generously equipped with arms, transport, and uniforms.", "In November 1985, it was announced that the first contingent of \"armed people\" trained as paratroopers had made a demonstration drop.", "Thousands of People's Militiamen were part of the Libyan expeditionary force that was airlifted to Uganda in 1979.The Libyan troops were supposed to help defend the collapsing regime of Ugandan dictator Idi Amin, an ally of Gaddafi, amid the Uganda–Tanzania War.", "Like the other Libyan units sent to Uganda, the People's Militia was ill-prepared (some militiamen were not even informed that they were supposed to fight, and had believed theirs to be a pure training mission) and consequently suffered heavy losses during the Battle of Lukaya and Battle of Entebbe.", "Amin's government was overthrown, and the surviving Libyans were forced to flee Uganda.It is not clear whether the force still existed by the time of the 2011 civil war.=== Uniforms, ranks, and insignia as of 1987 ===When the army and navy were formed, the uniforms adopted by each service reflected British military and naval tradition.", "Modifications have occurred over the intervening years, however, and in early 1987 Libyan uniforms were similar to those worn by military personnel of a number of Middle-Eastern Arab countries.", "The standard field uniform for Libyan paratroopers (Army commandos) was a two-piece camouflage uniform made of water repellent cotton.", "The shirt was similar in design to the United States Army fatigue shirt.", "The shirt and trousers were camouflaged in blue-green, light green, and dark brown.", "The standard headgear for paratroopers was a sky-blue beret.", "The uniforms of the air force, however, continued to resemble in both style and colour the uniforms of the United States Air Force, which served as a model when the Libyan Air Force was established.Originally the rank structure of all three services was similar to that of the British Armed Forces, but some modifications were introduced in light of the small size of the Libyan military establishment.", "In early 1979, the system prescribed by law still included nine officer grades and five enlisted ranks; there were no warrant officer equivalents.", "Although three general officer grades continued to be authorised, they have not been used since the 1969 coup.", "Promoted to the grade of colonel (aqid) after assuming power, Gaddafi maintained a ceiling on the grade level of his officer corps in keeping with his desire to avoid the ostentatious public image that the generals of the monarchy had conveyed.", "In January 1976, the Arab Socialist Union's National Congress attempted to promote Gaddafi to major general.", "The Libyan leader stated that he would accept the honour as an expression of gratitude from his compatriots but would retain the title of colonel because it had become an accepted and traditional part of his name." ], [ "After the 2011 Libyan civil war" ], [ "See also", "* Green Resistance* National Liberation Army* Free Libyan Air Force* Brigade 93" ], [ "References", "" ], [ "Further reading", " Global Security Article on Libya* Derek Lutterbeck, 'Arming Libya: Transfers of Conventional Weapons Past and Present,' Contemporary Security Policy, 30:3 (December 2009), pp 505–528, online published 30 November 2009* Kenneth M. Pollack, Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness 1948–91, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London, 2002, * Mansour O. El-Kikhia's Libya's Qaddafi: The Politics of Contradiction, pub 1997, , * International Crisis Group, 'Holding Libya Together: Security Challenges after Qadhafi,' Africa/Middle East Report No.", "115, 14 December 2011" ], [ "External links", "* Further reading on tribal/regime split of army" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''foreign relations of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi''' (1969–2011) underwent much fluctuation and change.", "They were marked by severe tension with the West (especially the United States, although relations were normalised in the early 21st century prior to the 2011 civil war) and by other national policies in the Middle East and Africa, including the Libyan government's financial and military support for numerous paramilitary and rebel groups." ], [ "Timeline", "Colonel Gaddafi (left) with Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1969.Gaddafi moved Libya away from the West and sought Pan-Arabism and Pan-Africanism.Beginning in 1969, Colonel Muammar Gaddafi determined Libya's foreign policy.", "His principal foreign policy goals were Arab unity, elimination of Israel, advancement of Islam, support for Palestinians, elimination of outside influence in the Middle East and Africa, and support for a range of \"revolutionary\" causes.After the 1969 coup d'état, U.S.-Libyan relations became increasingly strained.Gaddafi closed American and British bases on Libyan territory and partially nationalized all foreign oil and commercial interests in Libya.===1970s===Export controls on military equipment and civil aircraft were imposed during the 1970s.On 11 June 1972, Gaddafi announced that any Arab wishing to volunteer for Palestinian armed groups \"can register his name at any Libyan embassy will be given adequate training for combat\".", "He also promised financial support for attacks.", "In response, the United States withdrew its ambassador.Gaddafi played a key role in promoting the use of oil embargoes as a political weapon for challenging the West, hoping that an oil price rise and embargo in 1973 would persuade the West—especially the United States—to end support for Israel.", "Gaddafi rejected both Soviet communism and Western capitalism because he believed that communism was a violation against religion and capitalism was a violation against humanity.In 1973 the Irish Naval Service intercepted the vessel ''Claudia'' in Irish territorial waters, which carried Soviet arms from Libya to the Provisional IRA.In 1976 after a series of terror attacks by the Provisional IRA, Gaddafi announced that \"the bombs which are convulsing Britain and breaking its spirit are the bombs of Libyan people.", "We have sent them to the Irish revolutionaries so that the British will pay the price for their past deeds\".Together with Fidel Castro and other Communist leaders, Gaddafi supported Soviet protege Mengistu Haile Mariam, the military ruler of Ethiopia, who was later convicted for a genocide that killed hundreds of thousands.Gaddafi funded many national liberation, communist and Maoist groups, including but not limited to; the Palestine Liberation Organization, the African National Congress, the National Patriotic Front of Liberia, the Revolutionary United Front in Sierra Leone, the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, the Black Panther Party, Euskadi Ta Askatasuna, the New People's Army of the Philippines, the FRETILIN, the Red Brigades, the Sandinista National Liberation Front, the Tupamaros and the Red Army Faction.In October 1978, Gaddafi sent Libyan troops to aid Idi Amin in the Uganda–Tanzania War when Amin tried to annex the northern Tanzanian province of Kagera, and Tanzania counterattacked.", "Amin lost the battle and later fled to exile in Libya, where he remained for almost a year.Libya also was one of the main supporters of the Polisario Front in the former Spanish Sahara – a nationalist group dedicated to ending Spanish colonialism in the region.", "The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) was proclaimed by Polisario on 28 February 1976, and Libya began to recognize the SADR as the legitimate government of Western Sahara starting 15 April 1980.It is still common for Sahrawi students to attend their schooling in Libya.Gaddafi also aided Jean-Bédel Bokassa, the self-proclaimed Emperor of the short-lived Central African Empire, until the latter struck an agreement with French president Valéry Giscard d'Estaing by which the French would fund his coronation in exchange for severing ties with Gaddafi.U.S.", "embassy staff members were withdrawn from Tripoli after a mob attacked and set fire to the embassy in December 1979.The U.S. government declared Libya a \"state sponsor of terrorism\" on 29 December 1979.===1980s===In May 1981, the U.S. government closed the Libyan \"people's bureau\" (embassy) in Washington, D.C. and expelled the Libyan staff in response to their conduct generally violating internationally accepted standards of diplomatic behavior.In August 1981, in the first incident of the Gulf of Sidra, two Libyan jets fired on U.S. aircraft participating in a routine naval exercise over international waters of the Mediterranean Sea claimed by Libya.", "The U.S. planes returned fire and shot down the attacking Libyan aircraft.", "On 11 December 1981, the State Department invalidated U.S. passports for travel to Libya (a ''de facto'' travel ban) and, for purposes of safety, advised all U.S. citizens in Libya to leave.", "In March 1982, the U.S. government prohibited imports of Libyan crude oil into the United States and expanded the controls on U.S.-origin goods intended for export to Libya.", "Licenses were required for all transactions, except food and medicine.", "In March 1984, U.S. export controls were expanded to prohibit future exports to the Ra's Lanuf petrochemical complex.", "In April 1985, all Export-Import Bank financing was prohibited.In October 1981, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat was assassinated.", "Gaddafi applauded the murder and remarked that it was a \"punishment\" for Sadat's signing of the Camp David Accords with the United States and Israel.Libyan People's Bureau (Embassy) in London, Knightsbridge, 2008In April 1984, Libyan refugees in London protested against the execution of two dissidents.", "Libyan diplomats shot at 11 people and killed Yvonne Fletcher, a British policewoman.", "The incident led to the breaking off of diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Libya for over a decade.", "Two months later, Gaddafi asserted that he wanted his agents to assassinate dissident refugees, even if they were just on pilgrimage in the holy city of Mecca—in August 1984, a Libyan plot in Mecca was thwarted by Saudi Arabian police.After the December 1985 Rome and Vienna airport attacks, which killed 19 and wounded around 140, Gaddafi indicated that he would continue to support the Red Army Faction, the Red Brigades, and the Irish Republican Army as long as European countries support anti-Gaddafi Libyans.", "The Foreign Minister of Libya also called the massacres \"heroic acts\".In 1986 Libyan state television announced that Libya was training suicide squads to attack American and European interests.Gaddafi claimed the Gulf of Sidra as his territorial water and his navy was involved in a conflict from January to March 1986.On 5 April 1986, Libyan agents bombed \"La Belle\" nightclub in West Berlin, killing three people and injuring 229 people who were spending the evening there.", "Gaddafi's plan was intercepted by Western intelligence.", "More detailed information was retrieved years later when Stasi archives were investigated by the reunited Germany.", "Libyan agents who had carried out the operation from the Libyan embassy in East Germany were prosecuted by reunited Germany in the 1990s.Germany and the United States learned that the bombing in West Berlin had been ordered from Tripoli.", "On 14 April 1986, the United States carried out Operation El Dorado Canyon against Gaddafi and members of his regime.", "Air defenses, three army bases, and two airfields in Tripoli and Benghazi were bombed.", "The surgical strikes failed to kill Gaddafi but he lost a few dozen military officers.", "There were around 30 military deaths, and around 15 civilian deaths, including Gaddafi's 6-month-old adopted daughter, allegedly.Gaddafi announced that he had won a spectacular military victory over the United States and the country was officially renamed the \"Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriyah\".", "However, his speech appeared devoid of passion and even the \"victory\" celebrations appeared unusual.", "Criticism of Gaddafi by ordinary Libyan citizens became more bold, such as defacing of Gaddafi posters.", "The raids against Gaddafi had brought the regime to its weakest point in 17 years.The Chadian–Libyan conflict (1978–1987) ended in disaster for Libya in 1987 with the Toyota War.", "France supported Chad in this conflict and two years later on 19 September 1989, a French airliner, UTA Flight 772, was destroyed by an in-flight explosion for which Libyan agents were convicted ''in absentia''.", "The incident bore close similarities to the destruction of Pan Am Flight 103 (the ''Lockerbie Bombing'') a year earlier.", "The downing of these two airliners along with the 1986 Berlin discotheque bombing seemed to establish a pattern of reprisal attacks—in the form of terrorist bombings—by Libya or at least Libyan agents.", "The United Nations imposed sanctions on Libya for these two acts (with UN Security Council Resolutions 731, 748 and 883).", "The UN eventually lifted these sanctions (with Resolution 1506) in 2003 when Libya \"accepted responsibility for the actions of its officials, renounced terrorism and arranged for payment of appropriate compensation for the families of the victims.\"", "In 2008 Libya established a fund to compensate victims of these three terrorist acts (and the 1986 US bombing of Tripoli and Benghazi).Gaddafi fueled a number of Islamist and communist terrorist groups in the Philippines, as well as paramilitaries in Oceania.", "He attempted to radicalize New Zealand's Māori people in a failed effort to destabilise the U.S. ally.", "In Australia, he financed trade unions and some politicians who opposed the ANZUS alliance with the United States.", "In May 1987, Australia deported diplomats and broke off relations with Libya because of its activities in Oceania.In late 1987 French authorities stopped a merchant vessel, the ''MV Eksund'', which was delivering a 150-ton Libyan arms shipment to European terrorist groups.In 1988, Libya was found to be in the process of constructing a chemical weapons plant at Rabta; former CIA Director Webster has called the Libyan facility \"the largest chemical plant that I know for chemical warfare.", "\"Libya's relationship with the Soviet Union involved massive Libyan arms purchases from the Soviet bloc and the presence of thousands of east bloc advisers.", "Libya's use—and heavy loss—of Soviet-supplied weaponry in its war with Chad was a notable breach of an apparent Soviet-Libyan understanding not to use the weapons for activities inconsistent with Soviet objectives.", "As a result, Soviet-Libyan relations reached a nadir in mid-1987.In January 1989, there was another encounter over the Gulf of Sidra between U.S. and Libyan aircraft which resulted in the downing of two Libyan jets.===1990s===In 1991, two Libyan intelligence agents were indicted by prosecutors in the United States and United Kingdom for their involvement in the December 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103.Six other Libyans were put on trial in absentia for the 1989 bombing of UTA Flight 772 over Chad and Niger.", "The UN Security Council demanded that Libya surrender the suspects, cooperate with the Pan Am 103 and UTA 772 investigations, pay compensation to the victims' families, and cease all support for terrorism.", "Libya's refusal to comply led to the approval of Security Council Resolution 748 on 31 March 1992, imposing international sanctions on the state designed to bring about Libyan compliance.", "Continued Libyan defiance led to further sanctions by the UN against Libya in November 1993.After the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact and the Soviet Union, Libya concentrated on expanding diplomatic ties with Third World countries and increasing its commercial links with Europe and East Asia.", "Following the imposition of U.N. sanctions in 1992, these ties significantly diminished.", "Following a 1998 Arab League meeting in which fellow Arab states decided not to challenge U.N. sanctions, Gaddafi announced that he was turning his back on pan-Arab ideas, one of the fundamental tenets of his philosophy.Instead, Libya pursued closer bilateral ties, particularly with Egypt and Northwest African nations Tunisia and Morocco.", "It also has sought to develop its relations with Sub-Saharan Africa, leading to Libyan involvement in several internal African disputes in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, Somalia, Central African Republic, Eritrea, and Ethiopia.", "Libya also has sought to expand its influence in Africa through financial assistance, ranging from aid donations to impoverished neighbors such as Niger to oil subsidies to Zimbabwe.", "Gaddafi has proposed a borderless \"United States of Africa\" to transform the continent into a single nation-state ruled by a single government.", "This plan has been moderately well received, although more powerful would-be participants such as Nigeria and South Africa are skeptical.Gaddafi also trained and supported Charles Taylor, who was indicted by the Special Court for Sierra Leone for war crimes and crimes against humanity committed during the conflict in Sierra Leone.Libya had close ties with Slobodan Milošević's regime in FR Yugoslavia.", "Gaddafi aligned himself with the Orthodox Serbs against Bosnia and Herzegovina's Muslims and Kosovo's Albanians.", "Gaddafi supported Milošević even when Milošević was charged with large-scale ethnic cleansing against Albanians in Kosovo.", "In 2011, former Bulgarian Foreign Minister Nadezhda Neynsky revealed in a TV documentary that the Bulgarian government had turned over to Germany an unverified report compiled by its military agency which \"made clear\" the existence of the plan (Operation Horseshoe), even though the military intelligence warned that the information could not be verified.Gaddafi continued the denunciation of the NATO bombing of the former Yugoslavia.", "Intimating that the allegations against the state were deliberate efforts by the \"imperialist axis\" to falsely image armed ARBiH death squads in Srebrenica and elsewhere.In 1996, the Iran and Libya Sanctions Act (ILSA) was enacted, seeking to penalize non-U.S. companies which invest more than $40 million in Libya's oil and gasoline sector in any one year.", "ILSA was renewed in 2001, and the investment cap lowered to $20 million.In 1999, less than a decade after the UN sanctions were put in place, Libya began to make dramatic policy changes in regard to the Western world, including turning over the Lockerbie suspects for trial.", "This diplomatic breakthrough followed years of negotiation, including a visit by UN Secretary General Kofi Annan to Libya in December 1998, and personal appeals by Nelson Mandela.", "Eventually UK Foreign Secretary Robin Cook persuaded the Americans to accept a trial of the suspects in the Netherlands under Scottish law, with the UN Security Council agreeing to suspend sanctions as soon as the suspects arrived in the Netherlands for trial.", "Libya also paid compensation in 1999 for the death of British policewoman Yvonne Fletcher, a move that preceded the reopening of the British embassy in Tripoli and the appointment of ambassador Sir Richard Dalton, after a 17-year break in diplomatic relations.===2000s===Gaddafi with then-President of Russia Vladimir Putin in 2008As of January 2002, Libya was constructing another chemical weapons production facility at Tarhuna.", "Citing Libya's support for terrorism and its past regional aggressions the United States voiced concern over this development.", "In cooperation with like-minded countries, the United States has since sought to bring a halt to the foreign technical assistance deemed essential to the completion of this facility.", "See Chemical weapon proliferation#Libya.Following the fall of Saddam Hussein's regime in the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Gaddafi decided to abandon his weapons of mass destruction programs and pay almost 3 billion euros in compensation to the families of Pan Am Flight 103 and UTA Flight 772.The decision was welcomed by many western nations and was seen as an important step toward Libya rejoining the international community.", "Since 2003 the country has made efforts to normalize its ties with the European Union and the United States and has even coined the catchphrase, 'The Libya Model', an example intended to show the world what can be achieved through negotiation, rather than force, when there is goodwill on both sides.", "By 2004 George W. Bush had lifted the economic sanctions and official relations resumed with the United States.", "Libya opened a liaison office in Washington, and the United States opened an office in Tripoli.", "In January 2004, Congressman Tom Lantos led the first official Congressional delegation visit to Libya.Libya has supported Sudan's President Omar al-Bashir despite charges of a genocide in Darfur.The release, in 2007, of five Bulgarian nurses and a Palestinian doctor, who had been held since 1999, charged with conspiring to deliberately infect over 400 children with HIV, was seen as marking a new stage in Libyan-Western relations.The United States removed Gaddafi's regime, after 27 years, from its list of states sponsoring terrorism.On 16 October 2007, Libya was elected to serve on the United Nations Security Council for two years starting in January 2008.In August 2008 Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi signed an agreement to pay Libya $5 billion over 25 years – this was a \"complete and moral acknowledgement of the damage inflicted on Libya by Italy during the colonial era\", the Italian prime minister said.", "In September 2008, US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice met with Gaddafi and announced that US-Libya relations have entered a 'new phase'.Libyan-Swiss relations strongly suffered after the arrest of Hannibal Gaddafi for beating up his domestic servants in Geneva in 2008.In response, Gaddafi removed all his money held in Swiss banks and asked the United Nations to vote to abolish Switzerland as a sovereign nation.In February 2009, Gaddafi was selected to be chairman of the African Union for one year.", "The same year, the United Kingdom and Libya signed a prisoner-exchange agreement and then Libya requested the transfer of the convicted Lockerbie bomber, who finally returned home in August 2009.U.S.", "Secretary of State Hillary Clinton with Libyan National Security Adviser Mutassim Gaddafi in 2009On 23 September 2009, Colonel Gaddafi addressed the 64th session of the UN General Assembly in New York, his first visit to the United States.As of 25 October 2009, Canadian visa requests were being denied and Canadian travelers were told they were not welcome in Libya.", "Specifically, Harper's government was planning to publicly criticize Gaddafi for praising the convicted Lockerbie bomber.The sincerity of the good faith efforts of the Libyan government may be questionable since Moroccan Foreign Minister Taieb Fassi Fihri, told a U.S. diplomat in 2009 that the Libyans were willing to host wounded Guinean junta leader Captain Moussa Dadis Camara after a failed assassination attempt in 2009.Libya also still provided bounties for heads of refugees who criticized Gaddafi, including 1 million dollars for Ashur Shamis, a Libyan-British journalist.Despite this brief rapprochement with the West, Libya and Gaddafi retained their anti-imperialist stances.", "In 2009, Gaddafi, along with Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez, signed a declaration rejecting \"intentions to link the legitimate struggle of the people for liberty and self-determination with terrorism.\"", "At the meeting, Gaddafi suggested a \"South Atlantic Treaty Organization\", an anti-imperialist alternative to NATO for the Third World.Gaddafi and Libya always retained its staunch anti-Zionist stance.", "Throughout the 2000s, Gaddafi and Libya provided support to Palestinian group Hamas, and developed a close relationship with its leader, Khaled Mashal.", "During the 2008 Gaza War, Libya was the first country to send a shipment of aid to Gaza, Gaddafi also called for Arab volunteers to be sent to Gaza.Whilst it was presented that Gaddafi had \"renounced terrorism\", he maintained contact and support for many insurgent groups, namely, the FARC and the ELN in Colombia, the Kurdistan Workers' Party and the Kurdistan National Congress, as well as the Free Papua Movement.", "Gaddafi also maintained strong links with groups that had previously received support from Libya as armed groups, but had since laid down arms, such as the African National Congress in South Africa, the URNG in Guatemala, SWAPO in Namibia, the Sandinistas in Nicaragua, and the Communist Party of Chile, whose erstwhile paramilitary wing, the Manuel Rodríguez Patriotic Front, received support from Libya.Gaddafi strongly supported and forged close ties with pink tide-era Latin American socialist leaders, such as Hugo Chávez in Venezuela, Daniel Ortega in Nicaragua, Evo Morales in Bolivia, José Mujica in Uruguay and Rafael Correa in Ecuador.===2010s===During the start of the Arab Spring, Gaddafi condemned the Tunisian revolution in January 2011, saying protesters were misled by WikiLeaks and voicing solidarity with ousted President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali.The progress made by Gaddafi's government in improving relations with the Western world was swiftly set back by the regime's authoritarian crackdown on protests that began the following month.", "Many Western countries, including the United Kingdom, the United States, and eventually Italy condemned Libya for the brutal crackdown on the dissidents.", "Peru became the first of several countries to sever diplomatic relations with Tripoli on 22 February 2011, followed closely by African Union member state Botswana the following day.Libya was suspended from Arab League proceedings on 22 February 2011, the same day Peru terminated bilateral relations.", "In response, Gaddafi declared that in the view of his government, \"The Arab League is finished.", "There is no such thing as the Arab League.", "\"On 10 March 2011, France became the first country to not just break off relations with the ''jamahiriya'', but transfer diplomatic recognition to the rebel National Transitional Council established in Benghazi, declaring it to be \"the sole legitimate representative of the Libyan people\".", "As of 20 September 2011, a total of 98 countries had taken this step.On 19 March 2011, a coalition of United Nations member states led by France, the United Kingdom, and the United States began military operations in Libyan airspace and territorial waters after the United Nations Security Council approved UNSCR 1973, ostensibly to prevent further attacks on civilians as loyalist forces closed in on Benghazi, the rebel headquarters.", "In response, Gaddafi declared that a state of \"war with no limits\" existed between Libya and the members of the coalition.", "Despite this, he sent a three-page letter to US President Barack Obama imploring him to \"annul a wrong and mistaken action\" and stop striking Libyan targets, repeatedly referring to him as \"our son\" and blaming the uprising on the terrorist group al-Qaeda." ], [ "Relations with the West", "Embassy in BerlinIn 2003 Libya began to make policy changes with the open intention of pursuing a Western-Libyan détente.", "The Libyan government announced its decision to abandon its weapons of mass destruction programs and pay almost $3 billion in compensation to the families of Pan Am Flight 103 and UTA Flight 772.Starting in 2003, the Libyan government restored normal diplomatic ties with the European Union and the United States and has even coined the catchphrase, \"The Libya Model\", an example intended to show the world what can be achieved through negotiation rather than force when there is goodwill on both sides.On 30 August 2008, Gaddafi and Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi signed a historic cooperation treaty in Benghazi.", "Under its terms, Italy will pay $5 billion to Libya as compensation for its former military occupation.", "In exchange, Libya will take measures to combat illegal immigration coming from its shores and boost investments in Italian companies.", "The treaty was ratified by Italy on 6 February 2009, and by Libya on 2 March, during a visit to Tripoli by Berlusconi.On 31 October 2008, Libya paid $1.5 billion, sought through donations from private businesses, to a fund that would be used to compensate both US victims of the 1988 bombing of Pan Am flight 103 and the 1986 bombing of the La Belle disco in Germany.", "In addition, Libyan victims of US airstrikes that followed the Berlin attack will also be compensated with $300 million from the fund.", "US state department spokesman, Sean McCormack called the move a \"laudable milestone ... clearing the way for continued and expanding US-Libyan partnership.\"", "This final payment under the US-Libya Claims Settlement Agreement was seen as a major step towards improving ties between the two, which had begun easing after Tripoli halted its arms programmes.", "George Bush also signed an executive order restoring Libya's immunity from terror-related lawsuits and dismissing pending compensation cases.On 17 November 2008, FCO minister Bill Rammell signed five agreements with Libya.", "Rammell said: \"I will today sign four bilateral agreements with my Libyan counterpart, Abdulatti al-Obidi, which will strengthen our judicial ties, as agreed during Tony Blair's visit to Libya in May last year.", "In addition, we are signing today a Double Taxation Convention which will bring benefits to British business in Libya and Libyan investors in the UK – benefits in terms of certainty, clarity and transparency and reducing tax compliance burdens.", "We are also in the final stages of negotiating an agreement to protect and promote investment.", "\"\"UK/Libya relations have significantly improved in recent years, following Libya's voluntary renunciation of WMD.", "Today we are partners in the UN Security Council.", "We also wish to assist Libya to establish closer relations with the European Union to continue and strengthen the reintegration of Libya within the international community.", "We therefore support the commencement of negotiations between Libya and the EU on a framework agreement which should cover a range of issues including political, social, economic, commercial and cultural relations between the EU and Libya.", "\"On 21 November 2008, the US Senate confirmed the appointment of Gene Cretz to be the first US ambassador to Libya since 1972.In June 2009, Gaddafi made his first visit to Rome, where he met Prime Minister Berlusconi, President Giorgio Napolitano, Senate President Renato Schifani, and Chamber President Gianfranco Fini, among others.", "The Democratic Party and Italy of Values opposed the visit, and many protests were staged throughout Italy by human rights organizations and the Radical Party.", "Gaddafi also took part in the G8 summit in L'Aquila in July as Chairman of the African Union.In the 2005–2009 period, Italy has been the first EU arms exporter towards Libya, with a total value of €276.7m, of which one third only in the last 2008–2009 years.", "Italian exports cover one third of total EU arms exports towards Libya, and include mainly military aircraft but also missiles and electronic equipment.In the late 2000s, Libyan-US relations soured due to the establishment of the United States Africa Command (AFRICOM), of which Gaddafi and the Libyan government were highly critical.During the Libyan Civil War, Italy terminated relations with Tripoli and recognized the rebel authority in Benghazi as Libya's legitimate representative, effectively starting relations with the anti-Gaddafi government.", "The Italian government has urged the international community to follow suit.During the Libyan Civil War, all European Union and NATO member states withdrew diplomatic staff from Tripoli and shut their embassies in the Libyan capital.", "Several foreign embassies and UN offices were badly damaged by vandals on 1 May 2011, drawing condemnation from the United Kingdom and Italy.", "The UK also expelled the Libyan ambassador in London from the country.On 1 July 2011, Gaddafi threatened to sponsor attacks against civilians and businesses in Europe in what would be a resumption of his policies of the 1970s and 1980s." ], [ "International incidents", "===1986 West Berlin discotheque bombing===On 13 November 2001, a German court found four persons, including a former employee of the Libyan embassy in East Berlin, guilty in connection with the 1986 Berlin discotheque bombing, in which 229 people were injured and two U.S. servicemen were killed.", "The court also established a connection to the Libyan government.===Lockerbie bombing===In November 1991, two Libyan intelligence agents, Abdelbaset al-Megrahi and Lamin Khalifah Fhimah, were charged with the December 1988 Lockerbie bombing.", "Libya refused to extradite the two accused to the U.S. or to Scotland.", "As a result, United Nations Security Council Resolution 748 was approved on 31 March 1992, requiring Libya to surrender the suspects, cooperate with the Pan Am Flight 103 and UTA Flight 772 investigations, pay compensation to the victims' families, and cease all support for terrorism.", "The UN imposed further sanctions with Resolution 883, a limited assets freeze and an embargo on selected oil equipment, in November 1993.In 1999, six other Libyans who had been accused of the September 1989 bombing of Union Air Transport Flight 772 were put on trial in their absence by a Paris court.", "They were found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment.The Libyan government eventually surrendered the two Lockerbie bombing suspects in 1999 for trial at the Scottish Court in the Netherlands and UN sanctions were suspended.", "On 31 January 2001, at the end of the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial, Megrahi was convicted of murder and sentenced to 27 years in prison.", "Fhimah was found not guilty and was freed to return to Libya.", "Megrahi appealed against his conviction but this was rejected in February 2002.In 2003, Libya wrote to the UN Security Council admitting \"responsibility for the actions of its officials\" in relation to the Lockerbie bombing, renouncing terrorism and agreeing to pay compensation to the relatives of the 270 victims.", "The previously suspended UN sanctions were then cancelled.In June 2007, the Scottish Criminal Cases Review Commission decided that there may have been a miscarriage of justice and referred Megrahi's case back to Court of Criminal Appeal in Edinburgh for a second appeal.", "Expected to last for a year, the appeal began in April 2009 and was adjourned in May 2009.Having been diagnosed with terminal cancer, Megrahi dropped the appeal and on 20 August 2009, was granted compassionate release from jail and repatriated to Libya.", "In an interview with ''The Wall Street Journal'' on 24 September 2009, the day after his address to the United Nations General Assembly in New York City, Gaddafi said, \"As a case, the Lockerbie question: I would say it's come to an end, legally, politically, financially, it is all over.", "\"===Benghazi hospital affair===In the late 1990s, a Benghazi children's hospital was the site of an outbreak of HIV infection that spread to over 400 patients.", "Libya blamed the outbreak on five Bulgarian nurses and a Palestinian doctor, who were arrested and eventually sentenced to death (eventually overturned and a new trial ordered).", "The international view is that Libya has used the medics as scapegoats for poor hygiene conditions, and Bulgaria and other countries including the European Union and the United States repeatedly called on Tripoli to release them.", "A new trial began 11 May 2006, in Tripoli.", "On 6 December a study was released showing that some children had been infected before the six arrived in Libya, but it was too late for inclusion as evidence.", "On 19 December 2006, the six were again convicted and sentenced to death.", "They were finally released in June 2007, after mediation of French president Nicolas Sarkozy, in exchange for a variety of agreements with the EU, and they were returned to Bulgaria safely.===Dispute with Switzerland===On 15 July 2008 the fifth eldest son of Muammar Gaddafi, Hannibal Gaddafi, and his wife were held for two days and charged with assaulting two of their staff in Geneva, Switzerland and then released on bail on 17 July.", "Hannibal Gaddafi has a history of violent and aggressive behaviour having been charged with battery by his later wife and having attacked Italian police officers.The government of Libya subsequently put a boycott on Swiss imports, reduced flights between Libya and Switzerland, stopped issuing visas to Swiss citizens, recalled diplomats from Bern, and forced all Swiss companies such as ABB and Nestlé to close offices.", "General National Maritime Transport Company, which owns a large refinery in Switzerland, also halted oil shipments to Switzerland.Two Swiss businessmen, Rachid Hamdani and Max Göldi, Libya head of ABB, who were in Libya at the time were denied permission to leave the country and were forced to take shelter at the Swiss embassy in Tripoli.", "Both were initially sentenced to 6 months in prison for immigration offenses, but Hamdani was cleared on appeal and Göldi's sentence was reduced to four months.", "Göldi surrendered to Libyan authorities on 22 February 2010, while Hamdani returned to Switzerland on 24 February.At the 35th G8 summit in July 2009, Muammar Gaddafi called Switzerland a \"world mafia\" and called for the country to be split between France, Germany and Italy.In August 2009 Swiss President Hans-Rudolf Merz visited Tripoli and issued a public apology to Libya for the arrest of Hannibal Gaddafi and his wife.", "Geneva's prosecutor dropped the case against the Gaddafis when the employees withdrew their formal complaint after reaching an undisclosed settlement.===Schengen Area visa ban===In February 2010, the dispute with Switzerland spread, with Libya refusing to issue entry visas to nationals of any of the countries within the Schengen Area, of which Switzerland is a part.", "This action was apparently taken in retaliation for Switzerland blacklisting 188 high-ranking officials from Libya.As a result of the ban, foreign nationals from certain countries were not permitted entry into Libya at Tripoli airport, including 22 Italians and eight Maltese citizens, one of whom was forced to wait for 20 hours before he was able to return home.", "Three Italians, nine Portuguese nationals, a Frenchman and a European citizen who arrived from Cairo were repatriated.", "In addition to citizens of Schengen Area countries being refused entry, it has been reported that several Irish citizens have been turned away, despite Republic of Ireland not being a member of the Schengen agreement.", "An unnamed Libyan official at the airport asked to confirm the ban told Reuters: \"This is right.", "This decision has been taken.", "No visas for Europeans, except Britain.", "\"In response, the European Commission criticised the actions, describing them as \"unilateral and disproportionate\", although no immediate 'tit-for-tat' response was announced." ], [ "Support for rebel and paramilitary groups", "The government of Libya had in the past received criticism and trade restrictions from Western countries and organisations for allegedly providing several armed rebel groups with weapons, explosives and combat training.Paramilitaries supported by Libya past and present include:The Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) of Ireland, an Irish paramilitary group that fought a 29-year war for a United Ireland.", "See Provisional IRA arms importation for details.", "''Many of the break away Irish Republican groups which oppose the Good Friday Agreement (the Continuity Irish Republican Army and the Real Irish Republican Army) are believed to be in possession of a significant amount of the Libyan ammunition and semtex explosives delivered to the IRA during the 1970s and 1980s.", "''The Free Aceh Movement or GAM, an Indonesian separatist rebel group was funded by Libya in its second wave beginning in 1989.The Libyan government also supplied troops and training to the rebels.", "The Palestine Liberation Organization of the disputed territories in the West Bank and Gaza Strip received support from Libya, as well as many other Arab states.", "The Sandinista National Liberation Front is a Christian socialist, and formerly Marxist-Leninist group that fought in the Nicaraguan Revolution and remains Nicaragua's ruling party.", "They received support from Gaddafi during the Revolution.", "The National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL), the Liberian rebel group led by Charles Taylor received direct Libyan support, including political support, weapons, sponsorship and military training.", "The Revolutionary United Front (RUF), a violent Sierra Leonean guerrilla group led by Foday Sankoh, received the same political, financial, and military support and patronage as the NPFL.", "Action Directe was a French libertarian socialist urban guerrilla group active from 1979 until 1987.They received considerable support from Gaddafi.", "Tajammu al-Arabi, was a Libyan-supported military-political organization that fought against the Furs in the War of the Tribes.", "The Moro National Liberation Front was an Islamist rebel army which fought in the Philippines against the military dictatorship of Ferdinand MarcosUmkhonto we Sizwe – Xhosa, for the \"spear of the nation\" was originally the military wing of the African National Congress (a multiracial, center-left political party) which fought against the white minority led Apartheid regime in South Africa.", "During the years of MK's underground struggle the group was supported by Libya.", "The Communist Party of the Philippines, the New People's Army and the National Democratic Front of the Philippines have been engaged in an armed struggle against the Filipino government.", "The CPP, NPA and NDF received financial support and training from Libya.", "Libya was also one of the main supporters of the Polisario Front in the former Spanish Sahara – a nationalist group dedicated to ending Spanish colonialism in the region, and from 1975, to combatting the Moroccan occupation of what is now known as Western Sahara.", "The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) was proclaimed by Polisario on 28 February 1976, and Libya began to recognize the SADR as the legitimate government of Western Sahara.", "While monetary and military Libyan support for the Sahrawi cause dwindled in the mid-1980s, Sahrawi refugees and students were still able to settle in and apply for free higher education in Libya.", "The Tupamaros were a Uruguayan Guevarist urban guerrilla group active in the 1960s and 1970s.", "One member, José Mujica, would later serve as President of Uruguay.", "They were supported by Gaddafi.", "The Black Panther Party were an African-American revolutionary socialist organization founded by Bobby Seale and Huey P. Newton active from 1966 until 1982.They received support from Gaddafi.", "The Shining Path, a Marxist-Leninist-Maoist insurgent group in Peru founded and led by Abimael Guzmán in 1980.During its war against the Peruvian government, it was supported by Libya.", "The Houthi movement, a Shia militia group in Yemen founded by Hussein Badreddin al-Houthi in 1994.They received support from Libya." ], [ "Africa", "Libya has in the past claimed a strip along their border of about in northern Niger and part of southeastern Algeria.", "In addition, it is involved in a maritime boundary dispute with Tunisia.As with all other African countries, Libya is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement.", "As with most international organizations to which Tripoli is a party, NAM recognizes it under the name Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.===Algeria===Algeria–Libya relations have generally been friendly.", "Libyan support for the Polisario Front in the Western Sahara facilitated early post independence Algerian relations with Libya.", "Libyan inclinations for full-scale political union, however, have obstructed formal political collaboration because Algeria has consistently backed away from such cooperation with its unpredictable neighbour.===Chad===Aouzou strip (red)Libya long claimed the Aouzou Strip, a strip of land in northern Chad rich with uranium deposits that was intensely involved in Chad's civil war in the 1970s and 1980s.In 1973, Libya engaged in military operations in the Aouzou Strip to gain access to minerals and to use it as a base of influence in Chadian politics.", "Libya argued that the territory was inhabited by indigenous people who owed allegiance to the Senussi Order and subsequently to the Ottoman Empire, and that this title had been inherited by Libya.", "It also supported its claim with an unratified 1935 treaty between France and Italy, the colonial powers of Chad and Libya, respectively.", "After consolidating its hold on the strip, Libya annexed it in 1976.Chadian forces were able to force the Libyans to retreat from the Aouzou Strip in 1987.A cease-fire between Chad and Libya held from 1987 to 1988, followed by unsuccessful negotiations over the next several years, leading finally to the 1994 International Court of Justice decision granting Chad sovereignty over the Aouzou Strip, which ended Libyan occupation.Chadian-Libyan relations were ameliorated when Libyan-supported Idriss Déby unseated Habré on 2 December.", "Gaddafi was the first head of state to recognize the new regime, and he also signed treaties of friendship and cooperation on various levels; but regarding the Aouzou Strip Déby followed his predecessor, declaring that if necessary he would fight to keep the strip out of Libya's hands.The Aouzou dispute was concluded for good on 3 February 1994, when the judges of the ICJ by a majority of 16 to 1 decided that the Aouzou Strip belonged to Chad.", "The court's judgement was implemented without delay, the two parties signing as early as 4 April an agreement concerning the practical modalities for the implementation of the judgement.", "Monitored by international observers, the withdrawal of Libyan troops from the Strip began on 15 April and was completed by 10 May.", "The formal and final transfer of the Strip from Libya to Chad took place on 30 May, when the sides signed a joint declaration stating that the Libyan withdrawal had been effected.During the Libyan Civil War, after meeting with high-level representatives of the Chadian government, United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton announced that N'Djamena opposes Gaddafi and has reached out to the rival National Transitional Council in rebel-held Benghazi.", "This claim was disputed by at least one foreign policy analyst, who brought up previous remarks made by Ambassador Daoussa Déby, the Chadian president's half-brother, and said, \"Déby's words seem to echo Gaddafi's claims that the terrorist group al-Qaeda masterminded the national uprising in Libya.", "\"===Egypt===After the neighboring countries of Egypt and Libya both gained independence in the early 1950s, relations were initially cooperative.", "Libya assisted Egypt in the 1973 Yom Kippur War.", "Later, tensions arose due to Egypt's rapprochement with the west.", "Following the 1977 Libyan–Egyptian War, relations were suspended for twelve years.", "However, since 1989 relations have steadily improved.", "With the progressive lifting of UN and US sanctions from 2003 to 2008, the two countries have been working together to jointly develop their oil and natural gas industries." ], [ "Europe", " Country Formal Relations BeganNotes1992See Belarus–Libya relations* Belarus has an embassy in Tripoli.", "* Libya has an embassy in Minsk.", "* Since the Lockerbie bombing, Belarus has been one of the few European nations to maintain diplomatic relations with Libya.See Foreign relations of BulgariaRelations with Bulgaria have been troublesome after the a group of Bulgarian nurses and a Palestinian doctor were accused of infecting Libyan children with HIV when they worked at a Libyan hospital; the nurses were sentenced to death in a Libyan court, but the death sentences were ultimately commuted and the Bulgarian nurses and Palestinian doctor were sent back to Bulgaria.See Croatia–Libya relations1960sSee Cyprus–Libya relations* Cyprus has an embassy in Tripoli.", "* Libya has an embassy in Nicosia.", "* Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Libya1993See Czech Republic – Libya relations* The Czech Republic has an embassy in Tripoli.", "* Libya has an embassy in Prague.", "* The Czech Republic imposed sanctions on Libya in 1997 under a United Nations resolution following the 1988 Lockerbie bombing.", "This was lifted in 2006 by Czech President Václav Klaus.See Denmark – Libya relations* Libya has an embassy in Copenhagen, Denmark.", "* Denmark has a royal consualte in Tripoli, Libya.See France–Libya relationsLibya developed particularly close relations with France after the June 1967 War, when France relaxed its arms embargo on nonfront-line Middle East combatants and agreed to sell weapons to the Libyans.", "In 1974 Libya and France signed an agreement whereby Libya exchanged a guaranteed oil supply for technical assistance and financial cooperation.", "By 1976, however, Libya began criticizing France as an \"arms merchant\" because of its willingness to sell weapons to both sides in the Middle East conflict.", "Libya later criticized France for its willingness to sell arms to Egypt.", "Far more serious was Libya's dissatisfaction with French military intervention in the Western Sahara, Chad, and Zaire.", "In 1978 Gaddafi noted that although economic relations were good, political relations were not, and he accused France of having reverted to a colonialist policy that former French president Charles de Gaulle had earlier abandoned.In the 1980s, Libyan-French discord centered on the situation in Chad.", "As mentioned, the two countries found themselves supporting opposite sides in the Chadian Civil War.", "In late 1987, there were some French troops in Chad, but French policy did not permit its forces to cross the sixteenth parallel.", "Thus, direct clashes with Libyan soldiers seemed unlikely.On 10 March 2011, France was the first country in the world to recognise the National Transitional Council as the legitimate government of Libya, in the context of the Libyan Civil War against Muammar Gaddafi.See Germany–Libya relationsGermany is represented in Libya with an embassy in Tripoli, while Libya has an embassy in Berlin.", "The relationship between these countries was tense in the late 1980s following a bombing incident, but has improved since with increasingly close co-operation especially on economic matters.On 13 June 2011, Germany began to recognize the National Transitional Council as the sole legitimate government of Libya.See Foreign relations of Greece* Hungary has an embassy in Tripoli.", "* Libya has an embassy in Budapest.See Foreign relations of ItalySee Libya–Malta relations* Both countries established diplomatic relations soon after Malta's independence.", "* Both countries had very close ties and cooperation during Dom Mintoff's governments.", "* Libya has an embassy in Valletta.", "* Malta has an embassy in Tripoli.See Libya–Russia relations* Russia has an embassy in Tripoli.", "* Libya has an embassy in Moscow.1955See Libya–Serbia relations* Libya has an embassy in Belgrade.", "* Since 1963, Serbia has an embassy in Tripoli.", "* Serbian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Libya 1955See Libya–Turkey relations* Libya has an embassy in Ankara, and a general consulate in Istanbul.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Tripoli and a general consulate in Benghazi.", "* Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with LibyaSee Libya–Switzerland relations* Libya had an embassy in Bern* Switzerland had an embassy in TripoliRelations were severed in 2009, Gaddafi publicly called for the dissolution of Switzerland.See Libya – United Kingdom relations* Libya has an embassy in London* The United Kingdom had an embassy in Tripoli" ], [ "United States", "In early 2004, the U.S. State Department ended its ban on U.S. citizens using their passports for travel to Libya or spending money there.", "U.S. citizens began legally heading back to Libya for the first time since 1981.On 15 May 2006 David Welch, Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern Affairs, announced that the U.S. had decided, after a 45-day comment period, to renew full diplomatic relations with Libya and remove Libya from the U.S. list of countries that foster terrorism.", "During this announcement, it was also said that the U.S. has the intention of upgrading the U.S. liaison office in Tripoli into an embassy.", "The U.S. embassy in Tripoli opened in May, a product of gradual normalization of international relations after Libya accepted responsibility for the Pan Am 103 bombing.", "Libya's dismantling of its weapons of mass destruction was a major step towards this announcement.The United States suspended its relations with Gaddafi's government indefinitely on 10 March 2011, when it announced it would begin treating the National Transitional Council in Benghazi as legitimate negotiating parties for the country's future.On 15 July 2011, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton announced that America would now recognize the National Transitional Council as the legitimate government of Libya, thus severing any and all recognition of Gaddafi's government as legitimate." ], [ "Asia and Oceania", "=== China ===Gaddafi was in many ways critical of China on international issues.", "He also said that China had betrayed socialism.", "Despite this, Chinese companies engaged in talks to sell weapons to the Libyan government during the First Libyan Civil War, however the Chinese government stated it was unaware of these negotiations, and that weapons were never sold.=== Indonesia ===Beginning in 1989, Libya supported the Free Aceh Movement through GAM's second wave with troops and aid.", "This led to the second GAM wave being better trained than the previous wave.=== Iraq ===Libya supported Iran against Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988).", "For this reason, in 1985, Iraq broke all ties with Libya.", "However Libya ended support for Iran in 1987 and moved to reestablishing relations with Iraqi president Saddam Hussein.", "Libya opposed the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait but also opposed the multinational coalition against Iraq during the Gulf War.", "Gaddafi was a lifelong critic of the 2003 invasion of Iraq, sharply criticising the war and the execution of Saddam Hussein at a 2008 Arab League summit, and going so far as to suspend all relations with the post-Ba'athist authorities in 2003, until Iraq's \"freedom, independence and sovereignty\" was restored.===Pakistan===Since gaining independence from their respective colonial powers, both nations have had a strong relationship, partially due to their historic cultural similarities.===Vanuatu===Vanuatu and Libya established official diplomatic relations in 1986, at the initiative of the former.", "The aim, for Vanuatu, was to obtain access to favourable economic relations with a major oil-producing country, and to strengthen its policy of non-alignment by establishing relations with a notable country not aligned with the Western Bloc." ], [ "International recognition", "As of 18 October 2011, at least 100 UN member states have explicitly recognised the National Transitional Council, as have all international organisations to which Libya is a member.", "Only the 8 countries of the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas and the African countries of Namibia and Zimbabwe have explicitly continued to denounce the NTC and insist on Gaddafi's legitimacy." ], [ "See also", "Diplomatic missions of LibyaIran–Arab relations (Libya)Libya and nuclear technologyList of diplomatic missions in Libya" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Libya* Libya Embassies and consulates list* \"Qaddafi Plays Quietly, But He's Still in the Game,\" ''The New York Times'', 17 March 1991.", "* How Libya Got Off the List at Council on Foreign Relations" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Liechtenstein" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Liechtenstein''' ( ; ), officially the '''Principality of Liechtenstein''' (, ),is a landlocked German-speaking microstate located in the Alps between Austria and Switzerland.", "It is the sixth smallest country in the world, and one of only two which are double landlocked.", "Liechtenstein is a semi-constitutional monarchy headed by the prince of Liechtenstein.Liechtenstein is bordered by Switzerland to the west and south and Austria to the east and north.", "It is Europe's fourth-smallest country, with an area of just over and a population of 38,749 ().", "It is the world's smallest country to border two countries.Liechtenstein is divided into 11 municipalities.", "Its capital is Vaduz, and its largest municipality is Schaan.", "It is a member of the United Nations, the European Free Trade Association, and the Council of Europe.", "It is not a member state of the European Union, but it participates in both the Schengen Area and the European Economic Area.", "It has a customs union and a monetary union with Switzerland.Economically, Liechtenstein has one of the highest gross domestic products per person in the world when adjusted for purchasing power parity.", "The country has a strong financial sector centred in Vaduz.", "It was once known as a billionaire tax haven, but is no longer on any official blacklists of uncooperative tax haven countries.", "An Alpine country, Liechtenstein is mountainous, making it a winter sport destination." ], [ "History", "=== Early history ===Gutenberg Castle, Balzers, LiechtensteinVaduz Castle, overlooking the capital, is home to the Prince of Liechtenstein.Johann I Joseph, Prince of Liechtenstein from 1805 to 1806 and 1814 to 1836, by Johann Baptist von Lampi the Elder.", "Liechtenstein Museum, ViennaThe oldest traces of human existence in the area of present-day Liechtenstein date back to the Middle Paleolithic era.", "Neolithic farming settlements appeared in the valleys around 5300 BCE.The Hallstatt and La Tène cultures flourished during the late Iron Age, from around 450 BCE—possibly under some influence of both the Greek and Etruscan civilisations.", "One of the most important tribal groups in the Alpine region were the Helvetii.", "In 58 BCE, at the Battle of Bibracte, Julius Caesar defeated the Alpine tribes, thereby bringing the region under Roman subjugation.", "By 15 BCE, Tiberius—later the second Roman emperor—with his brother, Drusus, conquered the entire Alpine area.Liechtenstein then became integrated into the Roman province of Raetia.", "The area was garrisoned by the Roman army, which maintained large legionary camps at Brigantium (Austria), near Lake Constance, and at Magia (Switzerland).", "The Romans built and maintained a road which ran through the territory.", "Around 260 CE Brigantium was destroyed by the Alemanni, a Germanic people who later settled in the area around 450.In the Early Middle Ages, the Alemanni settled the eastern Swiss plateau by the 5th century and the valleys of the Alps by the end of the 8th century, with Liechtenstein located at the eastern edge of Alamannia.", "In the 6th century the entire region became part of the Frankish Empire following Clovis I's victory over the Alemanni at Tolbiac in 504.The area that later became Liechtenstein remained under Frankish hegemony (Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties) until the Treaty of Verdun divided the Carolingian empire in 843, following the death of Charlemagne in 814.The territory of present-day Liechtenstein formed part of East Francia.", "It would later be reunified with Middle Francia under the Holy Roman Empire, around 1000.Until about 1100, the predominant language of the area was Romansch, but thereafter German began to gain ground in the territory.", "In 1300, another Alemannic population—the Walsers, who originated in Valais—entered the region and settled; the mountain village of Triesenberg today preserves features of the Walser dialect.=== Foundation of a dynasty ===By 1200, dominions across the Alpine plateau were controlled by the Houses of Savoy, Zähringer, Habsburg, and Kyburg.", "Other regions were accorded the Imperial immediacy that granted the empire direct control over the mountain passes.", "When the Kyburg dynasty fell in 1264, the Habsburgs under King Rudolph I, the Holy Roman Emperor in 1273, extended their territory to the eastern Alpine plateau that included the territory of Liechtenstein.", "This region was enfeoffed to the Counts of Hohenems until the sale to the Liechtenstein dynasty in 1699.In 1396, Vaduz, the southern region of Liechtenstein, gained imperial immediacy, i.e.", "it became subject to the Holy Roman Emperor alone.The family from which the principality takes its name originally came from Liechtenstein Castle in Lower Austria, which they had possessed since at least 1140 until the 13th century, and again from 1807 onwards.", "The Liechtensteins acquired land, predominantly in Moravia, Lower Austria, Silesia, and Styria.", "As these territories were all held in feudal tenure from more senior feudal lords, particularly various branches of the Habsburgs, the Liechtenstein dynasty was unable to meet a primary requirement to qualify for a seat in the Imperial diet (parliament), the .", "Even though several Liechtenstein princes served several Habsburg rulers as close advisers, without any territory held directly from the Imperial throne, they held little power in the Holy Roman Empire.For this reason, the family sought to acquire lands that would be classed as , or held without any intermediate feudal tenure, directly from the Holy Roman Emperor.", "During the early 17th century, Karl I of Liechtenstein was made a (prince) by the Holy Roman Emperor Matthias after siding with him in a political battle.", "Hans-Adam I was allowed to purchase the minuscule ('Lordship') of Schellenberg and the county of Vaduz (in 1699 and 1712, respectively) from the Hohenems.", "Tiny Schellenberg and Vaduz had exactly the political status required: no feudal lord other than their comital sovereign and the suzerain Emperor.=== Principality ===Ducal hat of LiechtensteinOn 23 January 1719, after the lands had been purchased, Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, decreed that Vaduz and Schellenberg were united and elevated the newly formed territory to the dignity of ('principality') with the name \"Liechtenstein\" in honour of \"his true servant, Anton Florian of Liechtenstein\".", "On this date, Liechtenstein became a sovereign member state of the Holy Roman Empire.By the early 19th century, as a result of the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, the Holy Roman Empire came under the effective control of France, following the crushing defeat at Austerlitz by Napoleon in 1805.In 1806, Emperor Francis II abdicated and dissolved the Holy Roman Empire, ending more than 960 years of feudal government.", "Napoleon reorganized much of the Empire into the Confederation of the Rhine.", "This political restructuring had broad consequences for Liechtenstein: the historical imperial, legal, and political institutions had been dissolved.", "The state ceased to owe an obligation to any feudal lord beyond its borders.Modern publications generally attribute Liechtenstein's sovereignty to these events.", "Its prince ceased to owe an obligation to any suzerain.", "From 25 July 1806, when the Confederation of the Rhine was founded, the Prince of Liechtenstein was a member, in fact a vassal, of its hegemon, styled ''protector'', the French Emperor Napoleon I, until the dissolution of the confederation on 19 October 1813.Soon afterward, Liechtenstein joined the German Confederation (20 June 181523 August 1866), which was presided over by the Emperor of Austria.In 1818, Prince Johann I granted the territory a limited constitution.", "In that same year Prince Aloys became the first member of the House of Liechtenstein to set foot in the principality that bore their name.", "The next visit would not occur until 1842.Developments during the 19th century included:* 1842: the first factory for making ceramics was opened.", "* 1861: the Savings and Loans Bank was founded along with the first cotton-weaving mill.", "* 1866: the German Confederation was dissolved.", "* 1868: the Liechtenstein Army was disbanded for financial reasons.", "* 1872: a railway line between Switzerland and the Austro-Hungarian Empire was constructed through Liechtenstein.", "* 1886: two bridges over the Rhine to Switzerland were built.=== 20th century ===Until the end of World War I, Liechtenstein was closely tied first to the Austrian Empire and later to Austria-Hungary; the ruling princes continued to derive much of their wealth from estates in the Habsburg territories, and spent much of their time at their two palaces in Vienna.", "Johann II appointed Carl von In der Maur, an Austrian aristocrat, to serve as the Governor of Liechtenstein.", "The economic devastation caused by World War I forced the country to conclude a customs and monetary union with its other neighbour Switzerland.In 1929, 75-year-old Prince Franz I succeeded to the throne.", "He had just married Elisabeth von Gutmann, a wealthy woman from Vienna whose father was a Jewish businessman from Moravia.", "Although Liechtenstein had no official Nazi party, a Nazi sympathy movement arose within its National Union party.", "Local Liechtenstein Nazis identified Elisabeth as their Jewish \"problem\".", "Pro-Nazi agitation remained in Liechtenstein throughout the 1930s, with an attempted coup in March 1939 while Franz Joseph II was on a state visit to Berlin.In March 1938, just after the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany, Franz named as regent his 31-year-old grandnephew and heir-presumptive, Prince Franz Joseph.", "After making his grandnephew regent he moved to Feldberg, Czechoslovakia and on 25 July, he died while at one of his family's castles, Castle Feldberg, and Franz Joseph formally succeeded him as the Prince of Liechtenstein.Franz I, Prince of Liechtenstein from 1929 to 1938Franz Joseph II, Prince of Liechtenstein from 1938 to 1989During World War II, Liechtenstein remained officially neutral, looking to neighbouring Switzerland for assistance and guidance, while family treasures from dynastic lands and possessions in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia were taken to Liechtenstein for safekeeping.", "Operation Tannenbaum, the Nazi plan for conquest of Switzerland, included also Liechtenstein, and the Nazi \"Pan German\" dream of uniting all German-speakers in the Reich would have also included the population of Liechtenstein.", "However, the Nazis eventually gave up implementing this plan, and Liechtenstein was spared from enduring a Nazi occupation.", "At the close of the conflict, Czechoslovakia and Poland, acting to seize what they considered German possessions, expropriated all of the Liechtenstein dynasty's properties in those three regions.", "The expropriations (subject to modern legal dispute at the International Court of Justice) included over of agricultural and forest land (most notably the UNESCO listed Lednice–Valtice Cultural Landscape), and several family castles and palaces.In 2005, it was revealed that Jewish slave labourers from the Strasshof concentration camp, provided by the SS, had worked on estates in Austria owned by Liechtenstein's Princely House.", "But a later inquiry found the family not to have known about this.Citizens of Liechtenstein were forbidden to enter Czechoslovakia during the Cold War.", "The diplomatic conflict revolving around the controversial postwar Beneš decrees resulted in Liechtenstein not having international relations with the Czech Republic or Slovakia.", "Diplomatic relations were established between Liechtenstein and the Czech Republic on 13 July 2009, and with Slovakia on 9 December 2009.On 20 September 1990, Liechtenstein was admitted into the United Nations as 160th member state.", "As a member of the United Nations General Assembly, the microstate is one of the few not to play a prominent role in UN-specialized agencies.=== Financial centre ===Liechtenstein was in dire financial straits following the end of World War II.", "The Liechtenstein dynasty often resorted to selling family artistic treasures, including the portrait ''Ginevra de' Benci'' by Leonardo da Vinci, which was purchased by the National Gallery of Art of the United States in 1967 for 5 million ($ million in dollars), then a record price for a painting.By the late 1970s, Liechtenstein used its low corporate tax rates to draw many companies and became one of the wealthiest countries in the world.Liechtenstein is one of the few countries in Europe (along with Monaco and San Marino) not to have a tax treaty with the United States, and efforts towards one seem to have stalled.", "the Prince of Liechtenstein is the world's sixth wealthiest monarch, with an estimated wealth of 3.5 billion.", "The country's population enjoys one of the world's highest standards of living." ], [ "Government", "Administrative divisions of Liechtenstein, showing numerous exclavesThe centre of government in VaduzHans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein, as pictured by Erling Mandelmann in 1974Liechtenstein has a somewhat enigmatic political system, which combines elements of absolute monarchy, representative democracy, and direct democracy.", "The monarch retains extensive executive and legislative powers, and plays a strong active role in the day to day politics of the country, and over all three branches of governmentthe only European monarch to have retained such a role.", "Representative democracy and direct democracy coexist in that an elected parliament enacts legislation, and voters can propose and enact laws and constitutional amendments independently of the legislature.", "However, as with laws passed by the legislature, these can be vetoed by the monarch.", "The reigning Prince is the head of state and represents Liechtenstein in its international relations (although Switzerland has taken responsibility for much of Liechtenstein's diplomatic relations).The current Constitution of Liechtenstein was adopted in March 2003, amending the 1921 constitution, giving the prince extensive veto powers, and the ability to dismiss the government and rule by emergency decree, and maintaining the prince's active role in the legislative process.", "The BBC characterizes Liechtenstein post-2003 as \"in effect\" an \"absolute monarchy\".", "Legislative authority is vested in the unicameral Landtag, made up of 25 members elected for maximum four-year terms according to a proportional representation formula.", "Fifteen members are elected from the Oberland (Upper Country or region) and ten from the Unterland (Lower Country or region).", "Parties must receive at least 8% of the national vote to win seats in parliament, i.e., enough for two seats in the 25-seat legislature.", "Parliament proposes and approves a government, which the Prince formally appoints.", "Parliament may also pass votes of no confidence in the entire government or individual members.The government comprises the head of government (prime minister) and four government councillors (ministers), who are appointed by the Prince upon the proposal of parliament and with its concurrence, and reflect the balance of parties in parliament.", "The constitution stipulates that at least two government members be chosen from each of the two regions.", "The members of the government are collectively and individually responsible to parliament; parliament may ask the Prince to remove an individual minister or the entire government, or the Prince may do so unilaterally.Parliament elects from among its members a \"Landesausschuss\" (National Committee) made up of the president of the parliament and four additional members.", "The National Committee is charged with performing functions of parliamentary supervision.", "Parliament shares the authority to propose new legislation with the Prince, and with the citizenry, as both parliament and the citizenry may initiate referendums.Judicial authority is vested in the Regional Court at Vaduz, the Princely High Court of Appeal at Vaduz, the Princely Supreme Court, the Administrative Court, and the State Court.", "The State Court rules on the conformity of laws with the constitution and has five members elected by parliament.On 1 July 1984, Liechtenstein became the last country in Europe to grant women the right to vote.", "The referendum on women's suffrage, in which only men were allowed to participate, passed with 51.3% in favour.=== International awards ===In 2013, Liechtenstein won for the first time a SolarSuperState Prize in the Solar category recognizing the achieved level of the usage of photovoltaics per population within the state territory.", "The SolarSuperState Association justified this prize with the cumulative installed photovoltaic power of some 290 watts per capita at the end of 2012.This placed Liechtenstein second in the world after Germany.", "Also in 2014, the SolarSuperState Association awarded the second place SolarSuperState Prize in the Solar category to Liechtenstein.", "In the years 2015 and 2016, Liechtenstein was honoured with the first place SolarSuperState Prize in the Solar category because it had the world's biggest cumulative installed photovoltaic power output per capita.Maltese consulate in Schaan=== Foreign relations ===In the absence of political or military power, Liechtenstein has sought to preserve its sovereignty over the past 200 years through membership in legal communities.", "International cooperation and European integration are therefore constants of Liechtenstein's foreign policy, aimed at continuing to safeguard the country's sovereignty as recognized under international law.", "Decisive for the domestic legitimacy and sustainability of this foreign policy were and are strong direct-democratic and citizen-oriented decision-making mechanisms, which are anchored in Liechtenstein in the Constitution of 1921.Important historical stages in Liechtenstein's integration and cooperation policy were its accession to the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806, to the German Confederation in 1815, the conclusion of bilateral customs and currency agreements with the Habsburg monarchy in 1852, and finally the Customs Treaty with Switzerland in 1923, which was followed by a range of other important bilateral treaties.Post-war economic reconstruction was followed by accession to the Statute of the International Court of Justice in 1950, Liechtenstein signed the CSCE Helsinki Final Act (today's OSCE) together with 34 other states in 1975, Liechtenstein joined the Council of Europe in 1978, and Liechtenstein was admitted to the United Nations (UN) on September 18, 1990.In 1991, Liechtenstein joined the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) as a full member, and since 1995 Liechtenstein has been a member of the European Economic Area (EEA) and the World Trade Organization (WTO).", "In 2008, Liechtenstein joined the Schengen/Dublin Agreement together with Switzerland.", "From an economic and integration policy perspective, relations within the framework of the EEA and the EU occupy a special position in Liechtenstein's foreign policy.", "The Hereditary Prince of Liechtenstein also participates in the annual meetings of the heads of state of the German-speaking countries (consisting of EU and non-EU members).Relations with Switzerland are particularly extensive because of the close cooperation in many areas; Switzerland performs tasks in some places that would be difficult for the Principality to handle on its own because of its small size.", "Since 2000, Switzerland has appointed an ambassador to Liechtenstein, but he resides in Bern.", "Liechtenstein's consular representation has been mostly handled by Switzerland since the Customs Treaty with Switzerland of 1923.Liechtenstein maintains direct diplomatic missions in Vienna, Bern, Berlin, Brussels, Strasbourg, and Washington, D.C., as well as Permanent Missions in New York and Geneva to the United Nations.", "Currently, diplomatic missions from 78 countries are accredited to Liechtenstein, but mostly reside in Bern.", "The Embassy in Brussels coordinates contacts with the European Union, Belgium, and also the Holy See.For a long time, diplomatic relations with Germany were maintained through a non-resident ambassador; that is, a contact person who was not permanently resident in Germany.", "Since 2002, however, Liechtenstein has had a permanent ambassador in Berlin, while the German embassy in Switzerland is also responsible for the Principality.", "Liechtenstein's Ministry of Foreign Affairs considers the contacts to be extremely fruitful and important for the country's development, especially on the economic level.Conflicts over the handling of banking and tax data have repeatedly strained relations with Germany.", "On 2 September 2009, Liechtenstein and Germany signed an agreement on cooperation and the exchange of information in tax matters.", "The text of the agreement followed the OECD model agreement and provides for an exchange of information on tax matters upon request as of the 2010 tax year.", "In addition, Liechtenstein regards Germany as an important partner in safeguarding its interests in European integration.", "At the cultural level, project sponsorship plays a particularly important role.", "For example, the Hilti Foundation financed the exhibition \"Egypt's Sunken Treasures\" in Berlin, and the state donated 20,000 euros following the fire at the Duchess Anna Amalia Library in Weimar." ], [ "Geography", "The Rhine: border between Liechtenstein and Switzerland (view towards the Swiss Alps)Liechtenstein is situated in the Upper Rhine valley of the European Alps and is bordered to the east by the Austrian state of Vorarlberg, to the south by the canton of Grisons (Switzerland) and to the west by the canton of St. Gallen (Switzerland).", "The Rhine forms the entire western border of Liechtenstein.", "Measured south to north the country is about long.", "In 1943, an inland canal was built in the country connecting to the Rhine.Its highest point, Grauspitz, is .", "Despite its Alpine location, prevailing southerly winds make the climate comparatively mild.", "In winter, the mountain slopes are well suited to winter sports.", "New surveys using more accurate measurements of the country's borders in 2006 have set its area at , with borders of .", "Liechtenstein's borders are longer than previously thought.Liechtenstein is one of the world's two doubly landlocked countries – countries wholly surrounded by other landlocked countries (the other is Uzbekistan).", "Liechtenstein is the sixth-smallest sovereign state in the world by area.The principality of Liechtenstein is divided into 11 communes called (singular ).", "The mostly consist of only a single town or village.", "Five of them (Eschen, Gamprin, Mauren, Ruggell, and Schellenberg) fall within the electoral district ''Unterland'' (the lower county), and the remainder (Balzers, Planken, Schaan, Triesen, Triesenberg, and Vaduz) within ''Oberland'' (the upper county).=== Climate ===Despite its alpine location, the prevailing southerly winds temper Liechtenstein's climate.", "Its climate is continental, with cloudy and cold winters, with frequent rain and snowfall.", "Summers are cool to slightly warm, cloudy, and humid.The country's climate is relatively mild despite its mountainous location.", "It is strongly influenced by the action of foehn (warm and dry autumn wind), so the vegetation period is prolonged in spring and autumn and temperatures around due to the strong foehn are not uncommon even in winter.", "The mountain ranges of Switzerland and the Vorarlberg upstream protect from the cold polar and Atlantic air, creating a typical alpine inland protective layer.", "The principality has orchards with leafy meadows and a long tradition of viticulture.", "Liechtenstein's small land area hardly plays a role in climatic differences, but the vertical division into different altitudes is of great importance, so that significant climatic differences arise.In winter the temperature rarely drops below , while in summer the average temperatures range between .", "Annual precipitation measurements amount to an average of about , in the direct alpine region, however, precipitation is often up to .", "The average duration of sunshine is about 1600 hours per year.Panorama of Vaduz, capital of Liechtenstein=== Rivers and lakes ===The Rhine is the longest and largest body of water in Liechtenstein.", "With a length of approximately , it represents the natural border with Switzerland and is of great importance for Liechtenstein's water supply.", "Furthermore, the Rhine is an important recreational area for the population.", "At , the Samina is the second longest river in the Principality.", "The troubled river begins at Triesenberg and flows into the Ill in Austria (near Feldkirch).The only naturally formed lake in Liechtenstein is the Gampriner Seelein, which was not formed until 1927 by a flooding of the Rhine with enormous erosion.", "In addition, there are other artificially created lakes, which are mainly used to generate electricity.", "One of them is the Steg Reservoir, the largest lake in Liechtenstein.=== Mountains ===About half of Liechtenstein's territory is mountainous.", "Liechtenstein lies entirely in the Rhaetikon and is thus – depending on the classification of the Alps – assigned either to the Eastern Alps (two-part division of the Alps) or to the Central Alps (three-part division of the Alps).The highest point of Liechtenstein is the Vordere Grauspitz (Vordergrauspitz) with an altitude of above sea level, while the lowest point is the Ruggeller Riet with an altitude of above sea level.In total, there are 32 mountains in Liechtenstein with an altitude of at least .", "The Falknishorn, at above sea level, is the fifth highest mountain in Liechtenstein and represents the southernmost point of the country.", "The Liechtenstein-Graubünden-Vorarlberg border triangle is the Naafkopf ( above sea level).In addition to the peaks of the Alpine chain, which belong to the Limestone Alps, two inselbergs, Fläscherberg ( above sea level) in the south and Eschnerberg () in the north, rise from the Rhine Valley and belong to the Helvetic cover or flysch zone of the Alps.", "Eschnerberg represents an important settlement area in the Liechtenstein Unterland." ], [ "Economy", "Looking southward at Vaduz city centreSilver coin: 5 kronen of Liechtenstein, 1904, the front of the coin is a portrait of Johann IIDespite its limited natural resources, Liechtenstein is one of the few countries in the world with more registered companies than citizens; it has developed a prosperous, highly industrialized free-enterprise economy and a financial service sector as well as a living standard that compares favourably with those of the urban areas of Liechtenstein's much larger European neighbours.Liechtenstein participates in a customs union with Switzerland and employs the Swiss franc as the national currency.", "The country imports about 85% of its energy.", "Liechtenstein has been a member of the European Economic Area (an organization serving as a bridge between the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and the European Union) since May 1995.The government is working to harmonize its economic policies with those of an integrated Europe.", "In 2008, the unemployment rate was 1.5%.", "Liechtenstein has only one hospital, the Liechtensteinisches Landesspital in Vaduz.", "As of 2014 the CIA World Factbook estimated the gross domestic product (GDP) on a purchasing power parity basis to be $4.978 billion.", "As of 2009 the estimate per capita was $139,100, the highest listed for the world.Industries include electronics, textiles, precision instruments, metal manufacturing, power tools, anchor bolts, calculators, pharmaceuticals and food products.", "Its most recognizable international company and largest employer is Hilti, a manufacturer of direct fastening systems and other high-end power tools.", "Many cultivated fields and small farms are found both in the Oberland and Unterland.", "Liechtenstein produces wheat, barley, corn, potatoes, dairy products, livestock and wine.=== Taxation ===Since 1923, there has been no border control between Liechtenstein and Switzerland.The government of Liechtenstein taxes personal income, business income and principal (wealth).", "The basic rate of personal income tax is 1.2%.", "When combined with the additional income tax imposed by the communes, the combined income tax rate is 17.82%.", "An additional income tax of 4.3% is levied on all employees under the country's social security programme.", "This rate is higher for the self-employed, up to a maximum of 11%, making the maximum income tax rate about 29% in total.", "The basic tax rate on wealth is 0.06% per annum, and the combined total rate is 0.89%.", "The tax rate on corporate profits is 12.5%.Liechtenstein's gift and estate taxes vary depending on the relationship the recipient has to the giver and the amount of the inheritance.", "The tax ranges between 0.5% and 0.75% for spouses and children and 18% to 27% for non-related recipients.", "The estate tax is progressive.Liechtenstein has previously received significant revenues from ''Stiftungen'' (\"foundations\"), financial entities created to hide the true owner of nonresident foreigners' financial holdings.", "The foundation is registered in the name of a Liechtensteiner, often a lawyer.", "This set of laws used to make Liechtenstein a popular tax haven for extremely wealthy individuals and businesses attempting to avoid or evade taxes in their home countries.", "In recent years, Liechtenstein has displayed stronger determination to prosecute international money launderers and worked to promote an image as a legitimate finance centre.", "In February 2008, the country's LGT Bank was implicated in a tax-fraud scandal in Germany, which strained the ruling family's relationship with the German government.", "Crown Prince Alois has accused the German government of trafficking in stolen goods, referring to its $7.3 million purchase of private banking information offered by a former employee of LGT Group.", "The United States Senate's subcommittee on tax haven banks said that the LGT bank, owned by the princely family, and on whose board they serve, \"is a willing partner, and an aider and abettor to clients trying to evade taxes, dodge creditors or defy court orders\".Headquarters of Hilti Corporation in Schaan, LiechtensteinThe 2008 Liechtenstein tax affair is a series of tax investigations in numerous countries whose governments suspect that some of their citizens have evaded tax obligations by using banks and trusts in Liechtenstein; the affair broke open with the biggest complex of investigations ever initiated for tax evasion in Germany.", "It was also seen as an attempt to put pressure on Liechtenstein, then one of the remaining uncooperative tax havens—along with Andorra and Monaco—as identified by the Paris-based Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in 2007.On 27 May 2009 the OECD removed Liechtenstein from the blacklist of uncooperative countries.In August 2009, the British government department HM Revenue & Customs agreed with Liechtenstein to start exchanging information.", "It is believed that up to 5,000 British investors have roughly £3 billion deposited in accounts and trusts in the country.In October 2015, the European Union and Liechtenstein signed a tax agreement to ensure the automatic exchange of financial information in case of tax disputes.", "The collection of data started in 2016.It is another step to bring the principality in line with other European countries regarding its taxation of private individuals and corporate assets.=== Tourism ===Tourism accounts for a large portion of Liechtenstein's economy." ], [ "Demographics", "With a population of 39,315 as of 31 December 2021, Liechtenstein is Europe's fourth-smallest country; Vatican City, San Marino and Monaco have fewer residents.", "Its population is primarily Alemannic-speaking, although one third is foreign-born, primarily German speakers from Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, along with other Swiss, Italians, and Turks.", "Foreign-born people make up two-thirds of the country's workforce.Liechtensteiners have an average life expectancy at birth of 82.0 years, subdividing as male: 79.8 years, female: 84.8 years (2018 est.).", "The infant mortality rate is 4.2 per 1,000 live births, according to 2018 estimates.=== Languages ===The official language is German, spoken by 92% of the population as their main language in 2020.73% of Liechtenstein's population speak an Alemannic dialect of German at home that is highly divergent from Standard German but closely related to dialects spoken in neighbouring regions such as Switzerland and Vorarlberg, Austria.", "In Triesenberg, a Walser German dialect promoted by the municipality is spoken.", "Swiss Standard German is also understood and spoken by most Liechtensteiners.=== Religion ===St.", "Florin Catholic Cathedral in VaduzAccording to the Constitution of Liechtenstein, Catholicism is its official state religion:Liechtenstein offers protection to adherents of all religions, and considers the \"religious interests of the people\" a priority of the government.", "In Liechtenstein's schools, although exceptions are allowed, religious education in Catholicism or Protestantism (either Lutheran or Calvinist, or both) is legally required.", "Tax exemption is granted by the government to religious organizations.", "According to the Pew Research Center, social conflict caused by religious hostilities is low in Liechtenstein, and so is government restriction on the practice of religion.According to the 2010 census, 85.8% of the total population were Christian, of whom 75.9% adhered to the Catholic faith, constituted in the Catholic Archdiocese of Vaduz, while 9.6% were either Protestant, mainly organized in the Evangelical Church in Liechtenstein (a United church, Lutheran & Reformed) and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Liechtenstein, or Orthodox, mainly organized in the Christian-Orthodox Church.", "The largest minority religion is Islam (5.4% of the total population)." ], [ "Education", "University of LiechtensteinThe literacy rate of Liechtenstein is 100%.", "In 2006 Programme for International Student Assessment report, coordinated by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, ranked Liechtenstein's education as the 10th-best in the world.", "In 2012, Liechtenstein had the highest PISA scores of any European country.Within Liechtenstein, there are four main centres for higher education:University of LiechtensteinPrivate University in the Principality of LiechtensteinLiechtenstein InstituteInternational Academy of Philosophy, LiechtensteinThere are nine public high schools in the country.", "These include:Liechtensteinisches Gymnasium in Vaduz.", "Realschule Vaduz and Oberschule Vaduz, in the Schulzentrum Mühleholz II in VaduzRealschule Schaan and Sportschule Liechtenstein in Schaan" ], [ "Transport", "Balzers HeliportThere are about of paved roadway within Liechtenstein, with of marked bicycle paths.A railway connects Austria and Switzerland through Liechtenstein.", "The country's railways are administered by the Austrian Federal Railways as part of the route between Feldkirch, Austria, and Buchs, Switzerland.", "Liechtenstein is nominally within the Austrian Verkehrsverbund Vorarlberg tariff region.There are four railway stations in Liechtenstein, namely Schaan-Vaduz, Forst Hilti, Nendeln and Schaanwald, served by an irregularly stopping train service between Feldkirch and Buchs provided by Austrian Federal Railways.Liechtenstein Bus is a subsidiary of the Swiss Postbus system, but separately run, and connects to the Swiss bus network at Buchs and at Sargans.", "Holders of a ''Swiss Travel Pass'' can travel for free on Liechtenstein’s buses.Liechtenstein is one of only a few countries without an airport.", "The nearest large airport is Zurich Airport near Zürich, Switzerland ( by road).", "The nearest small airport is St. Gallen Airport ().", "Friedrichshafen Airport also provides access to Liechtenstein, as it is away.", "Balzers Heliport is available for chartered helicopter flights." ], [ "Culture", "Liechtenstein Art MuseumLiechtenstein National MuseumAs a result of its small size, Liechtenstein has been strongly affected by external cultural influences, most notably those originating in the southern regions of German-speaking Europe, including Austria, Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, Switzerland, and specifically Tirol and Vorarlberg.The largest museum is the Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein, an international museum of modern and contemporary art with an international art collection.", "The building by the Swiss architects Morger, Degelo, and Kerez is a landmark in Vaduz.", "It was completed in November 2000 and forms a \"black box\" of tinted concrete and black basalt stone.", "The museum collection is also the national art collection of Liechtenstein.The Historical Society of the Principality of Liechtenstein and the Liechtenstein National Museum (''Liechtensteinisches Landesmuseum'') also play a role in preserving the culture and history of the country.", "The National Museum shows permanent exhibitions on the cultural and natural history of Liechtenstein as well as special exhibitions.", "There is also a stamp museum, ski museum, and a 500-year-old Rural Lifestyle Museum.The Liechtenstein State Library is the library that has legal deposit for all books published in the country.", "Poet Ida Ospelt-Amann published her works exclusively in the Alemannic dialect of Vaduz.The famous historical sites include Vaduz Castle, Gutenberg Castle, and Vaduz Cathedral.The Private Art Collection of the Prince of Liechtenstein, one of the world's leading private art collections, is shown at the Liechtenstein Museum in Vienna.On the country's national holiday, all subjects are invited to the castle of the head of state.", "A significant portion of the population attends the national celebration at the castle where speeches are made and complimentary beer is served.Music and theatre are important parts of the culture.", "There are numerous music organizations such as the Liechtenstein Musical Company, the annual Guitar Days, and the International Josef Gabriel Rheinberger Society, which play in two main theatres." ], [ "Media", "The primary internet service provider and mobile network operator of Liechtenstein is Telecom Liechtenstein, located in Schaan.There are two conventional television channels in the country.", "The private channel 1FLTV was created in 2008 with a goal of joining the European Broadcasting Union, which it has not accomplished yet.", "The ''Landeskanal'' () is operated by the government's Unit for Information and Communication and carries government proceedings, public affairs programming, and cultural events.", "Both are seen on local cable providers, along with channels from the other German-speaking countries.", "The only free television is ORF from Austria, available via terrestrial overspill of its signal from Vorarlberg.Radio Liechtenstein (), which was established in 2004 along with the public-service broadcaster ''Liechtensteinischer Rundfunk'' (LRF) that operates it, is the country's only domestic radio station based in Triesen.", "Radio Liechtenstein and several programs of the Swiss SRF are broadcast from the Sender Erbi () overlooking Vaduz.", "Liechtenstein also has two major newspapers: ''Liechtensteiner Volksblatt'' and ''Liechtensteiner Vaterland''.Amateur radio is a hobby of some nationals and visitors.", "However, unlike virtually every other sovereign nation, Liechtenstein does not have its own ITU prefix.", "Conventionally, amateurs are issued call signs with the Swiss prefix \"HB\", followed by \"0\" or \"L\"." ], [ "Sports", "Marco Büchel, the first Liechtensteiner alpine skier to compete at six Winter OlympicsLiechtenstein football teams play in the Swiss football leagues.", "The Liechtenstein Football Cup allows access for one Liechtenstein team each year to the UEFA Europa Conference League; FC Vaduz, a team playing in the Swiss Challenge League, the second division in Swiss football, is the most successful team in the Cup, and scored their greatest success in the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1996 when they drew with and defeated the Latvian team FC Universitate Riga by 1–1 and 4–2, to go on to a lucrative fixture against Paris Saint-Germain F.C., which they lost 0–3 and 0–4.The Liechtenstein national football team is regarded as an easy target for any team drawn against them; this was the basis for a book about Liechtenstein's unsuccessful qualifying campaign for the 2002 World Cup by British author Charlie Connelly.", "In one surprising week during autumn 2004, however, the team managed a 2–2 draw with Portugal, who only a few months earlier had been the losing finalists in the European Championships.", "Four days later, the Liechtenstein team traveled to Luxembourg, where they defeated the home team 4–0 in a 2006 World Cup qualifying match.", "In the qualification stage of the European Championship 2008, Liechtenstein beat Latvia 1–0, which prompted the Latvian coach's resignation.", "They went on to beat Iceland 3–0 on 17 October 2007, which is considered one of the most dramatic losses of the Icelandic national football team.", "On 7 September 2010, they came within seconds of a 1–1 draw against Scotland in Glasgow, having led 1–0 earlier in the second half, but Liechtenstein lost 2–1 thanks to a goal by Stephen McManus in the 97th minute.", "On 3 June 2011, Liechtenstein defeated Lithuania 2–0.On 15 November 2014, Liechtenstein defeated Moldova 0–1 with Franz Burgmeier's late free kick goal in Chișinău.As an alpine country, the main sporting opportunity for Liechtensteiners to excel is in winter sports such as downhill skiing: the country's single ski area is Malbun.", "Hanni Wenzel won two gold medals and one silver medal in the 1980 Winter Olympics (she won bronze in 1976), her brother Andreas won one silver medal in 1980 and one bronze medal in 1984 in the giant slalom event, and her daughter Tina Weirather won a bronze medal in 2018 in the Super-G. With ten medals overall (all in alpine skiing), Liechtenstein has won more Olympic medals per capita than any other nation.", "It is the smallest country to win a medal in any Olympics, Winter or Summer, and currently the only country to win a medal in the Winter Games but not in the Summer Games.", "Other notable skiers from Liechtenstein are Marco Büchel, Willi Frommelt, Paul Frommelt and Ursula Konzett.Another discipline unusually popular with Liechtensteiners is motorsport; American-born German-Colombian Rikky von Opel raced under the flag of Liechtenstein in Formula One in 1973 and 1974, and Manfred Schurti competed in 9 editions of the 24 Hours of Le Mans as a Porsche factory driver with a best finish of 4th overall in 1976.The country is currently represented internationally by Fabienne Wohlwend and Matthias Kaiser in endurance racing.Other sports Liechtenstein athletes have had success in include tennis, with Stephanie Vogt and Kathinka von Deichmann both having varying degrees of success on the women's tour, as well as swimming; both Julia Hassler and Christoph Meier represented the country at the 2016 Summer Olympics with the former the nations' flag bearer.In March 2020, the distance world record for electric motorcycles was set in Liechtenstein.", "Artist Michel von Tell drove over 1,000 miles within 24 hours on the first electric Harley-Davidson.", "The Record is still current in 2023 and ended in Ruggell.", "The Event became global media attention.=== Youth ===Liechtenstein competes in the Switzerland U16 Cup Tournament, which offers young players an opportunity to play against top football clubs." ], [ "Security and defence<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Security_and_defense\"></span>", "Liechtenstein PoliceThe Liechtenstein National Police is responsible for keeping order within the country.", "It consists of 87 field officers and 38 civilian staff, totaling 125 employees.", "All officers are equipped with small arms.", "The country has one of the world's lowest crime rates.", "Liechtenstein's prison holds few, if any, inmates, and those with sentences over two years are transferred to Austrian jurisdiction.", "The Liechtenstein National Police maintains a trilateral treaty with Austria and Switzerland that enables close cross-border cooperation among the police forces of the three countries.Liechtenstein follows a policy of neutrality and is one of the few countries in the world that maintain no military although its police force maintains a paramilitary force, the Princely Liechtenstein Security Corps, within the organisation that might act as its ''de facto'' army if an invasion of Liechtenstein ever occurred.", "The corps provides heavy backup for the National Police as well as Honor Guards at the Royal Palace and official functions.", "However, Liechtenstein can reinstate its military if deemed necessary, although this is very unlikely.The army was abolished for financial reasons soon after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, in which Liechtenstein fielded an army of 80 men, although they were not involved in any fighting.", "No casualties were incurred; in fact, the unit numbered 81 upon return due to an Italian military liaison who accompanied the army back home.", "The demise of the German Confederation in that war freed Liechtenstein from its international obligation to maintain an army, and parliament seized this opportunity and refused to provide funding for one.", "The Prince objected, as such a move would leave the country defenceless, but relented on 12 February 1868 and disbanded the force.", "The last soldier to serve under the colours of Liechtenstein died in 1939 at age 95.", " In 1985 the Swiss Army fired off shells during an exercise and mistakenly burned a patch of forest inside Liechtenstein.", "The incident was said to have been resolved \"over a case of white wine\".", "* In March 2007, a 170-man Swiss infantry unit got lost during a training exercise and inadvertently crossed into Liechtenstein.", "The accidental invasion ended when the unit realized their mistake and turned back.", "The Swiss Army later informed Liechtenstein of the incursion and offered official apologies, to which an internal ministry spokesperson responded, \"No problem, these things happen.", "\"* On 20 September 2017, Liechtenstein signed the United Nations Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons." ], [ "See also", "Outline of Liechtenstein" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " (in German and English)* Princely House of Liechtenstein* Parliament of Liechtenstein* Government of Liechtenstein* Official tourism of Liechtenstein* Statistics Office of Liechtenstein * Liechtenstein.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Liechtenstein from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' (archived 2 October 2012)* * Liechtenstein profile from BBC News* * *" ] ]	wikipedia

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